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the couch one more , attempting to sleep once more .
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed " Crybaby " live during every show on the Rainbow World Tour . For the song 's performances , the stage was set with a large bed , pillows and comforters , as well as a small desk and homely props . Carey , dressed in pajamas , sang while re @-@ enacting segments of the video . During her performance at Madison Square Garden on April 11 , 2000 , she threw the audience small stuffed bears and completed the song while lying in the bed on stage . After the song 's bridge , Snoop 's pre @-@ recorded verse was played over the background vocals . The song was also performed on select nights of The Elusive Chanteuse Show tour in 2014 .
= = Track listing and formats = =
US CD Single
" Crybaby " ( Radio Edit ) – 4 : 31
" Crybaby " ( Album Version ) – 5 : 19
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Rainbow liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Scotch Run ( Catawissa Creek ) =
Scotch Run is one of the main tributaries of Catawissa Creek in Columbia County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 7 @.@ 8 miles ( 12 @.@ 6 km ) long and flows through Beaver Township and Main Township . The stream 's watershed has an area of 9 @.@ 10 square miles ( 23 @.@ 6 km2 ) . The stream is infertile and acidic . It is 7 @.@ 2 feet ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) wide in its upper reaches and 17 @.@ 0 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) wide in its lower reaches . The main rock formations in the watershed include the Mauch Chunk Formation , the Pocono Formation , the Pottsville Formation , and the Spechty Kopf Formation . The main soils include Leck Kill soil and Hazleton soil . It flows between Nescopeck Mountain and McCauley Mountain .
Nearly all of Scotch Run 's length is within 1 @,@ 640 feet ( 500 m ) of a road . However , most of its length is not within 328 feet ( 100 m ) of one . Part of Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 58 is in the watershed and ephemeral natural pool system is located near the stream . The area in the vicinity of the stream was settled relatively late compared to the surrounding areas . The Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission carried out a survey of the creek in 1977 . Scotch Run is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . In 1997 , three species of fish were observed in the upper reaches of the stream , while eight species were observed in the lower reaches . Both reaches contained brown trout and brook trout . There is a hemlock @-@ mixed hardwood palustrine forest along the stream .
= = Course = =
Scotch Run begins in a lake in a valley in eastern Beaver Township . It flows west and slightly south for several miles between Nescopeck Mountain and McCauley Mountain . The stream eventually passes through the unincorporated community of Mifflin Cross Roads . Near this community , it turns south briefly before turning west @-@ southwest again and flowing between Nescopeck Mountain and Dry Ridge . A short distance later , the stream exits Beaver Township and enters Main Township . In Main Township , it flows between Nescopeck Mountain and Full Mill Hill for slightly more than half a mile . It then reaches its confluence with Catawissa Creek .
Scotch Run joins Catawissa Creek 8 @.@ 30 miles ( 13 @.@ 36 km ) upstream of its mouth .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Scotch Run has no named tributaries . However , it does have one unnamed tributary , which is unofficially known as " Trib 27547 to Scotch Run " and enters the stream from the right .
= = Hydrology = =
Throughout its entire length , Scotch Run is infertile and acidic . It has the potential to be affected by acid precipitation .
In June 1997 , the air temperature in the vicinity of Scotch Run was measured to be 25 @.@ 0 ° C ( 77 @.@ 0 ° F ) at river mile 5 @.@ 1 , 24 @.@ 0 ° C ( 75 @.@ 2 ° F ) at river mile 1 @.@ 3 , and 25 @.@ 0 ° C ( 77 @.@ 0 ° F ) at its mouth . The water temperature of the stream at these locations was measured to be 15 @.@ 1 ° C ( 59 @.@ 2 ° F ) , 14 @.@ 7 ° C ( 58 @.@ 5 ° F ) , and 15 @.@ 0 ° C ( 59 @.@ 0 ° F ) , respectively . The specific conductance of the stream was 67 micro @-@ siemens at river mile 5 @.@ 1 and 51 micro @-@ siemens at river mile 1 @.@ 3 . It was 64 micro @-@ siemens at the stream 's mouth .
At river mile 5 @.@ 1 , the pH of the waters of Scotch Run is 6 @.@ 6 and at river mile 1 @.@ 3 , the pH is 7 @.@ 0 . At the stream 's mouth , the pH is 6 @.@ 8 . The concentration of alkalinity in the stream is 5 milligrams per liter at river mile 5 @.@ 1 and 8 milligrams per liter at river mile 1 @.@ 3 and at the mouth . At river mile 5 @.@ 1 , the level of water hardness in the stream is 23 milligrams per liter , while at river mile 1 @.@ 3 , the water hardness is 15 milligrams per liter . It is 18 milligrams per liter at the stream 's mouth .
= = Geography and geology = =
The elevation near the mouth of Scotch Run is 554 feet ( 169 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the stream 's source is between 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 020 feet ( 300 and 310 m ) above sea level . Near its headwaters , the stream has a width of 7 @.@ 2 feet ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) . At this location , its gradient is 23 feet per mile ( 4 @.@ 4 m / km ) . However , further downstream , its width is 16 @.@ 9 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) . Its gradient at this location is 141 feet per mile ( 26 @.@ 7 m / km ) .
Scotch Run flows over rock of the Mauch Chunk Formation for its entire length . However , the headwaters of its unnamed tributary , " Trib 27547 to Scotch Run " are on rock of the Pocono Formation . The Spechty Kopf Formation occurs on the northernmost edge of the watershed and the Pottsville Formation occurs not far to the south of the stream . Mining land in various stages of reclamation also occurs to the south of the stream , on McCauley Mountain .
Scotch Run flows over Leck Kill soil , a deep and well @-@ drained fine loamy soil for its entire length . However , the northern and southern edges of the watershed are on Hazleton soil , a deep , loamy , siliceous , well @-@ drained soil .
Scotch Run flows through the Scotch Valley . The stream flows over the lowest point between Nescopeck Mountain and McCauley Mountain . Scotch Valley is relatively narrow , but becomes somewhat wider downstream of Mifflin Cross Roads . A pond or small lake is located at the stream 's headwaters . A few patches of wetland on the National Wetlands Inventory are near the stream . It is flanked by a 100 year floodplain throughout its entire length .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of Scotch Run has an area of 9 @.@ 10 square miles ( 23 @.@ 6 km2 ) . The watershed is mostly in Beaver Township , but a portion of its lower reaches is in Main Township . The watershed 's northern edge is on the border between Beaver Township and Mifflin Township . The mouth of the stream is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Shumans . However , its source is in the quadrangle of Nuremberg . Part of it flows through Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 58 .
In its upper reaches , ( upstream of river mile 5 @.@ 1 ( river kilometer 8 @.@ 2 ) ) , 24 percent of the length of Scotch Run is within 328 feet ( 100 m ) of a road . A total of 71 percent is within 984 feet ( 300 m ) and 100 percent is within 1 @,@ 640 feet ( 500 m ) . Further downstream , between river mile 5 @.@ 1 ( river kilometer 8 @.@ 2 ) and the mouth , 23 percent of the stream is within 328 feet ( 100 m ) of a road , 57 percent is within 984 feet ( 300 m ) of a road , and 90 percent is within 1 @,@ 640 feet ( 500 m ) of one . In 1990 , the population density near its headwaters was 26 people per square mile ( 10 people per square kilometer ) . The population density further downstream was 41 people per square mile ( 16 people per square kilometer ) . The stream flows predominantly through rural areas .
In its upper reaches , most of Scotch Run is closed to public access . For this reason , a 1997 report stated that this section of the stream offered poor recreational opportunities . However , the report stated that the stream provided good recreational opportunities in its lower reaches . According to the report , both sections of the stream are poor sites for angling .
The upper reaches of the watershed of Scotch Run , upstream of Mifflin Cross Roads , are predominantly forested land . However , there are some residential areas near the headwaters of the stream . Downstream of Mifflin Cross Roads , the watershed contains both forested land and agricultural land . The forested land occurs primarily on the valley slopes , while the bottom of the valley contains a number of small farms . A road known as Scotch Valley Drive follows the stream 's general direction up valley of the stream . A road known as LR 19015 also runs alongside to the stream for some distance .
An ephemeral natural pool system is located in the vicinity of Scotch Run . In the past , a reservoir was created on the stream by damming it . In the 21st century , a small residential area and a number of roads are present near it . The forests and vernal pools on Scotch Run are fragmented by dirt roads . The habitat quality of the area may also be impaired by All Terrain Vehicles . Additionally , the vernal pools may be used as breeding grounds for mosquitos .
The mouth of Scotch Run is near Mainville .
= = History = =
Scotch Run was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1187155 .
Due to the topography of the area in the vicinity of Scotch Run , the area near the stream was not settled until some time after the first settlement in the surrounding areas . Alexander McCauley settled on the stream in Beaver Township 1774 . Some time before 1820 , a carding mill was built by George Fleming on the stream southeast of Mainville . In 1820 , it started to be used as a school , which was run by Jacob Gensel .
The Sunbury Hazleton , and Wilkes @-@ Barre Railroad ( the later name of the Danville , Hazleton and Wilkes @-@ Barre Railroad ) , followed the bank of Scotch Run throughout its length . The stream was historically well known as a trout stream .
Scotch Run was surveyed by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission prior to the 1990s . This survey was carried out by Daniels and others in 1977 . However , Graff also performed water chemistry samples at the stream 's mouth in 1966 .
Two bridges more than 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long have been built over Scotch Run . The first is a steel girder bridge that was built in 1911 and is 26 @.@ 9 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) long . The second is a concrete culvert bridge that was built in 1974 and is also 26 @.@ 9 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) long .
= = Biology = =
The entire drainage basin of Scotch Run is designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . The Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission has stocked it with adult trout . The Black Creek Sportsmens Club and the Beaver Township Rod and Gun Club also stock the stream with trout . A 1997 electrofishing survey by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission discovered a small population of wild brook trout and hatchery brook trout in the stream .
In 1997 , brook trout , brown trout , and white suckers inhabited Scotch Run in its upper reaches . Two decades earlier , this part of the stream was also inhabited by pumpkinseeds and blacknose dace , but not by brown trout . The reason for the disappearance of the blacknose dace is unknown . The pumpkinseeds were only present in the 1970s due to their escape from nearby farm ponds .
The lower reaches of Scotch Run were inhabited by eight species of fish in 1997 : bluegills , brook trout , brown trout , blacknose dace , creek chubs , longnose dace , pumpkinseeds , white suckers . Bluegills and longnose dace were not present in this part of the stream two decades earlier , but rainbow trout and golden shiners were present at that time . The rainbow trout disappeared from the stream because the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission stopped stocking them and the golden shiners were only present in the 1970s due to bait bucket introductions .
The total biomass of wild trout in Scotch Run in its upper reaches is 2 @.@ 98 kilograms per hectare . 2 @.@ 93 kilograms per hectare come from brook trout ( 2 @.@ 42 kilograms per hectare of which are less than 175 millimeters long and 0 @.@ 51 kilograms per hectare of which are more than 175 millimeters long ) . The remaining 0 @.@ 05 kilograms per hectare come from brown trout , all of which are less than 175 millimeters long . This segment of the stream contains 66 brook trout less than 175 millimeters long and 3 brook trout more than 175 millimeters long per kilometer . It contains only three brown trout per kilometer , all less than 175 millimeters long . There are 174 brook trout per hectare , 166 of which are less than 175 millimeters long and eight brown trout per hectare , all of which are less than 175 millimeters long .
The total biomass of wild trout in Scotch Run in its lower reaches is 4 @.@ 39 kilograms per hectare . All of the biomass comes from brook trout ( 3 @.@ 40 kilograms per hectare of which are less than 175 millimeters long and 0 @.@ 99 kilograms per hectare of which are more than 175 millimeters long ) . This segment of the stream contains 487 brook trout per kilometer , 480 of which are less than 175 millimeters long . There are 955 brook trout per hectare , 942 of which are less than 175 millimeters long .
Amphibians use the ephemeral natural pools on Scotch Run as a breeding ground . Amphibians inhabiting the vernal pools on the stream include spring peepers , spotted salamanders , and wood frogs .
A hemlock @-@ mixed hardwood palustrine forest is present in the vicinity of Scotch Run east of the reservoir on the stream . The forest contains wooded wetlands and vernal pools . Trees inhabiting the forest include white oak , red oak , tulip poplar , yellow birch , eastern hemlock , American beech , and red maple . Other plants in the forest include teaberry , sphagnum moss , wood anemone , false hellebore , skunk cabbage , goldthread , and sensitive fern .
The Columbia County Natural Areas Inventory recommends establishing a riparian buffer around Scotch Run and discouraging further development and All Terrain Vehicle usage .
= Iowa archaeology =
The archaeology of Iowa is the study of the buried remains of human culture within the state of Iowa from the earliest prehistoric through the late historic periods . When the American Indians first arrived in what is now Iowa more than 13 @,@ 000 years ago , they were hunters and gatherers living in a Pleistocene glacial landscape . By the time European explorers visited Iowa , American Indians were largely settled farmers with complex economic , social , and political systems . This transformation happened gradually . During the Archaic period ( 10 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 800 years ago ) American Indians adapted to local environments and ecosystems , slowly becoming more sedentary as populations increased . More than 3 @,@ 000 years ago , during the Late Archaic period , American Indians in Iowa began utilizing domesticated plants . The subsequent Woodland period saw an increase on the reliance on agriculture and social complexity , with increased use of mounds , ceramics , and specialized subsistence . During the Late Prehistoric period ( beginning about AD 900 ) increased use of maize and social changes led to social flourishing and nucleated settlements . The arrival of European trade goods and diseases in the Protohistoric period led to dramatic population shifts and economic and social upheaval , with the arrival of new tribes and early European explorers and traders . During the Historical period European traders and American Indians in Iowa gave way to American settlers and Iowa was transformed into an agricultural state .
= = Iowa archaeologists = =
Archaeologists have studied the prehistory of Iowa since the mid @-@ 19th century , when large American Indian mounds were first observed along the Mississippi . Early archaeologists such as S.V. Proudfit and Theodore Lewis documented large sites such as earthworks , mounds , and earthlodges . Truly systematic recording of Iowa sites began with Charles R. Keyes and Ellison Orr ’ s surveys and excavations beginning in the 1920s . Documenting hundreds of sites , often just before they disappeared under the plow , Keyes ’ and Orr ’ s work led to the formation of the Iowa Archaeological Survey , the Iowa Archeological Society , and the designation of Effigy Mounds National Monument . After their deaths in 1951 , the Survey was disbanded , and their efforts were continued by the University of Iowa ’ s Department of Sociology and Anthropology , which formed the Office of the State Archaeologist ( OSA ) in 1959 . The OSA maintains an extensive list of more than 23 @,@ 000 recorded archaeological sites in Iowa , and conducts survey and excavation across the state . Other institutions conducting archaeological research in Iowa include the State Historical Society of Iowa , the Iowa Archeological Society , the University of Iowa , Iowa State University , Grinnell College , Luther College , and private archaeological firms . Professional archaeologists in Iowa are represented by the Association of Iowa Archaeologists . Iowa archaeology grew dramatically beginning in the 1960s with the introduction of Cultural Resources Management legislation that required archaeological survey and excavation at many federal projects in Iowa .
= = Paleoindian ( 13 @,@ 500 – 10 @,@ 500 years ago ) = =
Paleoindian hunters and gatherers were the first occupants of Iowa , entering the state at the end of the Pleistocene glacial period . At the time the state was covered by tundra , conifer forests , and deciduous forests . Areas immediately north of Des Moines extending to Minnesota were covered by the receding Des Moines Lobe , a large glacier system . Highly mobile , their sites are scattered across Iowa and are noted for their large stone points . While Paleoindians were traditionally viewed as big game hunters , more recent research suggests much of their subsistence was derived from small game and wild plants . Paleoindian points are found throughout Iowa , but almost no intact Paleoindian sites have been excavated , probably because they were ephemeral and are now either destroyed by plowing or are very deeply buried in river valleys .
= = = Clovis and other Early Paleoindian = = =
The oldest artifacts found in Iowa are Clovis points , large lanceolate points found occasionally in all parts of the state except for the Des Moines Lobe . Possible sources of game were giant Pleistocene megafauna , including mammoth , mastodon , and giant forms of bison , all of which are now extinct . While widespread , only two Clovis sites have been excavated in Iowa . The Rummells @-@ Maske site is a Clovis site in Cedar County ; unfortunately , this site was damaged by plowing , although 20 points and point fragments were recovered . The Carlisle Clovis Cache Site in Warren County contained 38 unfinished stone tools that appear to date to the Clovis period , but these results have not yet been published .
Other Iowa Early Paleoindian points include Gainey , a point that appears to be intermediate between Clovis and Folsom . Gainey points were also recovered at Rummells @-@ Maske . While Folsom points are found throughout Iowa , especially western Iowa , none have been excavated in a well @-@ preserved site .
= = = Dalton and other Late Paleoindian = = =
At the beginning of the glacial @-@ free Holocene Epoch , humans in Iowa utilized projectile point found throughout the mid @-@ continent , including Dalton , Fayette , Agate Basin , and Hell Gap . Humans were still highly mobile , and by this time most of the Pleistocene megafauna had gone extinct . As with the Early Paleoindian period , no intact Late Paleoindian sites have been excavated in Iowa .
= = Archaic Period = =
The Archaic is the longest period of Iowa prehistory , lasting about 8 @,@ 000 years . Overall , populations appear to have increased in Iowa during the Archaic , despite a changing climate . During this time American Indians transitioned from highly mobile hunters and gatherers with large ranges towards a focus on local resources and ecosystems . Domesticated plants appeared in Iowa towards the end of the Archaic .
= = = Early Archaic ( 10 @,@ 500 – 7 @,@ 500 years ago ) = = =
During the Early Archaic period regional variation in point forms is seen in Iowa , and Indians adapted to more localized forms of hunting and gathering while probably maintaining seasonal movements from camp to camp . Common stone tool types are Corner @-@ notched St. Charles points and Thebes Knives . Soon Hardin and Kirk points appear in Iowa as well . Excavated Early Archaic sites in Iowa include the Soldow Site , Horizons IIIa and II of the Cherokee Sewer Site , and the Simonsen Site .
= = = Middle Archaic ( 7 @,@ 500 – 5 @,@ 000 years ago ) = = =
Temperatures rose in the mid @-@ continent during the Middle Archaic , a warming trend known as the Hypsithermal . Grasslands expanded east , forests became less common , and many Iowa lakes shrank or disappeared . Humans responded by diversifying their subsistence strategy : eastern Iowa saw a shift towards river resources , and western Iowa towards Plains resources . Excavated sites in eastern and central Iowa include the Brash Site , the Gast Spring Site , and the Ed ’ s Meadow Site . Western Iowa sites include the Turin Site , Horizon I of the Cherokee Sewer Site , and the Pony Creek Site .
= = = Late Archaic ( 5 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 800 years ago ) = = =
In the Late Archaic the climate became more similar to modern with the end of the Hypsithermal . The number of Late Archaic Sites increased in Iowa , perhaps reflective of increased populations allowed by climate change and new subsistence strategies . The Late Archaic sees the first indication of mound building in Iowa , as well as direct evidence of domesticated plants , and large , long @-@ term settlements . The Red Ocher Culture appeared in northeast Iowa , associated with copper artifacts and mound building . Numerous Late Archaic sites have been excavated in eastern Iowa , some showing the gradual adaptation of cultigens , including squash , little barley , marsh elder , and barnyard grass . Sites with evidence for early cultigens in Iowa include the Edgewater Park Site in Coralville , the Gast Spring Site , and the Sand Run Slough West Site . In western Iowa , Late Archaic sites are common , however large bison killing or processing sites are less common than before , and there is little evidence for the use of domesticated plants .
= = Woodland Period = =
During the Woodland period , many American Indians in Iowa shifted away from hunting and gathering and used more domesticated plants , although wild food was still important . Ceramics , the bow and arrow , burial mounds , and evidence of political and social hierarchy became common at Woodland sites in Iowa .
= = = Early Woodland ( 800 BC – 200 BC ) = = =
The Early Woodland period saw the introduction of ceramics to Iowa , including Marion Thick and Black Sand types . Marion Thick may have originated with the nucleated Late Archaic cultures of the Upper Midwest , and was widespread in distribution . Early Woodland Indians in eastern Iowa built large burial mounds in the Mississippi River region , and participated in long @-@ distance trade of exotic raw material . This long @-@ distance trade may have been the forerunner of the later Havanna @-@ Hopewell trading sphere . In north @-@ central Iowa , Early Woodland peoples appear to have interacted more directly with the Prairie Lakes region of Minnesota . Numerous Early Woodland sites have been excavated in Iowa , including the Gast Spring Site , and many sites which have not been formally published .
= = = Middle Woodland ( 200 BC – 400 AD ) = = =
The Middle Woodland Indians of eastern Iowa participated at the edge of the Havana and Hopewell interaction networks . This cultural connection to the East is seen in the construction of large mounds , earthworks , and the trade of exotic goods over very long distances . There were several large earthwork enclosures in Iowa along the Mississippi that date to the Middle Woodland period , but none in the interior of the state , indicating Iowa is the western edge of Havana @-@ Hopewell influence . The Toolesboro Mound Group in Louisa County included a large octagonal earthen enclosure that covered several acres ; earthworks of this style are indicative of the monumental construction once seen in Havana , Illinois along the Illinois River and sites in the Ohio River drainage including Chillicothe and Newark , Ohio . Hopewell trading networks were quite extensive , with obsidian from the Yellowstone area , copper from Lake Superior , and shells from the Gulf Coast appearing in Middle Woodland Iowa sites . Sites in eastern Iowa appeared to nucleate , vacating much of the hinterlands . Western Iowa appears to have been not directly involved in this exchange network , and the Havana @-@ Hopewell flourishing did not extend much above the Kansas City area of the Missouri River .
= = = Late Woodland ( 400 – 1250 AD ) = = =
The Late Woodland Period was once considered to be relatively unimportant and uninteresting compared to earlier and later periods , but recent research shows unexpected cultural complexity . Late Woodland sites are more dispersed than Middle Woodland sites , but they are apparently more numerous . Gone are the complex earthworks and long @-@ distance trade networks , but this does not appear to be a cultural collapse , since Late Woodland sites and artifact types overlap with and transition from Middle Woodland sites . Technical changes of the Late Woodland include the use of true arrow heads , thinner and larger ceramics with less elaborate decorations , and the adaptation of new crops , including maize . Numerous regional variations and phases have been defined in Iowa , based in large extent on differences of ceramic form and decoration . Excavations at Late Woodland sites are common , some of these sites showing surprising complexity . The Gast Farm Site excavations revealed a complex settlement associated with a midden of refuse 100 m in diameter . Large storage and food processing pits , trash middens , and other features were excavated . Occupants utilized acorns , other nuts and fruits , goosefoot , little barley , maygrass , sunflower , fish , birds , deer , muskrat , and turtle . There was little evidence of long @-@ distance trade . The Rainbow and M.A.D. sites provide a glimpse into the Late Archaic of western Iowa . At Rainbow , a large house was excavated , showing evidence of reuse and possible joint occupation by two families . Mound building became more common during the Late Woodland Period , large groups of mounds appeared including the Slinde Mound Group , and the Fish Farm Mound Group .
= = = Effigy Mounds = = =
The Late Woodland in Iowa is perhaps best known for effigy mounds , large , low mounds shaped like animals such as birds and bears . Effigy mounds are distributed across southern Wisconsin , northern Illinois , and northeast Iowa . A large concentration of mounds in several groups is preserved at Effigy Mounds National Monument . Like most mounds in Iowa , excavation reveals that these mounds were commonly used as sacred burial locations but contain few artifacts . Recent ground @-@ penetrating radar survey of selected mounds at Effigy Mounds National Monument reveal that many are badly disturbed , but others appear to be comparatively intact . The Folkert Mound Group in central Iowa contains an enigmatic cruciform mound that may or may not be astronomically aligned .
= = Late Prehistoric ( 900 – 1600 ) = =
Maize appears to have been the catalyst for change in the Late Prehistoric period in Iowa . While maize had been a minor crop in the Woodland Period , many archaeologists believe new varieties of maize were introduced to the region that produced higher yields , allowing for a population boom . This increase in population , combined with the potential for surplus and growing tensions over control of territory , appears to have led to large nucleated settlements throughout the eastern U.S. Although this manifested itself earliest along the Mississippi south of Iowa , the earliest Late Prehistoric cultures appeared in the western part of the state .
= = = Great Oasis ( ca . 900 – 1100 ) = = =
Great Oasis sites appeared in the Missouri River drainage , and have attributes of both Late Woodland and Late Prehistoric cultures . Great Oasis cultures extended through the eastern Plains from Iowa to South Dakota . Developing independently from the eastern Mississippian cultures , Great Oasis sites display large sites along major stream terraces , increased reliance on agriculture combined with hunting and gathering , substantial pit earth lodges , and a transition from Late Woodland to Late Prehistoric ceramic forms . Overall , Great Oasis appears to have been a regional adaptation of new forms of farming and settlement patterns , including seasonal occupation of different ecological zones , that includes aspects of Late Woodland and the subsequent Middle Missouri Tradition .
= = = Mill Creek and Glenwood ( 1100 – 1300 ) = = =
In northwestern Iowa , Great Oasis underwent dramatic changes as Mill Creek sites appeared . While Mill Creek has many stylistic similarities with Great Oasis and some Mill Creek sites contain Great Oasis ceramic forms , Mill Creek sites are substantially different . Mill Creek sites became nucleated , often fortified , had a much higher dependence on maize and bison hunting , show substantial evidence of long @-@ distance trade , and appear to have been occupied year @-@ round . The Phipps and Chan @-@ Ya @-@ Ta sites are classic examples . Glenwood culture sites in southwest Iowa near the Missouri River appear to be unrelated to the earlier Great Oasis sites , and are notable for their large earthlodge sites . Glenwood sites appear to have been more oriented in lifeways and trade with the Central Plains Tradition cultures to the west than with the Mississippian cultures to the southeast . Around 1300 AD Mill Creek and Glenwood sites in Iowa disappeared , replaced by the rapidly spreading Oneota cultures .
= = = Oneota ( 1250 – 1700 ) = = =
Very large Mississippian centers appeared around AD 1000 , with enormous earthen pyramids , palisades , and extreme social hierarchy . The earliest large Mississippian center was Cahokia , east of St. Louis . Cahokia appears to have dominated trade in the upper Mississippi , with satellite or closely aligned settlements as far as Aztalan in Wisconsin . In Iowa , there is little evidence of Mississippian occupation , and the Late Woodland lasts longer in the east than in the west . This is puzzling , given the proximity to Mississippian cultures ; it is possible that the nearby presence of the large , hierarchal Mississippian trading network inhibited local development . After the decline of the Cahokia network after AD 1250 the local Late Woodland populations expanded in complexity , developing large nucleated villages and their own trading network , known as Oneota . Oneota , named by Charles Keyes for a river in northeast Iowa , was a large cultural manifestation that covered the Upper Midwest at the edge of the Mississippian cultures . Oneota sites are easily identifiable by the globular , shell tempered pots , which typically have strap handles and incised designs . Pots of this kind were well designed for the cooking of porridge and foods made from the various cultivated foods of the area . Important Oneota sites in Iowa include Kingston , Mckinney , Christenson , Blood Run , Hartley Fort , the Lane Enclosure , three sites in downtown Des Moines , and sites along the Upper Iowa River , including several large earthwork enclosures . After the decline of the Mill Creek and Glenwood cultures in western Iowa , Oneota cultures appeared across the state . It is widely accepted that the Oneota were the ancestors of modern American Indian tribes associated with Iowa , including the Ioway , Ho @-@ Chunk ( Winnebago ) , Otoe , Missouria , and Omaha .
= = Protohistoric ( 1600 – 1800 ) = =
Protohistoric refers to the period when American Indians were exposed to European trade items and large population shifts occurred because of introduced European diseases and warfare , but there is very little direct written documentation . Explorers such as Marquette and Joliet occasionally documented American Indians along the Mississippi in Iowa , but it was not until the early 19th century that regular written accounts of American Indians in Iowa became common . American Indians in the early Protohistoric period continued many aspects of Oneota culture , but soon almost all indigenous technology disappeared , including ceramics and stone tool production . It was during this period that the Meskwaki ( Fox ) and Sauk appeared in eastern Iowa , displaced from their homelands in the east . Important protohistoric sites include Milford ; Blood Run ; Gillett Grove ; and Iowaville .
= = Historical ( 1800 – present ) = =
The earliest European forts and settlements were established by traders beginning in the 1680s . Almost none of these ephemeral early historical sites have been located archaeologically . Julien Dubuque ’ s Mines of Spain settlement and adjacent Meskwaki village occupied in the late 18th century and early 19th century , has been the subject of numerous archaeological surveys . Fort Madison ( 1808 – 1813 ) , the first American settlement and the first American fort in Iowa , was partially excavated in 1965 . American settlement began in earnest in the 1830s , and the official removal of American Indians from Iowa was completed by 1852 . Several of these historical sites have been excavated , including Gilbert ’ s Trading Post. and Fort Atkinson . Archaeologists have also studied historical American settlements , including excavations at the Plum Grove Historic House , the Buxton African @-@ American community , and the Bowen ’ s Prairie community .
= Cobi Crispin =
Cobi Crispin ( born 22 December 1988 ) is a 4 point wheelchair basketball forward from Western Australia . She began playing wheelchair basketball in 2003 when she was 17 years old . The Victorian Institute of Sport and Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program have provided assistance to enable her to play . She played club basketball in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) for the Victorian Dandenong Rangers in 2012 after having previously played for the Western Stars . In 2015 she began playing for the Minecraft Comets . She played for the University of Alabama in the United States in 2013 @-@ 15 .
Crispin made her Australian women 's national wheelchair basketball team debut in 2006 , competing in the Joseph F. Lyttle World Basketball Challenge that year , and participated in Paralympic qualification in 2007 . She remained on the team and was part of the bronze medal winning Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2008 Summer Paralympics . At the 2010 IWBF World Championships in Birmingham England , her team finished fourth . The following year , she was captain of the 2011 Under 25 ( U25 ) Women ’ s Wheelchair Basketball team at the World Championships and earned a silver medal . Also in 2012 , she participated in Paralympic qualifying , and went on to compete at the 2012 Summer Paralympics where her team finished second .
= = Personal = =
Cobi Crispin was born in Mackay , Queensland , on 22 December 1988 , the daughter of Alan and Cathy Crispin . She has three brothers . She was born missing a femur . She moved to Melbourne , Victoria as a result of switching wheelchair basketball club sides to play with the Dandenong Rangers , and now lives in Ashburton , Victoria . Other sports she has had interest in include hockey , swimming and touch football . Her role models are Paralympic wheelchair basketball players Liesl Tesch and Alison Mosely . She was educated at St Patrick 's College , Mackay , and as of 2012 attends Deakin University .
= = Basketball = =
Crispin 's wheelchair basketball classification is 4 @.@ 0 point player , and she plays forward . She has played the sport since 2003 , when she was 17 years old . In 2009 , she was an Aspire to be a Champion grant recipient . In 2010 , she had a scholarship with the Victorian Institute of Sport , which provides " provide assistance with specialist coaching , sport science , sports medicine , physical preparation and education and career development services as well as training & competition expenses " . In 2010 / 11 and 2011 / 12 , the Australian Sports Commission gave her A $ 17 @,@ 000 grants through the Direct Athlete Support ( DAS ) program , a scheme which provides direct financial support to elite athletes . She received $ 5 @,@ 571 in 2009 / 10 and $ 10 @,@ 000 in 2012 / 13 .
= = = National team = = =
Crispin 's first national team appearance was in 2006 . She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 , and was member of the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing . The Gliders defeated Japan 53 @-@ 47 to win the bronze medal .
= = = = 2012 Paralympics = = = =
In October 2011 , Crispin was named to the senior national squad that would compete at the Asia / Oceania Championships 2011 in Goyang , South Korea , a qualifying tournament for the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , with the top two teams qualifying . The Gl
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iders lost to Japan twice in the qualifying rounds , but made the finals on percentage , and fought their way back from being seven points down at quarter time to defeat China in the gold medal match , 45 @-@ 44 .
In the first game of the 2012 Paralympics tournament against Brazil , which her team won 52 @-@ 50 , she played 32 : 34 minutes . She scored 18 points against the Brazil women 's national wheelchair basketball team , and had seven rebounds . In the team 's third game of pool play , where they lost to Canada 50 @-@ 57 , she played 29 : 43 minutes and scored 12 points . In the team 's fourth game of pool play against the Netherlands women 's national wheelchair basketball team that her team won 58 @-@ 49 , she played 25 : 09 minutes , and scored ten points . In her team 's quarterfinal 62 @-@ 37 victory over Mexico women 's national wheelchair basketball team , she played 17 : 08 minutes , and scored twelve points . Her team met the United States women 's national wheelchair basketball team in the semifinals , where Australia won 40 @-@ 39 and she played 24 : 37 minutes , and scored six points . In the gold medal game against the Germany women 's national wheelchair basketball team , she played 29 : 40 minutes . While her team lost 44 @-@ 58 and was awarded a silver medal , she scored six points , and had five rebounds .
= = = = Other competitions = = = =
In 2006 , Crispin was named the Northern Challenge Most Valuable Player . Organised by the Sporting Wheelies , this competition beings together teams from across northern Queensland . She was also on the squad that competed at the Joseph F. Lyttle World Basketball Challenge that year . In 2007 , she played with the national team that the competed in the Asia Oceania Qualification tournament , and the silver medal winning team that competed at the Osaka Cup . She also played with the 2008 , 2009 and 2010 Osaka Cup @-@ winning teams . In 2010 , she was part of the fourth place @-@ finishing Australian national squad that competed at the IWBF World Championships , in Birmingham , England .
Crispin was co @-@ captain of the 2011 Under 25 ( U25 ) Women ’ s Wheelchair Basketball team that competed at the U25 Women ’ s World Championship of Basketball , and finished second . She was the team 's top scorer in all but last two matches in the tournament , when as reporter Pat Koopman stated , " the opposition concentrated on nullifying her influence " on the games . "
In 2013 Crispin began playing for the University of Alabama , and won the Jessica Staley Impact Award and the Stephanie Wheeler Performance Award for 2013 @-@ 14 . The Alabama team of which she was part went through the season undefeated by women 's teams , and defeated the University of Illinois 58 @-@ 52 to win the 2015 national championship on 28 February 2015 .
= = = Club basketball = = =
In 2008 , Crispin was named one of Australia 's Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) All @-@ Star Five . She played her club basketball for WNWBL 's Western Stars . In the second round of the 2008 season , the Western Stars defeated the Hills Hornets 52 @-@ 44 . Playing for the Stars , wearing number 5 , she scored 14 points in her team 's victory . She switched to the Dandenong Rangers for the 2011 season . In her debut game , she scored 28 points and 16 rebounds against her old team . The Rangers went on to win the 2011 WNWBL title , defeating the Sydney Uni Flames 62 @-@ 59 , in a match in which Crispin scored 16 points and was named to the league ’ s All @-@ Star 5 . She was with the Rangers again for the 2012 season , in which was named the 2012 WNWBL MVP of the Final Series after scoring 28 points in the Rangers ' Championship win against the Stacks Goudkamp Bears . In 2015 she joined the Minecraft Comets .
= The Curse of Frank Black =
" ' The Curse of Frank Black " is the sixth episode of the second season of the crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on October 31 , 1997 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Ralph Hemecker . " The Curse of Frank Black " featured a guest appearance from Dean Winters .
Millennium centers on offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) , who investigates unusual crimes as part of the private investigative organisation the Millennium Group . In this episode , Black tries to spend Halloween with his daughter , but is continually reminded of a figure from his past .
" The Curse of Frank Black " , which was inspired by the 1964 Japanese horror film Kwaidan , has received positive reviews from critics , with its minimalist plot being seen as its main strength .
= = Plot = =
On Halloween , Millennium Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) is carving a jack @-@ o ' -lantern while preparing to take his daughter Jordan ( Brittany Tiplady ) trick @-@ or @-@ treating . As he leaves to collect her , he notices a demonic figure watching him from across the street . That night , Jordan deliberately passes by one house , telling Black that it is haunted . Black tells her there are no such thing as ghosts , but is reminded of a moment from his past . In a flashback , we see a five @-@ year @-@ old Black being dared by his friends to knock the door of the same house ; a man named Crocell ( Dean Winters ) answers and invites Black inside . Crocell is a Second World War veteran , and he explains the meaning of Halloween to Black , telling the boy that it is the one night of the year that ghosts walk among the living . Crocell hopes that it is his chance to commune with the friends he lost in the war , and is dismayed when the young Black dismisses the possibility of ghosts .
After bringing Jordan back to her mother , Catherine ( Megan Gallagher ) , Black is driving home when he notices several youths egging a house — the house he once shared with Catherine and Jordan , and in which his friend Bob Bletcher was killed . He goes inside , and overhears several teenagers gathered in the basement trying to scare each other with the story of Bletcher 's murder . Black interrupts , scaring off the youths — and is again reminded of his past , recalling his reaction when Crocell was found to have committed suicide . As Black leaves the house , he picks up an egg carton discarded by the fleeing teenagers and throws the remaining eggs at the walls .
When Black arrives home , he leafs through the day 's mail , finally noticing that the numbers " 268 " and the letters " ACT " have been appearing to him throughout the day , including Crocell 's door number being 268 . Black takes these coincidences to be pointing him towards a Bible verse , Acts of the Apostles 26 : 8 — " why should it be thought incredible by you that God raises the dead ? " . Black then hears something moving in his attic , and investigates . He discovers Crocell 's ghost , who claims to have been sent back to warn Black that he should abandon his work with the Millennium Group , and return to live with his wife and child instead . Crocell warns that Black will end up as lonely as he did , but when Black dismisses this , the spirit vanishes . The following day , Black returns to his old house to clean up where it was egged . As he cleans , he momentarily glimpses the same demonic figure as the day before , but he ignores it and continue his work .
= = Production = =
" The Curse of Frank Black " was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Ralph Hemecker . Hemecker had previously helmed the first season episode " The Well @-@ Worn Lock " , and a further three in the third season . He would return for the third season episode " Exegesis " . Morgan and Wong had previously collaborated to write several episodes of the first season . The duo would go on to pen a number of episodes over the course of the second season , having taken the roles of co @-@ executive producers for the season .
Morgan and Wong 's script for the episode was influenced by the 1964 Japanese horror film Kwaidan and features very little dialogue . Morgan felt that Henriksen was the right actor for such a script , describing him as " so great with looks " . Morgan also credited Hemecker with " a lot of the episode 's tone " , finding the director 's work to have been " beautiful " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Curse of Frank Black " was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on October 31 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 7 during its original broadcast , meaning that 5 @.@ 7 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 5 @.@ 59 million households , and left the episode the eighty @-@ fourth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode an A , calling it " the best episode of Millennium yet , by a long chalk " . Handlen felt that the episode effectively scaled the series ' grandiose apocalyptic tone down to one man 's struggle , making both the series and Frank Black more understandable to viewers . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 out of 5 , " moody , bamboozling " and " truly creepy " . Gibron also felt that the episode 's structure , based on " hidden hints and secret connections " , foreshadowed Morgan and Wong 's later work on the film Final Destination . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " The Curse of Frank Black " five stars out of five , feeling that " it 's simple , and it 's brave , and it 's curiously moving " . Shearman felt that the episode 's minimalism — its paucity of dialogue and music — was key to its tone , and praised Henriksen 's expressiveness for helping to shape this .
= No. 81 Wing RAAF =
No. 81 Wing is the wing responsible for operating the McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet multi @-@ role fighters of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Headquartered at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , the wing comprises three combat units , Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons based at Williamtown and No. 75 Squadron based at RAAF Base Tindal , Northern Territory , as well as an operational conversion unit at Williamtown . No. 81 Wing headquarters oversees squadron training in air @-@ to @-@ air combat , air @-@ to @-@ ground tactics , and support for the Australian Army and Royal Australian Navy . Tasked with offensive and defensive counter @-@ air operations , the Hornets have been deployed to Diego Garcia in 2001 – 02 , when they provided local air defence , and to Iraq in 2003 , when they saw action flying fighter escort and close air support missions in concert with Coalition forces . They have also been employed to patrol high @-@ profile events in Australia , including the Commonwealth Games and visits by foreign dignitaries , and acted as contingency support for peacekeeping operations in East Timor in 1999 – 2000 .
Formed in April 1944 , No. 81 Wing comprised three flying units , Nos. 76 , 77 and 82 Squadrons , operating P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II . Following the end of hostilities , the wing converted to P @-@ 51 Mustangs and was based in Japan as part of the Allied occupational forces ; it disbanded there in November 1948 . Re @-@ formed at Williamtown in January 1961 , its complement included Nos. 75 and 76 Squadrons , and No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit , operating CAC Sabre jets . The Sabres were deployed to RAAF Base Darwin , Northern Territory , in 1964 to guard against possible attack by Indonesian forces during the Konfrontasi with Malaysia . No. 81 Wing converted to Dassault Mirage III supersonic fighters before disbanding in December 1966 . It was re @-@ formed again at Williamtown in February 1987 , to operate the Hornet . The wing also controlled Nos. 25 ( later 79 ) and 76 Squadrons , flying Macchi lead @-@ in fighters , until they were transferred to No. 78 Wing in 2000 .
= = History = =
= = = World War II = = =
Established at Ballarat , Victoria , on 12 April 1944 , No. 81 Wing operated P @-@ 40 Kittyhawk fighters in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II . Group Captain Gordon Steege set up headquarters on Los Negros in the Admiralty Islands on 30 August . Comprising Nos. 76 , 77 and 82 Squadrons , the formation joined Nos. 77 and 78 Wings on Noemfoor as part of No. 10 Operational Group in September 1944 . No. 10 Group was renamed the First Tactical Air Force ( No. 1 TAF ) in October . The same month , No. 81 Wing undertook offensive sweeps and ground attacks against targets in West Papua . In November , Nos. 77 and 82 Squadrons dive bombed Japanese airfields on Halmahera . The wing flew 1 @,@ 125 sorties in October and November , dropping over 400 @,@ 000 pounds ( 180 @,@ 000 kg ) of bombs , for the loss of 15 aircraft and 11 pilots . The relegation of No. 1 TAF to areas of operation bypassed by the main Allied thrust towards the Philippines and Japan led to poor morale . In December 1944 , No. 81 Wing 's new commander , Group Captain Wilfred Arthur , produced a " balance sheet " to demonstrate that the formation 's combat results were not worth the cost in ordnance and casualties , setting in train events that would culminate in the so @-@ called " Morotai Mutiny " the following year .
By January 1945 , the number of missions flown by No. 81 Wing had dropped to less than 400 , from over 1 @,@ 000 the previous month . In March , the Kittyhawks carried out some 80 patrols around Noemfoor but encountered enemy activity on less than half of these . The wing was slated to take part in Operation Oboe One , the invasion of Tarakan , in May 1945 but was unable to move in time from Noemfoor to its new base on Morotai in the Dutch East Indies ; only No. 76 Squadron played any part in the battle , undertaking patrols and convoy escort . The following month , No. 81 Wing flew close support missions for the Australian 9th Division in Operation Oboe Six , the invasion of Labuan . In addition to its three Kittyhawk squadrons , the wing 's order of battle included No. 457 Squadron flying Spitfires , No. 25 Air Stores Park , No. 24 Medical Clearing Station , No. 22 Repair and Servicing Unit , No. 9 Repair and Servicing Unit Detachment , No. 111 Mobile Fighter Control Unit , and seven Radar Stations — a total of over 2 @,@ 000 personnel . Its commander on Morotai and Labuan was Group Captain Ian McLachlan . No. 81 Wing was to have provided two squadrons in support of Operation Oboe Two , the assault on Balikpapan , in June but Tarakan airfield , from which it was to operate , was not ready in time . The wing was still based on Labuan when the Pacific War ended in August 1945 . Calls soon came to serve with the formation as part of the proposed Commonwealth occupation forces in Japan , and many personnel volunteered to do so .
= = = Allied occupation of Japan = = =
No. 81 Wing began re @-@ equipping with P @-@ 51D Mustangs at Labuan in September 1945 . No. 481 ( Maintenance ) Squadron was formed in December from elements of No. 22 Repair and Servicing Unit , No. 25 Air Stores Park , and other units based on Labuan . No. 381 ( Base ) Squadron , established in January 1946 , also utilised personnel and equipment from No. 81 Wing 's specialist units at Labuan , including No. 47 Operational Base Unit , No. 24 Medical Clearing Station , No. 25 Air Stores Park and No. 2 Airfield Defence Squadron . The base squadron was an administrative and logistical unit , intended to make its wing self @-@ supporting and mobile . Under the leadership of Wing Commander Glen Cooper , No. 81 Wing subsequently transferred to new headquarters at Bofu , a former kamikaze base , where it formed the Australian air contingent of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) in Japan until 1948 , when the RAAF presence was reduced . The first of its units to arrive in Japan had been No. 5 Airfield Construction Squadron ( No. 5 ACS ) in December 1945 , followed by the three flying squadrons in March 1946 . No. 82 Squadron lost three Mustangs and an escorting de Havilland Mosquito in bad weather en route to Bofu , killing all crew members . The wing 's strength was augmented by Nos. 381 and 481 Squadrons , and later No. 111 Mobile Fighter Control Unit ( No. 111 MFCU ) . Also making the journey to Japan was the wing 's mascot , Flying Officer ( later Flight Lieutenant ) Raleigh , " a small yellow dog and combat @-@ seasoned veteran with over 40 hours operational flying to his credit " .
As the Japanese offered no serious resistance to the Allied occupation , No. 81 Wing 's prime operational duty was surveillance patrols . The RAAF personnel also helped maintain law and order , and supervised elections , while No. 5 ACS , in addition to military construction , contributed to rebuilding local infrastructure . Otherwise they generally maintained a peacetime training regime . By late 1946 , No. 381 Squadron was providing technical support to all BCOF squadrons , including five from Britain , New Zealand and India , as well as to the RAAF contingent . Group Captain Brian Eaton took over command of No. 81 Wing from Cooper in September 1947 . The wing transferred to Iwakuni in April 1948 , the same month that the Federal government determined to reduce Australia 's contribution to BCOF and disband the formation , retaining only No. 77 Squadron in Japan . Nos. 76 and 82 Squadrons disbanded in October , the former subsequently re @-@ emerging and joining No. 78 Wing when it deployed to Malta in 1952 . No. 81 Wing headquarters and No. 481 Squadron were disbanded in November 1948 , followed by No. 111 MFCU in January 1949 . Detachments of No. 381 Squadron and No. 5 ACS remained with No. 77 Squadron under the aegis of a new organisation called RAAF Component , eventually disbanding in February and April 1950 , respectively . No. 77 Squadron personnel were preparing to return to Australia when , on 25 June 1950 , they were placed on standby for action in the Korean War , which had just broken out ; the unit began flying missions over Korea a week later .
= = = Later formations = = =
In January 1961 , No. 81 Wing was re @-@ established at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales . Flying CAC Sabres , its complement included Nos. 75 and 76 Squadrons , as well as No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 2 OCU ) and a re @-@ formed No. 481 Maintenance Squadron . In September 1964 , Nos. 76 and 481 Squadrons were deployed to RAAF Base Darwin , Northern Territory , as part of Operation Handover , a little @-@ publicised contingency plan put into effect during the Konfrontasi between Indonesia and Malaysia . No. 76 Squadron 's Sabres , armed with Sidewinder missiles , were to defend against possible attack by Indonesian forces following the recent establishment of the Federation of Malaysia . This was the first time since World War II that an RAAF flying squadron was positioned " in harm 's way " on Australian territory . As No. 75 Squadron was effectively out of action pending conversion to the Dassault Mirage III , the deployment meant that practically the entire mainland fighter force had been committed to the north . The Officer Commanding No. 81 Wing , Group Captain A.F. Mather , took on the role of Area Air Defence Commander . No combat ensued , the Sabres ' only interception being a Canberra bomber of No. 1 Operational Conversion Unit , but the experience did reveal deficiencies in the defence of Northern Australia and contributed to the decision to maintain a permanent detachment of No. 81 Wing fighters in Darwin , and later at RAAF Base Tindal . The wing converted from Sabres to Mirages between 1964 and 1966 , commencing with No. 2 OCU and concluding with No. 76 Squadron ; the last @-@ mentioned disbanded in 1973 . No. 81 Wing itself disbanded at Williamtown in December 1966 . No. 75 Squadron was based at RAAF Base Butterworth , Malaysia , from 1967 until 1983 , when it relocated to Darwin . Following conversion to the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet in 1988 , it transferred to Tindal . Owing to its remote location , it became the largest Hornet squadron , employing an extensive maintenance section to ensure readiness .
No. 81 Wing re @-@ formed at Williamtown on 2 February 1987 . Along with No. 75 Squadron at Tindal , its flying units consisted of Nos. 3 and 77 Squadrons based at Williamtown with No. 2 OCU , all of which had converted from the Mirage to the Hornet between 1985 and 1987 , the last @-@ mentioned being the prime operator of the two @-@ seat F / A @-@ 18B trainers . Having continued to perform fighter maintenance through the 1960s and ' 70s , No. 481 Squadron was disbanded on 31 January 1987 . It re @-@ formed the next day as No. 481 Wing under No. 81 Wing 's parent organisation , Tactical Fighter Group ( TFG ) , and consisted of two squadrons , Aircraft Maintenance Squadron Williamtown ( AMSWLM ) and Aircraft Equipment Maintenance Squadron Williamtown ( AEMSWLM ) . By 1996 , No. 81 Wing had been augmented by Nos. 25 and 76 Squadrons , operating Macchi MB @-@ 326 lead @-@ in fighters , the former based at RAAF Base Pearce , Western Australia , and the latter at Williamtown , where it also employed Pilatus PC @-@ 9s for forward air control ( FAC ) . On 1 July 1996 , No. 481 Wing was reorganised as No. 402 Wing , incorporating a newly re @-@ formed No. 481 Squadron as well as Weapon Systems Support Flight and Field Training Flight . No. 402 Wing transferred its functions to No. 81 Wing 's flying squadrons on 31 July 1998 before disbanding in October . The same year , No. 25 Squadron was split , its Macchis now being operated by a re @-@ formed No. 79 Squadron . No. 78 Wing was re @-@ established in 2000 as an operational training formation , taking over Nos. 76 and 79 Squadrons , and No. 2 OCU . By 2007 , No. 2 OCU had returned to the control of No. 81 Wing .
From 2000 to 2003 , No. 77 Squadron flew the FAC PC @-@ 9s previously operated by No. 76 Squadron ; this role was subsequently assigned to the newly formed Forward Air Control Development Unit . A detachment of No. 81 Wing , consisting of Hornets from No. 75 Squadron and PC @-@ 9s from No. 77 Squadron , was prepared to support INTERFET operations in East Timor between September 1999 and February 2000 , but was not required . Following the September 11 attacks in 2001 , Hornets from both No. 3 and No. 77 Squadrons were deployed for air defence at the USAF base on Diego Garcia ; no combat ensued and the planes returned in May 2002 . That year , Hornets from No. 75 Squadron undertook combat air patrols in connection with the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Queensland . No. 81 Wing became part of RAAF Air Command 's new Air Combat Group when TFG merged with Strike Reconnaissance Group in February 2002 . The following year , 14 Hornets from No. 75 Squadron deployed to the Middle East to support the invasion of Iraq , escorting high @-@ value Coalition aircraft and later providing close air support to ground troops and air interdiction against Iraqi forces , the first time the RAAF had delivered bombs in anger since the Vietnam War . The Hornets were led by Wing Commander Mel Hupfeld , who became Officer Commanding No. 81 Wing in 2006 – 07 , Commander Air Combat Group in 2009 – 12 , and subsequently Air Commander Australia . The Hornets have also continued to play an air defence role in securing high @-@ profile events in Australia , including the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne , the 2007 APEC meeting in Sydney , and the 2011 visit by US President Barack Obama .
= Jane Fonda =
Jane Fonda ( born Jayne Seymour Fonda ; December 21 , 1937 ) is an American actress , writer , political activist , former fashion model and fitness guru . She is a two @-@ time Academy Award winner and two time BAFTA Award winner . In 2014 , she was the recipient of the American Film Institute AFI Life Achievement Award .
Fonda made her Broadway debut in the 1960 play There Was a Little Girl , for which she received the first of two Tony Award nominations , and made her screen debut later the same year in Tall Story . She rose to fame in 1960s films such as Period of Adjustment ( 1962 ) , Sunday in New York ( 1963 ) , Cat Ballou ( 1965 ) , Barefoot in the Park ( 1967 ) and Barbarella ( 1968 ) . Her first husband was Barbarella director Roger Vadim . A seven @-@ time Academy Award nominee , she received her first nomination for They Shoot Horses , Don 't They ( 1969 ) and went on to win two Best Actress Oscars in the 1970s for Klute ( 1971 ) and Coming Home ( 1978 ) . Her other nominations were for Julia ( 1977 ) , The China Syndrome ( 1979 ) , On Golden Pond ( 1981 ) and The Morning After ( 1986 ) . Her other major competitive awards include an Emmy Award for the 1984 TV film The Dollmaker , two BAFTA Awards for Julia and The China Syndrome and four Golden Globe Awards .
In 1982 , she released her first exercise video , Jane Fonda 's Workout , which became the highest @-@ selling video of the time . It would be the first of 22 workout videos released by her over the next 13 years which would collectively sell over 17 million copies . Divorced from second husband Tom Hayden , she married billionaire media mogul Ted Turner in 1991 and retired from acting . Fonda was divorced from Turner in 2001 . She returned to acting with her first film in 15 years with the 2005 comedy Monster in Law . Subsequent films have included Georgia Rule ( 2007 ) , The Butler ( 2013 ) , This Is Where I Leave You ( 2014 ) and Youth ( 2015 ) . In 2009 , she returned to Broadway after a 45 @-@ year absence , in the play 33 Variations , which earned her a Tony Award nomination , while her recurring role in the HBO drama series The Newsroom ( 2012 @-@ 2014 ) , has earned her two Emmy Award nominations . She also released another five exercise videos between 2010 and 2012 . She currently stars with Lily Tomlin and Martin Sheen in the Netflix original series Grace and Frankie ( 2015 ) .
Fonda was a visible political activist in the counterculture era during the Vietnam War and has been more recently involved in advocacy for women . She was famously and controversially photographed sitting on an anti @-@ aircraft gun on a 1972 visit to Hanoi . She has also protested the Iraq War and violence against women , and describes herself as a feminist . In 2005 , she , Robin Morgan and Gloria Steinem co @-@ founded the Women 's Media Center , an organization that works to amplify the voices of women in the media through advocacy , media and leadership training , and the creation of original content . Fonda currently serves on the board of the organization . She published an autobiography in 2005 . In 2011 , she published a second memoir , Prime Time .
= = Background = =
Jayne Seymour Fonda was born on December 21 , 1937 , in New York City , the daughter of actor Henry Fonda and the Canadian @-@ born socialite Frances Ford Brokaw ( née Seymour ) . According to her father , their surname came from an Italian ancestor who immigrated to the Netherlands in the 1500s . There , they intermarried and began to use Dutch given names , with Jane 's first Fonda ancestor reaching New York in 1650 . She also has English , Scottish , and French ancestry . She was named for the third wife of Henry VIII , Jane Seymour , to whom she is distantly related on her mother 's side . She has a brother , Peter , an actor , and a maternal half @-@ sister , Frances de Villers Brokaw ( aka " Pan " ) , whose daughter is Pilar Corrias , owner of Pilar Corrias Gallery in London . On April 14 , 1950 , when Fonda was twelve , her mother committed suicide while under treatment at Craig House psychiatric hospital in Beacon , NY . Later that year , Fonda 's father married socialite Susan Blanchard ( born 1928 ) , just nine years his daughter 's senior ; this marriage ended in divorce . At 15 Fonda taught dance at Fire Island Pines , New York . She attended Greenwich Academy in Greenwich , Connecticut .
Fonda attended the Emma Willard School in Troy , New York , and Vassar College in Poughkeepsie , where she was an undistinguished student . Before starting her acting career , Fonda was a model , gracing the cover of Vogue twice .
= = Acting career = =
Fonda became interested in acting in 1954 , while appearing with her father in a charity performance of The Country Girl , at the Omaha Community Playhouse . After dropping out of Vassar , she went to Paris for two years to study art . Upon returning to the states , in 1958 , she met Lee Strasberg and the meeting changed the course of her life , Fonda saying , " I went to the Actors Studio and Lee Strasberg told me I had talent . Real talent . It was the first time that anyone , except my father — who had to say so — told me I was good . At anything . It was a turning point in my life . I went to bed thinking about acting . I woke up thinking about acting . It was like the roof had come off my life ! "
= = = 1960s = = =
Her stage work in the late 1950s laid the foundation for her film career in the 1960s . She averaged almost two movies a year throughout the decade , starting in 1960 with Tall Story , in which she recreated one of her Broadway roles as a college cheerleader pursuing a basketball star , played by Anthony Perkins . Period of Adjustment and Walk on the Wild Side followed in 1962 . In Walk on the Wild Side , Fonda played a prostitute and earned a Golden Globe for Most Promising Newcomer .
In 1963 , she appeared in Sunday in New York . Newsday called her " the loveliest and most gifted of all our new young actresses " . However , she also had detractors — in the same year , the Harvard Lampoon named her the " Year 's Worst Actress " for The Chapman Report . Fonda 's career breakthrough came with Cat Ballou ( 1965 ) , in which she played a schoolmarm turned outlaw . This comedy Western received five Oscar nominations and was one of the year 's top ten films at the box office . It was considered by many to have been the film that brought Fonda to bankable stardom . After this came the comedies Any Wednesday ( 1966 ) , opposite Jason Robards and Dean Jones , and Barefoot in the Park ( 1967 ) , co @-@ starring Robert Redford .
In 1968 , she played the title role in the science fiction spoof Barbarella , which established her status as a sex symbol . In contrast , the tragedy They Shoot Horses , Don 't They ? ( 1969 ) won her critical acclaim , and she earned her first Oscar nomination for the role . Fonda was very selective by the end of the 1960s , turning down lead roles in Rosemary 's Baby and Bonnie and Clyde , which went to Mia Farrow and Faye Dunaway , respectively .
= = = 1970s = = =
Fonda won her first Academy Award for Best Actress in 1971 , again playing a prostitute , the gamine Bree Daniels , in the murder mystery Klute . She won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress for Klute and another in 1978 for Coming Home as well as the Academy Award for Best Actress in 1978 , for the story of a disabled Vietnam War veteran 's difficulty in re @-@ entering civilian life .
Between Klute in 1971 and Fun With Dick and Jane in 1977 , Fonda did not have a major film success . She appeared in A Doll 's House ( 1973 ) , Steelyard Blues and The Blue Bird ( 1976 ) . From comments ascribed to her in interviews , some have inferred that she personally blamed the situation on anger at her outspoken political views : " I can 't say I was blacklisted , but I was greylisted . " However , in her 2005 autobiography , My Life So Far , she rejected such simplification . " The suggestion is that because of my actions against the war my career had been destroyed ... But the truth is that my career , far from being destroyed after the war , flourished with a vigor it had not previously enjoyed . " She reduced acting because of her political activism providing a new focus in her life . Her return to acting in a series of ' issue @-@ driven ' films reflected this new focus .
In 1972 , Fonda starred as a reporter alongside Yves Montand in Tout Va Bien , directed by Jean @-@ Luc Godard and Jean @-@ Pierre Gorin . The two directors then made Letter to Jane , in which the two spent nearly an hour discussing a news photograph of Fonda .
Through her production company , IPC Films , she produced films that helped return her to star status . The 1977 comedy film Fun With Dick and Jane is generally considered her " comeback " picture . Also in 1977 , she portrayed the playwright Lillian Hellman in Julia , receiving positive reviews , BAFTA and Golden Globe Awards for Best Actress , and an Oscar nomination . During this period , Fonda announced that she would make only films that focused on important issues , and she generally stuck to her word . She turned down An Unmarried Woman because she felt the part was not relevant . She won another BAFTA Award for Best Actress in 1979 with The China Syndrome , about a cover @-@ up of a vulnerability in a nuclear power plant . The same year , she starred in The Electric Horseman with her previous co @-@ star , Robert Redford .
= = = 1980s = = =
In 1980 , Fonda starred in 9 to 5 with Lily Tomlin and Dolly Parton . The film was a huge critical and box office success , becoming the second highest @-@ grossing release of the year . Fonda had long wanted to work with her father , hoping it would help their strained relationship . She achieved this goal when she purchased the screen rights to the play On Golden Pond , specifically for her father and her . On Golden Pond , which also starred Katharine Hepburn , brought Henry Fonda his only Academy Award for Best Actor , which Jane accepted on his behalf , as he was ill and could not leave home . He died five months later .
Fonda continued appearing in feature films throughout the 1980s , winning an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in 1984 for The Dollmaker , and starring in the role of Dr. Martha Livingston in Agnes of God ( 1985 ) . She was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of an alcoholic murder suspect in the 1986 thriller The Morning After , opposite Jeff Bridges . She ended the decade by appearing in Old Gringo . This was followed by the romantic drama Stanley & Iris ( 1990 ) with Robert De Niro , which would be her final film for 15 years .
= = = = Exercise videos = = = =
For many years Fonda took ballet class to keep fit , but after fracturing her foot while filming The China Syndrome , she was no longer able to participate . To compensate , she began participating in aerobics and strengthening exercises under the direction of Leni Cazden . The Leni Workout became the Jane Fonda Workout , which began a second career for her , continuing for many years . This was considered one of the influences that started the fitness craze among baby boomers , then approaching middle age . In 1982 , Fonda released her first exercise video , titled Jane Fonda 's Workout , inspired by her best @-@ selling book , Jane Fonda 's Workout Book . Jane Fonda 's Workout became the highest selling home video of the next few years , selling over a million copies . The video 's release led many people to buy the then @-@ new VCR in order to watch and perform the workout at home . The exercise videos were produced and directed by Sidney Galanty , who helped to put the deal together with video distributor Stuart Karl , of Karl Home Video . Galanty produced the first video and 11 more after that . She would subsequently release 23 workout videos with the series selling a total of 17 million copies combined , more than any other exercise series . She released five workout books and thirteen audio programs , through 1995 . After a fifteen @-@ year hiatus , she released two new fitness videos on DVD in 2010 , aiming at an older audience .
= = = Retirement and return = = =
In the early 1990s , after three decades in film , Fonda announced her retirement from the film industry . In May 2005 , she returned to the screen with the box office success Monster @-@ in @-@ Law , starring opposite Jennifer Lopez . Two years later , Fonda had a supporting role in the drama Georgia Rule , alongside Felicity Huffman and Lindsay Lohan .
In 2009 , Fonda returned to act on Broadway for the first time since 1963 , playing Katherine Brandt in Moisés Kaufman 's 33 Variations . The role earned her a Tony nomination for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play .
Fonda filmed her second movie in French when she had a leading role in the 2011 drama All Together . The same year she starred alongside Catherine Keener in Peace , Love and Misunderstanding , playing a hippy grandmother . In 2012 , Fonda began a recurring role as Leona Lansing , CEO of a major media company , in HBO 's original political drama The Newsroom . Her role continued throughout the show 's three seasons , and Fonda received two Emmy nominations for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series .
In 2013 , Fonda had a small role in The Butler , portraying First Lady Nancy Reagan . She had more film work the following year , appearing in the comedies Better Living Through Chemistry and This is Where I Leave You . She also voiced a character on The Simpsons . She played an acting diva in Paolo Sorrentino 's Youth in 2015 , for which she earned a Golden Globe Award nomination . Her upcoming film roles include Fathers and Daughters with Russell Crowe .
Fonda appears as a joint @-@ lead in the Netflix series Grace and Frankie . She and Lily Tomlin play aging women whose husbands reveal they are in love . Filming on the first season was completed in November 2014 , and the show premiered online on May 8 , 2015 .
In June 2016 , the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando gay nightclub shooting ; in the video , Fonda and others told the stories of the people killed there .
= = Political activism = =
During the 1960s , Fonda engaged in political activism in support of the Civil Rights Movement , and in opposition to the Vietnam War . Fonda 's visits to France brought her into contact with leftist French intellectuals who were opposed to war , an experience that she later characterized as " small @-@ c communism " . Along with other celebrities , she supported the Alcatraz Island occupation by American Indians in 1969 , which was intended to call attention to failures of the government in treaty rights and the movement for greater Indian sovereignty .
She supported Huey Newton and the Black Panthers in the early 1970s , stating " Revolution is an act of love ; we are the children of revolution , born to be rebels . It runs in our blood
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, the association appointed committees to select a contractor . At the end of the process , the contract was awarded to the Gaddes Brothers firm of Baltimore . They were asked to fabricate a white Italian marble monument . The memorial was designed , sculpted , and manufactured at a cost of $ 1 @,@ 133 @.@ 63 USD . According to United Daughters of the Confederacy historian Mary Bell Foote , the words " Southern Rights " were initially omitted from the end of the memorial 's inscription during its fabrication due to the " bitter feelings at the time " following the American Civil War , and Federal statutes banning such monuments . After the memorial 's components were packaged for shipping to Romney , the words " Southern Rights " were secretly etched into the white marble and the components quickly boarded over and shipped .
The memorial 's components were delivered to Indian Mound Cemetery on September 14 , 1867 , and it was erected at its present location by a group of Romney volunteers . Bob Fisher was paid $ 5 @.@ 00 USD for raising the earthen mound around the monument 's location and $ 4 @.@ 11 USD for providing lodging to one of the Gaddes brothers at his residence . William Sheetz was paid $ 18 @.@ 80 USD for building the memorial 's raised mound and supporting foundation . Twelve days later on September 26 , the Confederate Memorial was formally dedicated in a public ceremony .
= = Location and design = =
The Confederate Memorial stands upon a raised mound ringed by five boxwoods within the original section of Indian Mound Cemetery , not far from the cemetery 's entrance . Several family interment plots surround the memorial and its circular raised lawn . A burial ground where Confederate and Union dead were buried during the American Civil War lies adjacent to the memorial .
The Confederate Memorial is in the form of an obelisk , measuring 4 square feet ( 0 @.@ 37 m2 ) at its base and 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) in height . The structure 's pedestal consists of two major stylized blocks of white marble , topped by a sculpture of a cloth draped urn . Carved into the façade of the smaller top block of the memorial is a high relief that represents either Fame or an angel placing a laurel wreath upon the head of a dying soldier clasping his sword . Below , on the façade of the larger block , is the inscription : " The Daughters of Old Hampshire Erect This Tribute of Affection to Her Heroic Sons Who Fell in Defence of Southern Rights . " The other three sides of the memorial contain the engraved names of 125 Hampshire County men who died for the Confederate cause . A number representing the total fallen Confederates was not included in the memorial as it was not precisely known at the time of the monument 's construction . The memorial 's foundation block bears the date of its erection , " 1867 " .
= = = Inscribed names = = =
The list of 125 names engraved on the monument consists of four captains , seven lieutenants ( one of which was a chaplain ) , three sergeants , and 119 privates . Since the memorial 's erection in 1867 , several names of Hampshire County 's Confederate dead were found to have been omitted from the memorial . These names have been included in the " Confederate Honor Roll " along with those names etched in the memorial and the names of Confederate veterans . Each of these names is recited during the annual ceremony held on Hampshire County Confederate Memorial Day . The following is the list of Confederate dead etched into the Confederate Memorial :
= = Restoration = =
In 1984 , the Confederate Memorial underwent an extensive restoration . The monument had darkened due to weathering . The surfaces of the memorial were sanded and sealed for future protection . This restoration effort was funded through charitable contributions . The names of the contributors were inscribed within the same treasurer 's book used to record the memorial 's inaugural contributions on June 6 , 1866 . The monument 's restoration cost totaled $ 2 @,@ 850 USD .
= = Hampshire County Confederate Memorial Day = =
The tradition of decorating the Confederate graves in Indian Mound Cemetery has continued annually since June 1 , 1866 , and occurs on the first Saturday in June , which is known as Hampshire County Confederate Memorial Day or June Decoration Day . On this day , participants in the ceremony march down Main Street ( U.S. Route 50 ) through Romney with American Civil War reenactors carrying Confederate flags . A handmade evergreen garland measuring 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) in length is suspended from the Confederate Memorial , along with evergreen wreaths . Flowers and Confederate flags are also placed at each of the Confederate headstones . The decorations are usually placed at the memorial and upon the Confederate gravestones by reenactors . Invited speakers address participants . A roll of honor is recited at the memorial , followed by a musket salute . Ceremony participants include descendants of the founding members of the Confederate Memorial Association .
= = Significance = =
The construction of the Confederate Memorial marked the beginning of an era of post @-@ war revitalization for Hampshire County following the American Civil War . The memorial became a symbol of the county 's restored confidence . The citizens of Hampshire County worked together to reestablish and rebuild the institutions , municipal buildings , and businesses destroyed during the war . The Confederate Memorial Association that constructed the monument was a part of a larger movement throughout the post @-@ war American South , especially in Virginia , which sought to provide suitable interments for Confederate war dead . Historian Caroline E. Janney averred that these " Ladies ' Memorial Associations " used " gender in the interest of Confederate politics " , which laid the groundwork for the establishment of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy belief .
The memorial is among the first monuments erected to memorialize the Confederate dead in the United States . Romney 's claim to have the first Confederate Memorial is disputed by Cheraw , South Carolina , as its monument was dedicated two months prior on July 26 , 1867 . However , the Cheraw memorial omits the mention of " Confederacy " , " Confederate " , or " Southern " .
= Tropical Storm Chantal ( 2007 ) =
Tropical Storm Chantal was a short @-@ lived tropical storm in the northern Atlantic Ocean in the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season . It developed on July 31 from non @-@ tropical origins between Bermuda and Cape Cod , and with favorable conditions , Chantal rapidly attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The storm accelerated northeastward over an area of progressively colder water temperatures , and after a decrease in convection the National Hurricane Center ceased issuing advisories as Chantal began undergoing extratropical transition early on August 1 . Shortly thereafter , the extratropical remnant crossed over southeastern Newfoundland before tracking into the open waters of the north Atlantic Ocean . Prior to forming , the storm dropped moderate rainfall on Bermuda . Subsequent to becoming extratropical , the remnants of Chantal produced gusty winds and heavy precipitation across the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland , causing flooding and wind damage ; insured damage totaled $ 25 million ( 2007 CAD , $ 24 @.@ 3 million 2007 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A frontal system moved off the Carolinas on July 21 , and as it drifted southeastward it degenerated into a trough of low pressure ; by July 26 , it was nearly stationary to the east of the Bahamas . Deep convection initially failed to persist , though on July 28 meteorologists began tracking it with the Dvorak technique . The system tracked northeastward , and initially unfavorable environmental conditions left the system disorganized . However , conditions were forecast to become more conducive for development , and by July 29 the National Hurricane Center remarked it had " potential for tropical or subtropical development . " On July 30 , the low passed to the west of Bermuda as it continued northeastward , under the influence of a large mid @-@ latitude trough . The system contained an exposed low @-@ level circulation , which intermittently passed beneath a persistent area of convection to its northeast . By early on July 31 , ship reports and QuikSCAT observations suggested winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , and the center was well @-@ involved enough with the convection for the National Hurricane Center to classify it as Tropical Depression Three while it was located about 270 miles ( 435 km ) north @-@ northwest of Bermuda , or about 445 miles ( 710 km ) south @-@ southeast of Chatham , Massachusetts .
Upon receiving its classification , the depression consisted of a partially exposed low @-@ level center with deep convection occupying the northeastern semicircle . Located over sea surface temperatures of about 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) , one forecaster noted the depression had " a small window of opportunity ... for it to reach tropical storm strength before transitioning to an extratropical cyclone . " Convection increased further over the center , and at around 0600 UTC on July 31 the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Chantal while located about 530 miles ( 855 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia . The storm continued northeastward , under the influence of a mid @-@ level trough , and Chantal quickly developed well @-@ defined curved banding features ; six hours after becoming a tropical storm , Chantal reached peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . The storm tracked through an area of progressively cold waters and cooler air , resulting in the weakening of its convection . The circulation became embedded within the approaching frontal zone , and by 0600 UTC on August 1 Chantal transitioned into an extratropical cyclone .
After becoming an extratropical cyclone , Chantal maintained scattered convection near its center , though its main area of convection and clouds extended to its north . Midday on August 1 , the cyclone struck Newfoundland along the Avalon Peninsula , hitting the Placentia Area with full force . It subsequently intensified to attain winds of near hurricane @-@ force . On August 3 the cyclone underwent a final weakening trend in the far northern Atlantic Ocean , and on August 5 the extratropical remnants of Chantal merged with another extratropical cyclone to the east of Iceland .
= = Impact = =
The precursor disturbance to Chantal began affecting Bermuda on July 30 , producing scattered storms and increased cloud cover . The next day the system dropped more rainfall as it passed to the west of the island , and in the two @-@ day period precipitation accumulated to 2 @.@ 12 inches ( 53 @.@ 8 mm ) at the Bermuda International Airport , accounting for 35 % of the monthly rainfall total . Thunderstorms were reported on the island , and maximum reported winds on the island reached 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . After Chantal passed Bermuda , a ship with the call sign C60Y4 recorded sustained winds of 37 mph ( 59 km / h ) over the open waters of the north Atlantic Ocean . At around 2300 UTC on July 31 , a buoy to the southeast of Nova Scotia reported a pressure of 995 mbar as Chantal passed nearby .
Shortly after it first became a tropical storm , the Atlantic Storm Prediction Center of Canada issued gale warnings for the coastal waters off Newfoundland . Later , the Newfoundland Labrador Weather Office issued heavy rainfall warnings for southeastern Newfoundland . In offshore waters , wave heights reached 20 feet ( 6 m ) . Onshore , the storm produced moderately strong winds , with an unofficial peak gust of 54 mph ( 88 km / h ) reported near where the storm moved ashore . The extratropical remnants of Chantal dropped heavy rainfall in a short duration across Newfoundland ; 1 @.@ 7 inches ( 43 mm ) fell in 1 hour at St. John 's West , the highest hourly rainfall total . Across the province , precipitation peaked at 7 @.@ 89 inches ( 200 @.@ 4 mm ) at Argentia . The rainfall caused flooding and street washouts in several towns along the Avalon Peninsula , such as Ship Harbour , Fox Harbour , and Dunville . Several communities in the region declared states of emergencies .
In Ship Harbour citizens were isolated for 5 days until a temporary road was made . Also in Spaniard 's Bay , the flooding caused a bridge to depress about 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 50 cm ) ; a temporary bridge was built within two months , with a permanent replacement scheduled to be finished by the summer of 2008 . Insured damage across the area totaled $ 25 million ( 2007 CAD , $ 24 @.@ 3 million 2007 USD ) .
= National Register of Historic Places =
The National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) is the United States federal government 's official list of districts , sites , buildings , structures , and objects deemed worthy of preservation . A property listed in the National Register , or located within a National Register Historic District , may qualify for tax incentives derived from the total value of expenses incurred preserving the property .
The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act ( NHPA ) in 1966 established the National Register and the process for adding properties to it . Of the more than one million properties on the National Register , 80 @,@ 000 are listed individually . The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts . Each year approximately 30 @,@ 000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings .
For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service ( NPS ) , an agency within the United States Department of the Interior . Its goals are to help property owners and interest groups , such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation , coordinate , identify , and protect historic sites in the United States . While National Register listings are mostly symbolic , their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties . Protection of the property is not guaranteed . During the nomination process , the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places . The application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation , as well as the public and politicians .
Occasionally , historic sites outside the country proper , but associated with the United States ( such as the American Embassy in Tangiers ) are also listed . Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms , including individual properties , historic districts , and multiple property submissions ( MPS ) . The Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties : district , site , structure , building , or object . National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non @-@ contributing properties . Some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service . These include National Historic Landmarks ( NHL ) , National Historic Sites ( NHS ) , National Historical Parks , National Military Parks / Battlefields , National Memorials , and some National Monuments . ( Federal properties can be proclaimed National Monuments under the Antiquities Act because of either their historical or natural significance . They are managed by multiple agencies . Only monuments that are historic in character and managed by the National Park Service are listed administratively in the National Register . )
= = History = =
On October 15 , 1966 , the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices ( SHPO ) . Initially , the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Register 's creation , as well as any other historic sites in the National Park system . Approval of the act , which was amended in 1980 and 1992 , represented the first time the United States had a broad @-@ based historic preservation policy . The 1966 act required those agencies to work in conjunction with the SHPO and an independent federal agency , the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation ( ACHP ) , to confront adverse effects of federal activities on historic preservation .
To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places , the National Park Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior , with director George B. Hartzog , Jr . , established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation ( OAHP ) . Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law . Ernest Connally was the Office 's first director . Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register . The division administered several existing programs , including the Historic Sites Survey and the Historic American Buildings Survey , as well as the new National Register and Historic Preservation Fund .
The first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh , an architectural historian . During the Register 's earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s , organization was lax and SHPOs were small , understaffed , and underfunded . However , funds were still being supplied for the Historic Preservation Fund to provide matching grants @-@ in @-@ aid to listed property owners , first for house museums and institutional buildings , but later for commercial structures as well .
A few years later in 1979 , the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U.S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two " Assistant Directorates . " Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation . From 1978 until 1981 , the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service ( HCRS ) of the United States Department of the Interior .
In February 1983 , the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs . Jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate . He was described as a skilled administrator , who was sensitive to the need for the NPS to work with SHPOs , academia , and local governments .
Although not described in detail in the 1966 act , SHPOs eventually became integral to the process of listing properties on the National Register . The 1980 amendments of the 1966 law further defined the responsibilities of SHPOs concerning the National Register . Several 1992 amendments of the NHPA added a category to the National Register , known as Traditional Cultural Properties : those properties associated with Native American or Hawaiian groups .
The National Register of Historic Places has grown considerably from its legislative origins in 1966 . In 1986 , citizens and groups nominated 3 @,@ 623 separate properties , sites , and districts for inclusion on the National Register , a total of 75 @,@ 000 separate properties . Of the more than one million properties on the National Register , 80 @,@ 000 are listed individually . Others are listed as contributing members within historic districts .
= = Property owner incentives = =
Properties are not protected in any strict sense by the Federal listing . States and local zoning bodies may or may not choose to protect listed historic places . Indirect protection is possible , by state and local regulations on development of National Register properties , and by tax incentives .
Until 1976 , federal tax incentives were virtually non @-@ existent for buildings on the National Register . Before 1976 the federal tax code favored new construction rather than the reuse of existing , sometimes historical , structures . In 1976 , the tax code was altered to provide tax incentives that promote preservation of income @-@ producing historic properties . The National Park Service was given the responsibility to ensure that only rehabilitations that preserved the historic character of a building would qualify for federal tax incentives . A qualifying rehabilitation is one that the NPS deems consistent with the Secretary of the Interior 's Standards for Rehabilitation . Properties and sites listed in the Register , as well as those located in and contributing to the period of significance of National Register Historic Districts , became eligible for the federal tax benefits .
Owners of income @-@ producing properties listed individually in the National Register of Historic Places or of properties that are contributing resources within a National Register Historic District may be eligible for a 20 % investment tax credit for the rehabilitation of the historic structure . The rehabilitation may be of a commercial , industrial , or residential property , for rentals . The tax incentives program is operated by the Federal Historic Preservation Tax Incentives program , which is managed jointly by the National Park Service , individual State Historic Preservation Offices , and the Internal Revenue Service . Aside from the 20 % tax credit , the tax incentive program offers a 10 % tax credit for rehabilitation to owners of non @-@ historic , non @-@ residential buildings constructed before 1936 .
Some property owners may qualify for grants as well , for instance the Save America 's Treasures grants , which apply specifically to properties entered in the Register with national significance or designated as National Historic Landmarks . The Save America 's Treasures office has closed . The United States Congress did not renew the funding for the program for fiscal years 2011 and 2012 , and does not plan to re @-@ establish funding .
The NHPA did not distinguish between properties listed in the National Register of Historic Places and those designated as National Historic Landmarks concerning qualification for tax incentives or grants . This was deliberate , as the authors of the act had learned from experience that distinguishing between categories of significance for such incentives caused the lowest category to become expendable . Essentially , this made the Landmarks a kind of " honor roll " of the most significant properties of the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Nomination process = =
Any individual can prepare a National Register nomination , although historians and historic preservation consultants often are employed for this work . The nomination consists of a standard nomination form and contains basic information about a property 's physical appearance and the type of significance embodied in the building , structure , object , site , or district . The State Historic Preservation Office receives National Register nominations and provides feedback to the nominating individual or group . After preliminary review , the SHPO sends each nomination to the state 's historic review commission , which then recommends whether the State Historic Preservation Officer should send the nomination to the Keeper of the National Register . For any non @-@ Federally owned property , only the State Historic Preservation Officer may officially nominate a property for inclusion in the National Register . After the nomination is recommended for listing in the National Register by the SHPO , the nomination is sent to the National Park Service , which approves or denies the nomination . If approved , the property is entered officially by the Keeper of the National Register into the National Register of Historic Places . Property owners are notified of the nomination during the review by the SHPO and state 's historic review commission . If an owner objects to a nomination of private property , or in the case of a historic district , a majority of owners , then the property cannot be listed in the National Register of Historic Places .
= = = Criteria = = =
For a property to be eligible for the National Register , it must meet at least one of the four National Register main criteria . Information about architectural styles , association with various aspects of social history and commerce , and ownership are all integral parts of the nomination . Each nomination contains a narrative section that provides a detailed physical description of the property and justifies why it is significant historically with regard either to local , state , or national history . The four National Register of Historic Places criteria are the following .
Criterion A , " Event , " the property must make a contribution to the major pattern of American history .
Criterion B , " Person , " is associated with significant people of the American past .
Criterion C , " Design / Construction , " concerns the distinctive characteristics of the building by its architecture and construction , including having great artistic value or being the work of a master .
Criterion D , " Information potential , " is satisfied if the property has yielded or may be likely to yield information important to prehistory or history .
The criteria are applied differently for different types of properties ; for instance , maritime properties have application guidelines different from those of buildings .
= = = Exclusions = = =
There are specific instances where properties usually do not merit listing in the National Register . As a general rule , cemeteries , birthplaces , graves of historical figures , properties owned by religious institutions or used for religious purposes , moved structures , reconstructed historic buildings , commemorative properties , and properties that have achieved significance during the last fifty years are not qualified for listing on the Register . There are , however , exceptions to all the preceding ; mitigating circumstances allow properties classified in one of those groups to be included .
= = = Properties listed = = =
A listing on the National Register of Historic Places is governmental acknowledgment of a historic district , site , building , or property . However , the Register is mostly " an honorary status with some federal financial incentives . " The National Register of Historic Places automatically includes all National Historic Landmarks as well as all historic areas administered by the National Park Service . Landmarks such as these include : National Historic Sites ( NHS ) , National Historical Parks , National Military Parks / Battlefields , National Memorials , and some National Monuments . Occasionally , historic sites outside the country 's borders , but associated with the United States , such as the American Legation in Tangiers , also are listed .
Listing in the National Register does not restrict private property owners from the use of their property . Some states and municipalities , however , may have laws that become effective when a property is listed in the National Register . If federal money or a federal permitting process is involved , Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 is invoked . Section 106 requires the federal agency involved to assess the effect of its actions on historic resources . Statutorily , the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation ( ACHP ) has the most significant role by Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act . The section requires that the director of any federal agency with direct or indirect jurisdiction of a project that may affect a property listed or determined eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places , must first report to the Advisory Council . The director of said agency is required to " take into account the effect of the undertaking " on the National Register property , as well as to afford the ACHP a reasonable opportunity to comment .
While Section 106 does not mandate explicitly that any federal agency director accept the advice of the ACHP , their advice has practical influence , especially given the statutory obligations of the NHPA that require federal agencies to " take into account the effect of the undertaking . "
In cases where the ACHP determines federal action will have an " adverse effect " on historic properties , mitigation is sought . Typically , a Memorandum of Agreement ( MOA ) is created by which the involved parties agree to a particular plan . Many states have laws similar to Section 106 . In contrast to conditions relating to a federally designated historic district , municipal ordinances governing local historic districts often restrict certain kinds of changes to properties . Thus , they may protect the property more than a National Register listing does .
The Department of Transportation Act , passed on October 15 , 1966 , the same day as the National Historic Preservation Act , included provisions that addressed historic preservation . The DOT Act is much more general than Section 106 NHPA in that it refers to properties other than those listed in the Register .
The more general language has allowed more properties and parklands to enjoy status as protected areas by this legislation , a policy developed early in its history . The United States Supreme Court ruled in the 1971 case Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe that parklands could have the same protected status as " historic sites . "
= = = Multiple Property Submission = = =
A Multiple Property Submission ( MPS ) is a thematic group listing of the National Register of Historic Places that consists of related properties that share a common theme and can be submitted as a group . Multiple property submissions must satisfy certain basic criteria for the group of properties to be included in the National Register .
The process begins with the Multiple Property Documentation Form , which acts as a cover document rather than the nomination to the National Register of Historic Places . The purpose of the documentation form is to establish the basis of eligibility for related properties . The information of the Multiple Property Documentation Form can be used to nominate and register related historic properties simultaneously , or to establish criteria for properties that may be nominated in the future . Thus , additions to an MPS can occur over time .
The nomination of individual properties in an MPS is accomplished in the same manner as other nominations . The name of the " thematic group " denotes the historical theme of the properties . It is considered the " multiple property listing . " Once an individual property or a group of properties is nominated and listed in the National Register , the Multiple Property Documentation Form , combined with the individual National Register of Historic Places Nomination Forms , constitute a Multiple Property Submission . Examples of MPS include the Lee County Multiple Property Submission , the Warehouses in Omaha , the Boundary Markers of the Original District of Columbia , and the Illinois Carnegie Libraries . Before the term " Multiple Property Submission " was introduced in 1984 , such listings were known as " Thematic Resources " , such as the Operating Passenger Railroad Stations Thematic Resource , or " Multiple Resource Areas . "
= = Types of properties = =
Listed properties are generally in one of five broad categories , although there are special considerations for other types of properties that in any one , or into more specialized subcategories . The five general categories for National Register properties are : building , structure , site , district , and object . In addition , historic districts consist of contributing and non @-@ contributing properties .
Buildings , as defined by the National Register , are distinguished in the traditional sense . Examples include a house , barn , hotel , church , or similar construction . They are created primarily to shelter human activity . The term building , as in outbuilding , can be used to refer to historically and functionally related units , such as a courthouse and a jail or a barn and a house .
Structures differ from buildings in that they are functional constructions meant to be used for purposes other than sheltering human activity . Examples include an aircraft , a grain elevator , a gazebo , and a bridge .
Objects are usually artistic in nature , or small in scale compared to structures and buildings . Although objects may be movable , they are generally associated with a specific setting or environment . Examples of objects include monuments , sculptures , and fountains .
Sites are the locations of significant events , which can be prehistoric or historic in nature and represent activities or buildings ( standing , ruined , or vanished ) . When sites are listed , it is the locations themselves that are of historical interest . They possesses cultural or archaeological value regardless of the value of any structures that currently exist at the locations . Examples of types of sites include shipwrecks , battlefields , campsites , natural features , and rock shelters .
Historic districts possess a concentration , association , or continuity of the other four types of properties . Objects , structures , buildings , and sites in a historic district are united historically or aesthetically , either by choice or by the nature of their development .
There are several other different types of historic preservation associated with the properties of the National Register of Historic Places that cannot be classified as either simple buildings and historic districts . Through the National Park Service , the National Register of Historic Places publishes a series of bulletins designed to aid in evaluating and applying the criteria for evaluation of different types of properties . Although the criteria are always the same , the manner they are applied may differ slightly , depending upon the type of property involved . The National Register bulletins describe application of the criteria for aids to navigation , historic battlefields , archaeological sites , aviation properties , cemeteries , and burial places , historic designed landscapes , mining sites , post offices , properties associated with significant persons , properties achieving significance within the last fifty years , rural historic landscapes , traditional cultural properties , and vessels and shipwrecks .
= = Recent past = =
In American historic preservation , the fifty @-@ year rule is the generally held belief that a property cannot be listed in the National Register of Historic Places unless it is at least fifty years old . Actually , this rule is not a hard rule at all ; it is an exception to the National Register 's criteria for evaluation . As stated by John H. Sprinkle , Jr . , Deputy Director of the Federal Preservation Institute , “ this ‘ rule ’ is only an exception to the criteria that shape listings within the National Register of Historic Places . Of the eight ' exceptions ' [ or criteria considerations ] , Consideration G , for properties that have achieved significance within the past fifty years , is probably the best @-@ known , yet also misunderstood preservation principle in America . ”
With each passing year , a new group of resources crosses the fifty @-@ year threshold , that were before considered “ too recent ” for listing on the National Register of Historic Places ( unless they were exceptionally significant ) . The preservation of these “ underage ” resources has gained increasing attention in recent years .
= = Limitations = =
As of 1999 , there have been 982 properties removed from the Register , most often due to being destroyed .
= = Similar designations outside the United States = =
Austria – Bundesdenkmalamt
Brazil – National Institute of Historic and Artistic Heritage
Canada – National Historic Site , National Historic Event , National Historic Person — akin to US National Historic Landmarks
Chile – National Monuments of Chile
China - Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level
France – Monument historique
Germany – Deutsche Stiftung Denkmalschutz and National Heritage Sites ( Kulturdenkmal )
Hong Kong – Historic building , see List of Grade I historic buildings in Hong Kong , List of Grade II historic buildings in Hong Kong and List of Grade III historic buildings in Hong Kong
Italy – Monumento nazionale
Mexico – National Monuments of Mexico
Netherlands – Rijksmonument
Norway – Riksantikvaren
New Zealand – Heritage New Zealand
Philippines – National Historical Commission of the Philippines
Portugal – IGESPAR
Romania – National Register of Historic Monuments in Romania
Singapore – National Monuments of Singapore
Spain - Bien de Interés Cultural
United Kingdom – Listed building or scheduled monument
= Ralph Bakshi =
Ralph Bakshi ( born October 29 , 1938 ) is an American director of animated and live @-@ action films . In the 1970s , he established an alternative to mainstream animation through independent and adult @-@ oriented productions . Between 1972 and 1992 , he directed nine theatrically released feature films , five of which he wrote . He has been involved in numerous television projects as director , writer , producer and animator .
Beginning his career at the Terrytoons television cartoon studio as a cel polisher , Bakshi was eventually promoted to animator , and then director . He moved to the animation division of Paramount Pictures in 1967 and started his own studio , Bakshi Productions , in 1968 . Through producer Steve Krantz , Bakshi made his debut feature film , Fritz the Cat , released in 1972 . It was the first animated film to receive an X rating from the Motion Picture Association of America , and the most successful independent animated feature of all time .
Over the next eleven years , Bakshi directed seven additional animated features . He is well known for such films as Wizards ( 1977 ) , The Lord of the Rings ( 1978 ) , American Pop ( 1981 ) and Fire and Ice ( 1983 ) . In 1987 , Bakshi returned to television work , producing the series Mighty Mouse : The New Adventures , which ran for two years . After a nine @-@ year hiatus from feature films , he directed Cool World ( 1992 ) , which was largely rewritten during production and received poor reviews . Bakshi returned to television with the live @-@ action film Cool and the Crazy ( 1994 ) and the anthology series Spicy City ( 1997 ) .
During the 2000s , he focused largely on fine art and painting and in 2003 co @-@ founded The Bakshi School of Animation with his son Eddie and Jess Gorell . Bakshi has received several awards for his work , including the 1980 Golden Gryphon for The Lord of the Rings at the Giffoni Film Festival , the 1988 Annie Award for Distinguished Contribution to the Art of Animation , and the 2003 Maverick Tribute Award at the Cinequest Film Festival .
= = Early life ( 1938 – 1956 ) = =
Ralph Bakshi was born to a Jewish family on October 29 , 1938 , in Haifa , Mandatory Palestine . In 1939 , his family immigrated to New York City to escape World War II , and he grew up in the Brownsville neighborhood of Brooklyn . The family lived in a low @-@ rent apartment , where Bakshi became fascinated with the urban milieu . As a child , he enjoyed comic books , and often dug through trash cans to find them .
In the spring of 1947 , Bakshi 's father and uncle traveled to Washington , D.C. , in search of business opportunities , and soon moved the family to the black neighborhood of Foggy Bottom . Bakshi recalled , " All my friends were black , everyone we did business with was black , the school across the street was black . It was segregated , so everything was black . I went to see black movies ; black girls sat on my lap . I went to black parties . I was another black kid on the block . No problem ! "
The racial segregation of local schools meant that the nearest white school was several miles away ; Bakshi obtained his mother 's permission to attend the nearby black school with his friends . Bakshi was the only white student in the classroom . Most of the students had no problem with Bakshi 's presence , but a teacher sought advice from the principal , who called the police . Fearing that segregated whites would riot if they learned that a white student was attending a black school , the police removed Bakshi from his classroom . Meanwhile , his father had been suffering from anxiety attacks . Within a few months , the family moved back to Brownsville , where they rarely spoke of these events .
At the age of 15 , after discovering Gene Byrnes ' Complete Guide to Cartooning at the public library , Bakshi took up cartooning to document his experiences and create fantasy @-@ influenced artwork . He stole a copy of the book and learned every lesson in it . During his teenage years , Bakshi took up boxing . While attending Thomas Jefferson High School , he took little interest in academics , spending most of his time focusing on " broads , mouthing off , and doodling " . After participating in a food fight and being caught smoking , Bakshi was sent to the principal 's office . Believing Bakshi was unlikely to prosper at Thomas Jefferson , the principal transferred him to Manhattan 's School of Industrial Art . In June 1956 , Bakshi graduated from the school with an award in cartooning .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career ( 1956 – 1968 ) = = =
When Bakshi was 18 , his friend Cosmo Anzilotti was hired by the cartoon studio Terrytoons ; Anzilotti recommended Bakshi to the studio 's production manager , Frank Schudde . Bakshi was hired as a cel polisher and commuted four hours each day to the studio , based in suburban New Rochelle . His low @-@ level position required Bakshi to carefully remove dirt and dust from animation cels .
After a few months , Schudde was surprised that Bakshi was still showing up to work , and promoted him to cel painter . Bakshi began to practice animating ; to give himself more time , at one point he slipped ten cels he was supposed to work on into the " to @-@ do " pile of a fellow painter , Leo Giuliani . Bakshi 's deception was not noticed until two days later , when he was called to Schudde 's office because the cels had been painted on the wrong side . When Bakshi explained that Giuliani had made the mistake , an argument ensued between the three . Schudde eventually took Bakshi 's side . By this point , the studio 's employees were aware of Bakshi 's intention to become an animator , and he began to receive help and advice from established animators , including Connie Rasinski , Manny Davis , Jim Tyer , Larry Silverman and Johnnie Gentilella .
Bakshi married his first wife , Elaine , when he was 21 . Their son , Mark , was born when Bakshi was 22 . Elaine disliked his long work hours ; parodying his marital problems , Bakshi drew Dum Dum and Dee Dee , a comic strip about a man determined " to get — and keep — the girl " .
As he perfected his animation style , he began to take on more jobs , including creating design tests for the studio 's head director , Gene Deitch . Deitch was not convinced that Bakshi had a modern design sensibility . In response to the period 's political climate and as a form of therapy , Bakshi drew the comic strips Bonefoot and Fudge , which satirized " idiots with an agenda " , and Junktown , which focused on " misfit technology and discarded ideals " .
Bakshi 's frustrations with his failing marriage and the state of the planet further drove his need to animate . In 1959 , he moved his desk to join the rest of the animators ; after asking Rasinski for material to animate , he received layouts of two scenes : a hat floating on water and Deputy Dawg , the lead character of one of Terrytoons ' syndicated television series , running . Despite threats of repercussion from the animators ' union , Rasinski fought to keep Bakshi as a layout artist . Bakshi began to see Rasinski as a father figure ; Rasinski , childless , was happy to serve as Bakshi 's mentor .
At the age of 25 , Bakshi was promoted to director . His first assignment was the series Sad Cat . Bakshi and his wife had separated by then , giving him the time to animate each short alone . Bakshi was dissatisfied with the traditional role of a Terrytoons director : " We didn 't really ' direct ' like you 'd think . We were ' animation directors , ' because the story department controlled the storyboards . We couldn 't affect anything , but I still tried . I 'd re @-@ time , mix up soundtracks — I 'd fuck with it so I could make it my own . "
Independent animation studios such as Hanna @-@ Barbera were selling shows to the networks , even as the series produced by Terrytoons ( which was owned by CBS ) were declining in popularity . In 1966 , Bill Weiss asked Bakshi to help him carry presentation boards to Manhattan for a meeting with CBS . The network executives rejected all of Weiss 's proposals as " too sophisticated " , " too corny " , or " too old @-@ timey " .
As Fred Silverman , CBS 's daytime programming chief , began to leave the office , an unprepared Bakshi pitched a superhero parody called The Mighty Heroes . He described the series ' characters , including Strong Man , Tornado Man , Rope Man , Cuckoo Man and Diaper Man : " They fought evil wherever they could and the villains were stupider than they were . "
The executives loved the idea , and while Silverman required a few drawings before committing , Weiss immediately put Bakshi to work on the series ' development . Once Silverman saw the character designs , he confirmed that CBS would greenlight the show , on the condition that Bakshi serve as its creative director . It would appear as a segment of Mighty Mouse Playhouse on the network 's 1966 – 67 Saturday morning schedule ; the series was renamed Mighty Mouse and the Mighty Heroes in recognition of the new segment .
Bakshi received a pay raise , but was not as satisfied with his career advancement as he had anticipated ; Rasinski had died in 1965 , Bakshi did not have creative control over The Mighty Heroes , and he was unhappy with the quality of the animation , writing , timing and voice acting . Although the series ' first 20 segments were successful , Bakshi wanted to leave Terrytoons to form his own company . In 1967 , he drew up presentation pieces for a fantasy series called Tee @-@ Witt , with help from Anzilotti , Johnnie Zago and Bill Foucht .
On the way to the CBS offices to make his pitch , he was involved in a car accident . At the auto body shop , he met Liz , who later became his second wife . Though CBS passed on Tee @-@ Witt , its designs served as the basis for Bakshi 's 1977 film Wizards . While leaving the network offices , he learned that Paramount Pictures had recently fired Shamus Culhane , the head of its animation division . Bakshi met with Burt Hampft , a lawyer for the studio , and was hired to replace Culhane .
Bakshi enlisted comic book and pulp fiction artists and writers Harvey Kurtzman , Lin Carter , Gray Morrow , Archie Goodwin , Wally Wood and Jim Steranko to work at the studio . After finishing Culhane 's uncompleted shorts , he directed , produced , wrote and designed four short films at Paramount : The Fuz , Mini @-@ Squirts , Marvin Digs and Mouse Trek .
Marvin Digs , which Bakshi conceived as a " flower child picture " , was not completed the way he had intended : It " was going to have curse words and sex scenes , and a lot more than that . [ ... ] Of course , they wouldn 't let me do that . " He described the disappointing result as a " typical 1967 limited @-@ animation theatrical " . Animation historian Michael Barrier called the film " an offensively bad picture , the kind that makes people who love animation get up and leave the theater in disgust " . Production of Mighty Heroes ended when Bakshi left Terrytoons .
Bakshi served as head of the studio for eight months before Paramount closed its animation division on December 1 , 1967 . He learned that his position was always intended to be temporary and that Paramount never intended to pick up his pitches . Although Hampft was prepared to offer Bakshi a severance package , Bakshi immediately ripped up the contract .
Hampft suggested that Bakshi work with producer Steve Krantz , who had recently fired Culhane as supervising director on the Canadian science fiction series Rocket Robin Hood . Bakshi and background artist Johnnie Vita soon headed to Toronto , planning to commute between Canada and New York , with artists such as Morrow and Wood working from the United States .
Unknown to Bakshi , Krantz and producer Al Guest were in the middle of a lawsuit . Failing to reach a settlement with Guest , Krantz told Bakshi to grab the series ' model sheets and return to the United States . When the studio found out , a warrant for Bakshi 's arrest was issued by the Toronto police . He narrowly avoided capture before being stopped by an American border guard who asked him what he was doing . Bakshi responded , " All of these guys are heading into Canada to dodge the draft and I 'm running back into the States . What the fuck is wrong with that ! ? " The guard laughed , and let Bakshi through . Vita was detained at the airport ; he was searched and interrogated for six hours .
Bakshi soon founded his own studio , Bakshi Productions , in the Garment District of Manhattan , where his mother used to work and which Bakshi described as " the worst neighborhood in the world " . Bakshi Productions paid its employees higher salaries than other studios and expanded opportunities for female and minority animators . The studio began work on Rocket Robin Hood , and later took over the Spider @-@ Man television series . Bakshi married Liz in August 1968 . His second child , Preston , was born in June 1970 .
= = = Fritz the Cat ( 1969 – 1972 ) = = =
In 1969 , Ralph 's Spot was founded as a division of Bakshi Productions to produce commercials for Coca @-@ Cola and Max , the 2000 @-@ Year @-@ Old Mouse , a series of educational shorts paid for by Encyclopædia Britannica . Bakshi was uninterested in the kind of animation the studio was turning out , and wanted to produce something personal . He soon developed Heavy Traffic , a tale of inner @-@ city street life . Krantz told Bakshi that Hollywood studio executives would be unwilling to fund the film because of its content and Bakshi 's lack of film experience . While browsing the East Side Book Store on St. Mark 's Place , Bakshi came across a copy of Robert Crumb 's Fritz the Cat . Impressed by Crumb 's sharp satire , Bakshi purchased the book and suggested to Krantz that it would work as a film . Krantz arranged a meeting with Crumb , during which Bakshi presented the drawings he had created while learning the artist 's distinctive style to prove that he could adapt Crumb 's artwork to animation . Impressed by Bakshi 's tenacity , Crumb lent him one of his sketchbooks for reference .
Preparation began on a studio pitch that included a poster @-@ sized cel featuring the comic 's cast against a traced photo background — as Bakshi intended the film to appear . Despite Crumb 's enthusiasm , the artist refused to sign the contract Krantz drew up . Artist Vaughn Bodé warned Bakshi against working with Crumb , describing him as " slick " . Bakshi later agreed with Bodé 's assessment , calling Crumb " one of the slickest hustlers you 'll ever see in your life " . Krantz sent Bakshi to San Francisco , where he stayed with Crumb and his wife , Dana , in an attempt to persuade Crumb to sign the contract . After a week , Crumb left , leaving the film 's production status uncertain . Two weeks after Bakshi returned to New York , Krantz entered his office and told Bakshi that he had acquired the film rights through Dana , who had Crumb 's power of attorney and signed the contract .
After Bakshi pitched the project to every major Hollywood studio , Warner Bros. bought it and promised an $ 850 @,@ 000 budget . Bakshi hired animators he had worked with in the past , including Vita , Tyer , Anzilotti and Nick Tafuri , and began the layouts and animation . The first completed sequence was a junkyard scene in Harlem , in which Fritz smokes marijuana , has sex and incites a revolution . Krantz intended to release the sequence as a 15 @-@ minute short in case the picture 's financing fell through ; Bakshi , however , was determined to complete the film as a feature . They screened the sequence for Warner Bros. executives , who wanted the sexual content toned down and celebrities cast for the voice parts . Bakshi refused , and Warner Bros. pulled out , leading Krantz to seek funds elsewhere . He eventually made a deal with Jerry Gross , the owner of Cinemation Industries , a distributor specializing in exploitation films . Although Bakshi did not have enough time to pitch the film , Gross agreed to fund its production and distribute it , believing that it would fit in with his grindhouse slate .
Despite receiving financing from other sources , including Saul Zaentz ( who agreed to distribute the soundtrack album on his Fantasy Records label ) , the budget was tight enough to exclude pencil tests , so Bakshi had to test the animation by flipping an animator 's drawings in his hand before they were inked and painted . When a cameraman realized that the cels for the desert scenes were not wide enough and revealed the transparency , Bakshi painted a cactus to cover the mistake . Very few storyboards were used . Bakshi and Vita walked around the Lower East Side , Washington Square Park , Chinatown and Harlem , taking moody snapshots . Artist Ira Turek inked the outlines of these photographs onto cels with a Rapidograph , the technical pen preferred by Crumb , giving the film 's backgrounds a stylized realism virtually unprecedented in animation . The tones of the watercolor backgrounds were influenced by the work of Ashcan School painters such as George Luks and John French Sloan . Among other unusual techniques , bent and fisheye camera perspectives were used to portray the way the film 's hippies and hoodlums viewed the city . Many scenes featured documentary recordings of real conversations in place of scripted dialogue — this too would become a signature of Bakshi 's .
In May 1971 , Bakshi moved his studio to Los Angeles to hire additional animators . Some , including Rod Scribner , Dick Lundy , Virgil Walter Ross , Norman McCabe and John Sparey , welcomed Bakshi and felt that Fritz the Cat would bring diversity to the animation industry . Other animators were less pleased by Bakshi 's arrival and placed an advertisement in The Hollywood Reporter , stating that his " filth " was unwelcome in California . By the time production wrapped , Cinemation had released Melvin Van Peebles ' Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song to considerable success , despite the X rating it had received . When the Motion Picture Association of America gave Bakshi 's film an X rating as well , Cinemation exploited it for promotional purposes , advertising Fritz the Cat as " 90 minutes of violence , excitement , and SEX ... he 's X @-@ rated and animated ! " Variety called it an " amusing , diverting , handsomely executed poke at youthful attitudes " . John Grant writes in his book Masters of Animation that Fritz the Cat was " the breakthrough movie that opened brand new vistas to the commercial animator in the United States " , presenting an " almost disturbingly accurate " portrayal " of a particular stratum of Western society during a particular era , [ ... ] as such it has dated very well . " Fritz the Cat was released on April 12 , 1972 , opening in Hollywood and Washington , D.C. A major hit , it became the most successful independent animated feature of all time . The same month as the film 's release , Bakshi 's daughter , Victoria , was born .
= = = Heavy Traffic ( 1972 – 1973 ) = = =
By the time Fritz the Cat was released , Bakshi had become a celebrity , but his reputation was primarily based upon his having directed the first " dirty " animated film . Facing criticism of his work on publicity tours and in trade publications , he began writing poetry to express his emotions . This became a tradition , and Bakshi wrote poems before beginning production on each of his films . The first of these poems was " Street Arabs " , which preceded the production of Heavy Traffic in 1972 . Inspiration for the film came from penny arcades , where Bakshi often played pinball , sometimes accompanied by his 12 @-@ year @-@ old son , Mark . Bakshi pitched Heavy Traffic to Samuel Z. Arkoff , who expressed interest in his take on the " tortured underground cartoonist " and agreed to back the film . Krantz had not compensated Bakshi for his work on Fritz the Cat , and halfway through the production of Heavy Traffic , Bakshi asked when he would be paid . Krantz responded , " The picture didn 't make any money , Ralph . It 's just a lot of noise . " Bakshi found Krantz 's claims dubious , as the producer had recently purchased a new BMW and a mansion in Beverly Hills . Bakshi did not have a lawyer , so he sought advice from fellow directors with whom he had become friendly , including Martin Scorsese , Francis Ford Coppola and Steven Spielberg . He soon accused Krantz of ripping him off , which the producer denied .
As he continued to work on Heavy Traffic , Bakshi began pitching his next project , Harlem Nights , a film loosely based on the Uncle Remus story books . The idea interested producer Albert S. Ruddy , whom Bakshi encountered at a screening of The Godfather . Bakshi received a call from Krantz , who questioned him about Harlem Nights . Bakshi said , " I can 't talk about that " , and hung up . After locking Bakshi out of the studio the next day , Krantz called several directors , including Chuck Jones , in search of a replacement . Arkoff threatened to withdraw his financial backing unless Krantz rehired Bakshi , who returned a week later .
Bakshi wanted the voices to sound organic , so he experimented with improvisation , allowing his actors to ad lib during the recording sessions . Several animation sequences appear as rough sketchbook pages . The film also incorporated live @-@ action footage and photographs . Although Krantz , in an attempt to get the film an R rating , prepared different versions of scenes involving sex and violence , Heavy Traffic was rated X. However , due to the success of Fritz the Cat , many theaters were willing to book adult @-@ oriented animation , and the film did well at the box office . Bakshi became the first person in the animation industry since Walt Disney to have two financially successful movies released consecutively . Heavy Traffic was very well received by critics . Newsweek applauded its " black humor , powerful grotesquerie and peculiar raw beauty . " The Hollywood Reporter called it " shocking , outrageous , offensive , sometimes incoherent , occasionally unintelligent . However , it is also an authentic work of movie art and Bakshi is certainly the most creative American animator since Disney . " Vincent Canby of The New York Times ranked Heavy Traffic among his " Ten Best Films of 1973 " . Upon release , the movie was banned by the Film Censorship Board in the province of Alberta , Canada .
= = = Coonskin ( 1973 – 1975 ) = = =
In 1973 , Bakshi and Ruddy began the production of Harlem Nights , which Paramount was originally contracted to distribute . While Fritz the Cat and Heavy Traffic proved that adult @-@ oriented animation could be financially successful , animated films were still not respected , and Bakshi 's pictures were considered to be " dirty Disney flicks " that were " mature " only for depicting sex , drugs and profanity . Harlem Nights , based on Bakshi 's firsthand experiences with racism , was an attack on racist prejudices and stereotypes . Bakshi cast Scatman Crothers , Philip Michael Thomas , Barry White and Charles Gordone in live @-@ action and voice roles , cutting in and out of animation abruptly rather than seamlessly because he wanted to prove that the two mediums could " coexist with neither excuse nor apology " . He wrote a song for Crothers to sing during the opening title sequence : " Ah 'm a Niggerman " . Its structure was rooted in the history of the slave plantation : slaves would " shout " lines from poems and stories great distances across fields in unison , creating a natural beat . Bakshi has described its vocal style , backed by fast guitar licks , as an " early version of rap " .
Bakshi intended to attack stereotypes by portraying them directly , culling imagery from blackface iconography . Early designs in which the main characters ( Brother Rabbit , Brother Bear and Preacher Fox ) resembled figures from The Wind in the Willows were rejected . Bakshi juxtaposed stereotypical designs of blacks with even more negative depictions of white racists , but the film 's strongest criticism is directed at the Mafia . Bakshi said , " I was sick of all the hero worship these guys got because of The Godfather . " Production concluded in 1973 . During editing , the title was changed to Coonskin No More ... , and finally to Coonskin . Bakshi hired several African American animators to work on Coonskin , including Brenda Banks , the first African American female animator . Bakshi also hired graffiti artists and trained them to work as animators . The film 's release was delayed by protests from the Congress of Racial Equality , which called Bakshi and his film racist . After its distribution was contracted to the Bryanston Distributing Company , Paramount canceled a project that Bakshi and Ruddy were developing , The American Chronicles .
Coonskin , advertised as an exploitation film , was given limited distribution and soon disappeared from theaters . Initial reviews were negative ; Playboy commented that " Bakshi seems to throw in a little of everything and he can 't quite pull it together . " Eventually , positive reviews appeared in The Hollywood Reporter , New York Amsterdam News ( an African American newspaper ) and elsewhere . The New York Times ' Richard Eder said the film " could be [ Bakshi 's ] masterpiece [ ... ] a shattering successful effort to use an uncommon form — cartoons and live action combined to convey the hallucinatory violence and frustration of American city life , specifically black city life [ ... ] lyrically violent , yet in no way [ does it ] exploit violence " . Variety called it a " brutal satire from the streets " . A reviewer for the Los Angeles Herald @-@ Examiner wrote , " Certainly , it will outrage some and , indeed , it 's not Disney . [ ... ] The dialog it has obviously generated — if not the box office obstacles — seems joltingly healthy . " Bakshi called Coonskin his best film .
= = = Hey Good Lookin ' ( 1973 – 1975 / 1982 ) = = =
After production concluded on Harlem Nights , Bakshi wanted to distinguish himself artistically by producing a film in which live action and animated characters would interact . Bakshi said , " The illusion I attempted to create was that of a completely live @-@ action film . Making it work almost drove us crazy . " Hey Good Lookin ' is set in Brooklyn during the 1950s ; its lead characters are Vinnie , the leader of a gang named " The Stompers " , his friend Crazy Shapiro and their girlfriends , Roz and Eva . Vinnie and Crazy Shapiro were based on Bakshi 's high school friends Norman Darrer and Allen Schechterman . Warner Bros. optioned the screenplay and greenlit the film in 1973 .
An initial version of Hey Good Lookin ' was completed in 1975 . A three @-@ minute promo of this version was screened at the 1975 Cannes Film Festival , and the film was scheduled for a Christmas 1975 release , but was moved to the summers of 1976 and later 1977 , before ultimately being postponed indefinitely . Warner Bros. was concerned about any controversy the film would encounter as a result of the backlash over the film Coonskin , and felt that the film was " unreleasable " because of its mix of live action and animation , and it would not spend further money on the project . Bakshi financed the film 's completion himself from the director 's fees for other projects such as Wizards , The Lord of the Rings and American Pop . The live @-@ action sequences of Hey Good Lookin ' were gradually replaced by animation ; among the eliminated live @-@ action sequences was one featuring the glam punk band New York Dolls . Singer Dan Hicks worked on the initial musical score , but the final version was scored by John Madara .
Hey Good Lookin ' opened in New York City on October 1 , 1982 , and was released in Los Angeles in January 1983 . The film 's release was limited , and went largely unnoticed in the United States , although it garnered respectable business in foreign markets . In a brief review , Vincent Canby wrote that it was " not exactly incoherent , but whatever it originally had on its mind seems to have slipped away " . Animation historian Jerry Beck wrote , " the beginning of the film is quite promising , with a garbage can discussing life on the streets with some garbage . This is an example of what Bakshi did best — using the medium of animation to comment on society . Unfortunately , he doesn 't do it enough in this film . There is a wildly imaginative fantasy sequence during the climax , when the character named Crazy starts hallucinating during a rooftop shooting spree . This scene almost justifies the whole film . But otherwise , this is a rehash of ideas better explored in Coonskin , Heavy Traffic , and Fritz the Cat . " The film has since gained a cult following through cable television and home video . Quentin Tarantino stated that he preferred Hey Good Lookin ' to Martin Scorsese 's Mean Streets .
= = = Shift to fantasy film ( 1976 – 1978 ) = = =
In 1976 , Bakshi pitched War Wizards to 20th Century Fox . Returning to the fantasy drawings he had created in high school for inspiration , Bakshi intended to prove that he could produce a " family picture " that had the same impact as his adult @-@ oriented films . British illustrator Ian Miller and comic book artist Mike Ploog were hired to contribute backgrounds and designs . The crew included Vita , Turek , Sparey , Vitello and Spence , who had become comfortable with Bakshi 's limited storyboarding and lack of pencil tests . As the production costs increased , Fox president Alan Ladd , Jr. declined Bakshi 's requests for salary increases , and refused to give him $ 50 @,@ 000 to complete the film . At the same time , Ladd was dealing with similar budget problems on George Lucas 's Star Wars . Bakshi and Lucas had negotiated contracts entitling them to franchise ownership , merchandising and back @-@ end payment , so Ladd suggested that they fund the completion of their films themselves .
Bakshi chose rotoscoping as a cost @-@ effective way to complete the movie 's battle scenes with his own finances . Because he could not afford to hire a film crew or actors , or develop 35mm stock , Bakshi requested prints of films that contained the type of large battle scenes needed , including Sergei Eisenstein 's Alexander Nevsky , and spliced together the footage he needed . However , the cost of printing photographs of each frame would have cost $ 3 million . Learning that IBM had introduced an industrial @-@ sized photocopier , Bakshi asked one of the company 's technical experts if he would be able to feed 35mm reels into the machine to produce enlarged copies of each frame . The experiment worked , and Bakshi got the pages he needed for a penny per copy .
As War Wizards neared completion , Lucas requested that Bakshi change the title of his film to Wizards to avoid conflict with Star Wars ; Bakshi agreed because Lucas had allowed Mark Hamill to take time off from Star Wars to record a voice for Wizards . Although Wizards received a limited release , it was successful in the theaters that showed it and developed a worldwide audience . Dave Kehr of The Chicago Reader saw it as " marred by cut @-@ rate techniques and a shapeless screenplay " . In the view of film historian Jerry Beck , the lead character , an aging sorcerer , " clearly owes much to cartoonist Vaughn Bodé 's Cheech Wizard character . [ ... ] The film has a few interesting moments , particularly in a series of still illustrations by Marvel comic artist Mike Ploog , but is perhaps most notable as a turning point , not necessarily a positive one , in Bakshi 's film career . "
In late 1976 , Bakshi learned that John Boorman was contracted to direct an adaptation of The Lord of the Rings , in which J. R. R. Tolkien 's three @-@ volume novel would be condensed into a single film . Bakshi arranged a meeting with Mike Medavoy , United Artists ' head of production , who agreed to let Bakshi direct in exchange for the $ 3 million that had been spent on Boorman 's screenplay . Down the hall from Medavoy was Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer president Dan Melnick , who interrupted a meeting with Peter Bogdanovich when he learned that Bakshi wanted to discuss acquiring the rights to The Lord of the Rings . Melnick agreed to pay United Artists $ 3 million , but was soon fired ; the project was canceled by his replacement , Dick Shepherd . Bakshi contacted Saul Zaentz , who wrote a check to cover MGM 's debt and agreed to fund the $ 8 million budget for the first of what was initially planned as a series of three films , and later negotiated down to two . Before production began , Bakshi and Zaentz insisted that the Tolkien estate receive residuals from the film .
Bakshi did not want to produce a broad cartoon version of the tale , so he planned to shoot the entire film in live action and animate the footage with rotoscoping . The film also incorporated brief cel animation and straightforward live @-@ action footage . Production of the live @-@ action sequences took place in Spain . During the middle of a large shoot , union bosses called for a lunch break , and Bakshi secretly shot footage of actors in Orc costumes moving toward the craft service table , and used the footage in the film . Jerry Beck later wrote that , while he found the rotoscoped animation " beautiful " , he felt that it was unclear whether the use of live action was an artistic choice or due to budgetary constraints .
After the Spanish film development lab discovered that telephone lines , helicopters and cars were visible in the footage , they tried to incinerate it , telling Bakshi 's first assistant director , " if that kind of sloppy cinematography got out , no one from Hollywood would ever come back to Spain to shoot again . " When Bakshi returned to the United States , he learned that the cost of developing blown @-@ up prints of each frame had risen . He did not want to repeat the process that had been used on Wizards , which was unsuitable for the level of detail he intended for The Lord of the Rings , so Bakshi and camera technician Ted Bemiller created their own photographic enlarger to process the footage cheaply . Live @-@ action special effects and analog optics were used in place of animation to keep the visual effects budget low and give the film a more realistic look . Among the voice actors was the well @-@ regarded John Hurt , who performed the role of Aragorn . The project 's high profile brought heavy trade journal coverage , and fans such as Mick Jagger visited the studio for the chance to play a role . Animator Carl Bell loved drawing Aragorn so much that Bakshi gave Bell the live @-@ action costume , which he wore while animating .
Viewing The Lord of the Rings as a holiday film , United Artists pressured Bakshi to complete it on schedule for its intended November 15 , 1978 , release . Once it was finished , Bakshi was told that audiences would not pay to see an incomplete story ; over his objections , The Lord of the Rings was marketed with no indication that a second part would follow . Reviews of the film were mixed , but it was generally seen as a " flawed but inspired interpretation " . Newsday 's Joseph Gelmis wrote that " the film 's principal reward is a visual experience unlike anything that other animated features are doing at the moment " . Roger Ebert called Bakshi 's effort a " mixed blessing " and " an entirely respectable , occasionally impressive job [ which ] still falls far short of the charm and sweep of the original story " . Vincent Canby found it " both numbing and impressive " . David Denby of New York felt that the film would not make sense to viewers who had not read the book . He wrote that it was too dark and lacked humor , concluding , " The lurid , meaningless violence of this movie left me exhausted and sickened by the end . " The film , which cost $ 4 million to produce , grossed $ 30 @.@ 5 million . The studio refused to fund the sequel , which would have adapted the remainder of the story . The Lord of the Rings won the Golden Gryphon at the 1980 Giffoni Film Festival .
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Brook Farm until 1862 . As a critic , he believed in high moral standards for literature but offered good @-@ natured praise in the majority of his reviews . Greeley took advantage of Ripley 's cheerful style of writing to boost circulation amid significant competition . Ripley wrote a " Gotham Gossip " column and many articles discussing local personalities and notable public events , including speeches by Henry Clay and Frederick Douglass . He stayed away from philosophy of theology , despite some efforts to persuade him to write on the subject . As he told a friend , he had " long since lost ... immediate interest in that line of speculation " .
Ripley then edited Harper 's Magazine . Together with Bayard Taylor he compiled a Handbook of Literature and the Fine Arts ( 1852 ) .
With Charles A. Dana , he edited the 16 volume The New American Cyclopaedia ( 1857 – 1863 ) , reissued as The American Cyclopaedia ( 1873 – 1876 ) . It sold in the millions and its immediate earnings amounted to over $ 100 @,@ 000 .
He also continued his critical work and in 1860 reviewed On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin . He was one of the few contemporary critics to be sympathetic to Darwin , although he was reluctant to show he was convinced of the theories .
= = = Later years = = =
In 1861 Sophia Ripley died . George Ripley remarried , to Louisa Sclossberger , in 1865 , and was a part of the Gilded Age New York literary scene for the remainder of his life . Because of his convivial nature , he was careful to avoid the city 's rampant literary feuds at the time . He became a public figure with a national reputation and , known as an arbiter of taste , he helped establish the National Institute of Literature , Art , and Science in 1869 . In his later years , he began suffering frequent illnesses , including a bout with influenza in 1875 which prevented him from traveling to Germany . He also suffered from gout and rheumatism .
Ripley was found dead at his desk on July 4 , 1880 , slumped over his work . Pallbearers at his funeral included Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard , George William Curtis , and Whitelaw Reid . At the time of his death , Ripley had become financially successful ; the New American Cyclopaedia had earned him royalties of nearly $ 1 @.@ 5 million . The biography of George Ripley ( 1882 ) was written by Octavius Brooks Frothingham .
= = Critical assessment = =
Ripley built a wide reputation as a critic . Contemporary publications rated him as one of the most important critics of the day , including the Hartford Courant , the Springfield Republican , the New York Evening Gazette , and the Chicago Daily Tribune . Henry Theodore Tuckerman commended Ripley as " a scholar and an aesthetic as well as technical critic : [ he ] knows public taste and the laws of literature " .
= Battle of Svolder =
The Battle of Svolder ( Svold , Swold ) was a naval battle fought in September 999 or 1000 in the western Baltic Sea between King Olaf Tryggvason of Norway and an alliance of his enemies . The backdrop of the battle was the unification of Norway into a single state , long @-@ standing Danish efforts to gain control of the country , and the spread of Christianity in Scandinavia .
King Olaf was sailing home after an expedition to Wendland ( Pomerania ) , when he was ambushed by an alliance of Svein Forkbeard , King of Denmark , Olof Skötkonung ( also known as Olaf Eiríksson ) , King of Sweden , and Eirik Hákonarson , Jarl of Lade . Olaf had only 11 warships in the battle against a fleet of at least 70 . His ships were captured one by one , last of all the Ormen Lange , which Jarl Eirik captured as Olaf threw himself into the sea . After the battle , Norway was ruled by the Jarls of Lade as a fief of Denmark and Sweden .
The exact location of the battle is disputed , and depends on which group of sources is preferred : it is only Icelandic sources that place it near a place called Svolder , while Adam of Bremen places it in Øresund .
The most detailed sources on the battle , the kings ' sagas , were written approximately two centuries after it took place . Historically unreliable , they offer an extended literary account describing the battle and the events leading up to it in vivid detail . The sagas ascribe the causes of the battle to Olaf Tryggvason 's ill @-@ fated marriage proposal to Sigrid the Haughty and his problematic marriage to Thyri , sister of Svein Forkbeard . As the battle starts Olaf is shown dismissing the Danish and Swedish fleets with ethnic insults and bravado while admitting that Eirik Hákonarson and his men are dangerous because " they are Norwegians like us " . The best known episode in the battle is the breaking of Einarr Þambarskelfir 's bow , which heralds Olaf 's defeat .
In later centuries , the saga descriptions of the battle , especially that in Snorri Sturluson 's Heimskringla , have inspired a number of ballads and other works of literature .
= = Context = =
In earliest recorded history , Norway was divided into a number of small and sometimes warring petty kingdoms with weak central authority . In traditional historiography the rise of Harald Fairhair in the 9th century started the process of unification of the country and the consolidation of royal power . Harald 's descendants , and other claimants to the throne , had to contend with strong regional leaders such as the Jarls of Lade in the north and the rulers of Vingulmark in the east , while the kings of Denmark claimed regions in the south and were eager to acquire Norwegian vassals to increase their influence . The spread of Christianity also became an increasingly important political issue in the late 10th century .
In the 970s , Haakon Sigurdsson , Jarl of Lade , became the most powerful man in Norway , at first supported by Harald Bluetooth of Denmark and paying tribute to him — though the two later fell out over religious matters . Harald had converted to Christianity and was eager to Christianise Norway , while Haakon remained a staunch pagan . In 995 Haakon was deposed and the young Christian leader Olaf Tryggvason came to the throne .
While rejecting Danish authority , Olaf made it his mission to convert Norway and the Norse colonies in the west as quickly and as completely as possible . Proceeding with threats , torture and executions , Olaf broke down pagan resistance and within a few years Norway was , at least nominally , a Christian country . But King Olaf had acquired several enemies during his meteoric rise to power . The most prominent were Eirik Jarl , son of Haakon Jarl , and Svein Forkbeard , king of Denmark , both of whom felt that Olaf had deprived them of their share of Norway .
The same interests which clashed in the Battle of Svolder were to divide Norway for decades to come , leading to further major engagements , including the Battle of Nesjar and the Battle of Stiklestad . The resolution came in 1035 with the accession of the Norwegian Magnus the Good to the throne of an independent and Christian Norway .
= = Events leading up to the battle = =
Nothing can be gleaned from the contemporary skaldic poems on the causes of the battle . Adam of Bremen states that Olaf Tryggvason 's Danish wife , Thyri , egged him on to make war against Denmark . When Olaf heard that Svein Forkbeard and Olaf the Swede had formed an alliance , he was angered and decided the time had come for an attack . Ágrip and Historia Norwegie have a similar account . Thyri was the sister of Svein Forkbeard , and when Olaf Tryggvason married her , Svein refused to pay her promised dowry . Angered , Olaf launched an expedition to attack Denmark , but he was too impatient to wait for a fleet to assemble from all of Norway , and he set sail for the south with only 11 ships , expecting the rest to follow . When that hope was not realized , he set out for Wendland ( Pomerania ) to seek allies and on the way was ambushed by Svein and his allies . These accounts are contradicted by a contemporary verse of Halldórr the Unchristian which states that Olaf Tryggvason was travelling from the south when he came to the battle .
Oddr Snorrason has an elaborate account of the problems arising from Thyri 's marriages . He tells us that she was betrothed and married to the Wendish king Burislav , who received a large dowry for her ; but she did not want to be his wife and starved herself after their wedding , so Burislav sent her back to Denmark . She then arranged to have herself married to Olaf Tryggvason , to the displeasure of her brother Svein . Svein 's queen , Sigrid the Haughty , a staunch opponent of Olaf , egged Svein to make war on him . Svein then conspired with Jarl Sigvaldi and King Olaf of Sweden to lure Olaf Tryggvason into a trap . Olaf Tryggvason travelled to Wendland to collect Thyri 's dowry from King Burislav and while there heard rumours of a planned ambush ; but Sigvaldi arrived to tell him these rumours were false . Believing Sigvaldi , Olaf sent most of his fleet home , as his men were impatient . He therefore had only a small fleet left when he was ambushed near Svolder .
Fagrskinna and Heimskringla largely follow Oddr 's account but simplify it and diverge from it in some respects . According to Heimskringla , Sigvaldi sailed from Wendland with Olaf and a fleet of Wendish ships and led him into the ambush .
Whether the above details are accurate or not , it is clear that Svein , Olaf the Swede and Eirik had ample reason to oppose Olaf Tryggvason . Olaf had taken control of Viken in south Norway , an area long under Danish overlordship . Olaf and Svein had been in England together , but Olaf had made peace while Svein kept campaigning . Svein was on friendly terms with Olaf the Swede and connected to him by marriage , so the two were natural allies . Finally , Jarl Eirik had been driven from his patrimony by Olaf Tryggvason , as arguably had his father , Jarl Hakon , whom he may have wished to avenge .
From the conflicting accounts of the sources , historians have tried to reconstruct the most likely sequence of events leading up to the battle . It is probable that Olaf Tryggvason was indeed sailing from Wendland to Norway when he was ambushed , though the kings ' sagas probably play up the importance of Thyri and her marriages . While it is possible that Olaf was collecting dowry , it seems more probable that he was expecting war and seeking allies in Wendland , but met with little success . The character of Sigvaldi remains enigmatic , though there is evidence from skaldic poetry that he did indeed betray Olaf .
= = Time and location = =
All sources which date the battle agree that it took place in 1000 . The oldest source to date it is the meticulous Íslendingabók , written around 1128 , which specifies that it took place in the summer . Oddr Snorrason says further that the battle is " memorialized for the fallen men on the Third or Fourth Ides of September " , ( 10 or 11 September ) . Mesta states that the battle occurred on 9 September , and other sources agree with either date . Since some medieval writers reckoned the end of the year in September , it is possible that the year referred to is in fact the one we know as 999 .
The location of the battle cannot be identified with any certainty . According to Adam of Bremen , it took place in Oresund . Ágrip and Historia Norwegie also place it off Zealand . Theodoricus says it took place " beside the island which is called Svöldr ; and it lies near Slavia " . Fagrskinna speaks of " an island off the coast of Vinðland ... [ t ] his island is called Svölðr . " Oddr Snorrason and Heimskringla agree on the island 's name but do not specify its location . A stanza by Skúli Þórsteinsson speaks of " the mouth of Svolder " , suggesting that Svolder was originally the name of a river which Norse unfamiliarity with Wendish geography turned into an island . The Danish Annales Ryenses are unique in placing the battle in the Schlei . Modern historians are divided , some locating the confrontation near the German island of Rügen while others prefer Oresund .
= = Composition of the fleets = =
The Norse sources agree that Olaf Tryggvason fought against overwhelming odds in the battle . Fagrskinna , for example , says that he had " only a small force " , and that the sea around him was " carpeted with warships " The sources which specify the number of warships all agree that Olaf Tryggvason had 11 vessels but they give various numbers for the allied fleets .
Though the sagas agree that Olaf Tryggvason had only 11 ships in the battle , some of them quote a verse by Halldórr the Unchristian saying that Olaf had 71 ships when he sailed from the south . The sagas explain the discrepancy by saying that some of the 71 ships belonged to Jarl Sigvaldi , who deserted Olaf , and that others sailed past the trap at Svolder before it was sprung .
The sagas describe three of the ships in Olaf Tryggvason 's fleet . According to Heimskringla , the Crane was a large swift @-@ sailing warship with thirty rowers ' benches , high in stem and stern . It was commissioned by King Olaf and used as his flagship for some time .
Olaf confiscated the second of his great ships from a pagan he had tortured to death for refusing to convert to Christianity . King Olaf " steered it himself , because it was a much larger and finer ship than the Crane . Its stem had a dragon 's head on it , and on its stern , a crook shaped like a tail ; and both sides of the neck and all the stern were gilded . That ship the king called the Serpent , because when the sail was hoisted it was to look like the wing of a dragon . That was the finest ship in all Norway . "
Olaf 's third flagship , the Long Serpent , was a legendary vessel mentioned in several anecdotes in the sagas .
It was constructed as a dragon ship , on the model of the Serpent which the king had taken along from Hálogaland ; only it was much larger and more carefully wrought in all respects . He called it the Long Serpent and the other one , the Short Serpent . The Long Serpent had thirty @-@ four compartments . The head and the tail were all gilt . And the gunwales were as high as those on a seagoing ship . This was the best ship ever built in Norway , and the most costly .
The only allied ship described is Jarl Eirik 's Iron Ram . According to Fagrskinna it was " the biggest of all ships " . Heimskringla gives more detail :
Earl Eirík owned a mighty big ship which he was accustomed to take on his viking expeditions . It had a beak [ or ram ] on the upper part of the prow , fore and aft , and below that heavy iron plates as broad as the beak itself , which went down to the waterline .
= = The leaders assess their opponents = =
It is unlikely that the saga writers had accurate information on details of the battle beyond the sparse accounts in the surviving poems . Nevertheless , starting with Oddr Snorrason , they present an elaborate literary account , depicting the main participants through their words and deeds .
Olaf Tryggvason 's ships pass the anchorage of his allied enemies in a long column without order , as no attack is expected . Conveniently placed to observe the fleet , Jarl Eirik and the two kings remark upon the passing vessels . Svein and Olaf are eager to join battle , but Eirik is portrayed as more cautious and familiar with the Norwegian forces .
As progressively larger vessels appear , the Danes and Swedes think each one is the Long Serpent and want to attack straight away , but Eirik holds them off with informed comments :
It is not King Olaf on this ship . I know this ship because I have seen it often . It is owned by Erlingr Skjálgsson from Jaðarr , and it is better to attack this ship from the stern . It is manned with such fellows that , should we encounter King Olaf Tryggvason , we will quickly learn that it would be better for us to find a gap in his fleet than to do battle with this longship .
As Eirik finally consents to attack , King Svein boasts that he will command the Long Serpent " before the sun sets " . Eirik makes a remark " so that few men heard him " saying that " with only the Danish army at his disposal , King Sveinn would never command this ship " . As the allies set out to attack Olaf Tryggvason , the point of view shifts to the Norwegian fleet .
After spotting the enemy , Olaf might have used sail and oar to outrun the ambush and escape , but he refuses to flee and turns to give battle with the eleven ships immediately about him . Seeing the Danish fleet arrayed against him , he comments : " The forest goats will not overcome us , for the Danes have the courage of goats . We will not fear that force because the Danes have never carried off the victory if they fought on ships . " Similarly , Olaf writes off the Swedes with a reference to their pagan customs :
The Swedes will have an easier and more pleasant time licking out their sacrificial bowls than boarding the Long Serpent in the face of our weapons and succeeding in clearing our ships . I expect that we will not need to fear the horse eaters .
It is only when Olaf Tryggvason sights Eirik Hákonarson 's contingent that he realises he is in for a hard battle , because " they are Norwegians like us " . The sagas ' emphasis of Eirik 's contribution stands in marked contrast to the Danish accounts of Adam of Bremen and Saxo Grammaticus , who portray the battle as a Danish victory over Norwegians , with no mention of Jarl Eirik or his men .
= = The battle is joined = =
The disposition adopted in the battle was one which recurs in many sea @-@ fights of the Middle Ages where a fleet had to fight on the defensive . Olaf lashed his ships side to side , with his own , the Long Serpent , in the middle of the line , where her bows projected beyond the others . The advantages of this arrangement were that it left all hands free to fight , that a barrier could be formed with the oars and yards , and that it limited the enemy 's ability to make its superior numbers count . The Long Serpent was the longest ship and so also the tallest — another advantage to the defenders , who could rain down arrows , javelins and other missiles while the enemy would have to shoot upwards . Olaf , in effect , turned his eleven ships into a floating fort .
The sagas give all the credit to the Norwegians , praising Eirik Hákonarson for any intelligence and for most of the valour shown by Olaf Tryggvason 's opponents . The Danes and Swedes rush at the front of Olaf 's line and are repulsed , suffering heavy casualties and loss of ships . Jarl Eirik attacks the flank and forces his vessel , the Iron Ram , up against the last ship of Olaf 's line , which he clears with a fierce attack and then proceeds onto the next ship . In this way , Olaf 's ships were cleared one by one , till the Long Serpent alone was left .
= = Einarr Þambarskelfir = =
One of the best known episodes from the battle involves Einarr Þambarskelfir , an archer in King Olaf 's fleet who later became a cunning politician . Heimskringla describes his attempt at killing Jarl Eirik and saving the day for Olaf :
Einar shot an arrow at Earl Eirik , which hit the tiller end just above the earl 's head so hard that it entered the wood up to the arrow @-@ shaft . The earl looked that way , and asked if they knew who had shot ; and at the same moment another arrow flew between his hand and his side , and into the stuffing of the chief 's stool , so that the barb stood far out on the other side . Then said the earl to a man called Fin , -- but some say he was of Fin ( Laplander ) race , and was a superior archer , -- " Shoot that tall man by the mast . " Fin shot ; and the arrow hit the middle of Einar 's bow just at the moment that Einar was drawing it , and the bow was split in two parts .
" What is that " , cried King Olaf , " that broke with such a noise ? "
" Norway , king , from thy hands , " cried Einar .
" No ! not quite so much as that , " says the king ; " take my bow , and shoot , " flinging the bow to him .
Einarr took the bow , and drew it over the head of the arrow . " Too weak , too weak , " said he , " for the bow of a mighty king ! " and , throwing the bow aside , he took sword and shield , and fought valiantly .
The same story is found in Gesta Danorum , though there Einarr is aiming at Svein , rather than Eirik .
= = King Olaf 's death = =
At last , the Long Serpent is overpowered and Olaf Tryggvason defeated . The Danish sources report that when all was lost he committed suicide by throwing himself into the sea , " the end befitting his life " , according to Adam of Bremen . Saxo Grammaticus says that Olaf preferred suicide to death at the hands of the enemy and jumped overboard in full armour rather than see his foes victorious . The Norwegian and Icelandic accounts are more complex and more favourable to Olaf . Hallfreðr 's memorial poem for his lord had already alluded to rumours that Olaf escaped death at Svolder . The sagas offer a variety of possibilities . Ágrip reports :
" But of the fall of King Óláfr nothing was known . It was seen that as the fighting lessened he stood , still alive , on the high @-@ deck astern on the Long Serpent , which had thirty @-@ two rowing places . But when Eiríkr went to the stern of the ship in search of the king , a light flashed before him as though it were lightning , and when the light disappeared , the king himself was gone . "
Other sagas suggest that one way or another Olaf made his way to the shore ; perhaps by swimming , perhaps with the help of angels , most likely rescued by one of the Wendish ships present . After his escape , Olaf supposedly sought salvation for his soul abroad , perhaps joining a monastery . Mesta describes a series of " sightings " of him in the Holy Land , the last in the 1040s .
King Olaf , like Charlemagne , Frederick Barbarossa and Sebastian of Portugal , is one of those legendary heroic figures whose return was looked for by the people , their deaths never completely accepted . ( See King in the mountain . )
= = Aftermath = =
After the Battle of Svolder , the victorious leaders split Norway into areas of control . Heimskringla gives the most detailed account of the division , describing it as threefold . Olaf the Swede received four districts in Trondheim as well as Møre , Romsdal and Rånrike . He gave these to Jarl Svein Hákonarson , his son in law , to hold as a vassal . Svein Forkbeard gained possession of the Viken district , where Danish influence had long been strong . The rest of Norway was ruled by Eirik Hákonarson as Svein 's vassal . Fagrskinna , in contrast , says that the Swedish part consisted of Oppland and a part of Trondheim . Other sources are less specific .
The Jarls Eirik and Svein proved strong , competent rulers , and their reign was prosperous . Most sources say that they adopted Christianity but allowed the people religious freedom , leading to a backlash against Christianity which undid much of Olaf Tryggvason 's missionary work .
= = Legacy = =
Several factors combined to make the Battle of Svolder one of the most famous battles of the Viking Age . In Norwegian @-@ Icelandic historiography , King Olaf Tryggvason was held in high regard as the man who brought Christianity to the North . His colourful end in a battle against overwhelming odds therefore makes a fitting narrative . Jarl Eirik 's court poets also ensured their lord a fair share of the glory . Mesta says :
The battle is acknowledged to have been for many reasons the most famous that was ever fought in Northern lands . For , first there was the noble defence made by King Olaf and his men on board the Long Serpent . No instance is known where men have defended themselves so long and so valiantly against such overwhelming numbers of foes as they had to encounter . Then there was the fierce attack made by Earl Eric and his men , which has been held in wide renown . ... The battle was very famous too , on account of the great slaughter , and the Earl 's success in clearing a ship that up to that time was the largest built and the fairest in Norway ; of which shipmen said that it would never , while floating on the sea , be won with arms in the face of such heroes as manned it .
In Iceland , where the kings ' sagas continued to be copied and studied , the battle exercised the imagination of several poets . A 15th century rímur cycle , Svöldrar rímur , chronicles the battle in verse , largely following the account of Oddr Snorrason . Two more rímur cycles on the same topic were composed in the 18th century , one of which is preserved . In the 19th century , the popular poet Sigurður Breiðfjörð composed yet another rímur cycle on the battle , based on the account in Mesta .
With the 19th century rise of nationalism and romanticism and the growing number of translations of the sagas , interest in the battle of Svolder increased outside of Iceland . Around 1830 , the Faroese poet Jens Christian Djurhuus composed a ballad on the battle titled Ormurin langi , following Snorri 's account . The ballad was well received and remains among the most popular and well @-@ known Faroese ballads . In 2002 , a heavy metal version by the band Týr gained some following abroad .
In Norway , Johan Nordahl Brun 's rousing patriotic play Einar Tambarskjelve , written in 1772 , is considered a milestone in Norwegian literature . Later Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson wrote a well @-@ known short poem , Olav Trygvason , on the fall of the king . Bjørnson also collaborated with Edvard Grieg on an opera about Olaf Tryggvason , but the two fell out before the work was finished . Ragnar Søderlind has now completed the opera , which premiered in September 2000 , 1000 years after the Battle of Svolder . Søderlind introduced fate motifs from Wagner , Beethoven and Liszt in the battle scene .
The battle has also inspired art outside of Scandinavia , including a manga volume by the Japanese artist Ryō Azumi . The best known English @-@ language work is probably Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's cycle " The Saga of King Olaf " ( from his 1863 collection of poems Tales of a Wayside Inn ) , much of which is dedicated to the Battle of Svolder , and which includes the verse :
Louder the war @-@ horns growl and snarl ,
Sharper the dragons bite and sting !
Eric the son of Hakon Jarl
A death @-@ drink salt as the sea
Pledges to thee ,
Olaf the King !
= Charles Blackader =
Major @-@ General Charles Guinand Blackader , CB , DSO ( 20 September 1869 – 2 April 1921 ) was a British Army officer of the First World War . He commanded an Indian brigade on the Western Front in 1915 , and a Territorial brigade in Dublin during the Easter Rising of 1916 , before being appointed to command the 38th ( Welsh ) Division on the Western Front , a position he held until retiring due to ill @-@ health in May 1918 .
Originally joining the Army in 1888 as a junior officer in the Leicestershire Regiment , Blackader 's first active posting was in the late 1890s , when he served on attachment to the West African Frontier Force , closely followed by service during the Boer War , where he commanded a company at the defence of Ladysmith . An efficient and well @-@ regarded administrator , he commanded a series of detached stations in addition to his regimental duties for the next ten years , eventually rising to take command of the 2nd Battalion , Leicestershire Regiment , in 1912 . On the outbreak of the First World War , he commanded his battalion on the Western Front as part of an Indian Army formation ; when his superior officer was promoted in early 1915 , Blackader succeeded him as commander of the brigade , and led it through the Battle of Neuve Chapelle and the Battle of Loos .
After the Indian Army was withdrawn from France , Blackader was posted to a second @-@ line Territorial Force brigade training in the United Kingdom . In 1916 , it was sent to Dublin during the Easter Rising ; following the Rising , Blackader presided over a number of the resulting courts @-@ martial , including those of several of the signatories to the Proclamation of the Irish Republic . Later that year , he was ordered to France to take over command of the 38th ( Welsh ) Division , a New Army formation which had suffered heavy losses in the Battle of the Somme . He remained with the division for almost two years , helping retrain and reorganise it as an efficient fighting unit . The division would see significant successes in the Hundred Days Offensive of late 1918 , but by this point Blackader was no longer in command ; he had been invalided home earlier in the year . He died shortly after the war , in 1921 , aged 51 .
= = Early life = =
Charles Guinand Blackader was born in Richmond , Surrey on 20 September 1869 . His father , Charles George Blackader , was a teacher to a small number of boarding pupils ; he had come from an Army family , and taught at Cheltenham College and Clifton College , Bristol , before moving to private tuition . His mother , Charlotte Guinand , was born in Germany ; her family may have come from Alsace @-@ Lorraine , as Blackader would later describe himself as half @-@ French . During his childhood , the Blackaders moved from Richmond to Southampton , where his father headed the education department at the Hartley Institute , and then to Boulogne , where he taught at Beaurepaire School .
Returning from France in 1887 , Blackader studied at the Royal Military College , Sandhurst , where he was regarded as a generally promising pupil ; his marks were highest in administrative and academic subjects , but lower in drawing and physical education . He left Sandhurst in August 1888 , and joined the 1st Battalion , Leicestershire Regiment , as a second lieutenant . The battalion sailed for a posting in Bermuda two weeks after his arrival ; his departure was delayed , however , by remaining in London to marry . The ceremony took place on 2 October , at a registry office in Marylebone , and his biographer notes that it was " clearly in haste " - their first child was born six and a half months after the wedding . Such an early wedding was very unusual for a junior officer at this period ; on average , army officers did not marry until their mid @-@ thirties .
Blackader and his wife spent a year and a half in Bermuda , where their daughter Dorothy was born in April 1889 , and moved to Nova Scotia when the battalion was transferred there in 1890 ; shortly after arrival , on 21 March , he was promoted to lieutenant on 21 March . Their second daughter Joan was born in April 1892 , and a year later the battalion transferred again , this time to the West Indies ; Blackader was appointed adjutant - the officer responsible for administration - to one wing of the battalion , a force of three companies stationed at Jamaica . In late 1895 , the battalion moved to South Africa , but shortly after arrival Blackader returned to England ; he was promoted to captain on 6 December .
= = West Africa and the Boer War = =
In late 1897 , Blackader was seconded for service in West Africa , as one of the officers recruited by Frederick Lugard for the newly raised West African Frontier Force . Blackader was attached to the 1st Battalion , under Thomas Pilcher , who described him as always " cheery and anxious to do his work " ; he threw himself fully into the organisation of the force , and within six months of his arrival the battalion was able to be deployed successfully on operations against local slave @-@ traders . This was Blackader 's first active service , and saw his first mention in despatches ; it also saw an early appearance of his skill for administration and management , which would mark much of his later career .
He left West Africa in January 1899 , after a successful posting , but in ill @-@ health ; a third of the officers sent with him had died while on secondment , and Blackader had contracted malaria as well as suffering an attack of dysentery . He spent six months on leave to recover , and then sailed to take command of a company of the 1st Leicesters , still stationed in South Africa .
Blackader joined his company in Natal in early October 1899 . It saw action with the battalion within a few days of the outbreak of the Second Boer War , at the Battle of Talana Hill on 20 October , and again at the Battle of Ladysmith on the 30th . Boer forces surrounded Ladysmith after the battle , and began a four @-@ month siege .
The battalion remained in the town , with the monotony broken by an occasional skirmish with the besiegers , until the relief column arrived at the end of February . Following the advance into Natal , they were stationed in Middelburg in October , for a second prolonged period of garrison duty broken by occasional raids in the Transvaal . The battalion 's area of responsibility was extended in April 1901 to take in Witbank , and Blackader was appointed commandant of the railway station and its associated collieries , with over 1 @,@ 500 staff .
Following the battalion 's move up the railway line in July , Blackader was transferred to a new post at Balmoral ; as well as the railway station , he was made responsible for a civilian concentration camp outside the town . These camps were frequently crowded , unhealthy , and badly supplied ; few reports have survived on the Balmoral camp , however , and it is not clear how efficient or otherwise Blackader 's administration was .
Blackader had applied for a home posting in December 1900 , as adjutant to a battalion of volunteers ; this had been approved in August 1901 , subject to his being released from duties in South Africa . However , the transfer was delayed , and he did not leave for home until June 1902 , when he sailed on board the SS Bavarian with troops returning for the Coronation of Edward VII . He had been twice mentioned in despatches during the war , received the Queen 's South Africa Medal , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) .
= = Home service and India = =
In August 1902 , Blackader took up his appointment as adjutant of the 1st Volunteer Battalion , Leicestershire Regiment , where he would spend the next two years . This was primarily an administrative post - he was the senior regular officer attached to the battalion , and responsible for its organisation and training . At the end of his tenure he was promoted to major in September 1904 , and left for India a few months later to join the regular 1st Battalion . Shortly after his arrival , he was appointed to command the cantonment at the Purandhar Sanatorium , his fourth administrative posting in five years . He returned to England with the battalion at the end of 1906 , when it moved into camp at Shorncliffe .
In the summer of 1907 , he applied to become Chief Constable of Leicester - a move which would have meant leaving the Army - but did not succeed ; the job went to John Hall @-@ Dalwood , a lawyer and ex @-@ Army officer who had made a career in the police . He settled into the undemanding life of a home posting , with an active social as well as sporting calendar ; he and Edward Challenor , a fellow officer in the battalion , won the garrison tennis cup two years running , and Blackader was recorded to have made a good showing at sports as diverse as billiards and soccer . Blackader had passed the exams for " tactical fitness for command " of a battalion in 1908 , and was given command of a battalion and promoted to lieutenant colonel in September 1912 .
= = First World War = =
In August 1914 , on the outbreak of the First World War , Blackader was in India , commanding the 2nd Battalion of the Leicesters , which was mobilised for service as part of the 20th ( Garhwal ) Brigade of the 7th ( Meerut ) Division . The division was sent to France as part of Indian Expeditionary Force A , seeing its first action in the trenches on 29 October . On 19 December a force under Blackader 's command staged a successful attack on the German trenches , though the attack was overshadowed by the beginning of the German attack on Givenchy the following day , through which the Leicesters remained in reserve .
= = = Garhwal Brigade = = =
Brigadier Keary , commanding the Garhwals , was promoted to command the Lahore Division in January 1915 , and on 8 January Blackader was given the temporary rank of Brigadier @-@ General , assuming command of the Garhwal Brigade in his stead . The Garhwals led the first wave of the Indian Corps ' attack at the Battle of Neuve Chapelle on 10 March , Three of the attacking battalions reached their objectives , but one was delayed by strong resistance ; after clearing the last German trenches , the brigade halted to let the second wave pass through . In the attack , two men were awarded the Victoria Cross , and nine the Indian Order of Merit , and Blackader was commended by his corps commander , General Willcocks , who wrote that " I had learned to respect him and to trust in his judgement . The manner in which he handled his brigade at Neuve Chapelle was good to see , and his report ... is written as brave and modest men write " . His force had taken heavy losses , however ; the trailing battalion on the flank , the 2 / 39th Garhwal Rifles , lost over half its men and all its officers .
The brigade repulsed a heavy attack on the morning of 12 March , but settled into a relatively static position thereafter . On 9 May , the Garhwal Brigade was used as a second wave in the first attacks of the Battle of Aubers Ridge , without success ; they saw action again on the night of 15 May , where the leading battalions met heavy resistance and Blackader was forced to call off the attack .
After Aubers Ridge , the corps was then rested in a quiet sector until September , when it deployed for the Battle of Loos . The initial attack was to be made by three divisions , with the Meerut Division leading the attack on the Indian front ; Blackader 's brigade , with two Gurkha battalions and the 2nd Leicesters , was on its right flank . Whilst the attack successfully crossed no @-@ man 's land under cover of the barrage , the right flank of the brigade was caught up in defensive wire , and only one battalion successfully made their way into the German trenches ; the brigade lost momentum and dug in .
The Indian Corps was withdrawn after Loos , and as a result this was Blackader 's last major action in command of Indian troops ; by the end of November , the Meerut Division had left France .
= = = Ireland = = =
He was transferred to command of the 177th ( 2 / 1st Lincoln and Leicester ) Brigade , part of the 59th ( 2nd North Midland ) Division in January 1916 . The 59th was a second @-@ line Territorial Force division , formed from those Territorials and new volunteers who had not volunteered for overseas service . As a result , it was generally undermanned and underequipped , with priority given to equipping its first @-@ line counterpart , and tasked mostly with home defence duties . The 177th Brigade had been formed as the duplicate of the 138th ( Lincoln and Leicester ) Brigade , with two second @-@ line battalions of the Lincolnshire Regiment and two of the Leicestershire Regiment .
The 59th Division was rushed to Ireland in response to the Easter Rising of April 1916 , where Blackader 's new brigade saw its first active service . Following the Rising , many of those believed by the British authorities to be responsible were tried by military courts ; ninety were sentenced to death , of whom fifteen were eventually executed . Blackader , as a senior officer , chaired a number of courts @-@ martial , including those of Éamonn Ceannt , Thomas Clarke , Thomas MacDonagh , Patrick Pearse , and Joseph Plunkett , five of the seven signatories to the Proclamation of the Irish Republic . It appears that Blackader found this task difficult ; after Pearse 's trial , he is reported to have commented that " I have just done one of the hardest tasks I have ever had to do . I have had to condemn to death one of the finest characters I have ever come across . There must be something very wrong in the state of things that makes a man like that a rebel . I don 't wonder that his pupils adored him . "
= = = 38th ( Welsh ) Division = = =
On 21 June , Blackader was ordered to leave the brigade and go to France ; he described the news of the unexpected posting as " like a bombshell " . On 9 July , when the Ivor Philipps was removed from command of 38th ( Welsh ) Division , due to the failure of its hitherto limited attacks against Mametz Wood during the early stages of the Battle of the Somme as well as the poor communication between the division and Corps headquarters , Blackader was named as the preferred replacement by Henry Horne , the
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of dimensions . Indeed , hyperbolic space can have more than two dimensions and one can " stack up " copies of hyperbolic space to get higher @-@ dimensional models of anti @-@ de Sitter space .
An important feature of anti @-@ de Sitter space is its boundary ( which looks like a cylinder in the case of three @-@ dimensional anti @-@ de Sitter space ) . One property of this boundary is that , within a small region on the surface around any given point , it looks just like Minkowski space , the model of spacetime used in nongravitational physics . One can therefore consider an auxiliary theory in which " spacetime " is given by the boundary of anti @-@ de Sitter space . This observation is the starting point for AdS / CFT correspondence , which states that the boundary of anti @-@ de Sitter space can be regarded as the " spacetime " for a quantum field theory . The claim is that this quantum field theory is equivalent to the gravitational theory on the bulk anti @-@ de Sitter space in the sense that there is a " dictionary " for translating entities and calculations in one theory into their counterparts in the other theory . For example , a single particle in the gravitational theory might correspond to some collection of particles in the boundary theory . In addition , the predictions in the two theories are quantitatively identical so that if two particles have a 40 percent chance of colliding in the gravitational theory , then the corresponding collections in the boundary theory would also have a 40 percent chance of colliding .
= = = 6D ( 2 @,@ 0 ) superconformal field theory = = =
One particular realization of the AdS / CFT correspondence states that M @-@ theory on the product space AdS7 × S4 is equivalent to the so @-@ called ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory on the six @-@ dimensional boundary . Here " ( 2 @,@ 0 ) " refers to the particular type of supersymmetry that appears in the theory . In this example , the spacetime of the gravitational theory is effectively seven @-@ dimensional ( hence the notation AdS7 ) , and there are four additional " compact " dimensions ( encoded by the S4 factor ) . In the real world , spacetime is four @-@ dimensional , at least macroscopically , so this version of the correspondence does not provide a realistic model of gravity . Likewise , the dual theory is not a viable model of any real @-@ world system since it describes a world with six spacetime dimensions .
Nevertheless , the ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory has proven to be important for studying the general properties of quantum field theories . Indeed , this theory subsumes many mathematically interesting effective quantum field theories and points to new dualities relating these theories . For example , Luis Alday , Davide Gaiotto , and Yuji Tachikawa showed that by compactifying this theory on a surface , one obtains a four @-@ dimensional quantum field theory , and there is a duality known as the AGT correspondence which relates the physics of this theory to certain physical concepts associated with the surface itself . More recently , theorists have extended these ideas to study the theories obtained by compactifying down to three dimensions .
In addition to its applications in quantum field theory , the ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory has spawned important results in pure mathematics . For example , the existence of the ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory was used by Witten to give a " physical " explanation for a conjectural relationship in mathematics called the geometric Langlands correspondence . In subsequent work , Witten showed that the ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory could be used to understand a concept in mathematics called Khovanov homology . Developed by Mikhail Khovanov around 2000 , Khovanov homology provides a tool in knot theory , the branch of mathematics that studies and classifies the different shapes of knots . Another application of the ( 2 @,@ 0 ) -theory in mathematics is the work of Davide Gaiotto , Greg Moore , and Andrew Neitzke , which used physical ideas to derive new results in hyperkähler geometry .
= = = ABJM superconformal field theory = = =
Another realization of the AdS / CFT correspondence states that M @-@ theory on AdS4 × S7 is equivalent to a quantum field theory called the ABJM theory in three dimensions . In this version of the correspondence , seven of the dimensions of M @-@ theory are curled up , leaving four non @-@ compact dimensions . Since the spacetime of our universe is four @-@ dimensional , this version of the correspondence provides a somewhat more realistic description of gravity .
The ABJM theory appearing in this version of the correspondence is also interesting for a variety of reasons . Introduced by Aharony , Bergman , Jafferis , and Maldacena , it is closely related to another quantum field theory called Chern – Simons theory . The latter theory was popularized by Witten in the late 1980s because of its applications to knot theory . In addition , the ABJM theory serves as a semi @-@ realistic simplified model for solving problems that arise in condensed matter physics .
= = Phenomenology = =
= = = Overview = = =
In addition to being an idea of considerable theoretical interest , M @-@ theory provides a framework for constructing models of real world physics that combine general relativity with the standard model of particle physics . Phenomenology is the branch of theoretical physics in which physicists construct realistic models of nature from more abstract theoretical ideas . String phenomenology is the part of string theory that attempts to construct realistic models of particle physics based on string and M @-@ theory .
Typically , such models are based on the idea of compactification . Starting with the ten- or eleven @-@ dimensional spacetime of string or M @-@ theory , physicists postulate a shape for the extra dimensions . By choosing this shape appropriately , they can construct models roughly similar to the standard model of particle physics , together with additional undiscovered particles , usually supersymmetric partners to analogues of known particles . One popular way of deriving realistic physics from string theory is to start with the heterotic theory in ten dimensions and assume that the six extra dimensions of spacetime are shaped like a six @-@ dimensional Calabi – Yau manifold . This is a special kind of geometric object named after mathematicians Eugenio Calabi and Shing @-@ Tung Yau . Calabi – Yau manifolds offer many ways of extracting realistic physics from string theory . Other similar methods can be used to construct models with physics resembling to some extent that of our four @-@ dimensional world based on M @-@ theory .
Partly because of theoretical and mathematical difficulties and partly because of the extremely high energies ( beyond what is technologically possible for the foreseeable future ) needed to test these theories experimentally , there is so far no experimental evidence that would unambiguously point to any of these models being a correct fundamental description of nature . This has led some in the community to criticize these approaches to unification and question the value of continued research on these problems .
= = = Compactification on G2 manifolds = = =
In one approach to M @-@ theory phenomenology , theorists assume that the seven extra dimensions of M @-@ theory are shaped like a G2 manifold . This is a special kind of seven @-@ dimensional shape constructed by mathematician Dominic Joyce of the University of Oxford . These G2 manifolds are still poorly understood mathematically , and this fact has made it difficult for physicists to fully develop this approach to phenomenology .
For example , physicists and mathematicians often assume that space has a mathematical property called smoothness , but this property cannot be assumed in the case of a G2 manifold if one wishes to recover the physics of our four @-@ dimensional world . Another problem is that G2 manifolds are not complex manifolds , so theorists are unable to use tools from the branch of mathematics known as complex analysis . Finally , there are many open questions about the existence , uniqueness , and other mathematical properties of G2 manifolds , and mathematicians lack a systematic way of searching for these manifolds .
= = = Heterotic M @-@ theory = = =
Because of the difficulties with G2 manifolds , most attempts to construct realistic theories of physics based on M @-@ theory have taken a more indirect approach to compactifying eleven @-@ dimensional spacetime . One approach , pioneered by Witten , Hořava , Burt Ovrut , and others , is known as heterotic M @-@ theory . In this approach , one imagines that one of the eleven dimensions of M @-@ theory is shaped like a circle . If this circle is very small , then the spacetime becomes effectively ten @-@ dimensional . One then assumes that six of the ten dimensions form a Calabi – Yau manifold . If this Calabi – Yau manifold is also taken to be small , one is left with a theory in four @-@ dimensions .
Heterotic M @-@ theory has been used to construct models of brane cosmology in which the observable universe is thought to exist on a brane in a higher dimensional ambient space . It has also spawned alternative theories of the early universe that do not rely on the theory of cosmic inflation .
= Smooth Radio ( 2010 ) =
From 2010 to 2014 , Smooth Radio was an independent , commercial , national radio station in the United Kingdom . Owned by Real and Smooth — a company formerly known as GMG Radio — the station was aimed at the over @-@ 40 demographic , and competed for its audience with BBC Radio 2 . It was broadcast on the DAB Digital Radio Digital 1 national multiplex , Sky , Freesat , Freeview , Virgin Media , online and on regional FM and DAB frequencies in the North West , London , North East , West Midlands , Scotland and East Midlands . Nationally the station attracted a weekly average audience of 3 million .
The station opened in 1990 as 102 @.@ 2 Jazz FM in London , and a second Jazz FM branded station was launched four years later in Manchester . The Manchester station became Smooth FM 100 @.@ 4 in 2004 , and was the first in the network of independent local radio stations to use the Smooth brand . The London station followed suit a year later . The network 's parent company , GMG Radio – a subsidiary of the Guardian Media Group – acquired the Saga Radio Group in the mid @-@ 2000s , and all Saga stations were given the Smooth name . After the publication of John Myers ' recommendations of a regulatory overhaul in commercial radio , and the passing of the 2010 Digital Economy Act allowing stations to co @-@ locate or discontinue local shows and broadcasts , Smooth Radio merged its five English stations into a single , quasi @-@ national station in October 2010 ; local news feeds were produced at GMG Radio 's headquarters in Salford Quays . 105 @.@ 2 Smooth Radio in Scotland produced its own breakfast and drivetime shows , but carried networked programming at other times . As part of their licence agreement , the London and Manchester stations were required to continue their commitment to jazz music after dropping the Jazz FM name , and the UK 's broadcasting industry regulator Office of Communications ( Ofcom ) stipulated they must broadcast 45 hours of jazz programming per week , but this requirement was ended shortly before the merger took place .
Smooth recruited many well @-@ known British radio personalities to its line @-@ up . Presenters on the network included Emma B , Simon Bates , Tony Blackburn , Mark Goodier , David Jensen and Chris Tarrant . The station 's flagship breakfast show was presented by Simon Bates , who left Classic FM after more than a decade . It broadcast occasional documentaries on subjects relating to music , news and media events ; some of these won the station radio industry awards . In November 2011 Smooth launched a second station on the Digital One platform dedicated to Christmas music , and later replaced this with " Smooth 70s " , which played music from the 1970s . The Christmas station returned in 2012 , and Smooth 70s closed in September 2013 . Along with its sister station , Real Radio , Smooth was an official host of the Blackpool Illuminations switch @-@ on ceremony from 2010 , and staged regular , free live music events . The station signed a number of sponsorship deals with companies such as Tetley Tea and ATS Euromaster , and held annual fundraising events in aid of the charities Help for Heroes and Macmillan Cancer Support .
GMG Radio was taken over by rival Global Radio in June 2012 . Global 's purchase of the company was referred to Ofcom , the Office of Fair Trading and the Competition Commission amid concerns that Global 's market share may be disproportionately large as a result of the deal , and consequently not in the public interest . GMG Radio subsequently changed its name to Real and Smooth Radio Ltd . A report issued by the Competition Commission in May 2013 highlighted competitiveness issues and recommended a full or partial sale of Real and Smooth . Real and Smooth Radio Ltd and Global continued to operate as separate companies while the takeover was investigated . Smooth moved its operations from Manchester to Global 's London headquarters in October 2013 . In February 2014 , Global were given permission to remove Smooth from the Digital One platform and replace it with another station . Global also sold eight of its regional stations , including three operated under the Smooth brand , and announced that Smooth would replace much of its Gold network on the medium wave frequency . The Smooth brand was relaunched as a network of regional stations in March 2014 .
= = History = =
= = = Early years as Jazz FM = = =
London station 102 @.@ 2 Jazz FM was launched on 4 March 1990 with a concert performed by Ella Fitzgerald at the Royal Albert Hall . Jazz FM played mainly soul and jazz music and was broadcast to the London area . A sister station in Manchester called 100 @.@ 4 Jazz FM was launched on 1 September 1994 . The Jazz FM stations were purchased by the Guardian Media Group in 2002 , and became part of the company 's radio division , GMG Radio Holdings Ltd .
In 2003 , GMG radio conducted market research into the type of music that listeners in the north @-@ west of England wanted to hear on the radio . The study concluded that many people were dissuaded by the name Jazz , and as a result , 100 @.@ 4 Jazz FM closed on 13 February 2004 and relaunched as Smooth FM on 1 March . In 2005 , GMG rebranded the London station 102 @.@ 2 Smooth FM . The two renamed stations played middle of the road music , soul and R & B during the day and as part of their licence requirements , jazz music at night .
On 20 October 2006 , GMG Radio announced that it was requesting a change of format for 102 @.@ 2 and 100 @.@ 4 Smooth FM from Ofcom , to remove the stations ' daytime soul and R & B licence commitments . GMG Radio proposed an easy listening music service mixed with speech for the over 50s , and an improved local news service . Ofcom approved the changes on 8 December 2006 , with the condition that GMG retained the 45 hours of jazz per week that constituted part of the former licence requirement . As a result of the format change and to distance the station from its London rivals Magic and Heart 106 @.@ 2 , GMG Radio agreed that a minimum of 20 % of its daytime music output would be over 40 years old .
= = = Change of identity and expansion = = =
In December 2006 , GMG Radio acquired the Saga Radio Group , which owned stations in the West Midlands , East Midlands and Scotland , and a licence to begin broadcasting to the North East , and expanded the Smooth Network . Along with the Smooth FM stations in London and Manchester , all Saga stations were relaunched under the Smooth Radio brand on 26 March 2007 . Saga 105 @.@ 7 FM in the West Midlands became 105 @.@ 7 Smooth Radio , Saga 106 @.@ 6 FM in the East Midlands became 106 @.@ 6 Smooth Radio and Glasgow based Saga 105 @.@ 2 FM became 105 @.@ 2 Smooth Radio . A service for the north @-@ east of England , 97 @.@ 5 Smooth Radio , was launched in January 2008 . To begin with , most programming for these stations was produced locally and some shows were networked from London . However , Smooth gradually increased its networked programming until most content was originated in London or Manchester .
In March 2008 , GMG Radio requested that Ofcom remove the 45 @-@ hour jazz commitment for its London and Manchester stations . The company planned to relaunch Jazz FM from the jazzfm.com service which broadcast on DAB in Glasgow , online and on a DAB multiplex in London . In a meeting on 22 April 2008 , Ofcom declined the request . GMG relaunched Jazz FM despite having to retain the jazz commitment .
The decrease of local output lead to criticism from Norman Quirk , the former managing director of Saga 105 @.@ 2 FM in Glasgow , after GMG Radio dismissed six Scottish presenters in August 2008 in favour of increased networked content from its stations in London and Manchester . The station had operated a 24 @-@ hour schedule of local programming . Quirk labelled the dismissals " disgraceful " and expressed his fears that the station would not be able to serve the needs and interests of the Scottish people as well as Saga had done .
= = = Further expansion = = =
After John Myers ' recommendations of a regulatory overhaul in commercial radio were published , and the Digital Economy Act allowing stations to co @-@ locate or discontinue local shows and to broadcast on national DAB was passed , Smooth Radio merged its five English stations into one quasi @-@ national station , and local news feeds were produced from GMG Radio 's headquarters in Salford Quays . GMG Radio announced on 29 June 2010 that it wanted to compete with BBC Radio 2 by broadcasting on the Digital One multiplex on DAB to the whole of England and Wales , and Sky , Freesat , Freeview , Virgin Media and online . Regional content would be kept ; split news , travel and weather bulletins would be broadcast on the FM and regional DAB stations in the North East , North West , West Midlands and East Midlands . Listeners in London and those tuning to the national output would hear national information . 105 @.@ 2 Smooth Radio in Scotland would keep its local breakfast and drivetime programmes because of the rules governing its broadcast licence , but networked content would be broadcast the rest of the time . The jazz commitments for London and the North West were also ended . The new Smooth Radio was launched on 4 October 2010 with most of the output originating from Salford Quays , and other programming coming from London .
On 1 November 2011 , GMG Radio launched " Smooth Christmas " on the Digital One multiplex , a dedicated station playing only Christmas music with no news or advertisements . It promoted Smooth Radio and broadcast until 27 December 2011 . Smooth Christmas was replaced on a trial basis by Smooth 70s , playing tracks from the 1970s . The station was warmly received by listeners , and in January 2012 GMG Radio confirmed a deal with US syndication firm Premiere Networks to air 1970s editions of the American Top 40 show presented by Casey Kasem , which would be broadcast at weekends . Smooth 70s ' weekday programming included Disco Lunch and Late Night Love Songs . Due to its popularity , Smooth Christmas was relaunched in November 2012 on the Digital One multiplex alongside Smooth 70s .
= = = New ownership = = =
In June 2012 it was reported that Guardian Media Group was seeking to sell GMG Radio in order to restructure itself to stem losses being made by The Guardian and The Observer newspapers . Several offers were received for the subsidiary , valuing it at £ 50 million . GMG Radio was sold to Global Radio on 25 June , at an estimated price of between £ 50 million and £ 70 million . Global renamed GMG Radio " Real and Smooth Radio Ltd . " Several rival radio groups expressed their concerns over the takeover and the effect it could have on commercial radio in the UK . The deal prompted speculation about the possible disappearance of the Smooth Radio brand as a result of a possible merger with Global 's Gold network , which was aimed at a similar audience . It was announced that in the short term GMG Radio and Global would continue to operate as separate entities while a review of the sale was carried out by Ofcom .
On 3 August the Culture Secretary Jeremy Hunt instructed Ofcom and the Office of Fair Trading ( OFT ) to examine Global Radio 's purchase of GMG , which gave Global over 50 % of the UK radio market because of concerns the takeover may not be in the public interest . On 11 October , the OFT agreed to fast @-@ track the investigation . Hunt 's successor Maria Miller said the deal would not be investigated for media plurality . The OFT concluded that the merger could lead to a rise in local advertising costs because of the decrease in competitors , and forwarded the matter to the Competition Commission , which oversees business mergers and takeovers . On the same day the Competition Commission announced it would publish its findings into the takeover by 27 March 2013 .
On 21 February 2013 , the Competition Commission confirmed it would delay its decision until May , and issued a statement in which it said , " The range of possible remedies to be considered in this case is complex and that all possible remedies need to be explored with the parties to the merger and third parties " . The Commission published its final report into the acquisition on 21 May , requiring Global to sell radio stations in seven locations . On 14 June , it was reported that Global would appeal against the Commission 's decision . A date for the appeal was subsequently scheduled for October . Following the hearing , in November , the Competition Appeal Tribunal rejected Global 's appeal , meaning it would have to sell some stations in order to complete the takeover . Global announced in December that it would not appeal the decision , and would instead begin the process of selling the assets as directed by the Commission .
Global announced on 12 August 2013 that Real and Smooth would relocate their London and West Midlands offices to Global premises . Smooth Radio 's output was relocated to Global 's Leicester Square headquarters from 1 October , a move that coincided with a major overhaul of its schedule , and the closure of Smooth 70s after 21 months on air . On 4 February 2014 , the Radio Today website reported that Ofcom had given Global Radio permission to remove Smooth from the Digital One platform , and to replace it with a service playing music from the 1970s , 80s and 90s . Under this agreement , Smooth would continue to broadcast on its regional frequencies , but would be required to provide seven hours of local output per day . On 6 February , Global confirmed the sale of eight of its regional stations — including those with the Smooth Radio brand in the North West , North East and East Midlands — to the Irish media holdings company Communicorp . Under a franchising agreement between the two firms , these stations would retain the Smooth Radio name , but relaunch airing a mixture of both regional content and networked programming from London . Smooth would also take over Gold 's medium wave frequencies , except in London , Manchester and the East Midlands . Global announced later that month that Smooth would be relaunched from 3 March , and subsequently confirmed the Gold changes would take effect from 24 March , when the stations would begin simulcasting with Smooth Radio London . This also coincided with the return of local programming at breakfast and drivetime .
= = Audience and ratings = =
Smooth Radio catered mainly for listeners over the age of 40 , a similar audience to that of BBC Radio 2 . Official quarterly audience figures collated by Radio Joint Authority Research Limited ( RAJAR ) show that the station had an average weekly audience of just over 3 million listeners . Figures for the third quarter of 2010 , released in October 2010 showed that collectively , the six regional Smooth stations had a weekly audience of 3 million at the time Smooth became a national broadcaster . John Simons , Group Programme Director for GMG Radio said , " The scope for Smooth Radio is huge and we 're looking forward to seeing this growth continue as more and more people discover the station across the UK . We firmly believe Smooth has the potential to become the UK 's biggest national commercial station and these figures show it 's heading in the right direction ! "
During the final quarter of 2010 – the station 's first as a national broadcaster – listening figures rose to 3 @.@ 08 million , which remained unchanged in the first quarter of 2011 , although listenership in London increased by 29 % , largely because of the arrival of Simon Bates on the breakfast show in January 2011 . Smooth continued to increase its audience share in the second quarter of 2011 , with an average weekly total of 3 @.@ 2 million , which rose once again in the third quarter to 3 @.@ 328 million , meaning that for the first time Smooth 's figures overtook those of one of its national rivals , talkSPORT . The station had an audience of 3 @.@ 3 million in the final quarter of 2011 , making it the second most listened to national commercial radio station in the UK . 3 @,@ 317 @,@ 000 listeners were tuning in during the first quarter of 2012 , which dropped slightly in the second quarter to 3 @.@ 2 million . The third quarter of 2012 saw another small drop to 3 @.@ 19 million , but in the same period Smooth 70s recorded its first audience figures of 749 @,@ 000 . Collectively 3 @.@ 7 million listeners were tuning into Smooth @-@ branded stations . That figure rose to 3 @.@ 8 million in the final quarter of the year . The first quarter of 2013 saw an average weekly audience of 3 @.@ 6 million , which fell to 3 @.@ 1 million for the second quarter . However , figures rose again through the second half of the year , with 3 @.@ 26 million in the third quarter of 2013 , and 3 @.@ 38 million in the fourth .
= = Marketing and sponsorship = =
When Smooth Radio launched as a national network , GMG launched a hoarding and television advertising campaign featuring eight " Smooth Ambassadors " – listeners chosen to represent the station 's " zest for life " . Each advertisement included a piece of information about one of the ambassadors , and something they were currently doing . The campaign ran throughout October and November 2010 . A later campaign featured Simon Bates , whose breakfast show attracted increased listening figures in London in early 2011 .
The station signed a number of sponsorship deals with advertisers , often for a particular show or for competitions associated with the advertiser . Its first major sponsorship deal was with Honda , which sponsored the drivetime show upon the station 's launch . In July 2011 GMG signed a 13 @-@ week deal with gaming website Foxy Bingo to sponsor Smooth Radio 's afternoon show , and a three @-@ month deal with ATS Euromaster to sponsor the drivetime show began in September 2012 . Real and Smooth announced a three @-@ month deal with Sky Movies to sponsor Smooth 's weekend film show , Smooth Radio at the Movies from February 2013 .
As part of a three @-@ month deal with Tetley Tea announced in October 2011 , Smooth Radio 's logo appeared on Tetley products sold in British supermarkets . In August 2011 , GMG announced a deal with the magazine publisher IPC whereby Smooth Radio would sponsor the TV Times Awards . A trip to Kenya was given away in association with the Kenya Tourist Board in the lead up to the 2011 wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton ; the winners would stay at the Lewa Wildlife Conservancy , where the royal couple became engaged . High Street retailer Boots UK launched The Feel Good Forum , a health and beauty lifestyle programme that began airing for an eight @-@ week run on Real and Smooth from March 2013 . The show , presented by Kate Thornton was a collaboration between the broadcaster , Boots and other partners , including the Mumsnet website . Some online content was also produced to supplement the programme . In July 2013 , Real and Smooth secured a deal with the organisers of the 2014 Commonwealth Games to be the Official Media Partner for its Ticketing Campaign .
= = Presenters and shows = =
= = = Presenters = = =
Presenters on the station include many notable British radio personalities . The breakfast show was hosted by Simon Bates , who joined the network in January 2011 . Bates revived The Golden Hour and Our Tune , two popular features from his Radio 1 days . Emma B presented a Sunday afternoon show from March 2011 . The actress Tina Hobley became a Sunday morning presenter from October 2013 . Others to join the station at that time include Paul Hollins who presented Smooth Radio 's Movie Songs and Smooth Soul Sunday , Gary King who hosted a Sunday lunchtime show , and David Andrews with a Soul and Motown show on Sunday evenings . Former LBC 97 @.@ 3 presenter Anthony Davis joined the station as its Drivetime presenter from January 2014 .
Mark Goodier hosted a weekday mid @-@ morning show from 2007 to 2012 . Chris Tarrant was a Saturday morning presenter whose show was networked across several GMG stations in 2008 . Also in 2008 , Tony Blackburn presented a syndicated weekend breakfast show for Smooth . He left the station in October 2010 to present Pick of the Pops on BBC Radio 2 because the BBC would not allow him to continue working for a rival broadcaster . Andy Peebles was also a presenter with the station , having hosted his Andy Peebles Soul Train from 2004 to 2013 , before moving the programme to Gold , another station owned by Global Radio . David " Kid " Jensen was a weekday presenter from April 2011 to December 2013 .
= = = Special programming and events = = =
In September 2011 , Simon Bates presented a week of programmes from South Australia as part of a promotion in which the station gave away a holiday to the state . In December 2011 , Bates travelled to Afghanistan to present a series of shows with British troops at Camp Bastion , which featured Christmas messages from British soldiers serving there to their friends and relatives . Bates discussed the possible future of Afghanistan as coalition forces prepared to hand over control to the Afghan National Army . On 8 April 2012 , Easter Sunday , the forces broadcaster BFBS simulcast a two @-@ hour show presented jointly by Bates and BFBS 's Rachel Cochrane , with Smooth , allowing family and friends of serving troops to connect with their loved ones . On 27 May 2012 , Bates presented a special programme ahead of the Thames Diamond Jubilee Pageant , previewing Elizabeth II 's journey along the River Thames on the royal barge , Spirit of Chartwell . He was given special access to the vessel and spoke to the boat 's owner , Philip Morrell and to composer Debbie Wiseman who was commissioned to write the music for the event . To commemorate the 30th anniversary of the end of the 1982 Falklands War , Bates broadcast the breakfast show from the Falkland Islands for a week ; he explored the lives and experiences of Islanders and reflected on the conflict .
From 2010 , Smooth and Real Radio were the official broadcaster of the switch @-@ on ceremony for the Blackpool Illuminations , the broadcast rights to which it won from BBC Radio 2 , which had aired it since 1997 . 2010 was the first time the event was broadcast on commercial radio . The annual event was compered by presenters from the two stations at a purposely @-@ built arena , and featured a music concert by popular artists . Performers in 2010 included Alesha Dixon , Gabriella Cilmi , The Wanted , Olly Murs , and Robbie Williams , who switched on the lights that year . The 2012 switch @-@ on was performed by Greg Rutherford , Luke Campbell and Beth Tweddle — British Olympians who won gold medals at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
Smooth Radio hosted a series of free live music gigs titled Love Live Music held at venues around the UK . Featured artists included Adele , Beverley Knight , Eliza Doolittle , Katie Melua , Will Young , Nell Bryden , Honey Ryder , Paul Carrack , The Pierces , Roachford , Jack Savoretti and Leddra Chapman . On 4 October 2011 the station celebrated its first anniversary as a national broadcaster with a concert at London 's Cafe de Paris . An evening of music and entertainment was held at Liverpool 's Waterfront on 21 July 2012 , which was attended by 20 @,@ 000 people . A similar event was held in June 2013 . Paul Carrick played at an event at Nottingham 's Glee Club on 26 September 2012 .
In December 2012 Real and Smooth secured exclusive broadcast rights to the " Christmas Hit Factory Live " concert , a show featuring artists and groups who achieved success with the Stock Aitken and Waterman and PWL record labels . Those appearing at the concert on 21 December included Kylie Minogue , Jason Donovan , Dead or Alive and Pat and Mick . It aired on New Year 's Eve .
= = = Charity fundraising = = =
From 2009 GMG Radio stations , including Smooth Radio , held an annual fundraising day for Help for Heroes , a UK charity which provides help and support to injured British service personnel . The first " Help for Heroes Day " took place on 10 November 2009 , and collectively the stations raised £ 200 @,@ 000 . The 18 @-@ hour special featured Ronan Keating , Simon Cowell , Spandau Ballet and The Soldiers , and Chris Tarrant returned to the network for the event . The second " Help for Heroes Day " in 2010 raised £ 350 @,@ 000 , bringing the accumulated total to £ 750 @,@ 000 . £ 255 @,@ 000 was raised for the charity in 2012 .
During the fundraising event " Smooth Radio Starlight Supper " , listeners were encouraged to hold dinner parties at which guests donated money to a cancer charity . The event began in 2010 when the six stations in the Smooth network raised money for Breast Cancer Care in London , Macmillan Cancer Support in the North West , North East and West Midlands , the Rainbows Hospice for Children and Young People in the East Midlands and Marie Curie 's Big Build in Glasgow . The 2011 , 2012 and 2013 events raised money exclusively for Macmillan Cancer Support .
= = = Documentaries = = =
Smooth Radio occasionally broadcast documentaries about music and historic events , usually at weekends . Its first series of documentaries , broadcast in 2008 , included a six @-@ part series about music from America 's Mississippi River region , titled Rolling River of Rock . A second series broadcast the following year included Live Fast Die Young about famous musicians who died before the age of 30 , Legendary Labels about major record labels and From Cleethorpes to California about record producer Rod Temperton . The station 's documentaries won a bronze award in the Programmes and Series Promotion category at the 2009 New York Festivals International Radio Program Awards .
In December 2010 , the station celebrated the 50th anniversary of the television soap opera Coronation Street with a documentary titled Coronation Street at 50 and the station 's Fallen Heroes won a Gold at the 2011 New York Festivals International Radio Awards . In March 2011 GMG Radio reporter Katie Collins travelled to Norway to interview Prince Harry as he prepared to join a group of injured ex @-@ servicemen on a walk to the North Pole in aid of the charity Walking with the Wounded . The station also covered the walk ; Collins was the only commercial radio journalist to interview the Prince on that occasion . The documentary won a Gold award for Best Documentary at the 2012 Sony Radio Academy Awards .
On the 10th anniversary of the September 11 attacks on the United States , Smooth aired a documentary featuring British people who were living in New York City at the time of the attacks . This was followed by live coverage of the remembrance service from Ground Zero , the former site of the World Trade Center , which was destroyed in the attacks .
In November 2012 , Smooth confirmed it would air a documentary celebrating the life of Dusty Springfield over the Christmas period to mark the upcoming 50th anniversary of her debut as a solo artist . In January 2013 , a Saturday programme dedicated to films and a regular documentary slot for Sunday afternoons were announced as part of an overhaul of the station 's schedule . Mark Goodier returned to the network in June 2013 to present Rolling Home : The Summer of the Stones — a one @-@ hour documentary about The Rolling Stones .
= Touch My Body =
" Touch My Body " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , taken from her eleventh studio album , E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . It was written by Carey , along with Crystal " Cri $ tyle " Johnson , Terius " The Dream " Nash and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and produced by Mariah Carey and " Tricky " Stewart , and was released as the album 's lead single on February 12 , 2008 . Lyrically , the song features a double message , with the first describing sexual fantasies with her lover , while also jokingly warning him against recording or releasing information regarding their rendezvous .
The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , with many highlighting the song 's light pop melody and hook ; however , it also garnered some backlash from certain music reviewers , who felt the song did not properly represent the singer 's acclaimed 5 @-@ octave vocal range . " Touch My Body " became Carey 's eighteenth chart topper on the Billboard Hot 100 , making Carey the solo artist with the most number one singles in United States history , surpassing the record held by Elvis Presley . Additionally , it gave Carey her 79th week atop the chart , tying Presley for most weeks at number one . Throughout Europe , the song also achieved high charting , peaking within the top five on the charts in Italy , Japan , New Zealand , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom .
Carey performed " Touch My Body " on several live televised events and programs , debuting it on Saturday Night Live as a two @-@ piece performance . Similarly , Carey opened the Good Morning America " Summer Concert Series " on April 25 , 2008 , singing the song , as well as two other singles from E = MC ² . Similar renditions took place at the season premiere party of The Hills , as well as a mash @-@ up of the song with " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " at the Teen Choice Awards . Aside from reprising performances of the British programs The Sunday Night Project and The Paul O 'Grady Show , and German talent show Deutschland sucht den Superstar , the song was included on the set @-@ list of Carey 's North American Angels Advocate Tour , held throughout 2009 and 2010 .
The song 's music video was directed by filmmaker Brett Ratner , who had previously worked with Carey on five other music videos . It follows around a story revolving around a computer employee 's fantasy as he visits Carey 's home . As he fixes her computer , he enters a fantasy in which the pair perform several activities together , including pillow fights , laser tag , Guitar Hero , slot cars , and frisbee throwing , all while Carey shows off her figure in several revealing outfits . The music video won in the category of " Best Comedic Video " at the 2008 BET Awards , and won the " MTV Video Vanguard Award " at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards Japan . Additionally , the video was nominated for " Best Female Video " at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Background and release = =
Carey achieved critical and commercial success with her tenth studio album , The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . and the second best @-@ seller around the world , It earned a myriad of music industry awards , and brought Carey back to the top of pop music following her decline in 2001 . After completing The Adventures of Mimi Tour , Carey began working on material for her eleventh studio effort , the yet untitled E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . E = MC ² was hailed as one of the most anticipated albums of 2008 , with many critics weighing their opinions on whether Carey would be able to deliver significant success , following her achievements with The Emancipation of Mimi . " Touch My Body " was eventually chosen as the lead single through a vote in between the record executives at Island Records , with the final choices being the former and " I 'm That Chick " ( titled " I 'm That Chick You Like " at that point ) . After choosing the former , the song was sent to radio stations worldwide on February 12 , 2008 and to digital outlets on March 24 , 2008 .
= = Composition = =
" Touch My Body " is a mid @-@ tempo song , which draws influence from R & B and pop music genres . The song 's hook is built around a piano melody and " circular keyboard line " , and features " a stuttering mid @-@ tempo beat that 's accented by finger snaps and electronic synthesizers " as its instrumentation . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe described it as a " standard @-@ issue mid @-@ tempo jam " , while The New York Sun 's Jayanthi Daniel wrote " It 's a smooth , mid @-@ tempo song with a swaying , melodic beat , and serves as a simple and mellow introduction to the material . " Writing for The Guardian , Alex Macpherson felt the song was very " girly " , and expressed how the " cushioned " track incorporates " all tactile bass bumps and tinkling music box motifs " into its production . Written by Mariah Carey , The @-@ Dream , Tricky Stewart and Cristyle , the song drew comparisons to several musical arrangements featured throughout " We Belong Together " . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Touch My Body " is set in common time with a tempo of 80 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of B minor , with Carey 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of F ♯ 3 to the belting range of E5. and the high @-@ note of B5 . The song follows in the chord progression of Bm7 – Am7 – Gmaj7 .
Lyrically , the song describes the protagonist revealing several bedroom fantasies in which she would like to engage , asking her lover playfully to " touch her body " . Though the song features sexually oriented lyrics , critics deemed that the melody and playful tone of the song made them less explicit . The song 's lyrics find Carey maintaining the duo keep the relationship private from the media , as she threatens to " hunt him down " if he shall record anything of their private life . According to Ben Ratliff from The New York Times , " Touch My Body " is a " questionably sexy striptease : a goofy @-@ sleazy tryst vignette " , with Carey singing " If there 's a camera up in here then I best not catch this flick on YouTube . " Critic Rodman felt the song 's lyrics describe the protagonist 's sexual fantasies , but also serves as a warning to " potential touchers : ' If you run your mouth and brag about our secret rendezvous / I will hunt you down . ' Yikes ! " In an interview with Fox News , journalist Hollie McKay asked Carey if there was any literal interpretation regarding the lyrics " Touch My Body / Put Me on the Floor / Wrestle Me Around / Play With Me Some More " , to which she replied " There is no full @-@ blown meaning ; it is just cute and it 's one of those songs that makes me happy . I wasn 't taking it that seriously . It was just fun experience . " Evan Sawdey from PopMatters wrote that in the song " Mariah coos soft @-@ core phone sex fantasies over plinked piano notes , all while referencing YouTube in what appears to be a desperate grab for relevance . " In his review of the song 's parent album , Los Angeles Times critic Richard Hartog described the song 's production , Carey 's vocals and its overall mixing :
" Touch My Body " rides a relatively restrained slow @-@ dance groove , with some light , orchestral @-@ synth flourishes thrown in . The rhythm is almost completely carried by an effortless keyboard bump , the easygoing repetitiveness of which eventually wears the listener down , and sets up a delicate frame for Carey to sing around . She pulls back when the song picks up the pace , and Carey keeps it simple here , playing with tempos rather than range . Indeed , she almost quietly slides into the chorus . " If you run around and brag about this secret rendezvous , I will hunt you down " , she sings , letting the last line trail off . But you don 't necessarily believe her , as the feel is more playful that sinful .
= = Critical reception = =
" Touch My Body " garnered generally positive reviews from music critics . While most reviewers complimented the song 's hook and production , as well as its playful lyrics , some were critical of Carey 's vocal performance , which they felt didn 't properly demonstrate her " The Voice " . Billboard 's Chuck Taylor gave the song a positive review , writing " this sensual jam is 100 % Mariah , packed with satisfying harmonic layers and hooky background ' oh 's , ' supersonic verses and a chorus as catchy as a winter sniffle , " Bill Lamb from About.com rated the song four out of five stars , stating that the single " is simple , sexy elegance from one of the most enduring of pop stars . " Additionally , Lamb complimented the songs " clever and sexy lyrics " , and wrote " The gentle finger @-@ snapping beat will send countless fans dancing in private reveries . " Newsday critic , Glenn Gamboa , named it as the " Song of the Week " , commenting that it was " the best opening single she 's had since ' Heartbreaker ' . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy was also impressed with the song , writing , " its cooing , sensual charms soon take hold , suggesting the wind 's still very much behind the Carey comeback bandwagon . " It was described as a " cheeky hit " by Margeaux Watson of Entertainment Weekly , and " playful " by Los Angeles Times 's Chuck Philips .
Aside from common criticism aimed at Carey 's lack of vocal bombast , many made heavy comparisons to its predecessor , " We Belong Together " . Freedom Du Lac from The Washington Post compared the two heavily , while PopMatters 's Evan Sawdey felt it was " stealing the structure that made ' We Belong Together ' such a great song . " In his critique , he continued " For being an album from one of the world 's biggest pop stars , its amazing how hook @-@ free and dated if feels a mere two weeks after its release . " Slant Magazine 's critic and writer , Sal Cinquemani , wrote that the single " isn 't exactly filled with combustible energy and it lacks the full @-@ throttle belting that accompanied the Return of the Voice three years ago , but it features all of the characteristics one expects from a latter @-@ day Mariah track . " Rachel Devitt of Rhapsody expressed a desire to see Carey " show off those legendary five octaves a bit more " , while also noting the song 's " slightly paranoid / just @-@ this @-@ side @-@ of @-@ crazy lyrics threatening to hunt down her lover if he videos their tryst . " New York Daily News critic , David Hinckley , was critical on the song 's simplicity , and wrote " [ It 's ] a single that could have been cut by any one @-@ hit diva @-@ ette today – has scored a chart grand slam . There 's just one small price to pay for all this : the singer 's soul . "
= = Chart performance = =
After only a few hours worth of airplay , " Touch My Body " entered the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs Chart at number seventy @-@ eight the chart week of February 23 , 2008 . In its second week within the chart , it leaped to number twenty , before reaching its peak of number two . In its first complete week of radio airplay , the song garnered 46 million audience impressions , making its debut at number twenty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay . The song made its debut at number fifty @-@ seven on the Billboard Hot 100 as the " Hot Shot " of the week . The following week , " Touch My Body " jumped twenty @-@ three spots to number thirty @-@ four , making it Carey 's 31st top @-@ forty hit on the chart . It placed Carey as the woman with the fifth most top @-@ forty entries on the Hot 100 in Billboard history . " Touch My Body " reached the top position on the Hot 100 in its fourth week , and became Carey 's eighteenth chart topper , selling 286 @,@ 000 digital downloads . The song 's opening week broke several records , first making Carey the solo artist with the most number one singles in United States history , surpassing the record held by Elvis Presley . Additionally , it gave Carey her 79th week atop the Hot 100 , tying her with Presley as the artist with the most weeks at number one in the Billboard chart history . " The song also sold the highest amount of digital records in one week , surpassing Rihanna 's " Umbrella " ( 2007 ) , which sold 277 @,@ 000 units . The following week , the song stayed at number one , and according to Mediabase , received over 400 @,@ 000 spins in the United States within its second week at number one . By the song 's sixth week of digital availability , " Touch My Body " had sold 879 @,@ 000 units , and was eventually certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over one million units throughout the United States . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Touch My Body " has sold over 1 @,@ 459 @,@ 000 copies in the United States as of August 15 , 2010 . It entered the Canadian Hot 100 at number ninety @-@ seven , based on airplay alone , and peaked at number two . The song also peaked at number two on the Hot Canadian Digital Singles chart , and spent a total of thirteen weeks within the singles chart . In an interview with Fox News , Carey described her feelings regarding surpassing Presley 's record , as well as her general sentiments following her success :
For me , in my mind the accomplishment is just that much sweeter . In terms of my ethnicity , always feeling like an outsider , always feeling different ... for me it 's about saying , ' Thank you Lord , for giving me the faith to believe in myself when other people had written me off . ' I 've gone through enough of my life worrying about that kind if thing . I want to encourage anyone else out there who feels like maybe they can 't overcome an obstacle , I feel like I 'm living proof ... never lose your faith . I 'm seriously a grateful individual right now .
Throughout Australasia and Europe , the song managed to peak within the top five in several countries . In Australia , " Touch My Body " debuted at number twenty on the singles chart , during the week of April 4 , 2008 . The following week , the song reached its peak of number seventeen , where it spent two weeks , and had a total chart trajectory of ten weeks . On April 11 , 2008 , " Touch My Body " debuted at number forty @-@ five on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart . The song peaked at number ten , and fell out of the chart in its tenth week , while it was at fifty @-@ seven . The song achieved moderate success in both the Flemish and Wallonian territories in Belgium , peaking at numbers fourteen and thirty @-@ three , respectively . Making its debut at its peak position of number sixteen , " Touch My Body " charted for a total of nineteen weeks in France , before falling out on October 4 , 2008 . " Touch My Body " became one of Carey 's strongest charting singles in Germany , debuting at number ten on the Media Control Charts . The following week , the song moved up three places to number seven , before completing its ten @-@ week run on the singles chart . On the Dutch Top 40chart , the song made its debut at number twenty @-@ seven . Seven weeks later , the song peaked at number fourteen , before dropping outside the top 40 three weeks later , ending its eleven @-@ week trajectory . " Touch My Body " entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number eleven , during the week dated March 31 , 2008 . In total , the song spent two weeks at its peak position of number three , and a total of ten weeks on the chart . In both Norway and Sweden , the song saw moderate success , peaking at numbers ten and fourteen , and lasting on the chart for five and six weeks , respectively . On April 20 , 2008 , " Touch My Body " debuted and peaked at number three on the Swiss Music Charts , spending a total of twelve weeks on the chart . On the Japan Hot 100 , the song peaked at number two , and the full @-@ length ringtone was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . On the UK Singles Chart , " Touch My Body " debuted at number ninety @-@ nine , from just one day of release . The following week , the song leapt to number six on the chart , before peaking at number five in its third week . In total , " Touch My Body " spent thirteen weeks within the UK charts , and has estimated sales of over 120 @,@ 000 units .
= = Remixes = =
The official remix , " Touch My Body ( Love / Hate Remix ) " ( aka " Touch My Body ( Tricky Remix ) " ) , was produced by Carey , Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and The @-@ Dream , and feature Def Jam labelmate rapper Rick Ross on the first verse and R & B singer The @-@ Dream , who co @-@ produced the song , on the fourth verse . Aside from both their verses , Carey 's are intermingled , and featured in between and after both of the male parts .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The song 's music video was directed by film @-@ maker Brett Ratner in Los Angeles , and features a cameo appearance from 30 Rock 's Jack McBrayer . Prior to filming the video , or releasing the single , Carey had toned her body , and lost a reported twenty pounds . Due to her slim @-@ down , she and Ratner wanted to flaunt Carey 's new figure as much as possible throughout the video : " Mariah looks better than she has ever looked . It 's ridiculous . Mariah has an incredible body , but she was always kind of very voluptuous . Now she 's just like , fit . And we were like , we 've got to show this body . " As the pair came up with the video 's plot , Ratner contacted McBrayer to play a male leading role , alongside Carey . After receiving the call , McBrayer claimed he was so shocked by the proposal , that he didn 't believe it at first . He only met with the producers after Ratner personally called him and assured him the authenticity of the offer . In an interview with MTV News , McBrayer joked " I 'm always worried now that somebody is pranking me , so at first I was very leery . But when I heard it was legit , and then later on we got a phone call from Brett Ratner , who directed it . I was like , ' This is either a very elaborate prank , or this is the real deal . ' " In the fantasy @-@ themed story , he recalled what he considered the video 's most memorable scene , in which he and Carey , dressed in medieval attire , were walking with a unicorn . Additionally , he described the filming process as very simple , as they were given very loose directions and pointers . McBrayer claimed that during one take , they were meant to play Frisbee on the mansion lawn , and he accidentally threw it at Carey 's face , jokingly adding " by the time she spins back around — bonk , right in her face . I threw a Frisbee in Mariah Carey 's face ! I 'm like , I 'm fired ! . " When questioned by critics regarding the song and video , Carey responded " Have you seen the ' Touch My Body ' video ? C 'mon . Clearly you must see the humour in that . Even the lyrics , ' I will hunt you down ' . If anyone doesn 't get the joke by this time then they are an idiot . " In an interview with Reuters , Carey described working with Ratner , and her experience filming the video :
I love Brett because he is like me . If I 'm eternally 12 -- because he 's a little bit more naughty than I am -- he 's eternally 15 . He has a great sense of humor , obviously , and he knows that I have a sense of humor and he feels that people don 't recognize that about me . And I 'll do stuff that I 'm totally joking and they 're like ( uses mean girl voice ) , " Why is she doing that ? Why is she doing the treadmill with her high heels on ? " I 'm like , " It 's a freakin ' joke ! It 's ' Cribs ' ! Hello ! It 's a freakin ' joke ! "
= = = Synopsis = = =
The music video revolves around the fantasy of a computer store employee , as he dreams about a relationship with Carey . Throughout the video , the pair is seen to have a pillow fight ; play laser tag , Guitar Hero and slot cars ; and throw a frisbee . The video also features Carey in various revealing outfits . The video begins with a small Compu Nerd Volkswagen , parodying Geek Squad , pulling up into the driveway of Carey 's large manor . As the employee introduces himself , Carey flippantly refers to him as a " CompuNerd " , and asks him to follow her to the broken computer . As he attends to it , Carey removes her robe , and enters her large
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it produced in factories in Taiwan – it was one of the first manufacturers to de @-@ localise production to Asia .
The design , and models following it , included " soft @-@ clipping circuitry " that protects against over @-@ driven signals , connections that allow splitting of the power amplifier section from the preamplifier , a button to bypass tone controls , and " Full Disclosure " power ratings measuring output power under real @-@ world loads .
= = = = Audio circuitry = = = =
The NAD 3020 has four inputs that can be switched via the front panel – Aux , Tuner , Phono , Tape . The manufacturer claims the phono input , which can also be used with high @-@ output moving coil cartridges , contains a 6 @-@ transistor circuit " engineered for extremely low noise and nearly distortion @-@ free performance " . Reviewers note the pre @-@ amplifier 's " decent moving @-@ magnet phono stage " . The amplifier is bandwidth @-@ limited , incorporating infrasonic and ultrasonic filters to supposedly reduce the effects of non @-@ musical signals such as acoustic feedback , disc warps and electromagnetic interference on the musical signals .
The amplifier has bass and treble tone controls which , according to the manufacturer , are " tailored for musically effective response in the high and low frequencies without altering the critical mid @-@ range tonal balance " . A loudness switch – de rigueur in that era – boosts upper and lower frequencies ; a " mute " switch reduces volume by 20 dB for low @-@ level listening . There is also a headphone socket mounted onto the front panel .
According to the manufacturer , the NAD 3020 is a high voltage design that uses the same large powerful output transistors that " other manufacturers employ in their ' 60 @-@ watt ' amplifiers " , enabling the amplifier to deliver power headroom for musical transients . Although the " Soft Clipping " circuitry limits the output voltage so that the transistors do not distort when driven beyond its rated power , Lucio Cadeddu of TNT considers this protection and the tone @-@ shaping circuitry to be unnecessary and advises users to avoid them " like the plague " .
The innovative split of pre- and power @-@ amplifier sections allows the use of the pre @-@ amp stage to drive multiple power amplifiers in parallel , or use long signal cables to connect to remote power amplifiers or powered speakers . This faculty became hugely popular with audiophiles , who would seek to isolate this " remarkably fine @-@ sounding preamp section " , to use with one or more external power amplifiers .
= = = = Power source = = = =
The amplifier has what the manufacturer calls a " dual @-@ mode power supply " , where the output stage is only loosely regulated , so it is free to supply the high voltages needed for musical transients and the large currents at lower voltages needed for driving low @-@ impedance loads in the power amplifier circuitry . The design also incorporates a separate regulated power supply circuit , fed from a secondary winding on the transformer , dedicated to the pre @-@ amplifier and tone control stages . It is thus claimed that intermodulation distortion and blurring of the stereo image due to power supply functioning cannot occur .
= = = = Styling = = = =
The styling of the NAD 3020 resembled that of other budget amplifiers of the time , and it was available in charcoal grey or silver . Stereophile commented that it was " inexpensive and looked it " . Although Cadeddu criticised the amplifier as " ugly , cheap and with a poor level of finishing " , he said that " the components used were fair but , clearly , the man behind its design knew what he was doing pretty well " .
= = = Reception = = =
The highly popular NAD 3020 is considered one of the most important hi @-@ fi components in the history of home audio . Sonically , it benefited from a design error where crosstalk between left and right channels presented better detail and more ambiance ; the error was corrected in a later guise . Its sound is described by reviewers as dark and warm , with a " sweet and sensual midrange " ; some reviewers observed a very noticeable rolling off at frequency extremes that may detract from sonic neutrality , and that its soundstage lacked precision but it was universally praised for its value for money . The amplifier was a hot seller , and the NAD 3020 alone achieved a record 1 @.@ 1 million units in its lifetime . The figure would be much higher if the sales of other amplifiers derived directly from its design are included . The quality made possible at a £ 79 ( US $ 133 ) price tag opened up the market for budget yet quality amplifiers , and spawned similarly low @-@ priced competitors such as ARCAM Alpha , Rotel 840 , Mission Cyrus I , Pioneer A400 , Denon PMA 350 and Marantz PM40 SE . In 2002 it ranked No. 19 in list of " The Hot 100 Products " by Stereophile . In 2011 , The Absolute Sound placed it at No. 9 in their list of " The Ten Most Significant Amplifiers of All Time " . The Absolute Sound remarked that this " iconic gem could embarrass amplifiers costing 10 times more with its big , warm and detailed sound and best of all , its affordable price made it available to a wider audience . "
A retrospective review by Chris Martens said that the 3020 was not perfect , and while it may have been surpassed by other components according to other performance criteria individually , it was " better than any $ 200 integrated amp had any right to be " . Martens complimented the quality of the electronic circuit design , noting in particular that the phono stage " sounded clearer and better balanced than many dedicated phonostages of the day " .
= = = Spin @-@ offs and legacy = = =
The NAD 3020 sold half a million units in the first three years of its life , and the second @-@ generation NAD 3020A replacing it , which corrected some minor design errors , proved even more popular than its predecessor .
Variants included NAD 3020B , NAD 3020E . An " almost identical " audiophile version dubbed NAD 3120 , stripped of tone controls and with higher quality loudspeaker binding posts , was released . The NAD 3020i is an " improved " version of the NAD 3020 that retailed at £ 149 ( US $ 250 ) when it was launched in 1991 . The NAD 7020 receiver ( tuner @-@ amplifier ) , that included the amplification circuitry of the NAD 3020 , received a mixed reception due to severe reliability issues . Following its release , and upon realisation that the product was much sought after for its pre @-@ amplifier section , a preamp version of the NAD 3020 was released under the name NAD 1020 .
In 2013 , the 40th year of the company , NAD launched a range of digital products , including a digital amplifier bearing the name NAD D 3020 .
= Stanisław Żółkiewski =
Stanisław Żółkiewski ( 1547 – 1620 ) was a Polish nobleman of the Lubicz coat of arms , magnate and military commander of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , who took part in many campaigns of the Commonwealth and on its southern and eastern borders . He occupied a number of high @-@ ranking posts in the administration of the Commonwealth , including castellan of L 'viv ( from 1590 ) , voivod of the Kiev Voivodeship and Great Chancellor of the Crown ( from 1618 ) . From 1588 he was also a Field Crown Hetman , and in 1613 was promoted to Grand Hetman of the Crown . During his military career he won major battles against Sweden , Muscovy , the Ottoman Empire and the Tatars .
Żółkiewski 's best @-@ known victory was against combined Russian and Swedish forces at the battle of Klushino in 1610 , in the aftermath of which the Poles seized and occupied Moscow . He died in the 1620 battle of Cecora against the Ottomans , after allegedly refusing to retreat . Already renowned as a military leader , Żółkiewski 's heroic death further boosted his fame . He is seen as one of the most accomplished military commanders in the history of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth .
= = Biography = =
= = = Youth = = =
Stanisław Żółkiewski was born in the village of Turynka in 1547 to Stanisław Żółkiewski of the Lubicz coat of arms , voivode of Ruthenia , and Zofia Lipska . The exact date of his birth is unknown , and even the year is disputed : most sources agree on 1547 , although a few suggest 1550 .
Żółkiewski attended a cathedral school in Lwów ( now L 'viv , Ukraine ) . Unlike many of his peers he had no higher education and did not travel abroad . However , he pursued studies on his own and was particularly interested in history and historical literature . In 1566 he joined the court of King Sigismund II Augustus , as an aid to the king 's secretary Jan Zamoyski . There he became familiar with the executionist movement , which advocated numerous reforms including military ones . In 1573 he took part in the diplomatic mission to France , sent to meet a newly elected king Henry III of France , and on his way back he was sent to Vienna to appease the Habsburgs .
= = = Early career = = =
Żółkiewski gained his first military experience under King Stefan Batory during the Danzig rebellion in which he commanded a rota of Polish hussars . He subsequently participated in Batory 's Livonian campaign , fighting at Polotsk , Rossony ( Sokół ) , Velizh and at the Siege of Pskov . Żółkiewski maintained his political alliance with the Zamoyski family after those campaigns ended , particularly in their conflict with the Zborowscy . On the night of 11 to 12 May 1584 he captured Samuel Zborowski , whose subsequent execution caused much controversy . Żółkiewski became notorious for his role in the incident , and was the subject of heated debates during the Sejm of 1585 .
In 1588 , during the War of the Polish Succession between factions of Sigismund III Vasa and Maximilian III , Żółkiewski supported Sigismund . Żółkiewski commanded the right flank of Commonwealth forces in the battle of Byczyna , during which he received a knee wound that lamed him for the remainder of his life . For his part in the battle he was appointed a Field Crown Hetman , and became the starost of Hrubieszów .
= = = As Field Crown Hetman = = =
Soon after becoming a Hetman , Żółkiewski was sent to Ukraine to repel a Tatar invasion . In 1590 he became the castellan of Lwów , but his requests for military reinforcements against the Tatars went unheeded .
In 1595 Żółkiewski participated in the Moldavian campaign and the battle of Cecora near the Prut river . The following year he defeated the Cossack uprising of Severyn Nalivaiko . Żółkiewski was a known supporter of Cossack grievances , and generally favored peaceful negotiations with them . When the Cossacks surrendered Nalivaiko and other leaders of the uprising to him he guaranteed their fair treatment . But Nalivaiko was subsequently executed in Warsaw , and a mob of Polish soldiers massacred the other prisoners , which led to a deterioration in Polish @-@ Cossack relations . In 1600 Żółkiewski returned to Moldova , where he took part in the victorious battle of Bukowo .
In 1601 Żółkiewski operated in the north , in Livonia ( Inflanty ) , during the Polish – Swedish War . He also took part in the successful siege of Wolmar , and in 1602 the taking of Fellin . That same year he led Polish forces at the battle of Reval , which led to a Swedish capitulation at the siege of Biały Kamień . Żólkiewski became ill near the end of the campaign and had to relinquish command of his forces to Hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz .
In 1606 Żółkiewski returned to Ukraine , where he defeated the Tatars at the battle of Udycz . Later that year he decided to support the king during the Zebrzydowski 's Rebellion . His decision was not an obvious one , as his mentor Zamoyski opposed the king . Additionally , Żółkiewski was related to the Zebrzydowski family and was sympathetic to some of the rebels ' arguments . In the battle of Guzów he commanded the left flank of the royal forces , but his troops took relatively little part in the battle . Unimpressed with Żółkiewski 's performance , the king did not give him not the Grand Crown Hetmanship that he coveted , although he was appointed to the office of the voivode of Kiev .
In the second half of 1609 Żółkiewski took part in the Polish – Muscovite War ( also known as the Dymitriads ) . He supported the election of Władysław IV Vasa for the tsar of Russia and the idea of a personal union between the Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia ( the Polish @-@ Muscovite union ) . During the De la Gardie Campaign in 1610 he achieved another significant victory against combined Russian and Swedish forces at the battle of Klushino . As a result of his successful campaign Żółkiewski seized Moscow and captured the tsar Vasiliy Shuyskiy and his brothers , Ivan Shuyskiy and Dmitri Shuyskiy . Zygmunt rejected Żółkiewski 's political plan however , which would have required Władysław to convert to Orthodoxy .
Żółkiewski began to write his memoirs after his return from Muscovy . The Początek i progres wojny moskiewskiej ( The beginning and Progress of the Muscovy War ) , published in 1612 , is a critique of Zygmunt 's policies . In 1612 he became a teacher and tutor of Stanisław Koniecpolski , future hetman and military commander . Also that year he returned to Ukraine to defend against continuing Tatar and Moldovan incursions , as well as Cossack unrest . In 1616 during a Sejm he presented a project O chowaniu żołnierza kwarcianego ( On the raising of the kwarciane soldiers ) , in which he argued for the need to raise a larger army to deal with the Tatars and the Cossacks . The project was however not approved by the parliament .
= = = Final years = = =
Żółkiewski 's popularity waned in the latter years of his career . He was accused of not supporting Samuel Korecki during the battle of Sasowy Róg in 1616 , of signing the Treaty of Jaruga ( Busza ) in 1617 which relinquished influence in some borderlands to Moldova and the Ottoman Empire ; and of failing to stop the Tatars at the battle of Orynin in 1618 . But in 1618 he finally received his coveted buława of the Grand Crown Hetman , and shortly afterwards the office of Grand Crown Chancellor . He was thus for a brief period the most powerful individual in the Commonwealth after the king , a position he reached not through wealth or family but by military achievement and reputation .
Despite being more than 70 years old , Żółkiewski continued in active service as a military commander until the very end . He died on 7 October 1620 , during the Commonwealth 's retreat after the battle of Cecora against the Turks , during the Polish – Ottoman War ( 1620 – 1621 ) which marked the end of the Moldavian campaigns . The battle comprised several engagements , in which Polish forces were routed . During the last rout Żólkiewski was killed ; according to an anecdote he refused to retreat , preferring to stay with the rear guard till the very end . Before his death he received the blessing of his confessor , Father Szymon Wybierski ( Wyberski , Wyberek ) of the Society of Jesus , who stood fearlessly at his side ( 7 October ) . { see painting " Battle of Cecora ( 1620 ) " by Walery Eljasz Radzikowski }
After the battle Żółkiewski 's corpse was desecrated by the removal of its head and sent to Constantinople as a trophy of war . His widow bought his body from the Turks and ransomed their son , who had been captured during the battle . Żółkiewski was buried in St Lawrence Church in Żółkiew ( now Zhovkva , Ukraine ) , the town he enlarged and where he built the Żółkiew Castle .
= = Remembrance = =
Żółkiewski 's heroic death – portrayed in several works of art by contemporaries such as Teofil Szemberg and Stanisław Witkowski – boosted his reputation and guaranteed him a place among the pantheon of the most famous of Polish military commanders . In the years following his death he was mentioned in the works of writers such as Stefan Żeromski , Józef Szujski , Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and Maria Konopnicka . Up to the present day , the story of his death is the best remembered aspect of his life , with a number of sources discussing the " legend of Żółkiewski " .
A monument was built at the site of Żółkiewski 's death ( now in Berezovca in Ocnița District , Moldova ) by his son Jan , in 1621 . It is inscribed with a motto from Horace : " Quam dulce et decorum est pro patria mori " ( How sweet and fitting it is to die for one 's country ) . The monument was destroyed in 1868 , rebuilt in 1912 , and renovated in 2003 . It is a venue for events organized by the Polish minority in Moldova .
In 1903 a statue of Żółkiewski was built in Źółkiew , but it was demolished in 1939 by Soviet troops in the aftermath of the Soviet invasion of Poland . In modern Poland Źółkiewski is celebrated as a military hero , but modern Russia 's Unity Day instead celebrates the anniversary of the surrender of the Polish forces he installed in the Moscow garrison . As of 2011 , the St. Lawrence 's Church and castle in Źółkwia were being renovated by a team of Polish and Ukrainians conservators .
= = Family and assets = =
Żółkiewski was married to Regina Herbutówna ; they had a son , Jan , and two daughters , Katarzyna and Zofia . Over the course of his career Żółkiewski amassed a large fortune , and acquired lands near Boryspil , Brody , Vinnytsia and Żółkiew . His annual income of more than 100 @,@ 000 złotys made him one of the wealthiest magnates in the Commonwealth . Żółkiewski 's assets were eventually inherited by Jakub Sobieski , whose son Jan became a Polish king and another renowned Polish commander .
= = Works = =
Początek i progres wojny moskiewskiej ( On the Beginning and the End of the Muscovite War , also known as The Beginning and Progress of the Muscovy War ) – Żółkiewski 's memoires describing his campaigns and diplomatic activity , written in the third person , and presenting a concise account of the Polish @-@ Muscovite War ( 1605 – 1618 ) .
= Keating ! =
Keating ! is a musical which portrays the political career of former Australian Prime Minister Paul Keating . Keating was Prime Minister between 1991 to 1996 ; the musical follows him from his ascent to the leadership through to his eventual electoral defeat by John Howard . It was written by Casey Bennetto , who was inspired to write the show by his disappointment at the results of the 2004 federal election , which saw Howard 's Coalition government returned for a fourth term . The musical takes a humorous , satirical tone and presents a positive image of Keating while frequently criticising the Howard government . Bennetto describes the show as " ridiculously pro @-@ Paul Keating " .
Originally performed by musical group the Drowsy Drivers , the show achieved rapid success from its low @-@ budget premiere at the 2005 Melbourne International Comedy Festival where it enjoyed a sold @-@ out run and won an unprecedented three festival awards . In 2006 , Neil Armfield directed an extended Company B production of Keating ! , now with two acts and six new songs written by Bennetto . The Company B production toured Australia , receiving favourable reviews and winning Helpmann Awards for Best Musical and Best Regional Touring Production . In 2008 a live recording of the show was broadcast nationally on ABC2 ; it was released on DVD in November 2008 , through Madman Entertainment .
= = Background = =
Paul Keating was a Labor Prime Minister of Australia from 1991 to 1996 , ascending to the office after two leadership challenges against his predecessor , Bob Hawke . As Prime Minister , he was interested in a " big picture " approach to government , engaging with issues such as a closer relationship with Asia , Aboriginal reconciliation and the formation of an Australian republic . His government was defeated in the 1996 federal election by the Liberal @-@ National coalition under John Howard . Writer Casey Bennetto was inspired to write a musical about Keating following his disappointment at the result of the 2004 federal election , which saw the Howard government returned for a fourth term . " It was time to have a laugh at it , " he said . He says Keating 's story appealed to him because of its classic dramatic structure , that of a man who struggles , " makes it to the top " and must compete against " three bad guys " — successive Opposition leaders John Hewson , Alexander Downer and John Howard . Bennetto believed Keating 's colourful personality made him an " ideal " character for musical theatre , citing the former Prime Minister 's reputation for being sharp @-@ tongued , wearing Zegna suits and collecting antique clocks . Bennetto wrote the show in eight weeks , drawing on Keating biography Recollections of a Bleeding Heart by Don Watson . He describes it as a " ridiculously pro @-@ Paul Keating " piece which ultimately aims to be funny and entertaining .
= = Production history = =
Originally performed by musical group the Drowsy Drivers , Keating ! premiered at the 2005 Melbourne International Comedy Festival as a low @-@ budget , single @-@ act show in a 100 @-@ seat venue at the Melbourne Trades Hall . Mike McLeish played the lead role , with Bennetto as " the three Hs – Hawke , Hewson and Howard " , Enio Pozzebon as Gareth Evans and Cam Rogers as Alexander Downer . Despite the musical 's success in Melbourne , Bennetto did not have any plans for Keating ! after the end of the comedy festival . However , producer Catherine Woodfield ( Bennetto 's partner and Trades Hall publican ) insisted they develop it further . Between 2005 and 2006 they took it on tour across Australia , including a week of shows in the Sydney Opera House , a return season at Melbourne 's Trades Hall , a two @-@ week season at the Adelaide Cabaret Festival , a week of shows at the Brisbane Powerhouse and two nights in Darwin .
Also in 2006 , renowned director Neil Armfield offered to direct a production of Keating ! at Sydney 's Belvoir St Theatre with Company B. For the Company B production Bennetto reworked the musical into a two @-@ act piece , writing six new songs for the show . Of the original cast , only McLeish , Pozzebon and Bennetto were retained ; McLeish returned as Keating and Pozzebon as Evans , while Bennetto took on the roles of Hewson and Downer . Terry Serio joined the cast as Hawke and Howard . Bennetto says that both he and McLeish were worried that Armfield would turn " relatively simply staged , roughly hewn " musical into " the Amadeus version " without the original show 's sense of fun , but instead felt it became a " more accomplished , buffed @-@ up version of the original show " .
The Company B version of Keating ! enjoyed sold @-@ out seasons in Melbourne , Sydney , Adelaide , Brisbane , Perth , Canberra , Wollongong , Albany and elsewhere ( including a run of shows at the 2007 Melbourne International Comedy Festival ) before coming to a close on 31 August 2008 . On 20 August 2008 , ABC2 broadcast a live performance of the show from Sydney 's Seymour Centre . The recording was released on DVD by Madman Entertainment in November 2008 .
= = Response = =
The premiere of the Drowsy Drivers ' production at the 2005 Melbourne International Comedy Festival was met with enthusiastic reviews . Comedian Chris Addison praised the musical as " the best show I 've seen at this festival in five years " and The Age 's Daniel Ziffer described it as " clever and superbly funny " . Within the first week it had become one of the most popular shows of the festival , having sold out by the fifth show . By the end of its Melbourne run , the show had won three major festival awards — the Barry , The Age Critics ' Award and the Golden Gibbo — the first time any production had ever done so . For the songs of Keating ! , Bennetto won both the 2006 Helpmann and Green Room Awards for best original musical score .
The Company B version also received strong reviews , with a writer in Brisbane 's Courier @-@ Mail describing it as " brilliantly satirical " and a reviewer in Melbourne 's Age awarding it the top rating of five stars . However Paul Sheehan , writing for the Sydney Morning Herald , criticised the musical 's pro @-@ Keating bias , calling the script " preachy and safe " and an insult to those who voted for Howard . In 2007 it won the Helpmann Award for Best Musical , as well as the awards for best direction for Armfield and best actor in a supporting role for Serio . The following year it won another Helpmann for best regional touring production . By the end of its 2007 Sydney season , it had taken $ 500 @,@ 000 in box office earnings , and by its final show in 2008 its total audience had reached over 223 @,@ 000 people across Australia .
Keating , who has attended the show multiple times , believes that it is popular because politics and public life today are without humour . " The game is very dour , " he says , " But satire can get a lot across . It can cut out the humbug . " He believes another reason is an increased interest in the unsettled issues in the national debate , such as the question of a republic . Downer has also seen the show and commented afterwards that he enjoys satire and thought " Keating ! the musical was far better than Keating the prime minister . "
= = Synopsis = =
The following summary refers to the extended , two @-@ act version of the musical .
= = = Act One = = =
Sung @-@ through , the production begins with Bob Hawke introducing the political situation of 1990 and the contrasting personalities of Hawke — with his enthusiasm for " footy " and cricket — and his deputy , Paul Keating , who is fond of " the works of Mahler " ( " My Right Hand Man " ) . While Hawke admires Keating 's economic prowess , he is perplexed by the other man 's " un @-@ Australian " interests . Keating emerges and shares some of his life story and his hopes to gain the leadership from Hawke as they had agreed to in a deal known as the Kirribilli Accord for the venue at which it was reached ( " Do It In Style " ) . However , Hawke reneges on the deal and Keating returns to the back bench . In a rock ballad , vaguely in the style of Queen , he sings of his desolation before resolving to challenge for the Prime Ministership ( " I Remember Kirribilli " ) . He confronts Hawke with the blue @-@ eyed soul @-@ style " It 's Time " ; the song refers to the name of former Prime Minister Gough Whitlam 's famous 1970s campaign and uses Keating 's fondness for collecting antique clocks as a motif for his belief that it is indeed time for a change of leadership . Keating becomes Prime Minister and sings of his ambitions for the nation — including a treaty with Australian Aborigines , an Australian republic and improved relationships with Australia 's Asian neighbours — in a reggae song ( " Ruler Of The Land " ) .
As Keating celebrates his success , Gareth Evans cautions that the political life of a Prime Minister is limited in the minor @-@ key Latin tune " The Beginning Is The End " . Both he and the ghost of Gough Whitlam counsel Keating to " maintain your rage " . Keating then faces off against Opposition Leader John Hewson in a freestyle rap battle , arguing over the merits of Hewson 's " Fightback ! " policy platform , with Keating winning the battle due to his superior command of colourful invective , much of which is drawn from actual Keating quotes ( " On The Floor " ) . Angered , Hewson challenges Keating to call an early election , but Keating refuses in the song " I Wanna Do You Slowly " . The song 's title again refers to a well @-@ known Keating quote , but takes on a sexual interpretation in the slow , Barry White @-@ style funk number . The Keating government contests the 1993 federal election , and in an animated video Kerry O 'Brien , Michael Kroger , Robert Ray and Antony Green report on the incoming results in scat over ukulele ( " Antony Green " ) . Labor wins , and Keating sings about the unexpected victory as " the sweetest victory of all " , using a famous phrase from his actual election night speech ( " Sweet " ) .
= = = Act Two = = =
In the ska tune " The Arse End Of The Earth " , which refers to Keating 's private description of Australia , both Keating and Evans complain about the day @-@ to @-@ day issues of the economy and their unfavourable portrayal in the commercial media getting in the way of their larger agenda , including republicanism , a new flag , and Aboriginal reconciliation . Alexander Downer replaces Hewson as Opposition Leader for a short and unsuccessful period . In a costume of fishnets , corsetry and lipstick that alludes to a photograph of the actual Downer posing in fishnet stockings for a competition , he sings his belief that he is just " too freaky " for the leadership ( " Freaky " ) . Meanwhile , Evans has an extramarital affair with Australian Democrats leader Cheryl Kernot ( typically played by a male ) ( " Heavens , Mister Evans " ) . In an understated minor @-@ key bossa nova song , Keating sings of the need to recognise and apologise for the damage done by white colonisation and subsequent subjugation of the Australian Aboriginal population ( " Redfern " ) , before segueing into a more upbeat mambo about the Mabo decision by the High Court of Australia and his attempts to use the decision to promote a reconciliation agenda ( " Ma ( m ) bo " ) .
John Howard becomes leader of the Opposition , presenting a new threat to Keating . Howard describes his intense desire for power and his thirst for revenge against the petty humiliations put on him as a child in a menacing minor @-@ key march ( " Power " ) . However , in the media he presents himself as " a normal bloke and nothing more " ( " The Mateship " ) . Through various costume changes , he attempts to cast himself as a sports fan , a friend of the Australian soldier and a farmer , though the song implies that these are only costumes . The song also refers to the " children overboard " affair , his criticism of political correctness , and his use of immigration as a political issue , some of which occurred after the actual Howard 's subsequent election to Prime Minister . In a slow rock duet , Keating and Howard both beseech voters to " Choose Me " . However , as the 1996 electoral polls close , Keating concludes that he is doomed electorally . He sings of his unachieved dreams and with some bitterness at what he sees as the backward @-@ looking message of his opponent in a country @-@ influenced ballad referring to former Labor Prime Minister Ben Chifley 's description of Labor 's overarching goals ( " The Light On The Hill " ) .
In the final number , " Historical Revisionism " , the election tightens dramatically and the results come to hang on a single polling booth — the theatre in which the musical is playing . Keating wins and Howard concedes with the line " Well , I 'm sorry ... that I lost ! " ( a reference to his unwillingness to support a formal apology to the Aboriginal people ) . As the song 's title indicates , the actual Keating did not win the 1996 election . The song segues into a reprise of " Ruler Of The Land " .
= = Music = =
The songs of Keating ! employ a wide range of musical styles , including bossa nova , blues , rap , reggae , soul , swing and beer @-@ barrel waltz . Mara Lazzarotto Davis has written a highly readable and entertaining academic study of Casey Bennetto 's " Keating ! " as a generic hybrid - deftly blending vaudeville , theatre and musical comedy ( " " Flicking the Switch : Vaudeville Traditions and Myth @-@ Making in Keating ! " in Sydney Undergraduate Journal of Musicology , Vol . 5 , December 2015 ) . The lyrics frequently draw on quotes from the real Keating and other political figures , particularly in " On The Floor " which contains numerous verbatim quotes from Keating 's debates with Hewson . In expanding the show for the Company B production Bennetto wrote six new songs , adding an Act One " curtain " number ( " Sweet " ) , an exploration of Keating 's time in office ( " The Arse End Of The Earth " ) , two songs on Aboriginal reconciliation and native title ( " Redfern " and " Ma ( m ) bo " ) and another song for Howard ( " The Mateship " ) . " Dogs Of Damnation " , a song from the original version in which Evans warns Keating that his political life is limited , was replaced by the similarly themed " The Beginning Is The End " .
A live recording of the original single @-@ act version played at the Sydney Opera House was released in 2006 by Bella Union Enterprises and is available through the Drowsy Drivers ' Keating ! website . In 2007 Company B released a cast recording of the extended show containing all of the musical numbers featured on stage except for " Antony Green " . The CD features the Company B production 's original cast , with McLeish as Keating , Serio as Hawke and Howard , Bennetto as Hewson and Downer , Pozzebon as Evans and Mick Stuart as Kernot . The band consists of Alon Ilsar ( drums ) , Eden Ottignon ( bass ) , Pozzebon ( keyboards ) , Guy Strazz ( acoustic guitar ) and Mick Stuart ( electric guitar ) . By 2008 , the CD had sold over 5 @,@ 000 copies . Also that year , a live recording of the extended version was performed at Sydney ’ s Seymour Centre . Among the audience members who attended the recording , the real @-@ life Keating and Cheryl Kernot made an appearance . The recording is currently available on DVD .
= = = Musical numbers = = =
= Robert White ( attorney general ) =
Robert White ( February 7 , 1833 – December 12 , 1915 ) was an American military officer , lawyer , and politician in the U.S. state of West Virginia . White served as Attorney General of West Virginia ( 1877 – 1881 ) and served two terms in the West Virginia House of Delegates , representing Ohio County in 1885 and 1891 .
Born in 1833 in Romney , Virginia ( present @-@ day West Virginia ) , White was the son of Hampshire County Court Clerk John Baker White and his second wife , Frances Ann Streit White . He was educated at the Romney Classical Institute , worked in his father 's clerking office for six years , and studied jurisprudence under John White Brockenbrough at his Lexington Law School . White was admitted to the bar in 1854 and practiced law in Romney .
Prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War , White was commissioned a Captain of the Frontier Riflemen , which later became Company I of the 13th Virginia Volunteer Infantry Regiment , commanded by Colonel A. P. Hill in 1861 . In 1864 , he was commissioned as a Colonel in command of the 23rd Virginia Volunteer Cavalry Regiment and served in that capacity until the unit disbanded in April 1865 . Following the war , White returned to Romney and practiced law with John Jeremiah Jacob . He devoted his efforts to bringing economic development to the South Branch Potomac River Valley , which had been desolated during the war . White was one of nine members to revive the Romney Literary Society following the war , and in 1870 , the organization successfully secured the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind for Romney . He served three terms on the school 's Board of Regents . White also established the South Branch Railway Company and was its president until 1877 .
White was elected as West Virginia 's attorney general in 1876 and served from 1877 until 1881 . He was charged with several important lawsuits , among the most prominent being the state 's pursuance of tax liabilities from railroad companies . White argued the case before the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia , which ruled in White 's favor and ultimately enriched the West Virginia state treasury . He successfully secured the extradition of Elihu Gregg from Pennsylvania after Gregg was accused of burning the Preston County courthouse and fled . In Kitzmiller v. Williams , White argued in favor of the rights of former Confederate soldiers before the Supreme Court of the United States and secured a favorable verdict . Following his tenure as attorney general , White served two terms in the West Virginia House of Delegates . In 1885 , he represented the state at the Washington Monument 's dedication . White subsequently served two terms as the city solicitor of Wheeling , and was later counsel for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company .
In his later life , White was involved in Confederate memorial activities . He was a member of the Confederate Memorial Association board of trustees , the chief officer of the West Virginia Division of the United Confederate Veterans , and served as commander with the rank of major @-@ general in the national organization . White was chairman of the construction committee for the Confederate Memorial Institute 's Battle Abbey in Richmond . He was a Freemason and served as Grand Master of the state of West Virginia in 1875 . White attended the 100th anniversary of the burial of George Washington in 1899 and was chosen by the Grand Lodge of Virginia as the Grand Marshal of the Masonic ceremonies while attending the observance at Mount Vernon . He also became a noted lecturer and orator in his later years . Following a prolonged illness , White died in Wheeling in 1915 .
= = Early life and education = =
Robert White was born on February 7 , 1833 , in Romney , Virginia , part of present @-@ day West Virginia . White was the eldest son and child of Hampshire County court clerk John Baker White ( 1794 – 1862 ) and his second wife Frances Ann Streit White ( c . 1809 – 1879 ) and a grandson of prominent Virginia judge Robert White ( 1759 – 1831 ) . He was likely named for his grandfather , Judge Robert White .
White had three older half sisters from his father 's first marriage to Alcinda Louisa Tapscott : Susan J. White Armstrong , Juliet Opie White Tabb , and Arabella White Thompson . Through his father 's second marriage to his mother Frances Ann Streit , White had nine siblings , including five brothers and four sisters :
White obtained his primary education in local common schools , including the Romney Classical Institute , which was presided over by Dr. William Henry Foote . Beginning at the age of 14 , he worked in his father 's Clerk of the County Court office for about six years . Following his law apprenticeship under his father , White studied jurisprudence under John White Brockenbrough at his Lexington Law School in Lexington . Following the completion of his legal studies , White was admitted to the bar on March 30 , 1854 , and immediately began practicing law in Romney . Along with his relative Alfred P. White , his father , and his brother Christian Streit White , Robert White became an active and influential member of the Hampshire County bar . Prior to the American Civil War , White was enrolled as a member of the Romney Literary Society .
= = Military career = =
In 1860 , following John Brown 's raid on Harpers Ferry in October 1859 , a Virginia uniformed volunteer military company known as the Frontier Riflemen was formed with White as commanding officer in the rank of Captain . Following the outbreak of the Civil War , Governor John Letcher ordered the Frontier Riflemen to report to Lieutenant General Stonewall Jackson at Harpers Ferry . White and his unit marched to Harpers Ferry on May 18 , 1861 . He and his unit traveled north on the Moorefield and North Branch Turnpike to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad mainline at Green Spring , then to Harpers Ferry . Following their arrival , White 's company was reassigned as Company I of the 13th Virginia Volunteer Infantry Regiment commanded by Colonel A. P. Hill . The company marched from Harpers Ferry to Winchester and returned to Romney in June 1861 , at which time they occupied the town for several days .
A detachment under White 's command , consisting of White 's Company I , Company K , and the 1st Tennessee , were then sent to New Creek to destroy railroad bridges . The detachment successfully burned the bridges , after which it engaged in a skirmish with the Cumberland Home Guards . White 's forces defeated the guards and captured two cannons , their first trophies of war . Colonel Hill marched to Winchester , and Company I then came under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston .
During the Winter of 1861 – 62 , White was reassigned to the ordnance department and served in that capacity until 1863 , when he was authorized to raise and command a battalion of cavalry . White formed the 41st Battalion Virginia Cavalry in September 1863 and continued to serve as the battalion 's commanding officer until seven of its companies were consolidated with two companies of O 'Ferrall 's Battalion Virginia Cavalry to form the 23rd Virginia Volunteer Cavalry Regiment in April 1864 . White was then commissioned as a Colonel in command of the cavalry regiment and served in that capacity until the unit disbanded in April 1865 . White remained in the service of the Confederate States Army until May 14 , 1865 . White had served with ability throughout the war , and saw action across Virginia .
During the war , White 's father left Romney with his wife and youngest children and traveled to Richmond . There he served in the Confederate States Department of the Treasury within the government of the President of the Confederate States of America , Jefferson Davis . White 's father , John Baker White , died soon after his arrival in Richmond on October 9 , 1862 .
= = Reconstruction efforts = =
Following the war , White returned to Romney . On account of his father 's death during the war and White being the eldest son , he became his family 's patriarch and resumed practicing law to provide for them . In 1865 , he entered into a practice with John Jeremiah Jacob until Jacob began his tenure as Governor of West Virginia in 1871 . White then expanded his law practice and it became the largest of its kind in the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia . He continued his law practice until 1877 , when he became Attorney General of West Virginia .
White devoted his efforts to bringing economic development to the South Branch Potomac River Valley , which had been devastated during the course of the American Civil War and remained undeveloped during the Reconstruction Era . In an effort to rebuild his hometown , Romney , following the war , White sought to first memorialize the Confederate war dead . Early in the Spring of 1866 , a meeting was held at White 's home in Romney with his wife Ellen E. Vass White , his brother Christian Streit White , Elizabeth " Bessie " Jane Schultze ( later Mrs. Christian Streit White ) , and his sister Frances " Fannie " Ann Armstrong White ( later Mrs. Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy ) . Following this meeting , an inspired group of Hampshire County women assembled and adopted a constitution for the Confederate Memorial Association , of which White 's wife served as a president . Through the association 's efforts , the first decoration of Confederate graves at Indian Mound Cemetery took place on June 1 , 1866 . The association sponsored the construction of the Confederate Memorial at Indian Mound Cemetery , which was dedicated on September 26 , 1867 .
On May 15 , 1869 , nine members of the Romney Literary Society , including White , commenced an effort to revive the society 's activities and reconstitute its library , which had been destroyed during the war . When the state of West Virginia first founded an institution for deaf and blind students , White helped to pass the legislative act that established the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . On April 20 , 1870 , during a meeting of the schools ' Board of Regents , in Wheeling , White and Andrew Wodrow Kercheval were sent by the Romney Literary Society to make a formal offer of the Romney Classical Institute buildings and grounds to the board . Through White 's efforts , the school was established on the former campus of the Romney Classical Institute in Romney , where it remains as of 2015 .
White was subsequently appointed to serve three terms on the schools ' Board of Regents . White was appointed to the Board of Regents ' first ( 1870 ) , second ( 1871 – 1873 ) , and third ( 1874 – 1876 ) terms , and served as its secretary each time . In his report to Governor William E. Stevenson at the close of the institutions ' first school year , in 1871 , White wrote : " The board has to express its entire satisfaction with the present flourishing condition of the institution . The discipline , the progress of the pupils in their studies and their general improvement , deserve the highest commendation and entitle our deaf and dumb and blind institution to the unstinted patronage of the state . "
In addition to his appointments to the schools ' Board of Regents , White was also appointed by the West Virginia Legislature to the state boards of trustees of Capon Springs and Berkeley Springs . He resigned his position on the board of trustees of Berkeley Springs , but he remained a member of Capon Springs 's board until at least 1897 .
White also created a railway line linking Romney with the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad mainline at Green Spring . He established the South Branch Railway Company to accomplish this and served as the company 's president for several years until relocating to Wheeling in 1877 . Through his efforts , the means and finances were raised to construct the railway .
= = Political career = =
= = = Attorney General of West Virginia = = =
White was a lifelong member of the Democratic Party . In 1876 , White was nominated at the West Virginia Democratic Party Convention held in Charleston as the party 's candidate for Attorney General of West Virginia despite not expressing interest in the position . That November , White was elected to the office by the largest majority won by politician in West Virginia up until that time . At the time of his election , the state 's capital was Wheeling and on April 1 , 1877 , he relocated there with his family to serve in his post . On the morning of his departure from Romney , the residents of the community bid White farewell by turning out with two brass bands and escorting White and his family to the outskirts of town . There , an address was delivered by one of Romney 's elder residents , and the White family left for Wheeling .
During his tenure as attorney general , White was in charge of several important lawsuits , among the most prominent being the state 's pursuance of tax liabilities from railroad companies . Prior to his election as attorney general , railroads had never paid taxes in the state of West Virginia . White instituted proceedings to tax all the railroads within the state . The Chesapeake and Ohio Railway Company obtained an injunction against the levying of the taxes , leading to a judicial test case . White argued the case first in the lower courts , and then before the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia , which ruled in White 's favor . The Supreme Court of the United States affirmed the ruling of the state supreme court , which compelled the railroads to pay taxes to the state , ultimately enriching the West Virginia state treasury .
White also played prominent role in his position as attorney general during the case of Elihu Gregg . Gregg had been convicted by the Preston County Circuit Court of burning the county courthouse and the public records therein , and also of burning the janitress who had been sleeping in the courthouse at the time of the fire . Gregg was sentenced to death for these crimes , but following his sentence , he escaped to Greene County , Pennsylvania to the company of his friends and supporters , as the Gregg family was prominent in the region .
Requisition was made by West Virginia Governor Henry Mason Mathews , and White was subsequently requested to appear before Pennsylvania Governor John F. Hartranft to argue for Gregg 's extradition back to West Virginia . White was successful in his argument and Governor Hartranft issued an order of extradition . Gregg immediately obtained writ of habeas corpus and was brought before the Green County Court presided over by Judge Wilson of Fayette County , Pennsylvania .
White traveled to the Green County Courthouse where he was met by an infuriated mob of Gregg 's friends and supporters who had been awaiting the attorney 's appearance . The mob then threatened to lynch White for attempting to return Gregg to West Virginia to carry out his sentence . White was informed of these threats by a friend , and was advised to leave town quietly . White responded by stating that he had a duty to perform and would perform it " if it were the will of a higher power , " and if not , he would die in his attempt to secure right and justice . White made his way to the courthouse , and by a few well @-@ chosen remarks , secured the attention of the crowd . White depicted Gregg 's crime in detail , during which time he was reportedly on his feet for five hours and twenty minutes . After which , Gregg was extradited back to West Virginia .
White was associated with another high profile case , Kitzmiller v. Williams , which involved the belligerent rights of former Confederate soldiers . The case was on appeal from the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia , and White argued the case before the United States Supreme Court , securing a favorable verdict . The case was significant as even though hundreds of similar cases had been previously fought , it was not until this point that the rights of former Confederate soldiers were recognized .
During his term as attorney general , White maintained a private law office on Chapline Street in Wheeling . White declined to accept a reelection to the office of West Virginia Attorney General .
= = = West Virginia House of Delegates = = =
Following his tenure as West Virginia Attorney General , White served two terms in the West Virginia House of Delegates representing Ohio County , first in 1885 , and again in 1891 . According to a 1903 biography , White was described as an " able , incorruptible and active legislator . " During both sessions , he served as chairman of the Finance Committee and also served in other important capacities , including on the Judiciary Committee .
The West Virginia Legislature of 1891 was composed largely of members of the West Virginia Democratic Party , of which White was a member . In 1891 , White 's colleagues in the legislature delivered a testimonial to White in gratitude for his service . It stated :
" SIR : – Among the members of the Legislature of West Virginia there is a general desire to express to you in some formal way their appreciation of the great zeal , ability and untiring industry that have marked your course in the Legislature this session . As chairman of the Finance Committee and one of the Judiciary Committee of the House , the duties incumbent upon you have been exceeding [ sic ] important and exacting , both in committee room and on the floor of the House . In the performance of these duties you have been so zealous , industrious , painstaking and conservative as to attract the attention and win the respect and confidence of the entire legislature and to deserve thanks and gratitude not only of your fellow members but of the people of the state at large . Permit us , therefore , to tender to you some expression of our appreciation of the benefit of the State derived from your earnest labors to say that we all feel that you have fully deserved not only our commendation but a right to the gratitude and respect of your fellow citizens throughout the State of West Virginia . "
= = = Subsequent political positions = = =
In 1885 , White was appointed by Governor Jacob B. Jackson to represent the state of West Virginia at the dedication of the Washington Monument in Washington , D.C. During the dedication ceremony on February 21 , 1885 , White acted as one of the assistants to the grand marshal .
White served two terms as the city solicitor of Wheeling , and for many years , he served as a counsel for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company . During his tenure there , White was charged with some of the most important cases that were tried the courts of West Virginia at the time . He was also twice @-@ elected as president of the Ohio County Bar Association . During this time , White also served as the legal advisor on the board of directors of the Ohio Valley Life Company .
= = Later life and death = =
White was an adherent of the Presbyterian faith , and for many years he served as a ruling elder of the First Presbyterian Church of Wheeling . He also represented the presbytery at the centennial session of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church , which met in Philadelphia .
White was a member of the arbitration convention of the Sons of the American Revolution which was held in Washington , D.C. in May 1896 , and also served as the president of the West Virginia Society of that organization . White was a member of the board of trustees of the Confederate Memorial Association , and on September 4 , 1896 , he was made a member of the organization 's executive committee in Chattanooga , Tennessee . White also served as the chief officer of the West Virginia Division of the United Confederate Veterans . In that organization , White held the position of commander and rank of major @-@ general . On May 30 , 1903 , White was the orator at the Confederate memorial ceremony held at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond .
Following United Confederate Veterans ' September 1909 meeting in Charleston , White was reelected to his post as commander . By 1896 , White led a local endeavor to establish a West Virginia Home for Confederate Veterans . In 1911 , he was on the chairman of the committee for the construction of the Confederate Memorial Institute 's Battle Abbey in Richmond .
On May 20 , 1912 , a ceremony was held in Richmond for the laying of the cornerstone of the Confederate Memorial Institute 's Battle Abbey . White gave the ceremony 's principal address , in which he delivered an exhaustive history of the movement for the construction of the abbey and spoke on the importance of the abbey being built in the former Confederate capital . He also called for the cooperation of the Southern states in providing artifacts to the abbey .
From his early adulthood until his death , White was a Freemason and served as Grand Master of the state of West Virginia in 1875 . In that capacity , he laid the cornerstone of the capitol building at Wheeling . Prior to his relocation to Wheeling , he was also Master of the Clinton Lodge of Masons in Romney . On October 26 , 1899 , he gave an address according to Grand Lodge ritual at the cornerstone laying ceremony of the new school in Wellsburg . White attended the 100th anniversary of the interment of George Washington on December 14 , 1899 and was chosen by the Grand Lodge of Virginia as the chief Grand Marshal of the Masonic ceremonies while attending the observance . He and his staff had full charge of the procession and all matters of the celebration . A reproduction of Washington 's funeral services were held at Mount Vernon , and White served as a commander of the occasion , where he stood beside President William McKinley during his address to those in attendance . Prior to the anniversary , in November 1899 , the National Christian Association published sheets in the anti @-@ secret society publication Christian Cynosure in which they denied Washington 's Freemasonry affiliations . White released a statement in which he remarked : " This attack is the meanest thing I ever saw in a Christian publication . " He further went on to illustrate a historic narrative citing the dates of Washington 's Masonic activities and affiliations .
White was also called upon to serve as Grand Marshal during the visit of Admiral Dewey to Wheeling on February 22 , 1900 . He was remembered by Dewey , who subsequently sent White his picture with his compliments and signature at the top .
In his later life , White became a noted lecturer . One of his more popular lectures was entitled " The Old Foundation Stands , " which was prepared and delivered by White in response to Robert G. Ingersoll 's lecture " The Foundation of Faith , " in which Ingersoll criticized the Old Testament of the Bible .
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White delivered the lecture in several states . During the summer of 1900 , White traveled throughout Europe . He visited the village of Oberammergau in Germany , after which , he created a lecture illustrating the Oberammergau Passion Play .
White was an active member of the West Virginia Bar Association for many years , and served as its president in 1914 . When he celebrated his 82nd birthday in February 1915 , he enjoyed dinner with his close friends at his Bae Mar Place home . He suffered from a prolonged illness throughout 1915 , which caused him to miss a number of high profile engagements . For example , White was to have been the guest of James Taylor Ellyson , Lieutenant Governor of Virginia during the United Confederate Veterans Reunion Week in Richmond , but cancelled his visit on May 30 , 1915 on account of his ill health . He was also slated to give the address at the commencement exercises of the Richmond Academy on June 4 , 1915 , but was unable to attend due to his declining health . White died of " old age " on December 12 , 1915 in his residence on Bae Mar Place in Wheeling , after having been ill for six months prior . White was interred at Greenwood Cemetery in Wheeling on December 14 , 1915 . White was survived by his daughter Kate White Ferrell , his brother Christian Streit White , and his wife Ellen . His wife died in Richmond on December 17 , 1921 , and was interred beside him at Greenwood Cemetery .
= = Personal life and family = =
In 1859 , White married Ellen E. Vass ( July 23 , 1839 – December 17 , 1921 ) , the daughter of James C. Vass . James C. Vass was an influential banker at the old Bank of Virginia in Richmond . Through her mother , Ellen Vass was related to Chief Justice of the United States John Marshall and Robert E. Lee , and her paternal grandfather was a wealthy merchant in Fredericksburg . White and his wife Ellen had six children together : John Baker White , who died at the age of four ; James C. White , who died in infancy ; Robert White , who died after the war ; Marshall V. White ( July 5 , 1867 – 1894 ) , a businessman in Philadelphia ; Eleanor " Nellie " R. White ( February 28 , 1868 – September 18 , 1881 ) , who died in a railroad collision near Grafton ; and Katherine " Kate " White Ferrell Hancher ( February 13 , 1870 – July 29 , 1950 ) , who married first to Chiles M. Ferrell of Richmond , and later married a Mr. Hancher .
Upon relocating to Wheeling in 1877 , White and his wife resided at 7 13th Street , and they later relocated to 125 14th Street . The latter house became a contributing property to the East Wheeling Historic District upon its addition to the National Register of Historic Places on November 22 , 1999 . The couple made their final residence together at Bae Mar Place in Wheeling .
= = Legacy = =
In a biography of White published in Men of West Virginia , Volume 2 in 1903 , White was described as " one of the most brilliant lawyers produced by the State of West Virginia . " In his 1915 obituary published in both the Charleston Daily Mail and The Wheeling Intelligencer , White was described as " always kind , courteous , but at the same time strictly exact . " In May 1915 Virginia Lieutenant Governor Ellyson said that Richmond owed more to White than any other man for his efforts in securing the location of the Confederate Memorial Institute .
= Pretty Much Dead Already =
" Pretty Much Dead Already " is the seventh episode of the second season of the post @-@ apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on November 27 , 2011 . In the episode , Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) reveals to the group that there are walkers in the Greenes ' barn , dividing the group on what to do . Hershel Greene ( Scott Wilson ) sets a deadline for the group to leave , unless Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) does a difficult task . Meanwhile , Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) slowly loses his sanity after many secrets around him are revealed and Carol Peletier begins to question whether her daughter , Sophia will be found .
The episode was written by Scott M. Gimple and directed by Michelle MacLaren . The death of Sophia Peletier is a prominent theme in " Pretty Much Dead Already " ; she was killed by Grimes following her conversion into a walker . Robert Kirkman felt that killing Sophia off would add more dimension to the show , and create more flexibility in regards to the progression of the storylines , as well as leading to very different storylines , with Carol outliving her daughter , as opposed to the other way around . " Pretty Much Dead Already " generated critical acclaim , who praised the episode 's conclusion and the development of the characters . Upon airing in the United States , the episode attained 6 @.@ 62 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . It became the highest @-@ rated cable telecast of the day , as well as the fourth most @-@ viewed cable program of the week .
= = Plot = =
During breakfast at the camp , Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) , at the urging of Dale ( Jeffrey DeMunn ) , finally tells the group that the Greene family 's barn is full of walkers . The survivors inspect the structure and debate what they should do . Shane ( Jon Bernthal ) furiously demands they clear the barn of the walkers , while Rick ( Andrew Lincoln ) reminds him that they 're guests on Hershel ( Scott Wilson ) ' s property and they cannot leave without Sophia ( Madison Lintz ) . Shane believes Sophia is long gone , prompting Daryl ( Norman Reedus ) to react furiously . Rick agrees the barn needs to be cleared , but insists on getting Hershel 's blessing first .
Maggie Greene ( Lauren Cohan ) is upset with Glenn because he betrayed her confidence by telling the group about the barn . Glenn confronts her and says that her personal well @-@ being is more important than her affections . As Daryl readies to search for Sophia , Sophia 's mother , Carol ( Melissa McBride ) insists that he not go out into the woods . He responds angrily , but later apologizes by taking her to a pond where another Cherokee rose is blooming ; this restores her faith in finding her daughter . Rick interrupts Hershel 's lunch to discuss the barn , and Hershel demands that the group leave his farm within a week . Rick argues that going " out there " would be a death sentence for the group . Rick finds Shane brooding by the barn , where Shane defends his opinion about clearing it of zombies . The two argue until Rick finally blurts out that Lori ( Sarah Wayne Callies ) is pregnant . As Rick leaves , Shane congratulates him , albeit with a look of fear and shock on his face .
After being confronted by Maggie , Hershel and Jimmy ( James Allen McCune ) bring Rick to a forest swamp , where they find two walkers stuck in the mud . Hershel explains that if Rick 's group wants to stay , they have to treat walkers like people . Meanwhile , Shane confronts Lori about her family 's well @-@ being , adding that he is the father of her baby . Lori denies his sentiments , which causes Shane to storm off the premises . Carl ( Chandler Riggs ) stops him , insisting that they stay and search for Sophia . Shane says he will do whatever is necessary to make it possible to stay . Lori watches from a distance as Shane conspires with her son . Dale unsuccessfully warns Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) about Shane 's erratic behavior . After distracting Glenn , Dale steals the weapons and leaves the RV . Shane realizes that the guns are missing , and locates them with Dale in the swamps . Dale threatens to shoot Shane if he takes the guns , but Shane calls his bluff . Dale backs down but warns Shane that he is losing his humanity . Shane utters the episode 's titular line in this confrontation .
Shane brings the guns back to the farmhouse and arms the rest of the group . T @-@ Dog ( IronE Singleton ) spots Rick and Hershel emerging from the forest with two walkers attached to snare poles . Shane , distraught to brink of insanity , screams that walkers aren 't people and that Sophia is gone , and shoots one of the captured zombies despite Rick 's pleas to calm down . He then breaks the locks off the barn door . Walkers start to file out , and Shane , Andrea , T @-@ Dog , Daryl , and Glenn execute the zombies while the others watch . At the last moment , Sophia emerges from the barn , dead and zombified . The group is paralyzed with shock and sadness , unable to act as Sophia walks towards them . Only Rick is able to step forward and shoot her .
= = Production = =
" Pretty Much Dead Already " was written by Scott M. Gimple and directed by Michelle MacLaren . It features recurring appearances from Lauren Cohan , Scott Wilson , IronE Singleton , Madison Lintz , Emily Kinney , Jane McNeill , James Allen McCune , and Amber Chaney . Following the initial broadcast of the previous installment , " Secrets " , writer Robert Kirkman teased the following episode " Pretty Much Dead Already " . He stated : " There 's a lot of big stuff out there that we will be wrapping up to a certain extent . In the writers ' room we were fully aware that we were coming up on this hiatus , so we definitely wrote to it . I think people are going to be a little shocked . "
The death of Sophia Peletier is a major incident in " Pretty Much Dead Already " , largely affecting the themes of the episode . After the group has shot the walkers housed in Hershel Greene 's barn , Sophia appears from the barn as a walker , much to the groups ' dismay . A disturbed and distraught Rick Grimes pulls out his weapon and makes the decision to shoot her . Despite being initially surprised about her character 's being killed off , Madison Lintz concluded that she understood its aftermath for the show . Lintz affirmed that portraying a walker was a welcoming experience for her , and stated that she was " going to look back on and say that was amazing . " Robert Kirkman felt that killing Sophia would add more dimension to the show , as well as add more flexibility to its storyline progression . " When a good idea comes up , you have to go with it , " he articulated . " Sophia is a character who is still alive in the comic book series and who has contributed quite a bit to the overall narrative and informed a lot of story lines for a lot of different characters . Having Carol [ ... ] survive her daughter as opposed to the other way around as it is in the comics is going to lead to interesting but different stories . " Although Kirkman was not on set during production of the sequence , Gimple retrieved shell casings from the blanks that were fired on set . Referred to as " Barnageddon " by the writers , Kirkman asserted that he emphasized unpredictability while creating the scene .
It 's good to know people didn 't see it coming . That 's a big concern when you have this kind of story line and you are leading to that kind of reveal . You don 't want people to be expecting it , especially in the Walking Dead . I pride myself in the fact that , when you pick up an issue of the comic , you don 't know what 's going to happen at any time . So any time we can work that into the show and maintain that in a television environment , it 's very exciting for me . I ’ m glad people are being caught off guard .
Other themes prevalent in the episode include Lori 's pregnancy . After getting into a heated argument , Rick reveals to Shane about her pregnancy . Although he didn 't question who the biological father was , Robert Kirkman felt that Rick was " smart enough to know that the kid 's either his or Shane 's and there may not be any way of ever finding out that definitively . " He continued : " Bringing that up to his wife , who he loves , is only going to be painful for her . I think that ’ s him being a good husband and him showing his tremendous leadership ability in that he can put his self aside for the betterment of someone else . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Pretty Much Dead Already " was initially broadcast in November 27 , 2011 in the United States on AMC . Upon airing , it garnered 6 @.@ 62 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode became the highest @-@ rated cable program of the day , obtaining significantly higher ratings than Kourtney and Kim Take New York on E ! and Real Housewives of Atlanta on Bravo . " Pretty Much Dead Already " received the show 's highest ratings since " Bloodletting " , which obtained 6 @.@ 7 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . In addition , the episode became the fourth highest @-@ rated cable telecast of the week , and the highest @-@ rated non sport cable telecast of the week dated November 27 . Total viewership and ratings for the episode significantly increased from the preceding installment , " Secrets " , which garnered 6 @.@ 08 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 1 rating amongst adults in the 18 – 49 demographic . In the United Kingdom , " Pretty Much Dead Already " received 666 @,@ 000 viewers , subsequently becoming the most @-@ watched cable program on FX of the week dated December 4 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Pretty Much Dead Already " was critically acclaimed by television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN evaluated the episode as " completely depressing " , and added that the dark nature made the series excel . Goldman ultimately gave the episode an eight out of ten , signifying a " great " rating . Aaron Rutkoff of The Wall Street Journal felt that the episode was the series ' best installment . Writing for The Grand Rapids Press , John Serba opined that " Pretty Much Dead Already " was a delightful ending to the first portion of the season . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club stated that prior to its ending , the episode was " the usual mix of pretty good and deeply irritating . " Handlen lauded the character development in the installment ; " The episode puts a lot of effort into heightening the tensions between Hershel and Rick 's people , and while it ’ s not exactly subtle , it makes enough sense to be effective . This is conflict that should 've been building for a few episodes now , instead of arriving fully formed right before it explodes , but I 'm willing to take what I can get . " Concluding his review , he issued the episode an A – grade . Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffrey avouched that " Pretty Much Dead Already " was " excellent " , and added that the tension " slowly ratchets up to an almost unbearable level . " Some critics were divided with the episode . Time journalist Nate Rawlings felt that while the writers put a lot of substance into the characters , many of them are still underdeveloped . Gina McIntyre of Los Angeles Times felt that some parts of the episode lacked cohesion and direction .
The episode 's concluding scene involving Sophia 's death was cited as the episode highlight . Janet Turley of The Huffington Post asserted that the sequence was " fiction not afraid to provoke " , while Goldman described it as an " absolutely horrific scenario " . CNN 's Henry Hanks opined that the sequence " left [ them ] with a final scene that we 'll be talking about until then . " New York 's Starlee Kine asserted that it contained cinematic qualities , and felt that the scene was " satisfying , sad , and fun " . She wrote : " It was everything you 've ever wanted this show to be . Zombies plus no dialogue , such a winning combination ! And how great was it that Sophia was dead instead of impossibly alive somewhere , holed up with Merle or Morgan or those warmhearted gang members in Atlanta . And because she was granted more screen time than she ever was when she was alive , we were finally able to care about the loss of her short , young life . " Jen Chaney of The Washington Post echoed synonymous sentiments ; " Really , the final moments of the last episode before the AMC series ' December / January hiatus played like a fireworks finale on the Fourth of July , assuming your Fourth of July celebrations typically involve zombies and a pile of corpses . " Rawlings concluded that it was the perfect resolution for what he called " television 's slowest subplot " . McIntyre felt that the concluding sequence was the most eventful moment of the episode , and stated that it was difficult to watch .
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly affirmed that the scene reestablished The Walking Dead to full form , as well as redeemed the season 's " general gutlessness thus far . " HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall reflected similar thoughts , and observed that it was effective enough to keep the viewers chattering until the succeeding episode . Handlen summated : " The Sophia reveal is a punch in the gut , because narrative fiction teaches us the longer someone stays missing , the better the chance they 'll turn up alive ; otherwise , where would the drama be ? By using the little girl in this way , the show transforms what should 've been anti @-@ climax into a reinvention of an entire storyline . It 's not enough to make the bad parts of the earlier episodes great , but it does show that the writers had more on their mind than stalling . " Mark Maurer of The Star @-@ Ledger felt that albeit predictable , the segment was " well executed " . Josh Wigler of MTV said that the storyline ended in " a much darker way than anyone could have imagined . "
= Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam =
The Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam ( 1784 – 1799 ) was a 15 @-@ year imprisonment of Mangalorean Catholics and other Christians at Seringapatam in the Indian region of Canara by Tipu Sultan , the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore . Estimates of the number of captives range from 30 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 but the generally accepted figure is 60 @,@ 000 , as stated by Tipu in the Sultan @-@ ul @-@ Tawarikh . The captivity was the most disconsolate period in the community 's history . Its cause is disputed , although most historians consider it happened for political rather than religious reasons , owing to the alliance between the Mangalorean Catholics and the British during the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War ( 1780 – 1784 ) .
The Mangalorean Catholic community in Mangalore flourished during the regime of Tipu 's father , Hyder Ali . Soon after Tipu inherited the territory in January 1784 , he issued orders to seize the Christians in Canara , confiscate their estates , and deport them to Seringapatam . His orders were carried out on 24 February 1784 . Twenty thousand Christians died during the journey from Mangalore to Seringapatam . During captivity they suffered extreme hardships , torture , death , and persecutions with many Christians forcibly converted to Islam . Their captivity led to a near disintegration of the community and ended only when Tipu was killed by the British at the Battle of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799 , during the Fourth Anglo @-@ Mysore War . Of the 60 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 Christians taken captive , only 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 both made it out alive and retained their original faith . The episode had a deep impact on the Literature of Mangalorean Catholics . The bi @-@ centennial anniversary of the Christians ' release from captivity was celebrated across the region on 4 May 1999 .
= = Background = =
Roman Catholics from the South Canara district on the south @-@ western coast of India , under the jurisdiction of the Mangalore Diocese , are generally known as Mangalorean Catholics . They are Konkani people who speak the Konkani language . All earlier records of South Canara 's Christians were lost at the time of their deportation by Tipu in 1784 and it is not known when Christianity was introduced in South Canara . It is possible that Syrian Christians settled in South Canara as they had in Malabar , a region south of Canara . During the 13th century Italian traveller Marco Polo recorded that there were considerable trading activities between the Red Sea and the Canara coast . Scholars have surmised that foreign Christian merchants were visiting the coastal towns of South Canara during that period for commerce , and that some Christian priests possibly accompanied them in their evangelical work . In 1321 , the French Dominican friar Jordanus Catalani of Severac in south @-@ western France , arrived in Bhatkal , North Canara . According to historian Severine Silva , no concrete evidence has yet been found that there were any permanent settlements of Christians in South Canara before the 16th century .
Propagation of Christianity in the region only began after the arrival of the Portuguese in 1498 , when Vasco da Gama 's landed on St Mary 's Islands in South Canara and planted a cross there on his voyage from Portugal to India . In 1500 , the Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral arrived at Anjediva in North Canara with eight Franciscan missionaries under the leadership of Frei Henrique Soares de Coimbra . On arrival they converted 22 or 23 natives to Christianity in the Mangalore region . In 1526 , during the viceroyship of Lopo Vaz de Sampaio , the Portuguese took possession of Mangalore whereupon Portuguese Franciscans began slowly spreading Christianity in Mangalore .
Contemporary Mangalorean Catholics are descended mainly from the Goan Catholic settlers , who migrated to Canara from Goa , a state north of Canara , between 1560 and 1763 in three major waves . The first wave of immigrants came to Mangalore to escape the trials of the Goa Inquisition of 1560 . These migrants were welcomed by the native Bednore rulers of Canara for their agricultural skills . They were followed by a second major wave precipitated by the Portugal – Adil Shahi wars between 1570 and 1579 . A final influx of immigrants arrived during the Portugal – Maratha wars in Goa during the late 17th and early 18th centuries . According to Mangalorean historian Alan Machado Prabhu , the Mangalorean Catholics numbered about 58 @,@ 000 by the time of the capture of Canara by Hyder Ali in 1765 .
= = Under the Wodeyar Rajas and Hyder Ali = =
According to writer K.M.George , by 1686 , Seringapatam , capital of the Kingdom of Mysore , was home to a community of more than 400 Catholics who were severely harassed in the following two decades when their churches were destroyed and the priest 's house confiscated . This destruction was undertaken in the name of the Wodeyar king , Kanthirava Narasaraja I by his finance minister . The priest 's house was eventually returned to the church in 1709 . Sometime between 1700 and 1717 , another church was built in Rampura , a suburb of Seringapatam , in the face of local opposition . Relations between the Wodeyars and the Mangalorean Catholics improved until 1717 , when an anti @-@ Christian outburst led to the expulsion of the resident priest who was thereafter forbidden to preach . Several more anti @-@ Christian demonstrations followed , but by 1736 relations had once more improved between the two groups .
But , it was during the period of Chikka Devaraja ( 1673 – 1704 ) , 400 priests who protested against the taxes that were punished . As per a legend they were strangled by the wrestlers of his court .
Hyder Ali , born in 1721 or 1722 at Budikote in the northern part of Mysore State , joined the Mysorean Army and distinguished himself in the 1749 Siege of Devanahalli . He took part in the Carnatic wars of ( 1751 – 1755 ) and gained in @-@ depth experience of warfare . Hyder Ali rapidly rose to power at the Mysore court and soon became prime minister and general of the king . From 1761 onwards , he took de facto control of the throne of the Mysore Kingdom through the Wodeyar dynasty . In 1763 , he occupied Mangalore and Canara , but maintained amicable relations with the Christians . Historian Severine Silva states , " the general relations between Hyder and Christians form a chapter which has been entirely lost . " Hyder was close friends with two Goan Catholic priests , Bishop Noronha , and Fr . Joachim Miranda . Sehwarts , a Protestant missionary , also lived at the court of Hyder . However , Hyder was also involved in suppressing the Jesuit order .
Hyder 's army included several Catholic soldiers and he allowed Christians to build a church within the Seringapatam Fort where French generals offered prayers and priests visited . Mangalorean historian A.L.P. D 'Souza mentions that Hyder had also used Canara Christians for administrative purposes . In accordance with the two treaties concluded with Portugal , Hyder allowed Portuguese priests to settle disputes among the Christians . Despite this , the Christians in general hated Hyder Ali because of the heavy taxes they were made to pay to the king 's treasury .
In February 1768 , the British captured Mangalore and Canara from Hyder . At the end of the same year , Hyder , along with his son Tipu Sultan , defeated the British and recaptured Mangalore . After the conquest , Hyder was informed that the Mangalorean Catholics had helped the British in their conquest of Mangalore . Hyder believed that this behaviour amounted to treachery against the sovereign . Summoning a Portuguese officer and several Christian priests from Mangalore , he asked for suggestions as to how the Mangalorean Catholics should be punished . The Portuguese officer suggested the death penalty for those Catholics who had helped the British , as it was the standard punishment for betraying a sovereign . Rather than follow this advice , Hyder chose a diplomatic stance and imprisoned Christians found guilty of treachery instead of executing them . Later , he opened negotiations with the Portuguese . Agreement was reached and suspicions against the clergy and the Christians were removed and they were no longer chastised . During Hyder 's regime , Roman Catholicism in Mangalore and the Mangalorean Catholic community continued to flourish .
Historians claim that Hyder was extremely tolerant towards the Christians . According to historian Severine Silva , he followed the same policy of religious tolerance towards Christians as he had from the beginning , even though the Christians had revolted against him . The Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War began in 1780 and led to Hyder 's death on 7 December 1782 , at Arcot . Afterwards the British recaptured the fort at Mangalore .
= = Causes = =
Tipu Sultan succeeded his father at the age of 31 . He had also taken part in the conquest of Mangalore in 1768 , and accused the Mangalorean Catholics of treachery towards the sovereign , as well as their having helped the British . He was aware of the treatment of Canara Muslims by the Portuguese clergy , and had always resented his father 's favourable policy towards the Mangalorean Catholics .
The British army under Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Brigadier @-@ General Richard Matthews , landed in Canara on 9 March 1783 , and captured the Mangalore fort on the orders of the Bombay Government . Many Christians were allegedly recruited into the army of General Matthews . Tipu became infuriated with the Christians of Canara for two reasons . Firstly , when French soldiers laid down their arms because of the Peace of Paris ( 1783 ) treaty , the Christians refused to fight for Tipu . Secondly , the Christians lent the sum of Rs . 330 @,@ 000 to General Matthews , which led Tipu to believe that the Mangalorean Catholics were helping the British .
In May 1783 , General Matthews was accused of procrastination and suspended by the Bombay Government . Thereafter Colonel John Campbell received provisional command of the strategic fort of Mangalore on 5 May 1783 . Tipu made several assaults on the Mangalore fort up until January 1784 , all of which resulted in failure . Looking at the wounded embattled garrison , Colonel Campbell considered it futile to hold out any longer . He finally delivered the Mangalore fort to Tipu when the British capitulated on 30 January 1784 . On 11 March 1784 , Tipu and the British East India Company signed the Treaty of Mangalore , thus bringing an end to the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War .
Historian Ahmad Saeed states that the Christians acted as spies and guided the British whilst historian Praxy Fernandes points out that the Christians helped Colonel Campbell in the Mangalore fort and adjoining towns by providing them with rice , vegetables , meat , men , and money . In a letter to his superiors , Colonel Campbell strongly commended the role of the Bombay Natives regiment . This was led by a native major named Francis Pinto who put up a brave defence of the fort . He also refers to these troops as the " Native Christians " . Fernandes further points out that the Christians had entered into a league with Mysore traitors Kasim Ali and Mohammed Ali , who were enemies of Tipu , and had plotted with the English to overthrow him . He also states that the Head of the Congregation of Monte Mariano Church at Farangipet , near Mangalore , provided the British garrison with 1 @,@ 000 bags of rice .
Severine Silva points out that the Christians of Canara were eager to get rid of Tipu . The History of the Diocese of Mangalore by J. Moore and Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei also purports to show that the Christians of Canara were charged with assisting the British during the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War . Tipu made a number of accusations against the Christians , including that they had invited the British to invade Canara in 1781 – 82 , furnished supplies to and otherwise assisted General Matthews ' army when it landed and took possession of Onore , accompanied the British detachment to Mangalore , provided it with supplies both before and after the march , aided the British in repairing breaches made when the fort was besieged by Tipu and plundered the state treasury at Nuggur when that fortress fell to General Matthews .
After receiving highly exaggerated reports about the role of the Christians and their help to the British during the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War , Tipu decided to minimise the threat to his kingdom from the British and banish the Christians of Canara . According to Severine Silva , this decision was the logical outcome of the plans he had nurtured since the time of the conquest of Mangalore with his father Hyder in 1768 .
It is generally believed that the propaganda of the Goan priests and the alliance of the Christians with the English cause Tipu to banish the community from Canara . The main political reason for this decision was Tipu 's belief that if he banished the Christians , he could keep the British at bay . However , Alan Machado Prabhu dismisses the idea of large @-@ scale Christian support for the British during the Second Mangalore War as a myth which is not based on any concrete evidence .
Prabhu states that the charge that the Christians constituted a united front cannot be sustained . Apart from divergent viewpoints among the Christian community at the time , he argues that difficulties in communication for a minority Christian population spread over a 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) forested coastline broken by numerous streams and rivers , would have made united action practically impossible . He further states that the majority of Mangalorean Catholics were agriculturists farming land capable of growing three crops a year . The idea of neglecting their fields in the cause of a small band of British isolated in the confines of a fort besieged by a large Mysorean army would have sounded insane . Even if the British had made promises , they would have had little effect on the militarily inexperienced Christians , who would then have had to fight a large and well @-@ trained army in support of a beleaguered army which was not even successful .
On the basis of Colonel Campbell 's letter , Prabhu concludes that the " Native Christian " soldiers present in the fort were probably all East Indian infantry and artillery experts , belonging to the Bombay Natives . He believes that at best , any assistance was of a limited nature and restricted to purely individual enterprise . Prabhu points out that European troops , both English and French , including those from Tipu 's own mercenaries , did receive some assistance although this was more humanitarian than military . He also states that claim of the Christians paying the British Rs . 330 @,@ 000 is an utter fabrication . To make his point , Prabhu points out that the annual revenue of the Portuguese province of Goa itself amounted to over three to four lakh rupees . Payment of the huge sum claimed by Tipu would have required a large number of wealthy donors — which the Mangalorean Catholics were not .
= = Execution of orders = =
Soon after Tipu gained possession of Mangalore in January 1784 , he issued orders for the seizure of the Christians in Canara , confiscation of their estates , and their subsequent deportation to his capital at Seringapatam along the Jamalabad fort route . Tipu expelled the 13 Goan priests from his kingdom . They were issued with orders of expulsion to Goa , fined Rs . 200 @,@ 000 , and threatened with death by hanging if they ever returned . He also banished Fr . Joachim Miranda , a close friend of his father Hyder Ali . In a letter to the Portuguese Government , Tipu wrote that he had commuted the priests ' sentences of capital punishment and ordered a fine of 30 million rupees instead . According to a report of 1784 , Tipu had driven 26 missionaries out of his state , three of whom secretly went to join the captives . Two died en route and one was killed by a soldier . The missionaries were warned that they faced the death penalty if they re @-@ entered Tipu 's kingdom .
On 24 February 1784 , ( Ash Wednesday ) , in a secret and well planned move , Tipu arrested a large number of Christians across the province of Canara and other parts of his kingdom . Accounts of the number of captives range from 30 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 . According to historian Kranti Farias , all arrests may not have been made on a single day , but instead carried out in stages .
When Tipu issued his orders to seize the Christians , the British , who had entered into a treaty with him on 11 March 1784 , were helpless . Captives also included Malayali Christians , and Tamil Christians from the Tamil @-@ countries . The Portuguese , guardians of the Christian faith in Canara , intervened and requested Tipu not to imprison the priests . They suggested that he let the Christians live peacefully as his father Hyder Ali had done . But Tipu paid no heed to their request . Estimates suggest that about 7 @,@ 000 people remained in hiding . Many were actively assisted by the Hindus whilst the few Christians in Canara who escaped Tipu 's initial captivity fled to Coorg and Malabar , where they were protected by the native rulers .
= = Confiscation of property and destruction of churches = =
On Tipu 's orders , all estates and properties of the Christians were seized , and distributed among his soldiers . Churches and historical records were also destroyed . The seizures were so sudden that the Christians had no time to prepare for their departure or to dispose of what little property they possessed . The value of property confiscated is estimated by Fr . Angelus Francis Xavier Maffei , an Italian Jesuit , at Rs . 500 @,@ 000 .
Tipu then ordered the destruction of all 27 churches in Canara . According to oral tradition , the Idgah mosque in Mangalore was constructed with stones from the destroyed Milagres Church . Other Christian establishments that were spared were converted to storehouses , offices , or homes for wealthy Muslims . A popular fortification in Mangalore , the Sultan Battery , built in 1784 by Tipu Sultan to prevent English warships from entering the Gurupura river , was constructed with stones taken from destroyed churches . The bells from the demolished churches eventually found their way into a number of temples in the area . After being informed of the impending roundup by a friend in Tipu 's government , Fr . Joachim Miranda disbanded St. Joseph 's Seminary and sent the seminarians to Verapoly , from where some proceeded to Goa while some joined the Augustinian order .
A few buildings escaped destruction , including a small chapel at Shantigramma near Hassan , built in 1768 and said to have been saved by Tipu 's Muslim officers on the pretext that it was used to store cotton . Tipu also spared the Monte Mariano church at Farangipet , on account of his father 's friendship with Fr . Joachim Miranda .
Tipu is said to have given orders to preserve the church at Baleguli , near Ancola , in gratitude for a cure by a Christian woman while at Ancola . The Igreja da Santa Cruz ( Portuguese : Church of Holy Cross ) at Hospet was saved through the intercession of the local Jain chiefs . In Seringapatam , a whole battalion of Catholics under an officer named Michael Surappa , upon hearing of Tipu 's order to destroy the Seringapatam church , called their fellow soldiers to arms . Surappa , a veteran of Hyder 's army , is credited with telling the assembled Christians , " I shall remain a Christian in spite of all the orders of Tipu Sultan . " The church at Kirangur was spared , although the battalion gradually dispersed .
= = Journey from Mangalore to Seringapatam = =
According to the Barcoor Manuscript , written in Kannada by a Mangalorean Catholic from Barcoor on his return from Seringapatam , the Christians were interned in holding camps at Mangalore , Manjeshwar , Cundapore , Onore , Ancola , and Sunquerim , with the more rebellious Christians brought in in chains . They were then forced to climb nearly 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) through the dense jungles and gorges of the Western Ghat mountain ranges along two routes , one of which was along the Bantval @-@ Belthangadi @-@ Kulshekar @-@ Virajpet @-@ Coorg @-@ Mysore route , and the other along the Gersoppa falls ( Shimoga ) route . On the 200 miles ( 320 km ) journey from Mangalore to Seringapatam the Christians were accompanied by three priests , who had secretly joined them despite threats of expulsion by Tipu .
Trouble arose when guards began molesting captive Christian women at their first camp at Bantwal , although able @-@ bodied captives were able to resist the guards . At the next camp at Jamalabad fort , the rebel Christian leaders were thrown down from the fort . The town of " Nettrekere " or " Netterkedu " in Tulu , on the cross roads from Maripalla to Kalpane , derives its name from the large pool of blood which resulted from the execution of rebellious Mangalorean Catholics on their march to Mysore .
According to a captive from Barcoor , pregnant women often gave birth en route , and their babies had to be borne bundled about them . When they rested , the infants were suspended in cradles from the branches of trees . If anyone happened to die they were buried on the spot . Captives were not given any rations , and when the time came to move on , those who had not finished cooking had to leave behind their rice and the cooking pots . The Barcoor Manuscript along with other British Government records suggest that 20 @,@ 000 captives ( one @-@ third of the total ) died on the march to Seringapatam due to hunger , disease , and ill treatment by soldiers . The journey to Seringapatam took six weeks . By 1787 , some 30 @,@ 000 captives , half the original number , had perished .
= = Fifteen @-@ year captivity = =
On arrival at Seringapatam the Christian captives were forced to embrace Islam . All those who complied were freed . Those who refused were tied to the feet of the elephants to be dragged and trampled on Tipu 's orders .
One English prisoner related that two risalas ( regiments of soldiers ) arrived daily in Seringapatam to select girls they could take as prizes to join their harems . Often when girls were seized , their young men would offer resistance and smash their dhoolies ( palanquin ) . Officers would capture the attackers and administer five hundred strokes with whips and canes , from whose effects many men died . Historian Lewin Bentham Bowring reports that , " Tipu demanded the surrender of the daughters of some of these Christians in order to have them placed in his seraglio , and that , on the refusal of their parents , the latter had their noses , ears and upper lips cut off , and were paraded through the streets on asses , with their faces towards the tails of the animals . "
Such treatment of the Christians for refusals by the girls is also confirmed in the accounts of British officer James Scurry , who was held captive along with the Mangalorean Catholics . In his book The Captivity , Sufferings , and Escape of James Scurry , who was Detained a Prisoner During Ten Years , in the Dominions of Hyder Ali and Tippoo Saib ( 1824 ) , Scurry also reports that Tipu relented on his demand for captive girls , after one captive fell from her beast and expired on the spot through loss of blood . About 200 young women , the prettiest and fairest , were selected for Tipu 's seraglio . The rest of the women were distributed as wives to Muslim officers and favourites living there . The future Christian progeny of these young girls and women were lost , and their descendants are fully Islamic as of today .
As the food in the camp was sub @-@ standard , Balthazar of Belthangadi , a Mangalorean Catholic nobleman , offered to make a chutney for the captured Mangalorean Catholics . This came to be known as the legendary " Balthazar Chutney " . The jemadars , subedars , and havildars meted out more an ignominious punishment to those who refused to accept Islam , slitting off their ears and noses . They were seated on asses , paraded through the city , and thrown into the dungeons of Seringapatam . Able @-@ bodied young Christian men were drafted into the army after being circumcised and converted to Islam .
The Barcoor Manuscript records , " On four occasions the young able @-@ bodied Christian men were thus drafted for the Army . Some of them were appointed jemadars , subedars , and havildars . The Sircar supplied them with ghee , butter , curds , firewood , etc . One hundred men were formed into one company , four companies into a risala , four risalas into a sufedar , and four sufedars were placed under a bakshi . Out of every company twenty @-@ five men were taken and circumcised at the end of every month . When the wounds were healed , another twenty @-@ five were taken and circumcised , and so on , until the whole company was initiated into Islamism . "
British general Kirkpatrick arrives at a figure of 15 @,@ 000 young men capable of bearing arms , formed into 30 risalas . They were drafted into the Ahmedy Corps in 1785 and went on to serve in Tipu 's campaigns against the Marathas , the Nizam , and the British during 1786 and 1787 . Casualties were heavy and only a few survived captivity .
Those who remained , such as the lame , the blind and the aged , employed themselves in cultivating the land and doing other manual work . Many were made to carry baskets filled with gobra ( cowdung ) for three days as a public warning to others . The stubborn Christians were given the most menial tasks , and made to work in the paddy fields . They were underfed , and immediately imprisoned for fighting . Completely isolated from any women , the idea was for the captive men to die of old age without creating any progeny .
Tipu appointed some Christian captives to posts in his household . He made Salu ( Salvadore ) Pinto Deputy Vizier and Anthony Gagialgar ( clockmaker ) Saldanha House Chamberlain . One of his most faithful servants , a Mangalorean Catholic named Manuel Mendes , saved Tipu 's life in Travancore when he donned his master 's robes and sat in his palanquin . Tipu escaped in the general panic whilst Mendes was captured and killed by the Nairs , who mistook him for Tipu .
In 1783 , the Kodava Hindus erupted in revolt against Tipu and threw their forces out of Coorg ( Kodagu ) . In 1785 , he marched into Madikeri ( Mercara ) the capital of Kodagu and addressed them . He showed racial and religious bias by stating that the Coorgs ( Kodavas ) were guilty of polyandry in a speech before a gathering of Kodavas . He mistook the patrilineal patriarchal Kodavas to be a sub @-@ group of matriarchal Nairs . He threatened that he would not revile or molest a single individual among them , but instead make Ahmadis ( Muslims ) out of the whole of them ; transplanting them from their homeland in the Coorg to Seringapatam . This inflammatory speech with false accusations of polyandry and with an open threat angered the Kodavas who thereafter hated Tipu and again revolted against him . Tipu seized nearly 70 @,@ 000 Hindus of Coorg and held them captive at Seringapatam . They were also forcibly converted to Islam and received the same harsh treatment as the Mangalorean Catholics . From 1786 until 1789 , even the Nair Hindus of Malabar were captured and deported to Seringapatam .
By 1787 , half of the Christians had perished through disease and starvation . Tipu attempted to preach to the remaining Christians in Canara , and took them into custody . As the Christians settled down in Seringapatam , they slowly reorganised themselves with the elders forming a secret group named the " Council of Ten " , to help keep their faith alive . According to Balthazar of Belthangadi , in the " Council of Ten " , the Christians met from time to time to deliberate on issues concerning the community . In 1789 , Tipu came to know of the group through one of his officers and thereafter banned any political gathering of the Christians .
The Christians , believing that this tribulation came upon them for their neglect of the Law of God and their religious duties , began to fervently read the Krista Purana , an epic poem on the life of Jesus Christ written by the English Jesuit Thomas Stephens ( 1549 – 1619 ) . On discovering this , some Muslims destroyed the books , but the Christians constructed subterranean refuges in which to perform their religious devotions , read the books , and strengthen their faith . According to Mr. Silva of Gangollim , a survivor of the captivity , if a person who had escaped from Seringapatam was found , the punishment ordered by Tipu was amputation of the ears , nose , feet and one hand .
Reports by Joachim Miranda and the Portuguese Government confirm that the Christians were forcibly circumcised and converted to Islam . These Christians then openly practised Islam . Some writers hold the view that the Christians did not voluntary submit to these conversions . Other Christian missionaries also appealed to the Roman Catholic Church to intervene on behalf of the captive Christians . A priest also wrote a letter to the Holy See to put pressure on Tipu to allow the priests .
When Tipu 's embassy visited the court of the French King Louis XVI in 1788 , Pope Clement XIV 's representative conveyed the appeal to the embassy . In the Third Anglo @-@ Mysore War ( 1789 – 92 ) , the British and their allies defeated Tipu . Desperate to break the alliance of powers surrounding him on all sides , Tipu sought to make peace with Portugal , the Marathas , and other powers . According to Severine Silva , he consequently gave up the persecution of Christians , opened negotiations with the Portuguese Government and with the Archbishop of Goa , with a promise that he would stop molesting the Christians , further asserting that he would rebuild all destroyed churches at his own cost . The Christians found their supervision relaxed and Tipu became more conciliatory in his attitude . The Christians now escaped from the camps of Seringapatam and gradually began to enter the neighbouring kingdoms of Coorg and Malabar .
At this time many Christians performed daring feats to rescue captives from Seringapatnam and take them to places of safety . A captive named Domingo Pinto ( brother of Salvador Pinto , who rose to high rank in the services of Tipu ) , was particularly proficient in this . He rescued many people and took them secretly to Mangalore or Tellicherry . He proposed that those anxious to regain their liberty could be rescued on payment to him of a certain sum of money . He fixed the rescue price per captive at 8 hoons ( Rs . 32 ) for a male , and 4 hoons ( Rs . 16 ) for a female .
In 1792 , the King of Coorg , Dodda Vira @-@ Rajendra , managed to escape from captivity at Seringapatnam , and , with the aid of the British armies under Lord Cornwallis , was able to regain Coorg for himself through the treaty of 1792 between the English , their allies and Tipu . Anxious to repopulate a kingdom depopulated by Tipu , Dodda welcomed the fugitive Konkani Christians . As an inducement to remain permanently in his territory , he granted them several privileges , obtained a priest from Goa , and built a chapel for them . After the relaxation of policies from 1792 onwards , the Christians began to resettle in Canara . Many Mangalorean Catholic students , who had studied for the priesthood in Goa returned to Mangalore .
After considering the changed circumstances , the Archbishop of Goa , by a provision issued on 20 February 1795 , appointed Minguel José Louis Mendes interim vicar of the four sub @-@ districts of Mangalore , Barcoor , Onore and Moolki . Some other priests also came to Canara with the new vicar . Those from Goa retained their old prejudices and could not accept the rule of Tipu , openly advocating rebellion against him , writing offensive letters and making offensive speeches . As a result , in 1797 , the brief repite enjoyed by the Christians ceased and their persecution recommenced .
= = End of captivity and re @-@ establishment = =
In the Battle of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799 , the British army under officers George Harris , David Baird , and Arthur Wellesley stormed the fortress , breached the town of Seringapatam , and killed Tipu . After Tipu 's death in the Fourth Anglo @-@ Mysore War , the Mangalorean Catholics were freed from captivity . Of the 60 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 Christians taken captive , only 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 made it out as Christians . British general Arthur Wellesley helped 10 @,@ 000 of them return to Canara . Of the remaining Christians freed , about a thousand went to Malabar , and some hundreds settled in Coorg .
According to Francis Buchanan , 15 @,@ 000 of them returned to Mangalore and its environs , whilst 10 @,@ 000 of them migrated to Malabar . The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency ( 1883 ) mentions that 15 @,@ 000 persons returned , of whom 12 @,@ 000 were from South Canara and 3 @,@ 000 from North Canara . According to the Mangalorean Catholic genealogist Michael Lobo , the present Mangalorean Catholic community is descended almost entirely from the small group of survivors who returned to South Canara . Soon after the death of Tipu , a detachment from the Bombay army under Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Wiseman took possession of Mangalore on 4 June 1799 , as well as the entire province of Canara , with the exception of the fortress of Jamalabad .
Thomas Munro was appointed the first collector of Canara in June 1799 and remained in the post until October 1800 . He was accompanied by officers John Goldsborough Ravenshaw and Alexander Reade who were to take control and reorganise the administration . Munro issued three edicts regarding Christian estates that had been taken over by non @-@ Christians during the captivity . In determining ownership of land , he sent two Mangalorean Hindus , Muthsuddy Vencappah and Saly Purvoe Dur Shetty along with other Christians to investigate and report back to him about these estates . Through the assistance of the Church , and with the support of Munro , the Christians were able to recover their lands and estates .
In 1800 , the British took a census of the region . Of the 396 @,@ 672 people living in South Canara , 10 @,@ 877 were Christians residing in 2 @,@ 545 houses . According to the same census , in the entire province of Canara , out of the 592 @,@ 000 people , the Christian population was recorded as 10 @,@ 877 in South Canara , and 2 @,@ 380 in North Canara . Padre José Miguel Luis de Mendes , a Goan Catholic priest , was appointed Vicar of
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Our Lady of Rosary at Mangalore on 7 December 1799 . He took a lot of interest in the re @-@ establishment of the community from 1799 to 1808 . Later , John Goldsborough Ravenshaw was appointed collector of South Canara , whilst Alexander Reade became collector of North Canara . Ravenshaw took an active part in the re @-@ establishment of their former possessions and recovery of their estates . He constructed a church for them , which was completed in 1806 . Churches destroyed by Tipu were rebuilt by the Christians .
After relocation , the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Goa recommenced . The Christian population almost doubled in 1818 when their total in North and South Canara was estimated to be 21 @,@ 280 out of a total population of 670 @,@ 355 . According to various parish books dating to the time , Mangalorean Catholics numbered 19 @,@ 068 in South Canara ( 12 @,@ 877 in Mangalore and Bantval , 3 @,@ 918 in Moolki , 2 @,@ 273 in Cundapore and Barcoor ) , whilst Christians in North Canara numbered 2 @,@ 749 ( 1 @,@ 878 in Onore , 599 in Ancola , and 272 in Sunquerim ) . Before long the Mangalorean Catholics became a prosperous and influential community consisting mainly of planters , tile manufacturers , and agriculturists . They also competed with the local Brahmins for offices in the services of the British , under whose rule the community prospered .
= = Criticism of Tipu = =
Many Roman Catholic and British writers have severely criticised Tipu for his policies and treatment of Christians . British general Kirkpatrick referred to Tipu as , " the intolerant bigot and the furious fanatic . " British Colonel Mark Wilks in his Historical Sketches of the South of India , cites an account in which Tipu mentions that , " the cause arose from the rage of Islam began to boil in his breast when informed of the circumstances of the spread of Christianity in Goa and Canara . "
According to historian Thomas Paul , Tipu shifted his hatred for the British to the Mangalorean Catholics and other South Indian Christian communities . Sita Ram Goel mentions that Tipu 's justification for the conversion was that during the Portuguese domination , many Muslims were forcibly converted to Christianity . Tipu proclaimed his actions as a punishment for the conversion of Muslims to Christianity .
According to historian Alan Machado Prabhu , Tipu 's reasons for the captivity were primarily religious . He found the social customs of the Christians distasteful , such as their fondness for pork and the social acceptance of alcohol . Tipu therefore saw them as a community deserving of his religious zeal as a Padishah . As evidence of this , Prabhu states that Tipu does not mention a large scale Christian conspiracy in his writings in the Sultan @-@ ul @-@ Tawarikh , where he justifies his action instead as arising from the " rage of Islam that began to boil in his breast . "
Prabhu further asserts that Tipu 's hatred of Christians was compounded by fears that as they shared the same faith as their European co @-@ religionists , the Christians were viewed as a potential fifth column in the event of a British attack . To this , he adds that Tipu also had future territorial ambitions in Goa and wanted to rid himself of any potential dissent from the Christians within his domain . Therefore , according to Prabhu , through coerced confessions of prominent Mangalorean Catholics , Tipu fabricated evidence of a large @-@ scale Christian conspiracy against him , even though he knew it wasn 't true .
Contemporary scholars like Surendranath Sen , Mohibbul Hasan , N. K. Sinha , and B. Sheik Ali , who have analysed Tipu 's religious policies on Christians , conclude that he was not a religious bigot . They argue that forcible conversions to Islam were done purely for political , not religious reasons . Forced conversions were carried out as a punishment for Christians who supported the British against their own native suzerain . The conversions came after many warnings by Tippu .
Irrespective of these views , the Mangalorean Catholic community still considers Tipu as a bitter religious bigot and a ferocious conquistadore . He remains a hated personality among the community . More than a century after the Captivity ended , Jerome Saldanha , a Mangalorean Catholic historian and civil servant during the British Raj at the Bombay Presidency , wrote an article in Mangalore Magazine , published by St. Aloysius College , which chronicled contemporary developments and views from the closing decades of the 19th century :
" People of all classes belonging to Canara , especially the Christians , had suffered so dreadfully from Tipu 's regime of terror that they welcomed the British with a sense of relief and joy , and a hope of future peace and prosperity , that perhaps nowhere else was felt in India on the advent of the British . Nor were our ancestors disappointed , for they found that the main object of British rule in India was to secure the happiness of the people over whom it was held . "
= = Criticism of the Christians = =
Thirty years after the event the apparent lack of resistance from the Christian captives drew criticism from the French priest Abbe Dubois . In one of his letters dated 1815 , Dubois commented , " not a single individual among so many thousands had courage enough to confess his faith under this trying circumstance , and become a martyr to his religion . " Various writers have concluded that the acceptance and practise of Islam by the Christians amounted to partial apostasy .
= = Remembrance of captivity = =
During the mid @-@ 19th century , Victor Fernandes , Bishop of Mangalore ( 1931 – 1955 ) , erected a large cross on the former outskirts of Mangalore in Nanthoor near the Padav hills in honour of the memory of those Mangalorean Catholics who died on the march to Seringapatam during the Captivity . The bicentenary of the release from captivity was widely celebrated on 4 May 1999 by the Mangalorean Catholic community . Five Catholics walked from Seringapatam to Mangalore to retrace the 278 @-@ kilometre ( 173 mi ) route that Tipu Sultan forced the Christians to follow in 1784 . The commemorative march ended on 11 May at the Rosario Cathedral , Mangalore .
= = Accounts of the captivity = =
= = = Arabic and Farsi Inscriptions Record = = =
The treatment of the prisoners of Tippu Sultan 's Coorg and Mangalore campaigns is recorded in the Arabic and Farsi inscriptions on the south wall of the mosque at Seringapatam , dated 1787 AD
= = = = Inscriptions = = = =
( Arabic ) Khaulahu Ta 'ala : — va anzalallazina zaharuhum min ahhlkitabi min syasihim va khazafa fi khulu @-@ bihimurroba farikhan takhtaliin va tusiruna farikhan va avarasakum arzahum va diyarahum va amvalahum va arzan lam tatavha va kanallahu ' ala kuUi shayin khadira .
( Persian ) B 'adaz fararl kuffar hukm shud ki baharbi Bani Khuraiza ravand ki ' ahad shikasta madadgariahzab namudand : lashkari Islani ishanra panzda shaban roz mahasaru kardand va kar bar ishan tang shud va bar hukrai S 'ad @-@ bin @-@ M 'aaz farod amadand . Va Sad hukra kavd ki mardani ishanra bakushand va zanan va kodakani ishanrA Itarda girand va amvali ishanra bar Musalmanan khismat kuuand . Hazrat risalat , salairahii ' alailii va sallani , farmiid ki ai S 'acl M 'aaz hukm karJi ki Khiiclai T 'aala bar balai haft asman hukm karda biid : va Hakh Subhanahu azin vakh 'aa khabar midehad : va farmud farod avard Khuda ananra ki yiiri dadand ahzabra va ham pushti ishan gashtand az ahl Tavarait y 'ani Yahud kharizara farod avard az kharahai ishan va afgand dar dilhai ishan tars az paighambar va lashkari u giirohera ki kushidande noh @-@ sad tan bekushtand ya haft @-@ sad tan va barda migired gurohera y 'ani farzandan va zauani ishanra va miras dad shumara zamini ishan y 'ani mazar 'ay va hadaikh va sarahai ishan y 'ani liusun va khaVa va malhai ishan az nak 'aud va amt 'aa va niav 'ashi va arazi va bashaina dLid zamin ra ki berafta aid daian ya maUki an buded murad Khaiber ast ya dayaro Piiun ya mumahki Faris : va gufta and har zaminke bahavze Islam darayed ta khiyamat dariu dakhil ast : va hast Khuda bar har chiz khadir va tuvana .
= = = = English Translation = = = =
God Almighty hath said : — " And he caused such of those who have received tho Scriptures , and assisted the confederates , to come down out of their fortresses , and he cast into their hearts terror and dismay : a part of them you slew , and a part you made captives ; and God caused you to inherit their land , and their houses , and their wealth , and a land on which you had not trodden ; for God is Almighty . " After the flight of the infidels it was ordered that war should be continued with the Bani Khuraiza , ^ as they had assisted the confederates , breaking their league with the Muslims . The Muslim army besieged them for fifteen days and nights and reduced them to distress . They came down at the order given them by Saad bin Maaz , who adjudged that the males should be put to the sword , the women and children made slaves , and their goods divided among the Muslims . The Prophet ( the blessing and peace of God be on him ! ) addressing Saad , said , " 0 Saad Maaz — you have pronounced that which the Most High had ordered above the seven skies . " God refers to this event when He says that He brought them out of their fortresses as they had assisted the confederates and protected them . These were believers in the Old Testament , namely , Jews . God cast into their hearts terror of the Prophet and his army , and those who were killed numbered between seven and nine hundred , and their women and children were made slaves . You inherited their land , gardens , fields and houses , their fortified places , and their property consisting of money and cattle . All these were given you by God . And this saying likewise applies to the Kliaiber , to Turkey , or to Persia . It is also spoken in order that whatever country the Muslims may hereafter be in possession of , until the last day , may also be included in the above passage . God is almighty .
= = = James Scurry = = =
= = = Mr. Silva of Gangollim , a survivor of the captivity = = =
= = In popular culture = =
Many of Konkani littérateur V. J. P. Saldanha 's Konkani historical novels such as Belthangaddicho Balthazar ( Balthazar of Belthangadi ) , Devache Krupen ( By the Grace of God ) , Sardarachi Sinol ( The sign of the Knights ) and Infernachi Daram ( The gates of Hell ) deal with the captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam . In these novels , the Mangalorean Catholic community of the eighteenth century are portrayed as brave , hardworking and selfless , while Tipu is portrayed as cunning , haughty , hard @-@ hearted , revengeful , yet full of self @-@ control .
= Double burden =
Double burden is a term used to describe the workload of people who work to earn money , but who are also responsible for significant amounts of unpaid domestic labor . This phenomenon is also known as the The Second Shift as in Arlie Hochschild 's book of the same name . In heterosexual couples where both partners have paid jobs , women often spend significantly more time than men on household chores and caring work , such as childrearing or caring for sick family members . This outcome is determined in large part by traditional gender roles that have been accepted by society over time . Labor market constraints also play a role in determining who does the bulk of unpaid work .
Efforts have been made to document the effects of this double burden on couples placed in such situations . Many studies have traced the effects of the gendered division of labor , and in most cases there was a notable difference between the time men and women contribute to unpaid labor .
= = Etymology = =
The term double burden arises from the fact that many women , as well as some men , are responsible for both domestic labor and paid labor . However , due to the thinking that a woman 's time spent in domestic work is more valuable than a woman 's time spent doing paid work , and that a man 's time spent doing paid work is more valuable than a man 's time spent doing domestic work , there is the issue of women having to do a large amount of both paid and unpaid work , leading to the double burden . Some alternative terms for double burden include : double day , second shift , and double duty .
= = Unequal work burdens around the world = =
= = = In the industrialized world = = =
= = = = Pre @-@ World War II = = = =
The traditional female homemaker – male breadwinner model characterized female employment prior to World War II . At the turn of the 20th century in the continental United States , only 18 percent of women over the age of 15 reported receiving income non @-@ farm employment . These women were typically young , single , white , and native @-@ born . In contrast , married women in the non @-@ farm labor force were " predominantly blacks or immigrants and very poor . " Working mothers often exited the labor force once their children were old enough to earn money .
The outpouring of occupational opportunities in the early 1920s , such as in " cafeterias , nurseries , laundries and other facilities seemed to release women from domestic chores and freed them to participate fully in the sphere of production . "
This migration of women into the workforce shook the traditional ideology of gender roles , but importantly , it was the catalyst to the double burden becoming noticeable . The 1930s " encouraged women to fulfill what Stalin termed the " great and honorable duty that nature has given " them . Evident in the Soviet Union , " an officially sponsored cult of motherhood , buttressed by anti @-@ abortion legislation " accompanied by a " depression of living standards " led to industry 's immense demand for laborers which got women into the industrial workforce in unprecedented numbers . " Urban women thus found themselves assuming the " double burden " ( also known as the " double shift " ) of waged work outside the home and the lion 's share of unpaid labor within it . " The Second World War is typically seen as a catalyst for increasing female employment . Best exemplified by Rosie the Riveter propaganda of an efficient , patriotic , woman worker , World War II increased demand for female labor to replace that of the " 16 million men mobilized to serve in the Armed Forces " . While a substantial number of women worked in war factories , the majority of jobs were in the service sector . This caused the gendered expectations for that time to be altered and roles to be both tested and reassigned for the incoming decades .
= = = = Post @-@ World War II = = = =
The post @-@ World War II period is marked by relatively high levels of female participation in the workforce , particularly in industrialized countries . Although a large proportion of women exited the workforce immediately following World War II , the idea of working class women was able to take root and normalize . " In 2001 , 47 percent of U.S. workers were women , and 61 percent of women over the age of 15 were in the labor force . " Besides an increased demand for women 's labor , other factors contributed to the growth of their participation , such as more educational opportunities and later marriage and childbearing ages .
The idea of the double burden is more evolved with the times concerning both sexes and their newfound roles . The role of a provider and caregiver is sometimes expected of women , but as more women enter the workforce , an ' independent ' ideology seems to take effect and forces some women to decide between a career and family . Some may choose strictly one or the other , others may choose to carry the burden of both lifestyles . Some " modern men tend to believe in the principle of equal sharing of domestic labor , but fail to actually live up to that belief . " The constant tug of war regarding one 's time and where it could , should but will be spent creates a new speed bump that is a little bit higher than the previous ones . Modern times illuminate the dilemma that many dual @-@ income couples face when trying to reconcile unpaid domestic work and paid employment . The burden of encompassing both ideologies plays a toll on both sexes in today 's societies .
= = = South America = = =
Due to globalization in the past thirty years , the power of the unskilled worker has diminished , and thus , the informal economy has flourished . In Latin America , there is an abundant amount of workers to help out with domestic work , and consequently , domestic service is cheap , diminishing the family tensions surrounding the issue of domestic work . Currently , about half of the working population is employed in the informal sector , leading to " unemployment , underemployment , and social exclusion " . Because of this , there has been a serious delay in providing welfare for the care of children and the elderly , because the pressure to provide aid for working families is minimal . In addition , domestic workers , many of them women , often leave their countries to work in the informal sector in northern countries in order to increase income for their families , also delaying the pressure for governments to provide aid to these families . However , there has been a change since the 2000s in thinking about unpaid work due to the influx of paid jobs for women and the shortage of people available to do domestic work .
Although the increase in jobs for women has had benefits in policy changes for families with working parents , there has been debates about the conditions of the work places . In Mexico , there is an influx of the maquila industry , which produces products that will be sold in the developed nations . The mostly female workforce is often exploited by having unsafe working conditions , and stress is a major cause of many illnesses of these women .
Another increasing issue is the rise in conditional cash transfer programs in Latin America , such as the Oportunidades program in Mexico . Although this program is meant to provide poor families with an increase in income , the conditionalities has led to a time poverty for the family members who are in charge of fulfilling the conditions , most oftentimes the woman . This has increased the inequality of work burden within the family .
= = = Africa = = =
In Africa , the HIV / AIDS pandemic has been the major cause of falling life expectancy . There is currently a crisis of decreasing number of available care workers for an increasing population requiring care . One reason why this phenomenon occurs is because HIV / AIDS affects working age people the most , and there has been evidence to show that women are affected at a younger age and in greater numbers . Another reason is due to the influx of HIV / AIDS , government @-@ led health policies are breaking down , increasing the amount of care work and community work that women have to do . Because of the lack of care workers available , the very young and the very old have also started participating in care work , resulting in poorer quality of care .
Women in Africa also face different time struggles than women elsewhere , because of the need to perform domestic chores such as " collecting water and wood " , which takes away from their free time .
Another aspect of the double burden in Africa is that there is class divide , meaning that most white families , including poor ones , employ Africans either as a live @-@ in worker or a part @-@ time worker . In addition , because of the urban house shortage , oftentimes relatives and friends are given room and board in exchange for unpaid work , alleviating work for some .
= = = Western Europe = = =
Since the 1960s , Western Europe has been participating in a series of political debates to increase women ’ s rights in the workforce . In the 2000s , there has been a change from considering women ’ s rights to a mother ’ s rights , focusing on the rights of pregnant women as well as mothers . However , there have been issues with creating laws specifically for mothers . There is still the inherent gender bias that women are the ones to care for children .
Some parts of Western Europe , especially Scandinavian countries have been creating family friendly policies that have aided them in equalizing the gender difference in participation in the work force . Nordic countries have the highest female participation rates in the work force in the world and salary differences are among the lowest . Government aid in providing care to the elderly and the young have enabled women in Scandinavia to be a part of the working population in nearly a high rate as men . Examples of government aid include paid parental leave and benefits and post maternity re @-@ entry programs . Such programs have led to a greater participation of women in the workforce , as well as a higher birth rate , and a robust economy .
= = = Eastern Europe = = =
Under communism , everyone was guaranteed employment . However , women suffered the double burden of paid and unpaid work , leading to lower birth rates . The commitment to social equality and the issue of declining birth rates allowed women to have some rights , such as child care and child allowances . For example , in the Soviet Union , maternity leave was extended to three years and part @-@ time work was introduced . With the collapse of communism , many of these rights have been revoked due to the new largely male oriented democracy that has been put in place . Although there has been an increase in female workers , their need for welfare support such as child care has not been met , and has been ignored .
= = = Asia = = =
In Western and Southern Asia , women represent only a third of the work force . Many of them , even women in more modernized Asian countries , are involved in the informal sector , in traditional jobs for women , such as caring or teaching , without benefits such as employee health insurance or pension plans .
The issue of the double burden is exacerbated in Asian countries due to the large cultural norm of women doing care work held by both men and women . In many developed countries , women drop out of work when they have children in order to have more time to take care of them .
In countries where women have to do paid work in order to feed their family , there is a lack of regulation and safety standards regarding female workers due to the large amount of informal work available . In Thailand for example , due to the severe economic crisis in 1997 , many women have jobs in the informal industry , and often do home @-@ based work so that they can do their domestic jobs concurrently with their paid jobs . This increases the work intensity by women doing more than one job at a time , and has been shown to have deteriorating effects on women 's health .
= = Causes of the double burden = =
= = = Gender ideology = = =
" Gender ideologies are linked to beliefs about appropriate behaviour for men and women " Socialization plays a major role in determining gender ideologies and what 's valued in one time and culture may not necessarily transcend to another . Traditional gender ideologies have contributed to the double burden because it posits women as caretakers , men as providers , and each gender occupying their own sphere of influence . Although research has shown that attitudes about gender roles have become more egalitarian over the past few decades , " these changes in gender attitudes have not been accompanied by corresponding changes in the allocation of housework " .
= = = Labor market constraints = = =
Despite women 's increasing participation in the work force , a gender division of labor persist . There are a number of constraints in the labor market that contribute to the double burden . " Women are disproportionately represented in informal work and concentrated among lower @-@ quality jobs within self @-@ employment . " The informal market is generally precarious and characterized by low wages , few benefits , and a lack of social protections that are offered in the formal market . Even within the formal market , there is occupational segregation and a gender wage gap . Occupational segregation can be either horizontal or vertical : horizontal segregation limits women to certain sectors and occupations , while vertical segregation restricts them to particular positions within occupational hierarchies . Men and women are even found at different levels of the occupational hierarchy . The " glass ceiling " is the relative absence of women in senior or managerial positions due to institutional barriers and norms . Even in female @-@ dominated occupations , men often occupy the more skilled and better paid positions .
The gender wage gap is a possible consequence of occupational segregation . The gender wage gap is the " difference between wages earned by women and men " . In 2008 , globally , men were estimated to earn 16 @.@ 5 per cent more than women . The gender wage gap is narrowing , but progress remains slow . Additionally , the narrowing of the gender wage gap may be attributed to a decrease in men 's wages instead of an increase in women 's wages . " The persistent gender wage gap across regions may reflect a number of factors , including women ’ s continued disadvantage in terms of education and skills ; their lack of an organized voice and bargaining power ; gender @-@ specific constraints on their labour market mobility ; and their relatively high involvement in part @-@ time or temporary jobs . " Many characteristics of the labor market constrain the employment opportunities of women and make it easier for them to be responsible for care work .
= = = Societal pressures = = =
There are various societal pressures that combine to create the double burden , including some economic thinking of domestic work , thoughts about net household gain , and the perceived notion that women are more likely to ask for maternity leave than men . Many classical economists believe that child care does not contribute to economic growth of the nation . They believe that welfare states such as Sweden are subsidizing work that is unproductive , and often think of children like a pet that only consumes without growing up to be productive workers . There is also the notion that the net household gain of a woman taking an hour away from her unpaid labor in order to do paid labor is always more than the net household gain of a man taking an hour away from paid labor to do unpaid labor . This creates the thought that women should do paid work and lose some time doing domestic jobs without the man taking time away from paid work to do domestic jobs , creating a deficit of hours necessary to do unpaid work that need to get filled . In addition , women are seen as more likely to ask for maternity leave than men , meaning that it is more difficult for them to obtain a well paying job , which has negative effects on female employment .
= = = Political pressure = = =
One of the political pressures , it is suggested by Susan Himmelweit is the issue of whom to empower . When there are considerations of policies , politicians usually only consider work as paid labor , and do not take into account the interdependence between unpaid work and paid work . It is also often common to think that women make economic decisions similarly to men . This is typically not the case , because for men , payment is simply a compensation for lost leisure time . However , for women , when they are working in the paid sector , they are still losing money because they have to make provisions for the domestic labor they are unable to do , such as caring for children or making dinner from scratch due to lack of resources such as child care . Her net financial gain is less than the financial gain of a man because she has to spend her earnings on providing for these provisions . In addition , increasing paid work hours in order to have more money may have negative effects on the woman due to the increased total work hours and decreased leisure time . Therefore , policies that give greater power to people who do paid labor , such as cutting back on public expenditure in order to lessen income taxes have an adverse effect on female employment and the effect that the double burden has on females . Such policies give greater power and consideration towards people who work in the paid sector , and less towards people who work in the unpaid sector .
Another political issue surrounding the double burden is what sort of policies directly or indirectly affect those who do domestic work . Some policies that companies have , such as a lower rate for part @-@ time workers or firing workers when they get pregnant can be seen as disempowering women . Debate as to whether this is gender segregation continues . On one side , only women get pregnant and there is a disproportionate amount of women who do part @-@ time work instead of full @-@ time , suggesting that there should be allowances made for women . However , there is also the argument that similar to men who fail to meet the standards of the company and cannot comply with their contract , women who cannot perform work at the performance expected of them should be given the proportionate amount of benefits and given no exceptions over men .
= = = Separate notion of paid work vs. unpaid work = = =
As the term double burden might suggest , when people consider paid work vs. unpaid work , they often consider them as two separate entities - that the man or woman is doing one or the other , but not at the same time . In reality , men and especially women often undertake both paid and unpaid labor simultaneously , creating the issue of work intensity , where the person undertakes many activities at the same time in order to compensate for the time necessary to accomplish many things in one day . Household surveys often only let people write down one thing that they are doing at any given time , and do not take into consideration that they may be cooking while cleaning , or sewing while taking care of the children . Because of this , the time taken for child care and other domestic activities may be underestimated . This coping mechanism of undertaking two or more tasks at once can especially be seen in women in developing countries . For example , many Caribbean rural women use this as a method of increasing the number of things they can accomplish in a day .
= = = Increased nuclearization of family = = =
Due to the increasing trend of decreased fertility rate , there has been an increased nuclearization of the family , where families have less immediate relatives to depend on in times of need . Because of this phenomenon , families do not have an extended family to depend on when they need a caretaker or someone to do domestic work , and must turn to market substitutes or a member of the immediate family doing both domestic and paid work instead .
= = Gender differences = =
= = = Women = = =
Many studies have been done to investigate the division of household labor within couples , and more specifically , on the gender roles played by a variety of people worldwide . According to The State of the World 's Children 2007 , women generally work longer hours than men regardless if they live in a developed or developing country . Most studies found that when both parents are faced with a full @-@ time job , women are faced with a higher amount of a domestic workload than men . According to the World Bank Latin American and Caribbean Studies , Mexican women in the labor force still spend approximately 33 hours each week performing household responsibilities . In contrast , husbands only contribute approximately 6 hours each week . Even more striking , " daughters contribute 14 hours weekly helping their mothers , while sons spend the same time as their fathers ( that is , 5 – 6 hours weekly ) . " In a study done by Statistics Canada 's General Social Survey of 10 @,@ 000 households , the average man spent under two hours a day dealing with childcare and house work while women on average spent a little more than three . This study highlights the unequal distribution of labor between partners . Of the people surveyed , under fifteen percent of the couples agreed on doing around the same amount of work in the house . About 83 percent of women participated in housecleaning and food preparation compared to only 51 percent of men who were surveyed .
John Frederick Conway 's book , The Canadian Family in Crisis , explores effects of the double burden by gender . In Conway 's studies , he discovers the physical , emotional , and psychological differences between men and women faced with the double burden in Canada . In these studies it was found that women who are raising children and are in the workforce are more prone to have anxiety and many other stress related effects than the women who are just faced with one of the two burdens .
= = = Men = = =
Even though the effects of raising children and having a career simultaneously are mostly seen in women throughout many societies , the men in such situations are affected greatly as well . This is not seen in all situations in males because the effects on men differ greatly from how females are affected by this extra responsibility . In The Canadian Family in Crisis , the author suggests a reason for these effects to go unnoticed in most studies and surveys . This is because women 's stress can be seen through direct labor consisting of housework and career whereas men 's stress , in most cases , mostly come from decision making and work @-@ family conflicts . These situations arise where the male must make the best choice for the future of his family . Specifically , these include things such as workload , overtime hours , shift decisions , and even accepting a promotion or a transfer . In these situations , the man is forced to make major choices that will affect the entire family , which brings on more stress . The effects also go unnoticed since , in traditional gender roles , the male is supposed to be the backbone of the family and , in the past , it would have been seen as weakness for the male to display his emotions to the rest of the family . In surveys and studies done , most males would not like to be seen as too weak to handle his responsibilities as the role of the adult male in the household , which in the past has consisted of being the major economical supporter and physical figure for the family . With this in mind , it is very possible that some may have lied when surveyed about these topics .
= = Types of double burdens = =
= = = Work vs. family = = =
Parenting is a large task within itself , and when a parent has a career as well , it can cause a double burden , or work – family conflict . Strain begins to develop when women and men find that the demands of their family are conflicting with the demands from their job . When one is faced with a double burden like this , it affects how decisions are made within a career and in a family ; this burden could potentially effect when a couple decides to have children . 75 % of all women who have jobs are in their childbearing prime . When the conflict between one 's family and work presents itself , the unpaid work that is being done in the home may be cut down , because of the certain health effects , or as a solution to deal with the greater demands from the workplace . Social outings and visits , and family dinners are two of the first things that get cut back on due to the work / family conflict . In a study by Ari Väänänen , May V. Kevin , et al. found that if a man put a higher importance on their family , were more likely to stay home from work in order to deal with extreme family demands . Ways that the double burden can be lessened for is with hired help in the house , day @-@ care facilities , and longer maternity leaves for women . For instance , in Norway women are allowed the options of 10 months of maternity leave , where they will get 100 % of their pay , or 12 months leave , where they will only paid 80 % of their earnings . Some companies are realizing the effect the double burden of work and a family is having on their employees and are offering flexible work schedules in order to help their employees cope . Not only do these flexible hours help the employee deal with their stress , but it also benefits the company because workers are happier , less likely to be absent , more productive , and the turnover rate is lower for the company . As Sophia Mwangi says , " Parenthood is a joy . Let us never be burdened by it but let 's celebrate the joy that it brings . Celebrate those first steps or words , the first school play , their graduation day , passing those exams , landing their first job , getting married , making you grandparents . Whatever it is , let 's celebrate our children . It 's not easy , but the art of juggling can always be mastered ! "
= = = Family vs. school = = =
Raising a family is not an easy task , and deciding to go back to school while raising a family can be a monumentual decision for the family says Carol Jacobs of the Jewish Employ @-@ ment & Vocational Service . Her advice to those considering going back to school is , " Talk to an educational consultant and people in the field you want to be in . " She adds , " This is a commitment and the decision should involve your family . Will you be available to go to your child 's softball game or have time to cook dinner ? " There are many reasons why someone may put off to school until their children are older , such as not wanting to leave them in the hand of a baby sitter constantly at such a young age . However , once the children get older the parent pursuing an education , may start missing school events that they would have normally attended . The guilt of having to leave a child while attending to educational matters is less when the child is old enough to be able to ask questions about where their parent is and comprehend the response . Even though pursuing an education while nurturing a family will have its cost , the benefits include getting a higher paying job , gaining more knowledge , and becoming more stable financially . Most of the time this burden will include the person trying to balance a job along with their family and schooling , because they still need to work in order to provide for their family at the present moment . For people who have a hard time fitting classes into their schedule around the needs of their family , there are options where they will be required to do all of the work for a course , but it will all take place online . For example , the University of Delaware and the University of Phoenix Online have both Bachelor of Science in Nursing and Master of Science in Nursing programs for people to complete online .
= = = Single vs. married parents = = =
= = = = Single parent double burdens = = = =
" Single Parents do not typically have the luxury of dividing tasks between two adults in the home . " " The Parents in a married @-@ couple family may be able to divide their tasks so that one parent specializes more in work @-@ related and income @-@ producing activities and the other parent specializes more in home @-@ related , non @-@ income producing activities . " Married parents have that option to split the workload , even though it usually does not happen , but single parents do not have the option of sharing the workload with anyone .
The double burden is usually view as a primary problem for single women or married women . However , it is often less recognized that men can and often do go through the same trials and hard times as a parent trying to balance work and the family . Within the book The Canadian Family in Crisis , Conway addresses this issue with an argument from Eichler . Eichler says , " Social science fails to understand men " by tending " to downplay or ignore a potential conflict between work and home for men . " Married men can avoid the full impact of the double burden , but single fathers are totally incapable of avoiding the double burden of family and work . Though single fathers face the same amount of problems that single mothers face , they have two advantages that play in their favor . Men usually have a higher income and have a shorter time of being single than women . However , until they are remarried or have a woman to help them out around the house , men still must deal with the sexual and emotional frustration as a woman does . They must deal with the balancing of work , childcare , and domestic responsibilities . Single fathers are usually doubtful about their ability be a parent , and they are challenged psychologically . " The problems faced by the working single father are more than merely the logistical problems shared by all working parents . He has to change the way he feels about himself as man . " A man being a single parent and feelings the effects of the double burden can and will interfere with his career just as it does with a single mother that has a career . A study showed that five percent of single fathers were fired form their jobs due to the double burden and another eight percent quit because the double burden became too much of a burden for them to balance both work and the family . With that being said , single fathers feel the same , if not more , of the effect of the double burden as women do .
The double burden that single mothers endure has a historical precedent , and still exists currently . Single mothers usually have higher rates of employment and children at home , and have the highest levels overall of the double burden . Women also typically have less economic resources than men , and have no partner to share the workload with them . Single mothers fall heavily under economic vulnerability . They may face job discrimination and not earn as much , so there will be further difficulties in maintaining the double burden . Single @-@ mother families tend to hover near the poverty line , with a poverty rate that is twice as high of that for men .
= = = = Married parent double burdens = = = =
Because of women 's expanded roles in the workforce have generally not been accompanied by any relaxation of expectations for their family and domestic activities , many women today face the " double burden " of home and work responsibilities . Women take on the largest portion of the domestic obligations of the home , even when they are working full @-@ time jobs . This breeds anger and frustration , as women know they do the majority of the housework on top of their careers . There have been said to be more reasons , other than gender roles , as to why there is a difference in the housework performed by men and women . Some theories have suggested that women 's expectations for household cleanliness are higher than men 's . Women feel like they must be responsible for the condition of the home in a way that men do not . Men do invest most of their time in their careers , but women spend double that time caring for the children , state of the home and taking care of the domestic responsibilities . In a graph from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in 2004 , that compare the workload of married men and women between the ages of 25 @-@ 54 , women are displayed as performing one hundred percent more housework than men , and men are displayed as having more leisure time than women . As the double burden increased in 1980 , women became more critical of their marriages than men and wanted the men to do more around the house to ease the burden of a second shift . The double burden of women who have jobs and still shoulder the majority of the housework at home leads to women filing or initiating divorce .
This concept of the double burden with married couples is a worldwide phenomenon . Throughout different cultures of the world , women spend more total hours in work than men do . In Japan , once married , they are still expected to be devoted wives and mothers who give all off their effort to the home , even after a full day of work . Latin American women , now entering the work force in large numbers , still face what they call doble jornada , or double day 's journey . Although in the Latin American culture , men are starting to interact more with the children and helping around the house more , the main domestic responsibilities still fall upon the women of the house . Sometimes women who are primary wage earners are still relegated to most of the domestic work . European men are more likely to play and interact with their children but not likely to participate fully in their daily care . They are more likely to help their wives at home , yet rarely do they tackle all domestic task equally . Men commonly fail to live up to their belief of equal sharing of domestic labor : they may believe in an equal workload in the house , but the inconvenience of taking on work done by their wives stops many from following through .
= = = Middle @-@ class vs. poor families = = =
= = = = Middle @-@ class families = = = =
Middle @-@ class families often use substitutes for domestic work to make up for the lost time while working in the paid sector . They buy time taking care of children by using hired help and day @-@ care centers . They also decrease the burden of paid work and unpaid work by using household appliances such as microwaves , laundry machines , and dishwashers , as well as buying pre @-@ made food , eating out and using laundry services .
= = = = Poor families = = = =
Poor families are much more constrained in their economic ability to " buy back " lost time through the market . Instead of buying market substitutes , they try to meet their needs without spending money by taking care of children instead of hiring help , taking care of the sick instead of taking them to the hospital , and making food from scratch instead of buying pre @-@ made food . The way that poor families deal with the time debt is for the main caretaker to intensify the time that they spend working , by doing multiple jobs at once instead of doing one job at a time . When people increase the intensity of their work to compensate for their lack of time to finish everything that needs to get done , called work intensity , many health problems occur .
= = Effects of double burden = =
= = = Health effects = = =
= = = = Stress = = = =
When faced with the double burden of having to deal with the responsibilities of both a career as well as domestic duties , sometimes a person 's health is affected . Many people faced with these circumstances have a higher chance of being sick since health and stress seem to be correlated , as stress has been implicated in up to eighty percent of all illnesses , as found by a report done by the Canadian Advisory Council on the Status of Women . In an article that was written by a team of researchers it was found that both men and women faced with a " spillover " of work and family issues were 1 @.@ 5 @-@ 1 @.@ 6 times more likely to have an absence due to sickness than others . Men and women in these situations have also been proven to be more likely to be faced with psychological stress and even see themselves as unhealthier than their colleagues who are not in their situation .
Although women faced with double burden usually have more stress than most women in today 's society , it was proven that in most cases they are psychologically healthier than women who are not faced with these circumstances , for either being a stay at home mother or for being a working woman without children to take care of .
= = = = Mortality rate = = = =
In a study done by Rosamund Weatherall , Heather Joshi and Susan Macran of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in 1994 , the research presented suggests that women presented with the double burden have a lower mortality rate than women who are simply housewives . The women who were observed that had part @-@ time jobs had a mortality rate lower than the women with full @-@ time jobs and children . The same study also suggests that women who have young children are less likely to die than women who have no children or have older children . Although this evidence can not be strictly attributed to the double burden of having children and a career field , it can give a good indication of a trend in society . Also , this study was conducted in multiple countries including England , Wales , and the United States which gives the information presented from the study a more global perspective on the double burden .
= = = = Absences due to sickness = = = =
In several Western countries it has been seen that absences due to sickness for women are far greater than men . When investigating the reasons behind this , a study done in Sweden published in 1996 found that half of the difference between genders can be dismissed if you take out the days missed by pregnant women . When taking into account the health effects of double burden , child birth is always a possibility for mothers who already are faced with taking care of children and having a career and effects them and their health . In many studies people have tried to relate the difference in sickness absences directly to the double burden effect . It has been somewhat successful as women who are faced with work and child care have been known to request more sick days than men in the same situation . Additionally , working wives with children have twice the absence rate as men who are placed in the same position in work family conflicts .
= = = = Loss of sleep = = = =
The stress of maintaining a career and a household can also lead to a loss of sleep . In traditional gender roles it is usually the mother who is the one to get the family going in the morning as she fixes breakfast and takes the children to school before she goes to her own job . At night the mother cooks and does various other activities around the house that cause her to be the last person to retire for the night as well . Although this is merely just a few gender roles that are not set in stone , they may hold to be true . It was found that working women sleep twenty @-@ five minutes less a night due solely to their responsibility for domestic work . Applying this statistic in larger scale leads to the assumption that women on average lose up to thirteen hours of sleep per month due to domestic duties . It can be assumed that it is possible for an average woman to lose up to one hundred and fifty @-@ six hours of sleep during a year because of domestic work and motherly duties .
= = = = Work intensity = = = =
For many poor women and men whose work hours have reached the point where they cannot cut back on leisure time anymore to make time for domestic and paid work , work intensity is an issue because they often intensify their work time by doing two or more activities at once , such as taking care of children while cooking . Work intensity can lead to many negative health consequences , such as lack of sleep , stress , and lack of recreation .
= = = Economic effects = = =
There are many economic effects to the person who has to shoulder the double burden . Oftentimes , this tends to be the woman in the relationship , and so there has been analysis done on the economic effect of the double burden on women . According to Himmelweit ( 2002 ) , because women often earn less than men , there is the thought that the woman should be the one to fit her paid job around household activities such as taking care of children . Because of this , and because they have many domestic duties , women often take part @-@ time jobs and jobs in the informal sector in order to balance paid work with domestic work . Part @-@ time jobs and jobs in the informal sector do earn less than full @-@ time jobs , so men have to increase their paid work hours in order to compensate for the lacking family income . This will " weaken her earning power and strengthen his " , leading to an unequal distribution of power in the household , and allow the man to exploit the woman 's unpaid work . This situation could have negative consequences especially for the woman because she is perceived to have less contribution to the household , due to domestic work being seen as less of a contribution than paid work . Such negative consequences include the lack of a divorce threat , where the woman does not have the economic means to ask for a divorce because she does not have a full @-@ time job , and she has less money that she personally receives , decreasing her perceived contributions to the household .
= = Solutions to the double burden = =
= = = Family @-@ friendly initiatives = = =
Family @-@ friendly initiatives are a possible solution to redistributing the load of unpaid work and alleviating the double burden . Possible initiatives include flexible work hours ; part @-@ time and job @-@ sharing options ; parental leave ; child care subsidies ; and on @-@ site daycare options . There are two primary approaches to assisting working families : " One stresses the importance of action from within , with emphasis on private , internal , local initiatives within firms and organizations to alter workplace norms , conventions , and practices . The other approach calls for government interventions designed to facilitate proper care for children with less sacrifice of parents ' job opportunities , advancement , and compensation " .
= = = Government initiatives = = =
The Nordic countries exemplify the use of family @-@ friendly initiatives . For example , a nine @-@ month parental leave is divided into thirds in Iceland . Three months are for the mother . Three non @-@ transferable months are for the father , and there are three months that both parents can share . " The reimbursement is 80 per cent of the salary . From 2001 to October 2003 , the average number of days taken by men increased from 39 to 83 , and 13 per cent of Icelandic fathers used more than their non @-@ transferable part . " Dual @-@ income families are becoming the norm , especially in industrialized countries , so it is not uncommon for large corporations to practice some form of family @-@ friendly initiative .
Government family @-@ friendly initiatives such as child subsidies and cheaper child care facilities can also greatly decrease the gender difference in the workplace , due to the woman being able to work longer hours outside the home . In addition , when developing policies related to paid work , it is important to do gender impact assessments in order to assess the impact of a policy on both the paid and unpaid sector .
= = = Workplace initiatives = = =
Whenever there is talk about new policies regarding new work time policies , there is often the argument for longer work hours in exchange for a shorter work week . For example , many are in favor of longer work hours such as " three ten @-@ hour days or four eight @-@ hour days " . However , this is often not the best work hours for people who take care of children , because children go to school for perhaps six hours a day , not eight or ten . Caretakers would prefer the opposite - shorter hours and longer weeks , such as six hour work days for six times a week , with limits on evening work and overtime , as well as flexible schedules . In order to lessen the burden of taking care of children and domestic duties as well as working in the paid sector , workplaces should consider policies that take into account the preferred work hours of caretakers . In addition , it is often the case now that many workers juggle domestic work and paid work . In order to get the most effective workers , companies should consider changing their policies in order to attract the best people in the field .
= = Criticism = =
A paper rejecting statistics of the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions as " the main source of tendentious polemics on women ’ s unfair burden and gender inequality " , states that the idea of a double burden is a myth and conclude instead that " on average , women and men across Europe do the same total number of productive work hours , once paid jobs and unpaid household work are added together – roughly eight hours a day . "
= Birthday Cake ( song ) =
" Birthday Cake " is a song by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna , from her sixth studio album , Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) . After it leaked onto the internet , fans expressed interest in the track being included on Talk That Talk , but it was later revealed that the 1 : 18 ( one minute , 18 seconds ) length that leaked was in fact the final cut and was not being considered for inclusion on the album . Due to a high level of fan interest , the song was included on the album as an interlude . The full length version , also known as the official remix of the track , featuring Rihanna 's ex @-@ boyfriend Chris Brown , was premiered online on February 20 , 2012 , to coincide with Rihanna 's 24th birthday . The song peaked in the top fifty .
The lyrics to " Birthday Cake " express the desire to have spontaneous sex . Music critics were divided on " Birthday Cake " , with the majority both praising and criticising the song 's sexual lyrical content . Several critics compared the song to the previous track on the album " Cockiness ( Love It ) " , which also consists of sexually explicit lyrics . Upon the release of Talk That Talk , the song debuted on the lower regions of the singles charts in South Korea , the United Kingdom , and the United States .
= = Background and development = =
" Birthday Cake " was written by The @-@ Dream , Rihanna , Marcos Palacios , and Earnest Clark , with production helmed by Da Internz and The @-@ Dream . The interlude was recorded in room 1306 of the Radisson Blu Royal Hotel in Copenhagen , Denmark . In an interview for The Boom Box , producer The @-@ Dream answered a question about fans being disappointed that " Birthday Cake " would not be featured on Talk That Talk ( 2011 ) after it leaked online before the album 's November 2011 release ; the producer explained that only an interlude had been produced , and that a full length version of the song would be released at some point during the Talk That Talk era , saying :
I was just talking to Rihanna about that , because she [ originally ] made [ just ] an interlude . I was like , ' Your fans are going to be so mad at you . ' As soon as I said that , I got back , and I guess she released a piece of it , and they saw how long it is . Man , they tore me up on Twitter ! So I hit her on the phone . I was like , ' Yo , your fans , they 're going crazy on me right now , like I could make you do something . ' So ' Birthday Cake ' is on there . It 's going to turn into a whole song because the fans are ganging up on me , and I don 't want to be murdered by the Rihanna Navy ! .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Birthday Cake " is an interlude which lasts for one minute and 18 seconds , appearing as the sixth track on the album . The instrumentation of " Birthday Cake " consists of a heavy bass , schoolbells , engine sounds , claps , and electro beats . The track also consists of hoover synths , synth handclaps , an Eastern @-@ inspired tone and chants . In the song , Rihanna adopts a sensual tone in her vocals , as she chants the song 's provocative and sexually explicit lyrics . The majority of the interlude is rapped by Rihanna . A reviewer for Flavour described the singer 's vocal performance in " Birthday Cake " as " sultry " . Nathan S. of DJ Booth concurred that Rihanna sounds " sultry " as well as " playful " on the song .
The lyrical content of the interlude is spare and largely revolves around Rihanna chanting , " cake cake cake cake cake cake . " Aside from the repetitive chant of " cake " , the interlude consists of multiple sexual metaphors . The lyric " I know you wanna bite this / It 's so enticing / Nothing else like this , I 'ma make you my bitch / And it 's not even my birthday / But you wanna put your name on it " is a metaphor referring to a vagina . Rihanna sings about the desire to have spontaneous sex . Rihanna promises her lover that she will make him do whatever she pleases , singing " I 'mma make you my bitch . " T 'Cha Dunlevy of The Montreal Gazette described the lyric as a " promise " , with Rihanna intending to act upon her desires . The interlude ends mid @-@ verse and mid @-@ lyric with a fade at 1 : 18 . Katherine St. Asaph of Popdust described the fade as " ungraceful " , as well as writing that it makes the track appear as though it is not finished . Upon the fade , Rihanna puts forward the line " Ooh , I wanna fuck you right now . " Dunlevy and St. Asaph were critical of the final line , with the former labelling it as " blatant " , and the latter noting that " cursing makes everything obvious . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Birthday Cake " garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Jayson Lipshutz of Billboard praised the interlude , writing " We 're all for birthday @-@ themed naughtiness in pop music form , but only 78 seconds of ' Birthday Cake ' is just not enough of a celebration ! " Lipshutz continued to compare the song 's lyrical message to Jeremih 's " Birthday Sex " . Sam Lansky of MTV Buzzworthy was complimentary of " Birthday Cake " , writing , " The only misstep on the album – not because it 's not amazing ( it is ! ) , but because it 's only 78 seconds long . ' Birthday Cake ' is more decadent Rihanna filth , this time courtesy of sensual R & B @-@ master The @-@ Dream . Have any Rihanna Navy members made an hour @-@ long mix yet ? We need to keep the bump ' n ' grind going all night . " Pip Ellwood of Entertainment @-@ Focus noted that " Birthday Cake " , along with " Cockiness ( Love It ) " , " leave you under no misunderstanding that Rihanna is as sexual as she 's ever been throughout her career . " Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " Birthday Cake " , along with " Cockiness ( Love It ) " , were the most provocative songs on the album , describing them as " I @-@ like @-@ it @-@ rough tracks " , but criticized them for being album fillers designed to get the listener out of the bedroom and on to the dance floor .
Adrian Thrills of the Daily Mail wrote that after listening to " Cockiness ( Love It ) " and then " Birthday Cake " , " the double entendres have grown tiresome " after having listening to the latter . Giovanny Caquias of CultureBlues expressed distaste for " Birthday Cake " , calling the track " horrendous " , but referred to it being " only a minimal waste of time " due to its short length . Mike Diver of BBC Music was equally critical , writing that " Birthday Cake " is a " wholly pointless minute @-@ something in the company of star producer The @-@ Dream , wasted on the boring profanities of Birthday Cake . " A reviewer for Flavour had a mixed reaction to the lyrical content , writing , " I can 't exactly say it is a bad song . In fact , I will probably be singing it over the next few weeks . But at this point its like , ' we get it – you like sex . ' Chill out about it and sing about education or something – your younger fans need more SUBSTANCE . " [ sic ] Nathan S. of DJ Booth noted that the song resembles a real life " quickie " , continuing to write that the overtly sexual lyrics in the song earned Talk That Talk the Parental Advisory sticker . Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times commented that the lyrics on " Birthday Cake " " wouldn 't seem out of place on Spinal Tap 's ' Smell the Glove ' . " Roberts continued to note that " Birthday Cake " appeared to be an afterthought , writing ,
The hottest lines on the album come nearly as an afterthought on the all @-@ too @-@ brief ' Birthday Cake , ' produced by The @-@ Dream . ' I know you wanna bite this / It 's so enticin ' / Nothin ' else like this / I 'mma make you my bitch , ' she sings . But as if the network censors had let the song run before realizing their mistake , a little over a minute into it the music fades out , just as it 's getting dirty , leaving us wondering whether Rihanna really believes what she 's selling on " Talk That Talk . "
= = Chart performance = =
Upon the release of Talk That Talk , " Birthday Cake " debuted on several world charts . The song entered the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 67 on November 26 , 2011 , with sales of 6 @,@ 661 digital downloads . In the United Kingdom , " Birthday Cake " debuted at number 172 on December 3 , 2011 . In the United States , the song charted at number 22 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , which represents the 25 songs which failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 . On March 3 , 2012 , " Birthday Cake " made its first appearance on the US Digital Songs chart at number 62 , following the release of the official remix featuring Brown , and has peaked at number 30 . Due to strong airplay spins , the interlude of " Birthday Cake " peaked at number 4 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . " Birthday Cake " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 units .
= = Live performance = =
Rihanna performed the song for the first time on May 5 , 2012 , on Saturday Night Live , as part of a medley with " Talk That Talk " . The performance started with the original interlude version " Birthday Cake " and featured Rihanna in an all black outfit with a giant spiders web as the backdrop behind her . After she performed a short section of the song , it transitioned into " Talk That Talk " , where she performed her part of the song in full , without the rap vocal by Jay @-@ Z. The remix of the song was included on her Diamonds World Tour as part of her first act in 2013 .
= = Track listing = =
Album version
" Birthday Cake " – 1 : 18
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Radisson Blu Royal Hotel , Room 1306 , Copenhagen , Denmark .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Talk That Talk , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Remix featuring Chris Brown = =
" Birthday Cake " was remixed with vocals from American recording artist Chris Brown , and is a full length version of the interlude which was originally included on Talk That Talk . It was sent to radio as the fourth US single from the album on March 6 , 2012 . At first ,
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In the early 21st @-@ century spending boom before the late 2000s recession the city saw large amounts of new retail , commercial , housing and public service construction spending .
Tourist attractions include the historic Old Town and Museum Quarter , Hull Marina and The Deep , a city landmark . The redevelopment of one of Hull 's main thoroughfares , Ferensway , included the opening of St. Stephen 's Hull and the new Hull Truck Theatre . Spectator sports include Premier League football and Super League Rugby . The KCOM Stadium houses Hull City football club and Hull FC rugby club and The Lightstream Stadium rugby club Hull Kingston Rovers . Hull is also home to the English Premier Ice Hockey League Hull Pirates .
In 2013 , it was announced that Hull would be the 2017 UK City of Culture .
In 2015 it was announced that the Ferens Art Gallery will be hosting the prestigious annual art prize , The Turner Prize , in 2017 . The prize is held outside London every other year . This important art prize receives more media coverage than any other art prize .
= = History = =
Kingston upon Hull stands on the north bank of the Humber estuary at the mouth of its tributary , the River Hull . The valley of the River Hull has been inhabited since the early Neolithic period but there is little evidence of a substantial settlement in the area of the present city . The area was attractive to people because it gave access to a prosperous hinterland and navigable rivers but the site was poor , being remote , low @-@ lying and with no fresh water . It was originally an outlying part of the hamlet of Myton , named Wyke . The name is thought to originate either from a Scandinavian word Vik meaning creek or from the Saxon Wic meaning dwelling place or refuge .
The River Hull was a good haven for shipping , whose trade included the export of wool from Meaux abbey . In 1293 the town was acquired from the abbey by King Edward I , who on 1 April 1299 granted it a royal charter that renamed the settlement King 's town upon Hull or Kingston upon Hull . The charter is preserved in the archives of the Guildhall .
In 1440 , a further charter incorporated the town and instituted local government consisting of a mayor , a sheriff and twelve aldermen .
In his Guide to Hull ( 1817 ) , J. C. Craggs provides a colourful background to Edward 's acquisition and naming of the town . He writes that the King and a hunting party started a hare which " led them along the delightful banks of the River Hull to the hamlet of Wyke … [ Edward ] , charmed with the scene before him , viewed with delight the advantageous situation of this hitherto neglected and obscure corner . He foresaw it might become subservient both to render the kingdom more secure against foreign invasion , and at the same time greatly to enforce its commerce " . Pursuant to these thoughts , Craggs continues , Edward purchased the land from the Abbot of Meaux , had a manor hall built for himself , issued proclamations encouraging development within the town , and bestowed upon it the royal appellation , King 's Town .
The port served as a base for Edward I during the First War of Scottish Independence and later developed into the foremost port on the east coast of England . It prospered by exporting wool and woollen cloth , and importing wine and timber . Hull also established a flourishing commerce with the Baltic ports as part of the Hanseatic League .
From its medieval beginnings , Hull 's main trading links were with Scotland and northern Europe . Scandinavia , the Baltic and the Low Countries were all key trading areas for Hull 's merchants . In addition , there was trade with France , Spain and Portugal . As sail power gave way to steam , Hull 's trading links extended throughout the world . Docks were opened to serve the frozen meat trade of Australia , New Zealand and South America . Hull was also the centre of a thriving inland and coastal trading network , serving the whole of the United Kingdom .
Sir William de la Pole was the town 's first mayor . A prosperous merchant , de la Pole founded a family that became prominent in government . Another successful son of a Hull trading family was bishop John Alcock , who founded Jesus College , Cambridge and was a patron of the grammar school in Hull . The increase in trade after the discovery of the Americas and the town 's maritime connections are thought to have played a part in the introduction of a virulent strain of syphilis through Hull and on into Europe from the New World .
The town prospered during the 16th and early 17th centuries , and Hull 's affluence at this time is preserved in the form of several well @-@ maintained buildings from the period , including Wilberforce House , now a museum documenting the life of William Wilberforce .
During the English Civil War , Hull became strategically important because of the large arsenal located there . Very early in the war , on 11 January 1642 , the king named the Earl of Newcastle governor of Hull while Parliament nominated Sir John Hotham and asked his son , Captain John Hotham , to secure the town at once . Sir John Hotham and Hull corporation declared support for Parliament and denied Charles I entry into the town . Charles I responded to these events by besieging the town . This siege helped precipitate open conflict between the forces of Parliament and those of the Royalists .
Throughout the second half of the 19th century and leading up to the First World War , the Port of Hull played a major role in the transmigration of Northern European settlers to the New World , with thousands of emigrants sailing to the city and stopping for administrative purposes before travelling on to Liverpool and then North America .
Parallel to this growth in passenger shipping was the emergence of the Wilson Line of Hull . Founded in the city in 1825 by Thomas Wilson , by the early 20th century the company had grown – largely through its monopolisation of North Sea passenger routes and later mergers and acquisitions – to be the largest privately owned shipping company in the world , with over 100 ships sailing to different parts of the globe . The Wilson Line was sold to the Ellerman Line – which itself was owned by Hull @-@ born magnate ( and the richest man in Britain at the time ) Sir John Ellerman .
Whaling played a major role in the town 's fortunes until the mid @-@ 19th century . Hull 's prosperity peaked in the decades just before the First World War ; it was during this time , in 1897 , that city status was granted . After the decline of the whaling industry , emphasis shifted to deep @-@ sea trawling until the Anglo @-@ Icelandic Cod War of 1975 – 1976 . The conditions set at the end of this dispute initiated Hull 's economic decline .
Many of the suburban areas on the western side of Hull were built in the 1930s , particularly Willerby Road and Anlaby Park , as well as most of Willerby itself . This was part of the biggest British housing boom of the 20th century ( possibly ever ) .
= = = Hull Blitz = = =
The city 's port and industrial facilities , coupled with its proximity to mainland Europe and ease of location being on a major estuary , led to extremely widespread damage by bombing raids during the Second World War ; much of the city centre was destroyed . Hull had 95 % of its houses damaged or destroyed , making it the most severely bombed British city or town , apart from London , during the Second World War . More than 1 @,@ 200 people died in air raids on the city and some 3 @,@ 000 others were injured .
The worst of the bombing occurred in 1941 . Little was known about this destruction by the rest of the country at the time , since most of the radio and newspaper reports did not reveal Hull by name but referred to it as " a North @-@ East town " or " a northern coastal town " . Most of the city centre was rebuilt in the years following the war . As recently as 2006 researchers found documents in the local archives that suggested an unexploded wartime bomb might be buried beneath a major new redevelopment , The Boom , in Hull .
= = Government = =
Following the Local Government Act 1888 , Hull became a county borough , a local government district independent of the East Riding of Yorkshire . This district was dissolved under the Local Government Act 1972 , on 1 April 1974 when it became a non @-@ metropolitan district of the newly created shire county of Humberside . Humberside ( and its county council ) was abolished on 1 April 1996 and Hull was made a unitary authority area .
The single @-@ tier local authority of the city is now Hull City Council ( officially Kingston upon Hull City Council ) , headquartered in the Guildhall in the city centre . The council was designated as the UK 's worst performing authority in both 2004 and 2005 , but in 2006 was rated as a two star ' improving adequate ' council and in 2007 it retained its two stars with an ' improving well ' status . In the 2008 corporate performance assessment the city retained its " improving well " status but was upgraded to a three star rating .
The Liberal Democrats won overall control of the City Council in the 2007 local elections , ending several years in which no single party had a majority . They retained control in the 2008 local elections by an increased majority and in the 2010 local elections . Following the UK 's local elections of 2011 , the Labour Party gained control of the council , increasing their majority in the 2012 and retained this following the 2014 local elections . They increased their majority by one in the 2015 local elections .
The city returned three Members of Parliament to the House of Commons and at the last general election , in 2015 , elected three Labour MPs : Alan Johnson who was the former Home Secretary , Diana Johnson and Karl Turner .
William Wilberforce is the most celebrated of Hull 's former MPs . He was a native of the city and the member for Hull from 1780 to 1784 when he was elected as an Independent member for Yorkshire .
It lies within the Yorkshire and the Humber constituency of the European Parliament , which in the May 2014 European Election elected three UKIP , two Labour and one Conservative MEPs .
Hull is the only city and forms the major urban area in the official government @-@ defined Hull and Humber Ports City Region .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 44 ′ 30 ″ N 0 ° 20 ′ 0 ″ W , 154 miles ( 248 km ) north of London , Kingston upon Hull is on the northern bank of the Humber estuary . The city centre is west of the River Hull and close to the Humber . The city is built upon alluvial and glacial deposits which overlie chalk rocks but the underlying chalk has no influence on the topography . The land within the city is generally very flat and is only 2 to 4 metres ( 6 @.@ 5 to 13 ft ) above sea level . Because of the relative flatness of the site there are few physical constraints upon building and many open areas are the subject of pressures to build .
The parishes of Drypool , Marfleet , Sculcoates , and most of Sutton parish , were absorbed within the borough of Hull in the 19th and 20th centuries . Much of their area has been built over , and socially and economically they have long been inseparable from the city . Only Sutton retained a recognisable village centre in the late 20th century , but on the south and east the advancing suburbs had already reached it . The four villages were , nevertheless , distinct communities , of a largely rural character , until their absorption in the borough — Drypool and Sculcoates in 1837 , Marfleet in 1882 , and Sutton in 1929 . The current boundaries of the city are tightly drawn and exclude many of the metropolitan area 's nearby villages , of which Cottingham is the largest . The city is surrounded by the rural East Riding of Yorkshire .
Some areas of Hull lie on reclaimed land at or below sea level . The Hull Tidal Surge Barrier is at the point where the River Hull joins the Humber estuary and is lowered at times when unusually high tides are expected . It is used between 8 and 12 times per year and protects the homes of approximately 10 @,@ 000 people from flooding . Due to its low level , Hull is expected to be at increasing levels of risk from flooding due to global warming .
Many areas of Hull were flooded during the June 2007 United Kingdom floods , with 8600 homes and 1300 businesses affected .
Historically , Hull has been affected by tidal and storm flooding from the Humber ; the last serious floods were in the 1950s , in 1953 , 1954 and the winter of 1959 .
Unlike many other English cities , Hull has no cathedral . It is in the Diocese of York and has a Suffragan bishop . However , Hull 's Holy Trinity Church is the largest parish church in England by floor area . The church dates to about 1300 . Hull forms part of the Southern Vicariate of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Middlesbrough and included among Hull 's Catholic churches is St Charles Borromeo , the oldest post @-@ Reformation Roman Catholic church in the city .
There are several seamen 's missions and churches in Hull . The Mission to Seafarers has a centre at West King George Dock and the St Nikolaj Danish Seamen 's Church is located in Osborne Street .
= = = Climate = = =
Located in Northern England , Hull has a temperate maritime climate which is dominated by the passage of mid @-@ latitude depressions . The weather is very changeable from day to day and the warming influence of the Gulf Stream makes the region mild for its latitude . Locally , the area is sunnier than most areas this far north in the British Isles , and also considerably drier , due to the rain shadowing effect of the Pennines . It is also one of the most northerly areas where the July maximum temperature exceeds 21 @.@ 5 ° C ( 70 @.@ 7 ° F ) , although this appears to be very localised around the city itself .
The absolute maximum temperature recorded is 34 @.@ 4 ° C ( 93 @.@ 9 ° F ) , set in August 1990 . Typically , the warmest day should reach 28 @.@ 8 ° C ( 83 @.@ 8 ° F ) , though slightly over 10 days should achieve a temperature of 25 @.@ 1 ° C ( 77 @.@ 2 ° F ) or more in an " average " year . All averages refer to the 1981 @-@ 2010 period .
The absolute minimum temperature is − 11 @.@ 1 ° C ( 12 @.@ 0 ° F ) , recorded during January 1982 . An average of 32 @.@ 5 nights should report an air frost .
= = = Seismic activity = = =
At around 00 : 56 GMT on 27 February 2008 , Hull was 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of the epicentre of an earthquake measuring 5 @.@ 3 on the Richter Scale which lasted for nearly 10 seconds . This was an unusually large earthquake for this part of the world .
= = Demography = =
According to the 2001 UK census , Hull had a population of 243 @,@ 589 living in 104 @,@ 288 households . The population density was 34 @.@ 1 per hectare . Of the total number of homes 47 @.@ 85 % were rented compared with a national figure of 31 @.@ 38 % rented . The population had declined by 7 @.@ 5 % since the 1991 UK census , and has been officially estimated as 256 @,@ 200 in July 2006 .
In 2001 approximately 53 @,@ 000 people were aged under 16 , 174 @,@ 000 were aged 16 – 74 , and 17 @,@ 000 aged 75 and over . Of the total population 97 @.@ 7 % were white and the largest minority ethnic group was of 749 people who considered themselves to be ethnically Chinese . There were 3 % of people living in Hull who were born outside the United Kingdom . In 2006 the largest minority ethnic grouping was Iraqi Kurds who were estimated at 3 @,@ 000 . Most of these people were placed in the city by the Home Office while their applications for asylum were being processed . In 2001 , the city was 71 @.@ 7 % Christian . A further 18 % of the population indicated they were of no religion while 8 @.@ 4 % did not specify any religious affiliation . In 2001 , the city had the lowest church attendance in the United Kingdom .
Also in 2001 , the city had a high proportion , at 6 @.@ 2 % , of people of working age who were unemployed , ranking 354th out of 376 local and unitary authorities within England and Wales . The distance travelled to work was less than 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) for 64 @,@ 578 out of 95 @,@ 957 employed people . A further 18 @,@ 031 travelled between 5 and 10 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 and 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to their place of employment . The number of people using public transport to get to work was 12 @,@ 915 while the number travelling by car was 53 @,@ 443 .
= = Economy = =
The economy of Hull was built on trading and seafaring , firstly whaling and later seafishing . Merchant 's houses such as Blaydes House and some warehouses survive in the Old Town , where trade was centred on the River Hull , later shifting to the Humber docks . Another major industry was oilseed crushing . Although the fishing industry declined in the 1970s , the city remains a busy port , handling 13 million tonnes of cargo per year . The port operations run by Associated British Ports and other companies in the port employ 5 @,@ 000 people . A further 18 @,@ 000 are employed as a direct result of the port 's activities . The port area of the city has diversified to compensate for the decline in fishing by the introduction of Roll @-@ on Roll @-@ off ferry services to the continent of Europe . These ferries now handle over a million passengers each year . Hull has exploited the leisure industry by creating Hull Marina from the old Humber Street Dock in the centre of the city . It opened in 1983 and has 270 berths for yachts and small sailing craft .
Industry in the city is focused on the chemical and health care sectors . Several well @-@ known British companies , including BP , Smith & Nephew , Seven Seas , and Reckitt Benckiser , have facilities in Hull . The health care sector is further enhanced by the research facilities provided by the University of Hull through the Institute of Woundcare and the Hull York Medical School partnerships . In recent years , with the decline of fishing and heavy industry , the retail sector , tourism , the arts and further and higher education sectors have played an increasingly prominent role in the process of economic regeneration and raising the profile of the city . In 2009 it was estimated that businesses in Hull deliver an annual turnover of almost £ 8 billion , and over 5 million annual visitors contribute almost £ 210 million to Hull 's economy .
= = = Retail = = =
As the biggest settlement in the East Riding of Yorkshire and the local transport hub , Hull is a natural focus for retail shoppers . Major department stores in Hull include Debenhams , House of Fraser and British Home Stores ( BHS ) . The city centre has three main shopping centres , St. Stephen 's , Princes Quay and the Prospect Centre . There are also a number of " retail parks " , and suburban shopping centres including the North Point Shopping Centre at Bransholme , St Andrews Quay retail park on the Humber bank , as well as near Great Gutter lane ( Willerby ) , Mount Pleasant ( Holderness Road ) , Priory Park ( near Hessle ) and Kingswood retail park ( Kingswood )
Whitefriargate is one of the shopping streets , along with King Edward Street and Carr lane .
The electrical retailer Comet Group was founded in the city as Comet Battery Stores Limited in 1933 ; the company 's first superstore was opened in Hull in 1968 .
The city 's branch of Woolworth 's on King Edward Street closed in 2008 , as did the branch of T J Hughes on the site of the former C & A store on Ferensway in August 2011 , following the parent companies ' bankruptcies . The main non @-@ town @-@ centre shopping streets are Hessle Road , Holderness Road , Chanterlands Avenue , Beverley Road , as well as Princes Avenue and Newland Avenue . Two covered shopping arcades remain in the town centre : the Hepworth and Paragon Arcades .
The Prospect Centre on Prospect Street is a smaller , older shopping centre with a range of chain stores , banks and fashion retailers . It contains branches of Boots , Claire 's , a large Wilkinsons , Poundland , W H Smith , Santander , and Hull 's main post office . At Bransholme , the North Point Shopping Centre ( Bransholme Shopping Centre ) contains a similar range of popular chain stores and budget @-@ oriented retailers including Boyes and Heron Foods .
The Princes Quay Shopping Centre ( 1991 ) was built on stilts over the closed Prince 's Dock , and houses a variety of chain stores and food outlets . It was originally built with four retail floors , known as " decks " . The uppermost deck has housed a Vue cinema since December 2007 .
There are a number of budget and discount retailers including four branches of Boyes , Primark , Peacocks , Poundland and Wilkinsons have branches in the city . Hull has a good selection of supermarkets , including several branches of Tesco , Sainsbury 's , the Co @-@ operative and budget food stores including Heron Foods and Iceland .
The St. Stephen 's shopping centre development on Ferensway opened in 2007 , is a 560 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 52 @,@ 000 m2 ) scheme , costing over £ 160 million . It is anchored by a large 24 @-@ hour Tesco Extra superstore and provides shop units , food outlets , a hotel , cinema , car parking ; adjacent is Hull 's Paragon Interchange completed in the same time period which includes a new bus station and renovated railway station with retail outlets .
= = = Development , 2000 – 2010 = = =
In addition to the St. Stephen 's retail project , a number of other commercial , office and services developments were planned or took place during the first decade of the 21st century . One high profile project was the £ 165 million Humber Quays development , built near to the Humber estuary , which gained World Trade Centre status as the World Trade Centre Hull & Humber . Phase 1 of the project includes two office buildings and 51 new apartments . A second phase is expected to include a new 200 @-@ bedroom 4 @-@ star hotel , a restaurant , and more high @-@ quality office space . The 50 @-@ stall indoor Edwardian Trinity Market , a grade II listed building , and Hepworth 's arcade were modernised and renovated in the late 2000s . The city centre railway station , and adjacent bus terminal were also redeveloped , and were official opened in 2009 , as the Hull Paragon Interchange .
Several large @-@ scale developments also planned , including a £ 100 million residential development on east bank of the River Hull , called the Boom , which would include over 600 luxury riverside apartments , shops , boutiques , bistro cafés , a 120 @-@ bed luxury hotel , and health and education facilities . Also planned and not built was the Quay West extension to the Princes Quay shopping centre , that was cancelled in 2010 .
The late 2000s recession halted many of the building development projects . Additionally , the local development agency ' Hull Forward ' lost funding in June 2010 due to governmental budgetary cuts on public spending . and the regional development agency , Yorkshire Forward was abolished .
The ' Boom ' development was to be linked to the city centre by a new swing footbridge , Scale Lane Bridge , across the River Hull . The bridge was officially opened in June 2013 .
An investment of £ 14 @.@ 5 million by Network Rail was used to enhance the capacity of the port freight railway line , the Hull Docks branch , ( completed 2008 ) ; the project was intended to increase its capacity from 10 trains per day to 22 .
= = = Development 2010 – present = = =
In January 2011 Siemens Wind Power and Associated British Ports signed a memorandum of understanding concerning the construction of wind turbine manufacturing plant at Alexander Dock . The plan would require some modification of the dock to allow the ships , used for transporting the wind turbines , to dock and be loaded . Planning applications for the plant were submitted in December 2011 , and affirmed in 2014 , concerning 75 metre blades for the 6 MW offshore model . The creation of an enterprise zone , Humber Enterprise Zone , was announced in 2011 to encourage further industrial development in the Humber estuary region .
A 12 @.@ 5 @-@ acre site waste @-@ to @-@ energy centre costing in the region of £ 150 million is also planned to be built by the Spencer Group . Announced in mid @-@ 2011 , and named ' Energy Works ' , the proposed plant would process up to 200 @,@ 000 tonnes of organic material per year , with energy produced via a waste gasification process .
In July 2014 , demolition began in the Fruit Market to allow room for the construction of the C4DI ( Centre for Digital Innovation ) , a technology hub whose aim is to promote the tech sector in Hull and East Yorkshire .
= = Culture = =
Hull has several museums of national importance . The city has a theatrical tradition with some famous actors and writers having been born and lived in Hull . The city 's arts and heritage have played a role in attracting visitors and encouraging tourism in recent efforts at regeneration . Hull has a diverse range of architecture and this is complemented by parks and squares and a number of statues and modern sculptures . The city has inspired author Val Wood who has set many of her best @-@ selling novels in the city .
In April 2013 Hull put forward a bid to be the UK City of Culture in 2017 , reaching the shortlist of four in June 2013 along with Dundee , Leicester and Swansea Bay . On 20 November 2013 , Maria Miller , the Culture Secretary , announced that Hull had won the award to become the UK City of Culture 2017 .
= = = Museums = = =
Hull 's Museum Quarter , on the High Street in the heart of the Old Town , consists of Wilberforce House , the Arctic Corsair , the Hull and East Riding Museum ( which contains the Hasholme Logboat – Britain 's largest surviving prehistoric logboat ) , and the Streetlife Museum of Transport . Other museums and visitor attractions include the Ferens Art Gallery with a good range of art and regular exhibitions , the Maritime Museum in Victoria Square , the Spurn Lightship , the Yorkshire Water Museum , and the Deep , a public aquarium . The recently refurbished Seven Seas Fish Trail marks Hull 's fishing heritage , leading its followers through old and new sections of the city , following a wide variety of sealife engraved in the pavement .
= = = = Visual culture and sculpture = = = =
Marine painter John Ward ( 1798 – 1849 ) was born , worked and died in Hull and a leading ship artist of his day . Artist and Royal Academician David Remfry ( born 1942 ) grew up in Hull and studied at the Hull College of Art ( now part of Lincoln University ) from 1959 to 1964 . His tutor , Gerald T Harding , trained at the Royal College of Art , London and was awarded the Abbey Minor Travelling Scholarship in 1957 by the British School in Rome . Remfry has had two solo exhibitions at the Ferens Art Gallery in 1975 and 2005 .
Hull has a number of historical statues such as the Wilberforce Memorial in Queen 's Gardens and the gilded King William III statue on Market Place ( known locally as " King Billy " ) . There is a statue of Hull @-@ born Amy Johnson in Prospect Street . In recent years a number of modern art sculptures and heritage trails have been installed around Hull . These include a figure looking out to the Humber called ' Voyage ' which has a twin in Iceland . In July 2011 , this artwork was reported stolen . There is a shark sculpture outside The Deep and a fountain and installation called ' Tower of Light ' outside Britannia House on the corner of Spring Bank .
Running along Spring Bank there is also an elephant trail , with stone pavers carved by a local artist to the designs of members of the community . This trail commemorates the Victorian Zoological Gardens and the route taken daily by the elephant as it walked from its house down Spring Bank to the zoo and back , stopping for gingerbread at a shop on the way . The animals are further represented on the Albany Street ' Home Zone ' a project involving local residents and resulting in sculptures of a hippo ( ' Water Horse ' ) at the bottom of Albany Street ; an elephant balancing on its trunk on an island in the middle ; and two bears climbing poles and reaching out to each other to form an open archway across the entrance to Albany street from Spring Bank . Other sculptural details of animals along the street represent the participation of street residents , either through workshops with artists and makers , or through independent work of their own .
In 2010 a public art event in Hull city centre entitled Larkin with Toads displayed 40 individually decorated giant toad models as the centrepiece of the Larkin 25 festival . Most of these sculptures have since been sold off for charity and transported to their new owners . Visitors to Hull 's Paragon Interchange are now greeted by the new statue of Philip Larkin unveiled on 2 December 2010 .
= = = Theatres = = =
The city has two main theatres . Hull New Theatre , which opened in 1939 , is the largest venue which features musicals , opera , ballet , drama , children 's shows and pantomime . The Hull Truck Theatre is a smaller independent theatre , established in 1971 , that regularly features plays , notably those written by John Godber . Since April 2009 , the Hull Truck Theatre has had a new £ 14 @.@ 5 million , 440 seat venue in the St. Stephen 's Hull development . This replaced the former home of the Hull Truck Theatre on Spring Street , a complex of buildings demolished in 2011 . The playwright Alan Plater was brought up in Hull and was associated with Hull Truck Theatre .
Hull has produced several veteran stage and TV actors . Sir Tom Courtenay , Ian Carmichael and Maureen Lipman were born and brought up in Hull . Younger actors Reece Shearsmith , Debra Stephenson and Liam Garrigan were also born in Hull . Garrigan attended Hull 's Northern Theatre Company and Wyke College .
In 1914 , there were 29 cinemas in Hull but most of these have now closed . The first purpose @-@ built cinema was the Prince 's Hall in George Street which was opened in 1910 by Hull 's theatre magnate , William Morton . It was subsequently renamed the Curzon .
= = = Poetry = = =
Hull has attracted the attention of poets to the extent that the Australian author Peter Porter has described it as " the most poetic city in England " .
Philip Larkin set many of his poems in Hull ; these include " The Whitsun Weddings " , " Toads " , and " Here " . Scottish @-@ born Douglas Dunn 's Terry Street , a portrait of working @-@ class Hull life , is one the outstanding poetry collections of the 1970s . Dunn forged close associations with such Hull poets as Peter Didsbury and Sean O 'Brien ; the works of some of these writers appear in the 1982 Bloodaxe anthology A Rumoured City , a work that Dunn edited . Andrew Motion , past Poet Laureate , lectured at the University of Hull between 1976 and 1981 , and Roger McGough studied there . Both poets spoke at the Humber Mouth Festival in 2010 . Contemporary poets associated with Hull are Maggie Hannan , David Wheatley , and Caitriona O 'Reilly .
17th @-@ century metaphysical poet and parliamentarian Andrew Marvell was born nearby , grew up and was educated in the city . There is a statue in his honour in the Market Square ( Trinity Square ) , set against the backdrop of his alma mater Hull Grammar School .
= = = Music = = =
= = = = Classical = = = =
In the field of classical music , Hull is home to Sinfonia UK Collective ( formerly Hull Sinfonietta , founded in 2004 ) , a national and international touring group that serves Hull and its surrounding regions in its role as Ensemble in Residence at University of Hull , and also the Hull Philharmonic Orchestra , one of the oldest amateur orchestras in the country. and formerly The Hull Philharmonic Youth Orchestra , established in 1952 , the Hull Choral Union , the Hull Bach Choir – which specialises in the performance of 17th- and 18th @-@ century choral music , the Hull Male Voice Choir , the Arterian Singers and two Gilbert & Sullivan Societies : the Dagger Lane Operatic Society and the Hull Savoyards are also based in Hull . There are two brass bands , the East Yorkshire Motor Services Band , who are the current North of England Area Brass Band Champions , and East Riding of Yorkshire Band who are the 2014 North of England Regional Champions within their section .
Hull City Hall annually plays host to major British and European symphony Orchestras with its ' International Masters ' orchestral concert season . During the 2009 – 10 season visiting orchestra 's included the St Petersburg Symphony Orchestra and the Czech National Symphony Orchestra . Internationally renowned touring pop , rock , and comedy acts also regularly play the City Hall .
In September 2013 a five @-@ year partnership with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra was announced by the City Council .
= = = = Rock , pop and folk = = = =
On the popular music scene , in the 1960s , Mick Ronson of the Hull band Rats worked closely with David Bowie and was heavily involved in production of the album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars . Ronson later went on to record with Lou Reed , Bob Dylan , Morrissey and the Wildhearts . There is a Mick Ronson Memorial Stage in Queen 's Gardens in Hull . The 1960s were also notable for the revival of English folk music , of which the Hull @-@ based quartet , the Watersons were prominent exponents .
In the 1980s , Hull groups such as the Red Guitars , the Housemartins and Everything but the Girl found mainstream success , followed by Kingmaker in the 1990s . Paul Heaton , former member of the Housemartins went on to front the Beautiful South . Another former member of the Housemartins , Norman Cook , now performs as Fatboy Slim . In 1982 , Hull @-@ born Paul Anthony Cook , Stuart Matthewman and Paul Spencer Denman formed the group Sade . In 1984 , the singer Helen Adu signed to CBS Records and the group released the album Diamond Life . The album had sales of four million copies . Vocalist and actor Roland Gift , who formed the Fine Young Cannibals , grew up in Hull .
The pioneering industrial band Throbbing Gristle formed in Hull ; Genesis P @-@ Orridge ( Neil Megson ) attended Hull University between 1968 and 1969 , where he met Cosey Fanni Tutti ( Christine Newby ) , who was born in the city , and first became part of the Hull performance art group COUM Transmissions in 1970 .
The record label Pork Recordings started in Hull in the mid @-@ 1990s and has released music by Fila Brazillia .
The New Adelphi is a popular local venue for alternative live music in the city , and has achieved notability outside Hull , having hosted such bands as the Stone Roses , Radiohead , Green Day , and Oasis in its history , while the Springhead caters to a variety of bands and has been recognised nationally as a ' Live Music Pub of the Year ' .
In the 2000s , Hull indie rock band The Paddingtons saw mainstream success with two UK Top 40 singles in 2005 , later reforming in 2014 and performing at the Humber Street Sesh with notable bands such as Sulu Babylon and Street Parade .
In the 1990s , the duo Scarlet from Hull had two Top 40 hits with " Independent Love Song " and " I Wanna Be Free ( To Be With Him ) " in 1995 .
The Humber Street Sesh night has released four DIY compilations featuring the cream of Hull 's live music scene , and there are currently a few labels emerging in the city , including Purple Worm Records based at Hull College , with bands such as The Blackbirds showing a promising future .
= = = Nightlife , bars and pubs = = =
The drinking culture in Hull city centre tends towards late bars , while the wine bars and pubs around Hull University and its accommodation area are popular with students . In particular , the areas around Newland Avenue and Prince 's Avenue have seen a rapid expansion in continental @-@ style bars and cafes encouraged by the redesign of the street layout .
= = = Festivals = = =
The Humber Mouth literature festival is an annual event and the 2012 season featured artists such as John Cooper Clarke , Kevin MacNeil and Miriam Margolyes . The annual Hull Jazz Festival takes place around the Marina area for a week at the beginning of August .
As of 2008 Hull has also held Freedom Festival ; an annual free arts and live music event that celebrates freedom in all its forms . Performers have included Pixie Lott , JLS and Martha Reeves and The Vandellas , Public Service Broadcasting and The 1975 as well as featuring a torchlight procession , local bands like The Talks and Happy Endings from Fruit Trade Music label and a Ziggy Stardust photo exhibition including photos of the late @-@ Hull @-@ born Mick Ronson who worked with David Bowie .
Early October sees the arrival of Hull Fair which is one of Europe 's largest travelling funfairs and takes place on land adjacent to the KCOM Stadium .
The Hull Global Food Festival held its third annual event in the city 's Queen Victoria Square for three days – 4 – 6 September 2009 . According to officials , the event in 2007 attracted 125 @,@ 000 visitors and brought some £ 5 million in revenue to the area . In 2007 the Hull Metalfest began in the Welly Club , it featured major label bands from the United States , Canada and Italy , as well as the UK . The first Hull Comedy Festival , which included performers such as Stewart Lee and Russell Howard was held in 2007 .
In 2010 , Hull marked the 25th anniversary of the death of the poet Philip Larkin with the Larkin 25 Festival . This included the popular Larkin with Toads public art event . The 40 Larkin toads were displayed around Hull and later sold off in a charity auction . A charity appeal raised funds to cast a life @-@ size bronze statue of Philip Larkin , to a design by Martin Jennings , at Hull Paragon Interchange . The statue was unveiled at a ceremony attended by the Lord Mayor of Hull on 2 December 2010 , the 25th anniversary of Larkin 's death . It bears an inscription drawn from the first line of Larkin 's poem , ' The Whitsun Weddings ' .
In 2013
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Force ( RAAF ) on 5 February 1940 . He had earlier attempted to enlist when he turned eighteen in 1937 , but his mother refused to give her permission ; with Australia now at war , she acquiesced . His brothers — dentists by profession , like their father — also enlisted in the armed forces , John as a surgeon lieutenant in the Royal Australian Navy and Lindsay as a captain in the Army Medical Corps .
Newton undertook his initial training with No. 1 Elementary Flying Training School in Parafield , South Australia , flying De Havilland Tiger Moths , and with No. 21 ( City of Melbourne ) Squadron at RAAF Station Laverton , Victoria , flying CAC Wirraways . He was awarded his wings and commissioned as a pilot officer on 28 June 1940 . Following advanced training on Avro Ansons with No. 1 Service Flying Training School at RAAF Point Cook in September , he was selected to become a flight instructor . He completed the requisite course at Central Flying School in Camden , New South Wales , and was promoted to flying officer on 28 December . He subsequently began training students under the Empire Air Training Scheme at No. 2 Service Flying Training School near Wagga Wagga , under the command of Group Captain Frederick Scherger .
In October 1941 , Newton transferred to No. 5 Service Flying Training School at Uranquinty . He found instruction frustrating , as he longed for a combat assignment . His fortunes changed in February 1942 , when he was selected for the navigation course on Ansons at the General Reconnaissance School based at Laverton . From there he was sent to No. 1 Operational Training Unit at Sale , Victoria , for conversion to Lockheed Hudson twin @-@ engined light bombers during March and April .
Promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 April 1942 , Newton was posted the following month to No. 22 ( City of Sydney ) Squadron , based at RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales . Previously equipped with Hudsons , the unit had just begun converting to the more advanced Douglas Boston when Newton arrived . A comrade described him as a " big brash , likeable man who could drink most of us under the table , was a good pilot , good at sports , and had a way with girls " . No. 22 Squadron was engaged in convoy escort and anti @-@ submarine patrols off Sydney from July to September , before moving north to Townsville , Queensland . In November , it was deployed to Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea , under the control of No. 9 Operational Group RAAF .
= = New Guinea campaign = =
Newton undertook the first of his fifty @-@ two operational sorties on 1 January 1943 , under the leadership of his commanding officer , Squadron Leader Keith Hampshire . During February , Newton flew low @-@ level missions through monsoon conditions and hazardous mountain terrain , attacking Japanese forces ranged against Allied troops in the Morobe province . In early March , he took part in the Battle of the Bismarck Sea , one of the key engagements in the South West Pacific theatre , bombing and strafing Lae airfield to prevent its force of enemy fighters taking off to intercept Allied aircraft attacking the Japanese fleet . Newton gained a reputation for driving straight at his targets without evasive manoeuvre , and always leaving them in flames ; this earned him the nickname " The Firebug " . The Japanese gunners , however , reportedly knew him as " Blue Cap " , from his habit of wearing an old blue cricket cap on operations . In spite of the hazards of the air war in New Guinea , he was quoted as saying , " The troops on the ground should get two medals each , before any airman gets one " .
= = = Attacks on Salamaua = = =
On 16 March 1943 , Newton led a sortie on the Salamaua Isthmus in which his Boston was hit repeatedly by Japanese anti @-@ aircraft fire , damaging fuselage , wings , fuel tanks and undercarriage . In spite of this he continued his attack and dropped his bombs at low level on buildings , ammunition dumps and fuel stores , returning for a second pass at the target in order to strafe it with machine @-@ gun fire . Newton managed to get his crippled machine back to base , where it was found to be marked with ninety @-@ eight bullet holes . Two days later , he and his two @-@ man crew made a further attack on Salamaua with five other Bostons . As he bombed his designated target , Newton 's plane was seen to burst into flames , raked by cannon fire from the ground . Attempting to keep his aircraft aloft as long as possible to get his crew away from enemy lines , he was able to ditch in the sea approximately 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) offshore .
The Boston 's navigator , Sergeant Basil Eastwood , was killed in the forced landing but Newton and his wireless operator , Flight Sergeant John Lyon , survived and managed to swim ashore . Several of the other aircraft in the flight circled the area ; one returned to base straight away to inform Hampshire , and the remainder were later forced to depart through lack of fuel . Newton and Lyon originally made their way inland with the help of natives , aiming to contact an Australian Coastwatcher , but subsequently returned to the coast . There they were captured by a Japanese patrol of No. 5 Special Naval Landing Force . The two airmen were taken to Salamaua and interrogated until 20 March , before being moved to Lae where Lyon was bayoneted to death on the orders of Rear Admiral Ruitaro Fujita , the senior Japanese commander in the area . Newton was brought back to Salamaua where , on 29 March 1943 , he was ceremonially beheaded with a Samurai sword by Sub @-@ Lieutenant Uichi Komai , the naval officer who had captured him . Komai was killed in the Philippines soon after , and Fujita committed suicide at the end of the war .
= = = Revelations and reactions = = =
It was initially believed that Newton had failed to escape from the Boston after it ditched into the sea , and he was posted as missing . Squadron Leader Hampshire had immediately dispatched a sortie to recover the pair that were last seen swimming for shore , but no sign of them was found . Two weeks later , he wrote a letter to Newton 's mother in which he described her son 's courage and expressed the hope that he might yet be found alive . Hampshire concluded , " Bill is one of those rare fellows I shall miss for a long time , and if it is to be , remember for an age " . The details of his capture and execution were only revealed later that year in a diary found on a Japanese soldier . Newton was not specifically named , but circumstantial evidence clearly identified him , as the diary entry recorded the beheading of an Australian flight lieutenant who had been shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire on 18 March 1943 while flying a Douglas aircraft . The Japanese observer described the prisoner as " composed " in the face of his impending execution , and " unshaken to the last " . After the decapitation , a seaman slashed open the dead man 's stomach , declaring " Something for the other day . Take that . "
General Headquarters South West Pacific Area , while releasing details of the execution on 5 October , initially refused to name Newton . Aside from the lack of absolute certainty as to identification , Air Vice Marshal Bill Bostock , Air Officer Commanding RAAF Command , contended that naming him would change the impact of the news upon Newton 's fellow No. 22 Squadron members " from the impersonal to the closely personal " and hence " seriously affect morale " . News of the atrocity provoked shock in Australia . In an attempt to alleviate anxiety among the families of other missing airmen , the Federal government announced on 12 October that the relatives of the slain man had been informed of his death .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
Newton was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions on 16 – 18 March , becoming the only Australian airman to earn the decoration in the South West Pacific theatre of World War II , and the only one while flying with an RAAF squadron . The citation , which incorrectly implied that he was shot down on 17 March rather than the following day , and as having failed to escape from his sinking aircraft , was promulgated in the London Gazette on 19 October 1943 :
Air Ministry , 19th October , 1943 .
The KING has been graciously pleased , on the advice of Australian Ministers , to confer the VICTORIA CROSS on the undermentioned officer in recognition of most conspicuous bravery : —
Flight Lieutenant William Ellis NEWTON ( Aus . 748 ) , Royal Australian Air Force , No. 22 ( R.A.A.F. ) Squadron ( missing ) .
Flight Lieutenant Newton served with No. 22 Squadron , Royal Australian Air Force , in New Guinea from May , 1942 , to March , 1943 , and completed 52 operational sorties .
Throughout , he displayed great courage and an iron determination to inflict the utmost damage on the enemy . His splendid offensive flying and fighting were attended with brilliant success . Disdaining evasive tactics when under the heaviest fire , he always went straight to his objectives . He carried out many daring machine @-@ gun attacks on enemy positions involving low @-@ flying over long distances in the face of continuous fire at point @-@ blank range .
On three occasions , he dived through intense anti @-@ aircraft fire to release his bombs on important targets on the Salamaua Isthmus . On one of these occasions , his starboard engine failed over the target , but he succeeded in flying back to an airfield 160 miles away . When leading an attack on an objective on 16th March , 1943 , he dived through intense and accurate shell fire and his aircraft was hit repeatedly . Nevertheless , he held to his course and bombed his target from a low level . The attack resulted in the destruction of many buildings and dumps , including two 40 @,@ 000 @-@ gallon fuel installations . Although his aircraft was crippled , with fuselage and wing sections torn , petrol tanks pierced , main @-@ planes and engines seriously damaged , and one of the main tyres flat , Flight Lieutenant Newton managed to fly it back to base and make a successful landing .
Despite this harassing experience , he returned next day to the same locality . His target , this time a single building , was even more difficult but he again attacked with his usual courage and resolution , flying a steady course through a barrage of fire . He scored a hit on the building but at the same moment his aircraft burst into flames .
Flight Lieutenant Newton maintained control and calmly turned his aircraft away and flew along the shore . He saw it as his duty to keep the aircraft in the air as long as he could so as to take his crew as far away as possible from the enemy 's positions . With great skill , he brought his blazing aircraft down on the water . Two members of the crew were able to extricate themselves and were seen swimming to the shore , but the gallant pilot is missing . According to other air crews who witnessed the occurrence , his escape @-@ hatch was not opened and his dinghy was not inflated . Without regard to his own safety , he had done all that man could do to prevent his crew from falling into enemy hands .
Flight Lieutenant Newton 's many examples of conspicuous bravery have rarely been equalled and will serve as a shining inspiration to all who follow him .
= = Legacy = =
Buried initially in an unmarked bomb crater in Salamaua , Newton 's body was recovered and re @-@ interred in Lae War Cemetery after Salamaua 's capture by Allied troops in September 1943 . In early 1944 , the recently constructed No. 4 Airfield in Nadzab was renamed Newton Field in his honour . For many years , the story of Newton 's death was intertwined with that of an Australian commando , Sergeant Len Siffleet , who had also been captured in New Guinea . A famous photograph showing Siffleet about to be executed with a katana was discovered by American troops in April 1944 and was thought to have depicted Newton in Salamaua . However , no photograph of the airman 's execution is known to exist .
Newton 's mother Minnie was presented with her son 's Victoria Cross by the Governor @-@ General , the Duke of Gloucester , on 30 November 1945 . She donated it to the Australian War Memorial , Canberra , where it remains on display with his other medals . Newton is also commemorated on Canberra 's Remembrance Driveway . In the 1990s , his friend Keith Miller successfully fought to ensure that the Victoria Racing Club abandoned a plan to rename the William Ellis Newton Steeplechase — run on Anzac Day — after a commercial sponsor . Later in the decade , Miller also publicly questioned Australia Post 's exclusion of Newton from a series of stamps featuring notable Australians such as cricketer Sir Donald Bradman . A plaque dedicated to No. 22 Squadron was unveiled at the Australian War Memorial by the Chief of Air Force , Air Marshal Angus Houston , on 16 March 2003 , the sixtieth anniversary of Newton 's attack on Salamaua .
= Sian Breckin =
Sian Breckin ( born 1982 ) is a British film , television and theatre actress . From 1993 to 1999 , Breckin attended classes at the Roundhay School , and received A @-@ Level in the field of drama . She went on to study theatre at the British drama school called East 15 Acting School , and as part of her drama graduate showcase she acted in the production of After Miss Julie by Patrick Marber .
Donkey Punch directed by Olly Blackburn was Breckin 's feature film debut ; she starred alongside Jaime Winstone , Nichola Burley , Tom Burke and Julian Morris . Subsequent television appearances included roles on series The Bill , Inspector George Gently , The Royal and Heartbeat .
Breckin acted in the film Tender directed by Deborah Haywood , and in Alice by filmmaker Marianne Elliott . She had guest starring roles on the television series Doctors and Casualty , and appeared as PC Janet Taylor in DCI Banks . She starred as Kelly in the 2011 film Tyrannosaur directed by Paddy Considine . Breckin had a recurring role as Deena Hardman on the Soap opera Hollyoaks in 2012 . She and her fellow cast members of Hollyoaks helped to raise money for Centrepoint , a charity for the homeless .
= = Early life and education = =
Breckin 's mother and father reside in Gledhow , a district of north @-@ east Leeds , situated east of Chapel Allerton and west of Roundhay . In 2008 , Breckin had a residence in London and maintained a practice of visiting Leeds often .
From 1993 to 1999 , Breckin attended classes at the Roundhay School . In order to receive an A @-@ Level in the field of drama , Breckin continued to study at the Roundhay School until the age of 19 . She stated to the Yorkshire Evening Post that the drama programme at Roundhay School significantly helped her : " It was a new course , and so I did an extra year at school . We did a lot of plays at school and they fed our interest in drama . The teachers were really supportive and gave you confidence and if it hadn 't been for them I might have done something else . " After her studies at Roundhay School , Breckin went on to participate in acting workshops for one year at Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon .
Breckin attained an education in theatre at the British drama school called East 15 Acting School , located in Debden , Loughton , Essex . She studied at the drama school for three years . For her drama graduate " BA Acting Showcase " , Breckin portrayed the role of the character Annie in the production Inside Out by Kat Joyce ; as well as the role of Julie in the production of After Miss Julie by Patrick Marber . The Stage commented in a review that Breckin 's role as Annie was " played with conviction " .
= = Career = =
Breckin was directed by Olly Blackburn in the thriller film Donkey Punch ; she portrayed the character Lisa and starred alongside Jaime Winstone , Nichola Burley , Tom Burke and Julian Morris . She commented to the Yorkshire Evening Post about her experience acting in the film : " Filming it was such a wonderful experience . I learned an incredible amount and the team became very close . We are all incredibly proud of the film . " Breckin told the Irish Independent the intent was to portray realistic scenes in the film : " We wanted it as realistic as possible in terms of young people having fun . Sex isn 't glamorous . There are bits which are , and bits which are messy . " She commented to Sky News : " It 's about us , it 's about young people . Hopefully people can identify with that . It had to be that the audience can relate to my character , that they can see how she gets herself in certain situations and how easily that can happen . " Donkey Punch is Breckin 's first feature film . LoveFilm observed that Donkey Punch is " acted with conviction by a cast of newcomers " .
Breckin had a role in January 2008 on the television series The Bill . She appeared in 2009 on the programme Inspector George Gently , as character Audrey Chadwick . She played the character of Judith Ure in 2009 in the television series The Royal ; Breckin guest starred opposite series regular Damian O 'Hare who played Dr. Burnett , a physician tasked with diagnosing her pregnant character 's ailments . Breckin guest starred on the television drama Heartbeat playing the role of Janice Hopley opposite actor James Gaddas who portrayed her father .
Breckin starred in the film Tender , directed by Deborah Haywood . Marianne Elliott directed Breckin in a role in her 2010 short film titled Alice . Breckin portrayed the role of PC Janet Taylor in 2010 in the television series DCI Banks . She portrayed the character of Debs Hastings in a 2010 episode of the television series Doctors . She guest starred on the television series Casualty in 2010 , playing the part of Kim Rees .
Breckin starred as Kelly in the 2011 film Tyrannosaur directed by Paddy Considine . In 2012 , Breckin portrayed a villain character named Deena in the television series , Hollyoaks . In March 2012 , Breckin and her fellow cast members participated in a Sleep Out event in Childwall , Liverpool in the locality of Hollyoaks to raise money for Centrepoint , a charity for the homeless .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Theatre = = =
2005 , Annie in Inside Out by Kat Joyce
2005 , Julie in After Miss Julie by Patrick Marber
= Golem Arcana =
Golem Arcana is a tabletop miniature wargaming game developed and published by Harebrained Schemes for iOS and Android devices . The game combines physical miniatures on a game board with a mobile app that much of the gameplay takes place in ; the physical pieces and the app communicate through the use of a Bluetooth stylus . Several elements of the game , including special abilities and optional missions , exist only within the app .
Golem Arcana was funded through a Kickstarter campaign that launched in September 2013 and went on to raise over $ 500 @,@ 000 . The game was released just under a year later , on 13 August 2014 . Both studio co @-@ founder Jordan Weisman and executive producer Ray Winninger had extensive experience developing both video games and tabletop games , and one of their primary motivations in creating Golem Arcana was to merge the two gaming types . They also sought to create a more social experience than could be found in traditional multiplayer video games .
The game received mixed reviews upon release . Critics were split in their take on the hybrid of physical pieces and the digital app , with some seeing it as a boon and others as a detriment . The game received praise for its visuals , lore , and ruleset , but also received criticism for its price .
= = Gameplay = =
Golem Arcana is a two to eight @-@ player miniature wargaming game that interfaces with a digital app through the use of a Bluetooth stylus . Players compete against one another in one of several scenario types , including eliminating the opponent 's golems or capturing and holding a specific area of the map . The ultimate goal of the game is to collect a set number of " victory points " , which are gathered by defeating opposing golems , completing scenario objectives , and as rewards for completing optional missions encountered through the app .
Each player controls a number of physical miniatures called golems , which are placed on a game board built with interchangeable map tiles . Each map tile is divided into nine squares arranged 3 by 3 , and has terrain features pre @-@ printed on it . Golems come in small , large , and very large sizes . Up to four small , two large , or one large and two small golems can share a square on a map tile . The very large " colossus " golems take up an entire square by themselves . Each golem comes with a card that lists the actions it can take . Another type of card , known as relics , allow players to active special abilities including healing and resurrection .
The golems , cards , and game board are covered in small magnetic dots . A Bluetooth stylus that comes with the starter kit reads the dots to transmit information from the board to a mobile app . Gameplay information such as the position of all of the golems , terrain and map effects , and the game 's rules are stored in the app , which uses that information to determine and present players with available moves , attack accuracy and damage , and other statistics . Players then use the stylus to choose where to move and what actions to take ; players still have to move the physical pieces on the board , but their moves are also reflected in the app .
The game also has several components that exist only within the app . The base game includes around 70 knights , which in the game 's lore are sorcerers that control the golems . Players pair each golem with one knight , or three knights for the " colossus " golems , and different knights provide golems with different bonuses . Players can also use spells , in the game 's lore by evoking ancestral gods called Ancient Ones . Ancient Ones are cast using mana , which can be acquired in several ways , including when a golem that the player controls is defeated or though missions that appear in the app . Players encounter missions , which provide optional objectives in exchange for victory points , while moving around the map . In some cases not completing the missions offers alternative rewards . Harebrained Schemes collects aggregate data on the decisions that players make in the game and uses it to alter the game 's lore .
= = Development = =
Golem Arcana was announced in July 2013 in a blog post on developer Harebrained Schemes ' website . The blog post indicated that the studio would return to Kickstarter to fund the game , and that most of the studio 's staff would continue to work on their other project , Shadowrun Returns , while a few would be split off to work on Golem Arcana . The Kickstarter campaign was launched on 10 September 2013 and ran until 15 October 2013 , with a funding goal of $ 500 @,@ 000 . Backers could get the base game by pledging at the $ 55 Kickstarter reward tier .
The game was released on 13 August 2014 , with the digital component available for both iOS and Android . In addition to the base game , a number of expansion sets have been released . Expansions sets contain three miniatures as well as cards and abilities . Harebrained Schemes has also released " Colossus " expansions , which contain one large miniature instead of the three normal @-@ sized ones . Expansions are planned for release at least through early 2016 .
Both studio co @-@ founder Jordan Weisman and executive producer Ray Winninger had experience developing both tabletop games and video games . One of the studio 's motivations for developing the game was to combine the two mediums , with Winninger explaining " One of the spaces we 're interested in exploring at Harebrained , and Golem is the first effort , is how can we take those tabletop games that we know and love so much and leverage technology to enhance that experience in some way . " Weisman and Winninger also stressed the social nature of the game . Winninger , comparing Golem Arcana to Skylanders , another game with both physical and digital components , stressed that Golem Arcana was less focused on components and more focused on the social experience . Weisman pointed to his disappointment that " kids ' idea of playing together after school these days usually means just meeting online from their own houses " in stressing that participants playing against each other in Golem Arcana would do so face @-@ to @-@ face .
= = Reception = =
Golem Arcana received mixed reviews upon release . Reviewers were divided on the game 's defining feature – the hybrid of physical miniature and digital app , but praised the game 's visuals , lore , and rules .
Writing for Rock , Paper , Shotgun , Robert Florence praised the app for calculating variables like movement range and tracking statistics like health and ability cooldowns , but spoke of a disconnect caused by constantly shifting focus between the screen and the board . While ultimately questioning the need for the physical components at all , Florence also saw the game as having potential in the future . Chris Hutton of Tom 's Guide took a much more negative view . Hutton found it cumbersome that the starter kit came with only one stylus and that only one device running the app could be synced to a given game at a time , necessitating that the screen and stylus be passed back and forth between players . He also found the stylus itself to be unresponsive , slowing the game down to the point that he lost interest . VentureBeat 's Jay Henningsen , on the other hand , had nothing but praise for the app and stylus . After fifteen minutes he found using the stylus to be " almost natural " , and found that the app handling all of the rules and stat @-@ keeping made for " one of the easiest experiences I ’ ve ever had getting into a new game " . He went on to say that players will look to see the technology spread to other miniature wargaming products .
One element that did receive near @-@ universal criticism was the game 's price of $ 80 for the base game . PC World called the price the game 's " biggest flaw " , Yahoo ! Tech called it " hefty " and " a steep investment " , and VentureBeat called it " quite the price tag " , but qualified their statement by pointing to the large number of items that come with the starter kit .
The game did receive praise for its visuals , storytelling , and rules . The Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts & Design awarded Golem Arcana the " Best Miniature Figure Rules " prize in the 2015 Origins Awards . In an otherwise negative review , Chris Hutton of Tom 's Guide praised the storyline and visuals , saying of the latter that " the colorful , interesting terrain created a unique universe " . Game Informer praised the game 's setting and its " gorgeous visual aesthetic " .
= Amazing Stories Quarterly =
Amazing Stories Quarterly was a U.S. science fiction pulp magazine published from 1928 to 1934 . It was launched by Hugo Gernsback as a companion to his Amazing Stories , the first science fiction magazine , which had begun publishing in April 1926 . Amazing Stories had been successful enough for Gernsback to try a single issue of Amazing Stories Annual in 1927 , which had sold well , and he decided to follow it up with a quarterly magazine . The first issue of Amazing Stories Quarterly was dated Winter 1928 and carried a reprint of H.G. Wells ' When the Sleeper Wakes . Gernsback 's policy of running a novel in each issue was popular with his readership , though the choice of Wells ' novel was less so . Over the next five issues only one more reprint appeared : Gernsback 's own novel Ralph 124C 41 + , in the Winter 1929 issue . Gernsback went bankrupt in early 1929 , and lost control of both Amazing Stories and Amazing Stories Quarterly ; his assistant , T. O 'Conor Sloane , took over as editor . The magazine began to run into financial difficulties in 1932 , and the schedule became irregular ; the last issue was dated Fall 1934 .
Authors whose work appeared in Amazing Stories Quarterly include Stanton A. Coblentz , Miles J. Breuer , A. Hyatt Verrill , and Jack Williamson . Critical opinions differ on the quality of the fiction Gernsback and Sloane printed : Brian Stableford regards several of the novels as being important early science fiction , but Everett Bleiler comments that few of the stories were of acceptable quality . Milton Wolf and Mike Ashley are more positive in their assessment ; they consider the work Sloane published in the early 1930s to be some of the best in the new genre .
= = Publication history = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a U.S. pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . The new magazine was successful , and in 1927 Gernsback brought out a double @-@ sized Amazing Stories Annual , which also sold well . These successes convinced him to start a companion magazine to Amazing Stories , titled Amazing Stories Quarterly . The first issue , dated Winter 1928 , appeared on newsstands on January 5 that year .
Gernsback went bankrupt in early 1929 , and lost control of both Amazing Stories and Amazing Stories Quarterly . After a short period in receivership , they were acquired by Bergan Mackinnon , who sold them on to Bernarr Macfadden 's Teck Publications . T. O 'Conor Sloane , who had worked on both magazines for Gernsback , took over as editor . In 1932 the magazine , which was probably never very profitable , began to suffer from financial problems , and the quarterly schedule became irregular after the Winter 1932 issue . The last two issues were filled completely with reprints from early issues and from Amazing Stories . The last issue was dated Fall 1934 , though the decision to discontinue the magazine was not taken until some time later , as an editorial comment in the May 1935 issue of Amazing Stories mentioned that further issues might still appear .
= = Contents = =
The first issue of Amazing Stories Quarterly contained a reprint of H. G. Wells ' novel When the Sleeper Wakes , though for some reason Wells did not provide Gernsback with the revised text published in 1910 under the title The Sleeper Awakes ; the text printed was that of the original 1899 edition . The other material in the issue was original , and the following issues included material by Edmond Hamilton , Stanton A. Coblentz , R.F. Starzl , David H. Keller , S.P. Meek , J. Schlossel , and Clare Winger Harris , one of the earliest women writers of sf . Although readers ' reactions to the Wells novel were negative , they approved of Gernsback 's policy of publishing a novel in each issue . The only other reprint in the early days of the magazine was Gernsback 's own novel Ralph 124C 41 + , which appeared in the Winter 1929 issue . The novel , set in the year 2660 , was little more than a series of predictions about the future tied together by a minor plot . Gernsback included a letter column , and began a competition for the best editorials submitted by readers ; the first prize was awarded to Jack Williamson , later to become a successful science fiction writer but at that time just starting his career . Gernsback also started other departments to engage the readers , including book reviews , science quizzes , and science news . The last issue under Gernsback 's control was dated Spring 1929 ; under Sloane 's editorship , most of these nonfiction departments ceased .
According to Milton Wolf and Mike Ashley , historians of science fiction , over the next two years Sloane published some of the best sf of the early years of the field in Amazing Stories Quarterly . Wolf and Ashley cite " Paradox " , by Charles Cloukey , an early time @-@ travel story ; The Bridge of Light , by A. Hyatt Verrill , a novel about a lost civilization in South America ; The Birth of a New Republic , by Miles J. Breuer and Jack Williamson , in which a man of the 24th century reminisces about a revolt by the inhabitants of the Moon rebel against the Earth ; " Paradise and Iron " , by Breuer ; and White Lily , by Eric Temple Bell , under the pseudonym John Taine , about a form of crystal life that endangers the planet . After 1931 , according to Wolf and Ashley , the fiction in Amazing Stories Quarterly became less entertaining . Everett Bleiler , the author of a detailed review of the first ten years of science fiction magazines , is less complimentary , describing John W. Campbell , Jr . ' s space operas , which appeared from 1930 to 1932 , as " turgid " , and commenting that only a dozen or so of the stories in the magazine 's entire run " might have been considered worth reading if one could put oneself back in the 1930s , accepting the standards of the time " . Bleiler mentions three authors , Coblentz , Taine , and Breuer , as having produced notably original material , but adds that their work was " not strong enough for mainstream fiction " and had " too little action and too much sophistication for pulp " . Bleiler does however agree with Wolf and Ashley that the magazines 's quality declined over time . Brian Stableford , in the Science Fiction Encyclopedia , also highlights Coblentz , Taine and Breuer , along with Williamson and Verrill , among the magazine 's contributors ; Stableford regards their contributions as being among " the most important early pulp sf novels " .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Amazing Stories Quarterly was published by Hugo Gernsback 's Experimenter Publishing until Spring 1929 . A single issue appeared from Irving Trust , the trustee in Gernsback 's bankruptcy ; then four issues , from Fall 1929 to Summer 1930 , again under the Experimenter Publishing imprint , and then four more from Radio @-@ Science Publications . The last ten issues , from Fall 1931 to Fall 1934 , were published by Teck Publishing , of Washington and Dunellen . The magazine was in large pulp format throughout , and was 144 pages long , except for the last two issues , which were 128 pages . It was priced at 50 cents . The first six issues were edited by Hugo Gernsback ; from the Summer 1929 issue on , the editor was T. O 'Conor Sloane . There was a Canadian reprint of a single issue , Fall 1934 .
Another 27 issues of Amazing Stories Quarterly appeared from Ziff @-@ Davis from 1940 to 1943 , and also from 1949 to 1951 , but these were not original magazines , only rebound issues of Amazing Stories .
= The Turk =
The Turk , also known as the Mechanical Turk or Automaton Chess Player ( German : Schachtürke , " chess Turk " ; Hungarian : A Török ) , was a fake chess @-@ playing machine constructed in the late 18th century . From 1770 until its destruction by fire in 1854 it was exhibited by various owners as an automaton , though it was eventually revealed to be an elaborate hoax . Constructed and unveiled in 1770 by Wolfgang von Kempelen ( Hungarian : Kempelen Farkas ; 1734 – 1804 ) to impress the Empress Maria Theresa of Austria , the mechanism appeared to be able to play a strong game of chess against a human opponent , as well as perform the knight 's tour , a puzzle that requires the player to move a knight to occupy every square of a chessboard exactly once .
The Turk was in fact a mechanical illusion that allowed a human chess master hiding inside to operate the machine . With a skilled operator , the Turk won most of the games played during its demonstrations around Europe and the Americas for nearly 84 years , playing and defeating many challengers including statesmen such as Napoleon Bonaparte and Benjamin Franklin . The operators within the mechanism during Kempelen 's original tour remain a mystery . The device was later purchased in 1804 and exhibited by Johann Nepomuk Mälzel . The chess masters who secretly operated it included Johann Allgaier , Boncourt , Aaron Alexandre , William Lewis , Jacques Mouret , and William Schlumberger .
= = Construction of the Turk = =
Kempelen was inspired to build the Turk following his attendance at the court of Maria Theresa of Austria at Schönbrunn Palace , where François Pelletier was performing an illusion act . An exchange afterward resulted in Kempelen promising to return to the Palace with an invention that would top the illusions .
The result of the challenge was the Automaton Chess @-@ player , known in modern times as the Turk . The machine consisted of a life @-@ sized model of a human head and torso , with a black beard and grey eyes , and dressed in Turkish robes and a turban – " the traditional costume " , according to journalist and author Tom Standage , " of an oriental sorcerer " . Its left arm held a long Turkish smoking pipe while at rest , while its right lay on the top of a large cabinet that measured about three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half feet ( 110 cm ) long , two feet ( 60 cm ) wide , and two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half feet ( 75 cm ) high . Placed on the top of the cabinet was a chessboard , which measured eighteen inches square . The front of the cabinet consisted of three doors , an opening , and a drawer , which could be opened to reveal a red and white ivory chess set .
The interior of the machine was very complicated and designed to mislead those who observed it . When opened on the left , the front doors of the cabinet exposed a number of gears and cogs similar to clockwork . The section was designed so that if the back doors of the cabinet were open at the same time one could see through the machine . The other side of the cabinet did not house machinery ; instead it contained a red cushion and some removable parts , as well as brass structures . This area was also designed to provide a clear line of vision through the machine . Underneath the robes of the Turkish model , two other doors were hidden . These also exposed clockwork machinery and provided a similarly unobstructed view through the machine . The design allowed the presenter of the machine to open every available door to the public , to maintain the illusion .
Neither the clockwork visible to the left side of the machine nor the drawer that housed the chess set extended fully to the rear of the cabinet ; they instead went only one third of the way . A sliding seat was also installed , allowing the director inside to slide from place to place and thus evade observation as the presenter opened various doors . The sliding of the seat caused dummy machinery to slide into its place to further conceal the person inside the cabinet .
The chessboard on the top of the cabinet was thin enough to allow for a magnetic linkage . Each piece in the chess set had a small , strong magnet attached to its base , and when they were placed on the board the pieces would attract a magnet attached to a string under their specific places on the board . This allowed the director inside the machine to see which pieces moved where on the chess board . The bottom of the chessboard had corresponding numbers , 1 – 64 , allowing the director to see which places on the board were affected by a player 's move . The internal magnets were positioned in a way that outside magnetic forces did not influence them , and Kempelen would often allow a large magnet to sit at the side of the board in an attempt to show that the machine was not influenced by magnetism .
As a further means of misdirection , the Turk came with a small wooden coffin @-@ like box that the presenter would place on the top of the cabinet . While Johann Nepomuk Mälzel , a later owner of the machine , did not use the box , Kempelen often peered into the box during play , suggesting that the box controlled some aspect of the machine . The box was believed by some to have supernatural power , with Karl Gottlieb von Windisch writing in his 1784 book Inanimate Reason that " [ o ] ne old lady , in particular , who had not forgotten the tales she had been told in her youth … went and hid herself in a window seat , as distant as she could from the evil spirit , which she firmly believed possessed the machine " .
The interior also contained a pegboard chess board connected to a pantograph @-@ style series of levers that controlled the model 's left arm . The metal pointer on the pantograph moved over the interior chessboard , and would simultaneously move the arm of the Turk over the chessboard on the cabinet . The range of motion allowed the director to move the Turk 's arm up and down , and turning the lever would open and close the Turk 's hand , allowing it to grasp the pieces on the board . All of this was made visible to the director by using a simple candle , which had a ventilation system through the model . Other parts of the machinery allowed for a clockwork @-@ type sound to be played when the Turk made a move , further adding to the machinery illusion , and for the Turk to make various facial expressions . A voice box was added following the Turk 's acquisition by Mälzel , allowing the machine to say " Échec ! " ( French for " check " ) during matches .
An operator inside the machine also had tools to assist in communicating with the presenter outside . Two brass discs equipped with numbers were positioned opposite each other on the inside and outside of the cabinet . A rod could rotate the discs to the desired number , which acted as a code between the two .
= = Exhibition = =
The Turk made its debut in 1770 at Schönbrunn Palace , about six months after Pelletier 's act . Kempelen addressed the court , presenting what he had built , and began the demonstration of the machine and its parts . With every showing of the Turk , Kempelen began by opening the doors and drawers of the cabinet , allowing members of the audience to inspect the machine . Following this display , Kempelen would announce that the machine was ready for a challenger .
Kempelen would inform the player that the Turk would use the white pieces and have the first move . Between moves the Turk kept its left arm on the cushion . The Turk could nod twice if it threatened its opponent 's queen , and three times upon placing the king in check . If an opponent made an illegal move , the Turk would shake its head , move the piece back and make its own move , thus forcing a forfeit of its opponent 's move . Louis Dutens , a traveller who observed a showing of the Turk , attempted to trick the machine " by giving the Queen the move of a Knight , but my mechanic opponent was not to be so imposed upon ; he took up my Queen and replaced her in the square from which I had moved her " . Kempelen made it a point to traverse the room during the match , and invited observers to bring magnets , irons , and lodestones to the cabinet to test whether the machine was run by a form of magnetism or weights . The first person to play against the Turk was Count Ludwig von Cobenzl , an Austrian courtier at the palace . Along with other challengers that day , he was quickly defeated , with observers of the match stating that the machine played aggressively , and typically beat its opponents within thirty minutes .
Another part of the machine 's exhibition was the completion of the knight 's tour , a famed chess puzzle . The puzzle requires the player to move a knight around a chessboard , touching each square once along the way . While most experienced chess players of the time still struggled with the puzzle , the Turk was capable of completing the tour without any difficulty from any starting point via a pegboard used by the director with a mapping of the puzzle laid out .
The Turk also had the ability to converse with spectators using a letter board . The director , whose identity during the period when Kempelen presented the machine at Schönbrunn Palace is unknown , was able to do this in English , French , and German . Carl Friedrich Hindenburg , a university mathematician , kept a record of the conversations during the Turk 's time in Leipzig and published it in 1789 as Über den Schachspieler des Herrn von Kempelen und dessen Nachbildung ( or On the Chessplayer of Mr. von Kempelen And Its Replica ) . Topics of questions put to and answered by the Turk included its age , marital status , and its secret workings .
= = Tour of Europe = =
Following word of its debut , interest in the machine grew across Europe . Kempelen , however , was more interested in his other projects and avoided exhibiting the Turk , often lying about the machine 's repair status to prospective challengers . Von Windisch wrote at one point that Kempelen " refused the entreaties of his friends , and a crowd of curious persons from all countries , the satisfaction of seeing this far @-@ famed machine " . In the decade following its debut at Schönbrunn Palace the Turk only played one opponent , Sir Robert Murray Keith , a Scottish noble , and Kempelen went as far as dismantling the Turk entirely following the match . Kempelen was quoted as referring to the invention as a " mere bagatelle " , as he was not pleased with its popularity and would rather continue work on steam engines and machines that replicated human speech .
In 1781 , Kempelen was ordered by Emperor Joseph II to reconstruct the Turk and deliver it to Vienna for a state visit from Grand Duke Paul of Russia and his wife . The appearance was so successful that Grand Duke Paul suggested a tour of Europe for the Turk , a request to which Kempelen reluctantly agreed .
The Turk began its European tour in 1783 , beginning with an appearance in France in April . A stop at Versailles preceded an exhibition in Paris , where the Turk lost a match to Charles Godefroy de La Tour d 'Auvergne , the Duc de Bouillon . Upon arrival in Paris in May 1783 , it was displayed to the public and played a variety of opponents , including a lawyer named Mr. Bernard who was a second rank in chess ability . Following the sessions at Versailles , demands increased for a match with François @-@ André Danican Philidor , who was considered the best chess player of his time . Moving to the Café de la Régence , the machine played many of the most skilled players , often losing ( e.g. against Bernard and Verdoni ) , until securing a match with Philidor at the Académie des Sciences . While Philidor won his match with the Turk , Philidor 's son noted that his father called it " his most fatiguing game of chess ever ! " The Turk 's final game in Paris was against Benjamin Franklin , who was serving as ambassador to France from the United States . Franklin reportedly enjoyed the game with the Turk and was interested in the machine for the rest of his life , keeping a copy of Philip Thicknesse 's book The Speaking Figure and the Automaton Chess Player , Exposed and Detected in his personal library .
Following his tour of Paris , Kempelen moved the Turk to London , where it was exhibited daily for five shillings . Thicknesse , known in his time as a skeptic , sought out the Turk in an attempt to expose the inner workings of the machine . While he respected Kempelen as " a very ingenious man " , he asserted that the Turk was an elaborate hoax with a small child inside the machine , describing the machine as " a complicated piece of clockwork ... which is nothing more , than one , of many other ingenious devices , to misguide and delude the observers " .
After a year in London , Kempelen and the Turk travelled to Leipzig , stopping in various European cities along the way . From Leipzig , it went to Dresden , where Joseph Friedrich Freiherr von Racknitz viewed the Turk and published his findings in Über den Schachspieler des Herrn von Kempelen und dessen Nachbildung , along with illustrations showing his beliefs about how the machine operated . It then moved to Amsterdam , after which Kempelen is said to have accepted an invitation to the Sanssouci palace in Potsdam of Frederick the Great , King of Prussia . The story goes that Frederick enjoyed the Turk so much that he paid a large sum of money to Kempelen in exchange for the Turk 's secrets . Frederick never gave the secret away , but was reportedly disappointed to learn how the machine worked . ( This story is almost certainly apocryphal ; there is no evidence of the Turk 's encounter with Frederick , the first mention of which comes in the early 19th century , by which time the Turk was also incorrectly said to have played against George III of England . ) It seems most likely that the machine stayed dormant at Schönbrunn Palace for over two decades , although Kempelen attempted unsuccessfully to sell it in his final years . Kempelen died at age 70 on 26 March 1804 .
= = Mälzel and the machine = =
Following the death of Kempelen , the Turk remained unexhibited until some time before 1804 when Kempelen 's son decided to sell it to Johann Nepomuk Mälzel , a Bavarian musician with an interest in various machines and devices . Mälzel , whose successes included patenting a form of metronome , had tried to purchase the Turk once before , before Kempelen 's death . The original attempt had failed , owing to Kempelen 's asking price of 20 @,@ 000 francs ; Kempelen 's son sold the machine to Mälzel for half this sum .
Upon acquiring the Turk , Mälzel had to learn its secrets and make some repairs to get it back in working order . His stated goal was to make explaining the Turk a greater challenge . While the completion of this goal took ten years , the Turk still made appearances , most notably with Napoleon Bonaparte .
In 1809 , Napoleon I of France arrived at Schönbrunn Palace to play the Turk . According to an eyewitness report , Mälzel took responsibility for the construction of the machine while preparing the game , and the Turk ( Johann Baptist Allgaier ) saluted Napoleon before the start of the match . The details of the match have been published over the years in numerous accounts , many of them contradictory . According to Bradley Ewart , it is believed that the Turk sat at its cabinet , and Napoleon sat at a separate chess table . Napoleon 's table was in a roped @-@ off area and he was not allowed to cross into the Turk 's area , with Mälzel crossing back and forth to make each player 's move and allowing a clear view for the spectators . In a surprise move , Napoleon took the first turn instead of allowing the Turk to make the first move , as was usual ; but Mälzel allowed the game to continue . Shortly thereafter , Napoleon attempted an illegal move . Upon noticing the move , the Turk returned the piece to its original spot and continued the game . Napoleon attempted the illegal move a second time , and the Turk responded by removing the piece from the board entirely and taking its turn . Napoleon then attempted the move a third time , the Turk responding with a sweep of its arm , knocking all the pieces off the board . Napoleon was reportedly amused , and then played a real game with the machine , completing nineteen moves before tipping over his king in surrender . Alternate versions of the story include Napoleon being unhappy about losing to the machine , playing the machine at a later time , playing one match with a magnet on the board , and playing a match with a shawl around the head and body of the Turk in an attempt to obscure its vision .
In 1811 , Mälzel brought the Turk to Milan for a performance with Eugène de Beauharnais , the Prince of Venice and Viceroy of Italy . Beauharnais enjoyed the machine so much that he offered to purchase it from Mälzel . After some serious bargaining , Beauharnais acquired the Turk for 30 @,@ 000 francs – three times what Mälzel had paid – and kept it for four years . In 1815 , Mälzel returned to Beauharnais in Munich and asked to buy the Turk back . Two versions of how much he had to pay exist , eventually working out an agreement . One version appeared in the France Letter Palamede . The complete story does not make a lot of sense since Mälzel visited Paris again , and he also could import his " Conflagration of Moscow " .
Following the repurchase , Mälzel brought the Turk back to Paris where he made acquaintances of many of the leading chess players at Café de la Régence . Mälzel stayed in France with the machine until 1818 , when he moved to London and held a number of performances with the Turk and many of his other machines . In London , Mälzel and his act received a large amount of press , and he continued improving the machine , ultimately installing a voice box so the machine could say " Échec ! " when placing a player in check .
In 1819 , Mälzel took the Turk on a tour of the United Kingdom . There were several new developments in the act , such as allowing the opponent the first move and eliminating the king 's bishop 's pawn from the Turk 's pieces . This pawn handicap created further interest in the Turk , and spawned a book by W. J. Hunneman chronicling the matches played with this handicap . Despite the handicap , the Turk ( operated by Mouret at the time ) ended up with forty @-@ five victories , three losses , and two stalemates .
= = Mälzel in America = =
The appearances of the Turk were profitable for Mälzel , and he continued by taking it and his other machines to the United States . In 1826 , he opened an exhibition in New York City that slowly grew in popularity , giving rise to many newspaper stories and anonymous threats of exposure of the secret . Mälzel 's problem was finding a proper director for the machine , having trained an unknown woman in France before coming to the United States . He ended up recalling a former director , William Schlumberger , from Alsace in Europe to come to America and work for him again once Mälzel was able to provide the money for Schlumberger 's transport .
Upon Schlumberger 's arrival , the Turk debuted in Boston , Mälzel spinning a story that the New York chess players could not handle full games and that the Boston players were much better opponents . This was a success for many weeks , and the tour moved to Philadelphia for three months . Following Philadelphia , the Turk moved to Baltimore , where it played for a number of months , including losing a match against Charles Carroll , a signer of the Declaration of Independence . The exhibition in Baltimore brought news that two brothers had constructed their own machine , the Walker Chess @-@ player . Mälzel viewed the competing machine and attempted to buy it , but the offer was declined and the duplicate machine toured for a number of years , never receiving the fame that Mälzel 's machine did and eventually falling into obscurity .
Mälzel continued with exhibitions around the United States until 1828 , when he took some time off and visited Europe , returning in 1829 . Throughout the 1830s , he continued to tour the United States , exhibiting the machine as far west as the Mississippi River and visiting Canada . In Richmond , Virginia , the Turk was observed by Edgar Allan Poe , who was writing for the Southern Literary Messenger . Poe 's essay " Maelzel 's Chess Player " was published in April 1836 and is the most famous essay on the Turk , even though many of Poe 's hypotheses were incorrect ( such as that a chess @-@ playing machine must always win ) .
Mälzel eventually took the Turk on his second tour to Havana , Cuba . In Cuba , Schlumberger died of yellow fever , leaving Mälzel without a director for his machine . Dejected , Mälzel died at sea in 1838 at age 66 during his return trip , leaving his machinery with the ship captain .
= = Final years and beyond = =
Upon the return of the ship on which Mälzel died , his various machines , including the Turk , fell into the hands of a friend of Mälzel 's , the businessman John Ohl . He attempted to auction off the Turk , but owing to low bidding ultimately bought it himself for $ 400 . Only when John Kearsley Mitchell from Philadelphia , Edgar Allan Poe 's personal physician and an admirer of the Turk , approached Ohl did the Turk change hands again . Mitchell formed a restoration club and went about the business of repairing the Turk for public appearances , completing the restoration in 1840 .
As interest in the Turk outgrew its location , Mitchell and his club chose to donate the machine to the Chinese Museum of Charles Willson Peale . While the Turk still occasionally gave performances , it was eventually relegated to the corners of the museum and forgotten about until 5 July 1854 , when a fire that started at the National Theater in Philadelphia reached the Museum and destroyed the Turk . Mitchell believed he had heard " through the struggling flames ... the last words of our departed friend , the sternly whispered , oft repeated syllables , ' echec ! echec ! ! ' "
John Gaughan , an American manufacturer of equipment for magicians based in Los Angeles , spent $ 120 @,@ 000 building his own version of Kempelen 's machine over a five @-@ year period from 1984 . The machine uses the original chessboard , which was stored separately from the original Turk and was not destroyed in the fire . The first public display of Gaughan 's Turk was in November 1989 at a history of magic conference . The machine was presented much as Kempelen presented the original , except that the opponent was replaced by a computer running a chess program .
= = Revealing the secrets = =
While many books and articles were written during the Turk 's life about how it worked , most were inaccurate , drawing incorrect inferences from external observation .
It was not until Dr. Silas Mitchell 's series of articles for The Chess Monthly that the secret was fully revealed . Mitchell , son of the final private owner of the Turk , wrote that " no secret was ever kept as the Turk 's has been . Guessed at , in part , many times , no one of the several explanations ... ever solved this amusing puzzle " . As the Turk was lost to fire at the time of this publication , Silas Mitchell felt that there were " no longer any reasons for concealing from the amateurs of chess , the solution to this ancient enigma " .
The most important biographical history about the Chess @-@ player and Mälzel was presented in The Book of the First American Chess Congress , published by Daniel Willard Fiske in 1857 . The account , " The Automaton Chess @-@ Player in America , " was written by Professor George Allen of Philadelphia , in the form of a letter to William Lewis , one of the former operators of the chess automaton .
In 1859 , a letter published in the Philadelphia Sunday Dispatch by William F. Kummer , who worked as a director under John Mitchell , revealed another piece of the secret : a candle inside the cabinet . A series of tubes led from the lamp to the turban of the Turk for ventilation . The smoke rising from the turban would be disguised by the smoke coming from the other candelabra in the area where the game was played .
Later in 1859 , an uncredited article appeared in Littell 's Living Age that purported to be the story of the Turk from French magician Jean Eugène Robert @-@ Houdin . This was rife with errors ranging from dates of events to a story of a Polish officer whose legs were amputated , but ended up being rescued by Kempelen and smuggled back to Russia inside the machine .
A new article about the Turk did not turn up until 1899 , when The American Chess Magazine published an account of the Turk 's match with Napoleon Bonaparte . The story was basically a review of previous accounts , and a substantive published account would not appear until 1947 , when Chess Review published articles by Kenneth Harkness and Jack Straley Battell that amounted to a comprehensive history and description of the Turk , complete with new diagrams that synthesized information from previous publications . Another article written in 1960 for American Heritage by Ernest Wittenberg provided new diagrams describing how the director sat inside the cabinet .
In Henry A. Davidson 's 1945 publication A Short History of Chess , significant weight is given to Poe 's essay which erroneously suggested that the player sat inside the Turk figure , rather than on a moving seat inside the cabinet . A similar error would occur in Alex G. Bell 's 1978 book The Machine Plays Chess , which falsely asserted that " the operator was a trained boy ( or very small adult ) who followed the directions of the chess player who was hidden elsewhere on stage or in the theater … "
More books were published about the Turk toward the end of the 20th century . Along with Bell 's book , Charles Michael Carroll 's The Great Chess Automaton ( 1975 ) focused more on the studies of the Turk . Bradley Ewart 's Chess : Man vs. Machine ( 1980 ) discussed the Turk as well as other purported chess @-@ playing automatons .
It was not until the creation of Deep Blue , IBM 's attempt at a computer that could challenge the world 's best players , that interest increased again , and two more books were published : Gerald M. Levitt 's The Turk , Chess Automaton ( 2000 ) , and Tom Standage 's The Turk : The Life and Times of the Famous Eighteenth @-@ Century Chess @-@ Playing Machine , published in 2002 . The Turk was used as a personification of Deep Blue in the 2003 documentary Game Over : Kasparov and the Machine .
= = Legacy and popular culture = =
Owing to the Turk 's popularity and mystery , its construction inspired a number of inventions and imitations , including Ajeeb , or " The Egyptian " , an American imitation built by Charles Hopper that President Grover Cleveland played in 1885 , and Mephisto , the self @-@ described " most famous " machine , of which little is known . The first imitation was made while Mälzel was in Baltimore . Created by the Brothers Walker , the " American Chess Player " made its debut in May 1827 in New York . El Ajedrecista was built in 1912 by Leonardo Torres y Quevedo as a chess @-@ playing automaton and made its public debut during the Paris World Fair of 1914 . Capable of playing rook and king versus king endgames using electromagnets , it was the first true chess @-@ playing automaton , and a precursor of sorts to Deep Blue .
The Turk was visited in London by Rev. Edmund Cartwright in 1784 . He was so intrigued by the Turk that he would later question whether " it is more difficult to construct a machine that shall weave than one which shall make all the variety of moves required in that complicated game " . Cartwright would patent the prototype for a power loom within the year . Sir Charles Wheatstone , an inventor , saw a later appearance of the Turk while it was owned by Mälzel . He also saw some of Mälzel 's speaking machines , and Mälzel later presented a demonstration of the speaking machines to the researcher and his teenage son . Alexander Graham Bell obtained a copy of a book by Kempelen on speaking machines after being inspired by seeing a similar machine built by Wheatstone ; Bell went on to file the first successful patent for the telephone .
A play , The Automaton Chess Player , was presented in New York City in 1845 . The advertising , as well as an article that appeared in The Illustrated London News , claimed that the play featured Kempelen 's Turk , but it was in fact a copy of the Turk created by J. Walker , who had earlier presented the Walker Chess @-@ player .
Raymond Bernard 's silent feature film The Chess Player ( The Chess Player , France 1927 ) weaves elements from the real story of the Turk into an adventure tale set in the aftermath of the first of the Partitions of Poland in 1772 . The film 's " Baron von Kempelen " helps a dashing young Polish nationalist on the run from the occupying Russians , who also happens to be an expert chess player , by hiding him inside a chess playing automaton called the Turk , closely based on the real Kempelen model . Just as they are about to escape over the border , the Baron is summoned to Saint Petersburg to present the Turk to the empress Catherine II . In an echo of the Napoleon incident , Catherine attempts to cheat the Turk , who wipes all the pieces from the board in response .
The Turk has also inspired works of literary fiction . In 1849 , just a few years before the Turk was destroyed , Edgar Allan Poe published a tale " Von Kempelen and His Discovery " . Ambrose Bierce 's short story " Moxon 's Master " , published in 1909 , is a morbid tale about a chess @-@ playing automaton that resembles the Turk . In 1938 , John Dickson Carr published The Crooked Hinge , a locked room mystery in his line of Dr. Gideon Fell detective novels . Among the puzzles presented included an automaton that operates in a way that is unexplainable to the characters . Gene Wolfe 's 1977 science fiction short story " The Marvellous Brass Chessplaying Automaton " also features a device very similar to the Turk . Robert Loehr 's 2007 novel " The Chess Machine " ( published in the UK as " The Secrets of the Chess Machine " ) focusses on the man inside the machine . F. Gwynplaine MacIntyre 's 2007 story " The Clockwork Horror " reconstructs Edgar Allan Poe 's original encounter with Mälzel 's chess @-@ player , and also establishes ( from contemporary advertisements in a Richmond newspaper ) precisely when and where this encounter took place .
Walter Benjamin alludes to the Mechanical Turk in the first thesis of his Theses on the Philosophy of History ( Über den Begriff der Geschichte ) , written in 1940 .
In 2005 , Amazon.com launched the Amazon Mechanical Turk . The web @-@ based software application coordinates programming tasks with human intelligence , inspired in part by the way Kempelen 's Turk operated . The program is designed to have humans perform tasks , such as color comparisons , that computers struggle with .
= Kami , Perempuan =
Kami , Perempoean ( Perfected Spelling : Kami , Perempuan ; Indonesian for We , the Women ) is a 1943 stage play in one act by Armijn Pane . The six @-@ character drama revolves around a conflict between two couples , with the women considering the men cowards for not wanting to join the Defenders of the Homeland and the men afraid of how the women will react to them having secretly joined . Despite warnings from the women 's mother and father , the men prepare to leave for their training , with their partner 's blessings .
Written during the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) , while Pane was an employee of the Cultural Centre in Jakarta , Kami , Perempuan is similar to contemporary plays owing to its openly pro @-@ Japanese message and emphasis on everyday issues experienced by average people . Discussions of the play have found it to be pro @-@ Japanese propaganda , suggesting that men should join the military to please their women , though it has also been suggested that the play is in fact a warning against accepting the Defenders of the Homeland as being for Indonesia . Kami , Perempuan was performed numerous times in 1943 , and its script has been compiled in a book .
= = Plot = =
Mahmud is sitting in his living room , lost in thought , as a newspaper hangs upside @-@ down in his hands . His wife , Aminah , enters , and asks him what he is doing
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. When he answers that he is reading the newspaper , Aminah turns it right @-@ side up and ridicules him . After she again interrupts him , Mahmud leaves the home .
Aminah 's parents come in soon afterwards and ask where Mahmud has gone , to which she replies " out " . Their discussion is interrupted when Aminah 's younger sister Sri comes in , upset , and tells them that she has just broken up with her fiance , Supono . Upon questioning her , the family learns that Pono had likewise been pushed to join the recently established Pembela Tanah Air ( PETA ; Protectors of the Homeland ) , and refused ; Sri had broken off their engagement rather than marry a coward , saying that if she were a man she would have certainly joined . Aminah implies that Mahmud has likewise refused to join .
Sri is left in the living room as Aminah and their mother go to tend to Aminah 's child , while their father goes to read the newspaper . Mahmud comes in , and quietly asks Sri to help him . He reveals that he had registered to join PETA several weeks prior and was to leave for training that very night , but was unsure of how Aminah would accept it . Sri tells him that she will ask her sister and has Mahmud hide in a wardrobe . After she leaves the room , Supono and Aminah enter from other doors . Supono , unknown to him , is in a similar situation to Mahmud , and Aminah convinces him to hide beneath a table as she asks Sri .
The sisters meet in the living room and discuss how they would feel if each of their partners were – hypothetically – to leave for PETA training . Sri insults Supono 's bravery , saying that he would never do it ; Aminah feels the same about Mahmud . Ultimately the sisters decide to answer together , both expressing approval . Hearing this , Mahmud and Supono leave their hiding places and shout " Live , Srikandi of Indonesia ! " The four are excited , and Sri and Supono prepare for a quick wedding . Aminah and Sri 's parents , however , are frightened upon hearing that the men will join PETA .
= = Characters = =
Mahmud , Aminah 's husband
Aminah , wife of Mahmud and sister of Sri
Sri , sister of Aminah and fiancée of Supono
Supono , fiancé of Sri
Aminah and Sri 's mother and father
= = Writing and publication = =
Kami , Perempuan was written by Armijn Pane , a Sumatra @-@ born journalist and man of letters . Before the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies had begun in 1942 , Pane had made a name for himself in helping to establish the magazine Poedjangga Baroe in 1933 and with his novel Belenggu ( Shackles ; 1940 ) . His first stage play , Lukisan Masa ( Portrait of the Times ) , had been performed and published in May 1937 .
By 1942 Pane was one of the most prominent playwrights in Java , together with El Hakim ( pseud . Aboe Hanifah ) and Usmar Ismail . Their works often dealt with politics , a sense of nationalism , and the influence of one 's environment — particularly tradition , ethics , and religion . As with Kami , Perempuan , these works were oriented around everyday events and featured average people , as opposed to the earlier stories based in mythology and telling of gods and goddesses .
After the Cultural Centre ( in Indonesian , Poesat Keboedajaan ; in Japanese , Keimin Bunka Shidōsho ( 啓民文化指導所 ) ) opened in Jakarta on 1 April 1943 , Pane served as the head of its literature desk . This office was tasked with the establishment of a pro @-@ Japanese and pro @-@ Greater Asia culture . Numerous stage plays were written which promoted these ideals of the Empire of Japan , including Rd Ariffien 's Ratoe Asia and various works by Hinatsu Eitaro and D. Suradji .
Kami , Perempuan premiered in 1943 in Jakarta . It received multiple performances that year , some in Jakarta , some in other parts of Java . In 1950 Pane included Kami , Perempuan in his book Djinak @-@ Djinak Merpati dengan Tjerita2 Sandiwara Lain , a collection of his stage plays . For this publication Pane removed a scene in which two neighbours came to visit the family , which included further conversation . Pane considered this scene to be anti @-@ climactic , whereas without it the play 's title became more appropriate . Another , smaller , change to the play was the removal of the names of Japan 's enemies during World War II .
= = Themes = =
Indonesian literary critic Boen Sri Oemarjati finds Kami , Perempuan to be a romance which also shows the strength and virility of the Indonesian people . She concludes , however , that it is a work of propaganda , summarising its message as " Women with the spirit of Srikandi want their husbands to be as strong and virile as their own hearts " , and to do so they must join PETA . M. Yoesoef of the University of Indonesia likewise categorises the play as propaganda vehicle , emphasising the theme of women willing to surrender their lovers to PETA , for the good of the nation .
Chris Woodrich of Gadjah Mada University , meanwhile , argues that the play is a veiled warning against considering PETA as a nationalistic . Considering Pane 's position at the Cultural Bureau , Woodrich suggests that Pane would have been aware of the Japanese occupation government 's ultimate goal for PETA : to help defend the Indonesian archipelago against the Allies if necessary , a message which had to be conveyed implicitly owing to Pane 's own position and the Japanese occupation government 's strict censorship . Woodrich points to Aminah 's father , a former employee of the Dutch colonial government , and suggests that the character 's protests about joining PETA , seemingly in order to promote the safety and comfort of home , are actually based on an understanding of the colonial mindset and the accompanying manipulation ; in @-@ text , these protests can only be conveyed in implicit terms owing to the father 's fear of the Japanese government .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Cry Me a River ( Justin Timberlake song ) =
" Cry Me a River " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Justin Timberlake for his debut studio album , Justified ( 2002 ) . It was written by Timberlake and Scott Storch with producer Timbaland and was inspired by Timberlake 's former relationship with singer Britney Spears . Jive Records released the song to contemporary hit and rhythmic radio in the United States on November 25 , 2002 , as the album 's second single . Accompanied by an electric piano , beatbox , guitars , synthesizers , Arabian @-@ inspired riffs and Gregorian chants , " Cry Me a River " is an R & B song about a brokenhearted man who moves on from his last girlfriend , who had cheated on him with another man .
" Cry Me a River " received acclaim from music critics , who considered it a stand @-@ out track on Justified and praised Timbaland 's production . The song earned several lists of best of the year and the decade ( 2000s ) , while Rolling Stone included it on their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time at 484 . It won a Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 2004 ceremony . The song peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 and Pop Songs charts and charted in the top ten in other countries . It was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) .
Filmmaker Francis Lawrence directed the music video for " Cry Me a River " in Malibu , California . In the controversial video , Timberlake 's character invades the home of his ex @-@ lover and films himself having sexual relations with another woman . Spears alleged that the video was a publicity stunt , but Timberlake maintained that she did not inspire the production . The clip won the awards for Best Male Video and Best Pop Video at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards . Timberlake performed " Cry Me a River " on his four major concert tours : The Justified World Tour ( 2003 – 04 ) , Justified / Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , FutureSex / LoveShow ( 2007 ) , and The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 – 15 ) . The song has been covered by various recording artists , including Leona Lewis and Taylor Swift .
= = Writing and production = =
Timberlake and Scott Storch wrote " Cry Me a River " with Timbaland , who produced the song . Storch found working with Timberlake easy because of the song 's meaning . Reporters believed its lyrics were inspired by Timberlake 's romantic relationship with American recording artist Britney Spears , which ended in 2002 . Timberlake told MTV News , " I 'm not going to specifically say if any song is about anybody . I will say writing a couple of songs on the record helped me deal with a couple of things . To me songs are songs . They can stem from things that completely happened to you personally or they can stem from ideas that you think could happen to you . " In December 2011 , Timberlake admitted that he had written " Cry Me a River " after an argument with Spears : " I was on a phone call that was not the most enjoyable phone call . I walked into the studio and he [ Timbaland ] could tell I was visibly angry . " Timbaland recalled , " I was like , ' Man , don 't worry about it ' and he was like , ' I can 't believe she did that to me ' and he was like , ' You were my sun , you were my earth ' " .
" Cry Me a River " was recorded at Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles by Senator Jimmy D , while Carlos " Storm " Martinez served as the assistant engineer . Jimmy Douglass and Timbaland mixed the song at Manhattan Center Studios in New York City . Timberlake arranged the vocals and was a backup singer alongside Timbaland , Marsha Ambrosius , Tye Tribbett and Greater Anointing . Storch compared Timberlake 's vocals on " Cry Me a River " to R & B and rock singer Daryl Hall . Larry Gold provided the string arrangement and conducting , while Storch and Bill Pettaway played the clavinet and guitar , respectively .
= = Release and response = =
" Cry Me a River " was released as the second single from Justified . Jive Records serviced the song to contemporary and rhythmic radio in the United States on November 25 , 2002 . On December 23 , three remixes were released as a 12 @-@ inch single in Canada and France . On January 5 , 2003 , the song was sent to urban contemporary radio stations in the US . It was released as a CD single in Germany on January 23 . The single contains the album version of the song and the remixes on its 12 @-@ inch single release . A CD single , which included Johnny Fiasco 's remix of the song and two additional remixes of " Like I Love You " , was released on February 3 and 6 in the United Kingdom and Canada , respectively . " Cry Me a River " was released as a CD single in the US on February 18 . The single features the album version of the song , its instrumental and four remixes .
Following its release , there was media speculation that Spears had written a song as a response to " Cry Me a River " ; she denied the rumors , explaining , " You know , it 's funny . I read that I wrote this song and I wrote these lyrics and that 's not my style . I would never do that . " Annet Artani , who co @-@ wrote Spears ' 2003 song " Everytime " , stated that the song was written as a response to " Cry Me a River " . When asked during an interview with Diane Sawyer on PrimeTime in 2003 , if " Everytime " was about Timberlake , Spears responded , " I 'll let the song speak for itself . "
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Cry Me a River " is an R & B song with an instrumentation that features clavinet , guitars , beatboxing , synthesizers , Arabian @-@ inspired riffs and Gregorian chants . The instruments are arranged into what critics described as a graceful and mysterious melody . Jane Stevenson of Jam ! said the single combines gospel and opera . Tyler Martin of Stylus Magazine enjoyed the way that the song unconventionally mixed a range of experimental sounds . According to Martin , the wave synth affects the real strings to create an unusual dissonance . The song 's chorus devolves into a choral reading in which Timberlake pleads over the group . " Cry Me a River " finishes with a Timbaland vocal sample .
" Cry Me a River " is written in the key of G ♯ minor , in alla breve , with a tempo of 74 beats per minute . The song 's vocal range spans from C ♯ 4 to B5 . Billboard magazine critics called " Cry Me a River " a bittersweet song , in which Timberlake 's " familiar tenor belting " is tempered with a soulful falsetto and a " convincingly aggressive rock @-@ spiked baritone " rasp . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly labeled the song " a haunted , pained farewell " .
Lyrically , the song is about a brokenhearted man who moves on from his past . A Rolling Stone reviewer called the song a " breakup aria " . According to Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian , " Cry Me a River " stands out for its " slow @-@ building sense of drama " , which highlights Timberlake at his " husky best " . The song begins with the phrase " You were my sun , you were my earth " , which according to Timbaland was Timberlake 's inspiration to write the song . Tanya L. Edwards of MTV News observed that Timberlake was wronged and said this is demonstrated by the lyrics : " You don 't have to say whatcha did / I already know , I found out from him / Now there 's just no chance . " The chorus contains the lines : " Told me you loved me , why did you leave me all alone / Now you tell me you need me when you call me on the phone . " Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani called Timberlake 's 2007 single " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " an ostensible sequel to " Cry Me a River " both lyrically and musically . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard stated that aside from the presence of Timbaland 's " fantastically cluttered production " , the difference between " Cry Me a River " and Timberlake 's 2013 single " Mirrors " is clear : " 10 years ago , Timberlake was broken , and now he is whole " .
= = Reception and accolades = =
" Cry Me a River " received acclaim from critics . Jane Stevenson of Jam ! and Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine regarded it as a stand @-@ out track from Justified . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic selected the song as a highlight in his review of Justified . Peter Robinson of NME called it a " twisted epic " and " an acidic , filthy little song teeming with spite and retribution , with Timbaland 's pounding . " Rolling Stone 's Ben Ratliff viewed his production of " Cry Me a River " as exceptional . Denise Boyd of BBC Music felt that the song 's lyrics play as large a role as Timbaland 's production , unlike other songs on Justified . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly concluded that the song is " a genuine stunner " that should leave Timberlake 's fellow ' N Syncers concerned that he truly may not need them any more . John Mitchell of MTV News called " Cry Me a River " and " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " " kiss @-@ off songs " , with Timberlake 's revenge on Spears present throughout the lyrics . For Pitchfork Media it was the 3rd best song of 2003 . According to Complex , the song " made people completely forget about ' N Sync and start asking what Timberlake would do next . " The single won a Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 2004 award ceremony . It was nominated for Song of the Year at the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards .
Rolling Stone ranked " Cry Me a River " at number 20 on their list of the 100 Best Songs of the 2000s ; a columnist for the magazine wrote that the real inspiration behind the song was the formation of the Timberlake – Timbaland team , " a match made in pop heaven " . In 2012 , the magazine placed it at number 484 on their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . VH1 ranked " Cry Me a River " at number 59 on their list of the 100 Greatest Songs of the 2000s . The Daily Telegraph listed the song at number 40 on the " 100 songs that defined the Noughties . "
In 2015 , Spotify re @-@ ranked Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs in two different lists . " Cry Me a River " ranked at number 14 on " by all Spotify users " and 10 on " streams from millennial users " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Cry Me a River " debuted at number 44 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in the issue dated December 21 , 2002 , earning the Hot Shot Debut honor with 29 @.@ 6 million audience impressions . On February 1 , 2003 , the single reached a peak of number three , becoming Timberlake 's first solo single to reach that position . The song debuted on the US Pop Songs chart at number 37 in the issue dated December 14 , 2002 and reached a peak of three on February 1 , 2003 . For the issue dated December 28 , 2002 , " Cry Me a River " debuted at number 75 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . It reached a peak of 11 on March 8 , 2003 . It also peaked at number two on the US Hot Dance Club Songs , becoming Timberlake 's second top @-@ three song , after his debut single " Like I Love You " reached number one . As of August 2003 , remixes of the single have sold more than 61 @,@ 000 units in the United States .
The song debuted at number two on the Australian Singles Chart on March 9 , 2003 . It fell to number six in the following week . " Cry Me a River " became Timberlake 's first top @-@ three solo single on the chart . The song remained on the chart for 12 consecutive weeks . It was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units . The single debuted at number 44 in New Zealand on March 9 , 2003 . After two weeks on the chart , it reached a peak of 11 . It remained on the chart for 11 weeks .
In the United Kingdom , " Cry Me a River " , debuted at number two on February 15 , 2003 . The next week it fell to number three , before returning to its original peak on March 1 , 2003 ; it stayed on the chart for 13 weeks . The song has sold over 365 @,@ 000 copies in the country as of 2015 . It debuted at number 14 on the French Singles Chart on April 5 , 2003 . After three weeks , " Cry Me a River " peaked at number six , and it stayed on the chart for 21 weeks . It was less successful on the Italian Singles Chart , where it peaked at number 14 and stayed on the chart for four weeks . " Cry Me a River " also peaked at number five in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , at number six in the Republic of Ireland and the Netherlands , at number seven in Belgium ( Flanders ) , and at number 10 in Germany , Norway , and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and synopsis = = =
The music video for " Cry Me a River " was directed by Francis Lawrence in Malibu , California , during the week of October 29 , 2002 . Lawrence created the video 's concept and told MTV News , " [ Justin and I ] had a conversation on the phone and all he said was he wanted to have some dancing in it , but to do my thing . He told me what the song was about , but in a [ general way ] as well . He just said it was a kiss @-@ off song and so I came up with this idea and he went for it " . Lawrence added that he also included some details in the video , including a reference to Spears 's tattoo , which Timberlake enjoyed . He explained that he and Timberlake did not mention names while creating the video , only discussing the song 's general beats . Lawrence also revealed that executives of Jive Records were nervous about some aspects of the video , such as Timberlake 's representation of a voyeur and the tone of some scenes he was portraying with a girl . " That 's the thing I liked most about this project , was that he was coming into it with a super clean @-@ cut image with ' N Sync and he 's such a nice guy and so handsome and what I was into doing was making him be a bit scary . Lurking around the house in the rain , throwing a rock through her window , being a peeping Tom , getting revenge and doing stuff that 's not really what a nice guy does . " The music video for " Cry Me a River " was released onto the iTunes Store on April 28 , 2003 .
The video begins with a blonde woman , played by model and actress Lauren Hastings ( allegedly portraying Britney Spears ) , walking out of her house hand @-@ in @-@ hand with an unidentified man . The couple leaves in the woman 's car ( a silver Porsche ) as Timberlake rolls down the window of a black Mercedes , from which he and his friend have been watching the woman . Timberlake breaks into the house by throwing a rock through a window and proceeds through the woman 's house , with anti @-@ gravity jumps and slides , not causing any other visible damage , except for kicking a picture frame of the woman across the living room . Then he searches some drawers and finds a video camera , while the driver of the car , Timbaland , signals for his female accomplice in the back of the car , played by model Kiana Bessa , to go in . She enters the house and goes with Timberlake to a bedroom , where she starts to undress and kiss him while being filmed . They stay in the bedroom for a moment ; then the accomplice exits the house but Timberlake stays . As the blonde woman returns , he follows her around the house and hides in a closet as she showers . He gets closer to her and touches the glass surrounding the shower . The blonde woman senses someone in the room and turns around , but Timberlake is gone . She leaves the bathroom and goes into her bedroom , where the video he made with his new lover plays on the television .
= = = Reception = = =
Peter Robinson of NME wrote that the video shows " what Justin looks like after he 's had sex . Clue : he looks pretty good . " According to Virginia Heffernan of The New York Times , Timberlake channels the character Neo from The Matrix film series , " pacing anxiously around wet and metallic interiors " . At the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards , the video for " Cry Me a River " won in the categories of Best Male Video and Best Pop Video . It had also been nominated for Video of the Year , Best Direction in a Video and Viewer 's Choice .
Following the release of the music video , Us Weekly ran a cover story titled Britney Vs . Justin : The War Is On . Timberlake denied that Spears inspired the video , saying , " The video is not about her . The video is about me . " However , Spears told Rolling Stone in October 2003 that she received a call from Timberlake saying there would be a look @-@ alike of her would be in a music video with him . She states that he reassured her by saying , " Don 't worry about it . It 's not a big deal " . Spears , who had not seen the video , says she allowed him to do so but became infuriated after watching it . She recalled that when she asked why he had made a video about her , he replied , " Well , I got a controversial video . " She stated that it was a great publicity stunt , commenting , " So he got what he wanted . I think it looks like such a desperate attempt , personally . " After the release of Spears ' video for " Toxic " ( 2003 ) , Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News said her video " [ made ] " Cry Me a River " look like child 's play " .
In 2013 , Billboard editor Jason Lipshutz opined the clip was " one of the more brilliant musical moments in pop music since the dawn of the century . The visual is JT 's most controversial music video to date . " He added , " The " Cry Me a River " video served a dual purpose for Timberlake : to court controversy , and to make its star seem more grown @-@ up . "
= = Live performances and cover versions = =
Timberlake performed " Cry Me a River " for the first time at the 13th annual Billboard Music Awards , held on December 9 , 2002 , at the MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas . He was accompanied by a string section and a 20 @-@ member choir . He also performed the song on the Justified World Tour ( 2003 – 04 ) , his first worldwide tour . The song was eighth on the set list of Justified / Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , his joint North American tour with Christina Aguilera . Timberlake performed " Cry Me a River " on a promotional concert held at House of Blues in West Hollywood , California on June 17 , 2003 . He performed a rock @-@ inspired version of the song on Saturday Night Live on October 11 , 2003 ; and it was fourteenth on the set list of his second worldwide tour , FutureSex / LoveShow ( 2007 ) .
On October 23 , 2010 , while performing at the annual charity gig " Justin Timberlake and Friends " in Las Vegas , Timberlake began the show with a slow and " sultry " performance of " Cry Me a River " and segued into a cover of Bill Withers ' 1971 single " Ain 't No Sunshine " . He later resumed " Cry Me a River " before segueing into a cover of Drake 's 2010 song " Over " . Jillian Mapes of Billboard described the performance as " completely lovely in an effortless sort of way . " Timberlake performed " Cry Me a River " at concert he held during the 2013 Super Bowl weekend in New Orleans . Timberlake performed " Cry Me a River " in a medley with other of his songs at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards . After the performance he accepted a Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award at the ceremony . Timberlake included the single on the set list of his fifth worldwide concert tour , The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 – 15 ) .
The song was first covered by Welsh alternative metal band Lostprophets , recorded in a BBC Radio One session . It appears as a b @-@ side of the single Last Train Home , released in 2004 . American singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift performed a cover of " Cry Me a River " in Memphis , Tennessee , during the Speak Now World Tour ( 2011 – 12 ) . Justin Bieber recorded a cover of the song together with Kanye West 's 2007 single " Stronger " , which he posted on his YouTube account . Canadian rock band The Cliks also covered the song for their 2007 album Snakehouse . British singer Leona Lewis covered " Cry Me a River " during her debut concert tour The Labyrinth ( 2010 ) . The Sheffield Star described the version as a " beautifully , sitting quietly , almost a capella " . American indie pop duo Jack and White covered the song on their 2012 extended play Undercover . Recording artist Kelly Clarkson covered the song on September 1 , 2012 , as a fan request during her 2012 Summer Tour with The Fray . Alternative rock band Coldplay revealed that the single was an inspiration for the drumbeat of their song " Lost ! " . In January 2013 , American singer Selena Gomez performed an acoustic version of " Cry Me a River " at the UNICEF charity concert in New York City . In February 2015 , Scottish synthpop band Chvrches performed a cover of " Cry Me a River " on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge . American alternative metal band 40 Below Summer performed a cover of the song in their 2015 album Transmission Infrared .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and mixing
Recorded at Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California ; mixed at Manhattan Center Studios , New York City , New York ; strings recorded at The Studio , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Justified , Jive Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= Beyond Blunderdome =
" Beyond Blunderdome " is the eleventh season premiere of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 26 , 1999 , and was watched in around 8 @.@ 1 million homes during the broadcast . In the episode , the Simpsons are given free tickets to a preview screening of Mel Gibson 's new film , a remake of Mr. Smith Goes to Washington . Gibson laments his current non @-@ violent role and wants someone to give him criticism . When Homer sees Gibson talking with Marge , he gives him a brutal review , leading Gibson to believe that Homer is the only man brave enough to give suggestions . As a result , he hires him to create a better ending . However , when the ending proves to be too controversial , Gibson and Homer end up on the run from studio executives with the film .
The episode was written by then @-@ showrunner Mike Scully and directed by Steven Dean Moore . The story was a parody of the film industry and its practice with test screenings and overly violent films . It featured several references to various films as well as other popular culture . Gibson guest starred as himself , and Jack Burns voiced a film studio executive named Edward Christian .
Since airing , the episode has received generally mixed reviews from critics , but Gibson was praised for his performance . It was released on the DVD collection The Simpsons Film Festival in 2002 , and The Simpsons – The Complete Eleventh Season in 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Homer test drives a new electric car so he can get a free gift . After destroying the car by driving into an ocean due to Homer thinking it is the same as an amphibious vehicle , the family returns to the dealer to receive the gift , which Homer forgets to open until he is in bed with Marge . It turns out to be free tickets to a preview screening of a new Mel Gibson film , a remake of Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , which makes Homer jealous as Marge expresses an attraction to Gibson . The audience members are given comment cards to fill and the filmmakers can change the film based on their reactions . The film is enjoyed by everyone but Homer , who only likes comedy or action movies . During the screening , Gibson , having come to the test screening unannounced due to being worried that the audience won 't like him playing a dramatic role , is assured by the producers that the film is wonderful . When Gibson flirts with Marge after the showing , Homer writes a negative review of the film . While reading the mostly positive comment cards after the movie , Gibson is certain that everyone loves him too much to tell him how to improve the film , but when he reads Homer 's comments , he is convinced that Homer was the only person brave enough to tell him the truth .
Gibson shows up at the Simpsons ' door and invites Homer and his family to come with him to Hollywood to change the film , while Homer thinks that he is out to take Marge from him . Homer and Gibson begin work on the film while the rest of the family explores Hollywood , where they encounter celebrities such as Ellen DeGeneres , Eddie , the dog from Frasier , and also spot Robert Downey Jr in a shoot @-@ out with police . When Homer 's ideas prove to be stupid and pointless , including giving a random dog a close @-@ up of its eyes shifting back and forth to show that he is evil , Gibson begins to wonder whether he made a mistake . However , he is enthusiastic when Homer tells him his ideas for the famous " filibuster " scene at the end . The next day , they present the new ending to the producers . In the new version , Mr. Smith goes berserk and slaughters every member of the United States Congress and the President in a mindless action movie sequence . The producers are horrified at this , saying that the film was meant to be the studio 's prestige picture . They attempt to burn the film reel , but Homer and Gibson , determined to save their film , run away with it .
They meet up with the rest of the family at Hollywood memorabilia museum . They steal a replica of the main villain 's car from The Road Warrior and engage in a ludicrous car chase through the streets of Hollywood , with the film executives on their trail . They attempt to distract the producers by throwing the Mel Gibson mannequin that was occupying the car at the producers , with Mel switching to his old Mad Max costume in the process , but this only works temporarily . Homer , taking an idea he believes to be from Braveheart , moons the executives along with Gibson so that they will stop their car out of disgust , but this fails and Homer 's buttocks is caught in the car 's hood . Homer and Gibson then attend the film 's premiere back in Springfield , but the entire audience walks out disgusted by the new ending , and the two men are even threatened with legal action from Jimmy Stewart 's granddaughter . Homer then tries to apologize to Gibson , but he does not blame him , arriving to the conclusion there is no place for violence @-@ lovers like them in Hollywood ; however , as soon as Homer suggests more nonsensical film ideas , Gibson kicks him out of his limousine and he lies on the ground shouting towards him that he fell out . The episode ends with a random dog given a close up of his eyes shifting back and forth .
= = Production and themes = =
" Beyond Blunderdome " was written by then @-@ showrunner Mike Scully and directed by Steven Dean Moore , airing as part of the eleventh season of The Simpsons ( 1999 – 2000 ) . It was Scully 's first writing credit since he took over as showrunner for the show . In comparison with other episode scripts , the staff writers did not change much of the original writing . The plot revolves around Mel Gibson doing a remake of the 1939 film Mr. Smith Goes to Washington . Karma Waltonen and Denise Du Vernay analysed the episode and wrote in the book The Simpsons in the Classroom : Embiggening the Learning Experience with the Wisdom of Springfield that " the episode is able to critique the practice of test screening , violence in film , and one of movies ' favorite standards – the car chase " , calling it " a ridiculous parody of an action @-@ film violence orgy " . Staff writer Tom Gammill came up with the idea for the violent version of Mr. Smith Goes to Washington , and Gibson throwing his Senator badge away at the end of the film , is a reference to the ending of the film Dirty Harry from 1971 . The idea for the set piece with electric cars at the beginning of the episode came from Kevin Nealon , who was a friend of former showrunner David Mirkin . One day , he came by and demonstrated his electric car for the writing staff .
The episode featured Mel Gibson as a guest voice . Scully had previously met him while writing jokes for a school fundraiser along with his wife Julie Thacker . Gibson and Daniel Stern were the hosts and needed jokes for the event . It turned out that Gibson was a fan of the show and watched it with his children . With that knowledge , it did not take Scully long to invite him to do a part . Gibson was willing to do the job and even came in on three separate occasions to do retakes – mostly because he knew his children would be watching . Unlike most guest voices , Gibson recorded the show along with the cast . On one occasion , it turned out that a joke written for Gibson actually did happen in real life . The writing staff wanted Gibson to say that he would urinate behind a dumpster , because it sounded like it would not be a classy thing to do for a movie star . He had , however , already done that during a couple of film premieres because he can feel trapped in a public toilet with a lot of fans . Gibson was surprised the writers knew about the story , but it turned out to be a coincidence . Otherwise , the episode frequently references films Gibson appeared in . After the studio cart crashes , Gibson says to Homer , " I 'm getting too old for this crap , " a reference to a line said by Danny Glover 's character Roger Murtaugh to Gibson 's character Martin Riggs in the Lethal Weapon film series . A poster for his film Braveheart is on the wall in the editing room and the Road Warrior car from the 1981 film Mad Max 2 is also featured . In addition to Gibson , Jack Burns guest starred in the episode , voicing a film studio executive named Edward Christian . His frequent use of the terms " Huh ? " and " You know what I mean ? " is a reference to a comedy routine performed by Burns and Avery Schreiber .
= = Cultural references = =
In the episode , there are many references to popular culture . The character Rainier Wolfcastle is seen filming Saving Irene Ryan , which is a reference to the 1998 film Saving Private Ryan and actress Irene Ryan from the sitcom The Beverly Hillbillies . Homer says , " you had me at ' hello ' , " a quote from the film Jerry Maguire ( 1996 ) , when Gibson asks for his help on his film . The airport is called " George Kennedy Airport " , which is a reference to actor George Kennedy , and his role in the film Airport ( 1970 ) and its three sequels ; Airport 1975 ( 1974 ) , Airport ' 77 ( 1977 ) , and The Concorde ... Airport ' 79 ( 1979 ) . When Homer and Gibson are being hunted by the executives they enter a car museum . The museum features the Batmobile from the television series Batman , General Lee from the series The Dukes of Hazzard , Herbie the Love Bug from the 1968 film The Love Bug and later films , the Monkeemobile from the series The Monkees , the Munster Koach from the series The Munsters , and the car from the series The Flintstones .
= = Release and reception = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 26 , 1999 , as the premiere of the eleventh season of The Simpsons . In its original broadcast , " Beyond Blunderdome " finished 48th in the ratings for the week of September 20 – 26 , 1999 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 0 — equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 1 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating shows such as Futurama and King of the Hill . In comparison , the previous season premiere episode , " Lard of the Dance " , drew a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 2 points with 7 @.@ 1 million households watching . The episode had a lower rating than the overall rating for the entire eleventh season , which averaged 8 @.@ 2 million households . On March 12 , 2002 , the episode was released in the United States on a DVD collection titled The Simpsons Film Festival , along with the season four episode " Itchy & Scratchy : The Movie " , the season seven episode " 22 Short Films About Springfield " , and the season six episode " A Star is Burns " . On October 7 , 2008 , " Beyond Blunderdome " was released on DVD as part of the box set The Simpsons – The Complete Eleventh Season . Staff members Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ron Hauge , Matt Selman , and Steven Dean Moore participated in the DVD audio commentary for the episode . The episode had an alternate ending in which Apu suggests that they sell the failed film to India , since the people of India love violent , action @-@ packed American films . This ending was included on the eleventh season DVD set .
Since airing , the episode has received generally mixed reception from critics . The day after the premiere , Mark Lorando of The Times @-@ Picayune wrote that while it was " not the laugh riot The Simpsons have spoiled us to expect – our appetite for showbiz parodies is waning – the episode did have its moments . " He further added that he especially liked " the sign posted outside the movie studio gate : ' No Artistic Integrity Beyond This Point . ' " While reviewing the eleventh season of The Simpsons , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented on the episode , writing that " Gibson actually does a good job here , and it ’ s amusing to see Homer ’ s terrible movie ideas . This isn ’ t classic Simpsons , but it starts the season on a pretty good note . " However , an article in Salon magazine from 2000 points to " Beyond Blunderdome " as the greatest precursor to that Homer would be more predominant as “ Jerkass Homer ” in the Scully era as showrunner , a Homer who " is not only dumb , but [ has also become ] disgusting and semi @-@ sociopathic . This is the Homer who , in the season opener [ ' Beyond Blunderdome ' ] , showed Marge 's wedding ring to Mel Gibson and stated , ' This is a symbol that as per our marriage , she 's my property and I own her . ' " Gibson 's performance has generally been praised . Simon Crerar of The Times listed his performance as one of the thirty @-@ three funniest cameos in the history of the show . Similarly , Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked Gibson 's performance as the seventh best guest appearance in the show 's history in a list of twenty people , calling it " Another ace self @-@ effacing appearance from a Hollywood high @-@ flyer " .
= Japanese aircraft carrier Jun 'yō =
Jun 'yō ( 隼鷹 , " Peregrine Falcon " ) was a Hiyō @-@ class aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) . She was laid down as the passenger liner Kashiwara Maru ( 橿原丸 ) , but was purchased by the IJN in 1941 while under construction and converted into an aircraft carrier . Completed in May 1942 , the ship participated in the Aleutian Islands Campaign the following month and in several battles during the Guadalcanal Campaign later in the year . Her aircraft were used from land bases during several battles in the New Guinea and Solomon Islands Campaigns .
Jun 'yō was torpedoed in November 1943 and spent three months under repair . She was damaged by several bombs during the Battle of the Philippine Sea in mid @-@ 1944 , but quickly returned to service . Lacking aircraft , she was used as a transport in late 1944 and was torpedoed in December . Jun 'yō was under repair until March 1945 when the repairs were cancelled as uneconomical . She was then effectively hulked for the rest of the war . After the surrender of Japan in September , the Americans also deemed her not worth the cost to make her serviceable for use as a repatriation ship and she was broken up in 1946 – 47 .
= = Design and description = =
The ship was ordered in late 1938 as the fast luxury passenger liner Kashiwara Maru by Nippon Yusen Kaisha ( the Japan Mail Steamship Company ) in late 1938 . In exchange for a 60 % subsidy of her building costs by the Navy Ministry , she was designed to be converted to an auxiliary aircraft carrier , one of 10 such ships subsidized by the IJN .
Jun 'yō had a length of 219 @.@ 32 meters ( 719 ft 7 in ) overall . She had a beam of 26 @.@ 7 meters ( 87 ft 7 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 15 meters ( 26 ft 9 in ) . She displaced 24 @,@ 150 metric tons ( 23 @,@ 770 long tons ) at standard load . Her crew ranged from 1 @,@ 187 to 1 @,@ 224 officers and men . The ship was fitted with two Mitsubishi @-@ Curtis geared steam turbine sets with a total of 56 @,@ 250 shaft horsepower ( 41 @,@ 950 kW ) , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by six Mitsubishi three @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Jun 'yō had a designed speed of 25 @.@ 5 knots ( 47 @.@ 2 km / h ; 29 @.@ 3 mph ) , but reached 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) during her sea trials . The ship carried 4 @,@ 100 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 000 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 12 @,@ 251 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 689 km ; 14 @,@ 098 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
= = = Flight deck arrangements = = =
Jun 'yō 's flight deck was 210 @.@ 3 meters ( 690 ft 0 in ) long and had a maximum width of 27 @.@ 3 meters ( 89 ft 7 in ) . A large island was fitted on the starboard side that was integrated with , for the first time in a Japanese carrier , the ship 's funnel . The ship was designed with two superimposed hangars , each approximately 153 meters ( 502 ft 0 in ) long , 15 meters ( 49 ft 3 in ) wide and 5 meters ( 16 ft 5 in ) high . Each hangar could be subdivided by four fire curtains and they were fitted with fire fighting foam dispensers on each side . The hangars were served by two square aircraft elevators with rounded corners , 14 @.@ 03 meters ( 46 ft 0 in ) on each side .
The ship 's air group was originally intended to consist of 12 Mitsubishi A5M " Claude " fighters , plus 4 in storage , 18 Aichi D3A " Val " dive bombers , plus 2 in reserve , and 18 Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bombers . This was revised to substitute a dozen Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , together with 3 more in storage , for the A5Ms by the time the ship commissioned in 1942 . As a result of the lessons learned from the Battle of Midway in June , the ship 's fighter complement was strengthened to 21 Zeros , and the other aircraft reduced to 12 D3As and 9 B5Ns . By the end of the year , 6 more Zeros replaced an equal number of D3As . Although it was possible to fit all these aircraft into the hangars , 8 or 9 were usually stored on the flight deck to reduce cramping below decks .
= = = Armor , armament and sensors = = =
As a conversion from an ocean liner , it was not possible to add much armor , although the ship had a double bottom . Two plates of Ducol steel , each 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick , protected the sides of the ship 's machinery spaces . The ship 's aviation gasoline tanks and magazines were protected by one layer of Ducol steel . In addition , her machinery spaces were further subdivided by transverse and longitudinal bulkheads to limit any flooding .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of a dozen 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 cm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) Type 89 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in six twin @-@ gun mounts on sponsons along the sides of the hull . Jun 'yō was also initially equipped with eight triple mounts for 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns , also in sponsons along the sides of the hull . In mid @-@ 1943 , four more triple mounts were added and another four triple mounts in late 1943 – early 1944 . Two of these last four mounts were mounted on the stern and the others were placed in front of and behind the island . A dozen single mounts were also added , some of which were portable and could be mounted on the flight deck . After the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944 , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced with three more triple mounts , two twin mounts and eighteen single mounts for the 25 mm Type 96 gun . These guns were supplemented by six 28 @-@ round AA rocket launchers . In October 1944 , Jun 'yō had a total of 91 Type 96 guns ; 57 in nineteen triple mounts , 4 in two twin mounts , and 30 single mounts .
Two Type 94 high @-@ angle fire @-@ control directors , one on each side of the ship , were fitted to control the Type 89 guns . Each director mounted a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 9 in ) rangefinder . When Jun 'yō was first commissioned only the rangefinders were fitted and the directors were added later . Four Type 95 directors controlled the 25 mm guns and another pair were added in early 1943 . Early warning was provided by two Type 2 , Mark 2 , Model 1 early @-@ warning radars . The first of these was mounted on the top of the island in July 1942 , shortly after she was completed , and the other was added later in the year on the port side of the hull , outboard of the rear elevator . A smaller Type 3 , Mark 1 , Model 3 air search radar was added in 1944 .
= = Career = =
Jun 'yō 's keel was laid down by Mitsubishi on Slipway No. 3 at their shipyard in Nagasaki on 20 March 1939 . She was yard number 900 and had the name Kashiwara Maru at that time . The ship was purchased on 10 February 1941 by the Navy Ministry and she was temporarily referred to as No. 1001 Ship ( Dai 1001 bankan ) to keep her conversion secret . She was launched on 26 June 1941 and commissioned on 3 May 1942 as Jun 'yō .
Upon commissioning , the ship was assigned to the Fourth Carrier Division of the 1st Air Fleet , together with Ryūjō , under the command of Rear Admiral Kakuji Kakuta . She was tasked to support Operation AL , an attack planned to seize several Aleutian Islands to provide advance warning in case of an American attack from the Aleutians down the Kurile Islands while the main body of the American fleet was occupied defending Midway . Jun 'yō carried 18 A6M2 Zeros and 18 D3As for this operation . At dawn on 3 June , she launched 9 Zeros and a dozen D3As to attack Dutch Harbor on Unalaska Island . They had to turn back due to bad weather , although an American PBY Catalina reconnaissance aircraft was shot down by a Zero . A second airstrike was launched later in the day to attack a group of destroyers discovered by aircraft from the first attack , but they failed to find the targets . Another airstrike was launched on the following day by the two carriers that consisted of 15 Zeros , 11 D3As , and 6 B5Ns and successfully bombed Dutch Harbor . As the aircraft from Jun 'yō were regrouping after the attack , they were attacked by 8 Curtiss P @-@ 40 fighters that shot down 2 Zeros and a pair of D3As while losing 2 of their own . One more D3A got lost and failed to make it back to the carrier . Shortly after the aircraft were launched , the Americans attacked the carriers , but failed to inflict any damage . A Martin B @-@ 26 Marauder bomber and a PBY were shot down by Zeros , and a Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bomber was shot down by flak during the attack .
Jun 'yō had initially been designated as an auxiliary aircraft carrier ( Tokusetsu kokubokan ) , but following the loss of four Japanese fleet carriers in the Battle of Midway , she was redesignated as a regular carrier ( Kokubokan ) in July . Captain Okada Tametsugu assumed command on 20 July 1942 . Upon arrival at Truk on 9 October , together with her sister ship Hiyō , the ship was assigned to the Second Carrier Division to begin operations against American forces in the Guadalcanal area as part of the 3rd Fleet . On 15 October , the two carriers reached the vicinity of Malaita Island in the Solomon Islands and their aircraft discovered a resupply convoy for Guadalcanal that was escorted by the destroyer Meredith . The A6M Zeros and D3As from the sisters attacked and sank the destroyer . The next day , they found the small seaplane tender , McFarland , in Lunga Roads offloading avgas into barges . Nine D3As attacked , blowing the ship 's stern off and destroying the barge . McFarland was not sunk , but required months of repairs . The two carriers were intended to play a prominent role in the
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Japanese effort to retake Guadalcanal Island and were assigned to the Advance Force for this operation . Their aircraft were supposed to provide air cover for a planned Japanese night attack to retake Henderson Field , and then be flown ashore .
In late October 1942 , during the Guadalcanal Campaign , Jun 'yō took part in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands . At this time , her air group consisted of eighteen Zeros , eighteen D3As and nine B5Ns . On 05 : 00 on 26 October 1942 , she had launched fourteen Zeros and a few D3As to land at Henderson Field on Guadalcanal , which had been falsely reported by the Imperial Japanese Army as in their hands , but they were greeted by Marine Grumman F4F Wildcats and all were shot down . At 09 : 30 , Jun 'yō launched another air strike that attacked the carrier Enterprise , the battleship South Dakota and the light cruiser San Juan , scoring hits on the latter two , but inflicting little substantial damage . Three D3As and a B5N were shot down by returning Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers . Kakuta ordered another air strike to be launched at 14 : 15 , using six B5Ns from the damaged Shōkaku and nine D3As from both carriers . Shortly afterwards , more aircraft were launched to attack the American ships , including six B5Ns and six D3As which were escorted by half a dozen Zeros . All of these aircraft attacked the carrier Hornet , which had been badly damaged by the attacks earlier in the day . American damage control measures had been partially successful , but one torpedo hit by a B5N from Shōkaku increased her list from 7 @.@ 5 ° to 14 @.@ 5 ° and near @-@ misses by the dive bombers started enough seams in her plating that her list increased to 18 ° . The Americans finally ordered the ship abandoned and the last wave of dive bombers hit Hornet twice more , but inflicted little further damage .
In mid @-@ November 1942 , Jun 'yō was tasked to provide air cover for the convoy bringing reinforcements for the Japanese forces on Guadalcanal during the three @-@ day @-@ long Naval Battle of Guadalcanal . The ship had twenty @-@ seven A6M3 Zeros , a dozen D3A2s and nine B5N2s for this task . Six of her Zeros were on Combat Air Patrol when the convoy was discovered by two SBDs from Enterprise and shot down one dive bomber after it had made its spot report . They were unable to protect the convoy against further attacks by aircraft based at Henderson Field ; seven transports were sunk and the remaining four transports were damaged before the end of the day . That afternoon , Enterprise had been discovered by a searching B5N and Junyo launched an air strike with her remaining aircraft , but they failed to locate the American carrier . In December 1942 – January 1943 , the carrier covered several convoys that brought reinforcements to Wewak , New Guinea and her air group was based there for several days to protect the forces there before returning to Truk on 20 January . The ship then covered the evacuation of forces from Guadalcanal through early February .
Jun 'yō briefly returned to Japan in February before she sailed for Truk on 22 March together with Hiyō . Her air group was detached to Rabaul on 2 April to participate in Operation I @-@ Go , a land @-@ based aerial offensive against Allied bases in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea . Before returning to Truk in the middle of the month , Jun 'yō 's aircraft claimed to have shot down sixteen American aircraft for the loss of seven A6Ms and two D3As and they sank the destroyer USS Aaron Ward . The ship 's air group was deployed to Buin , Papua New Guinea on 2 July in response to the American attack on Rendova Island on 30 June . Her fighters claimed 37 victories for the loss of nine aircraft before disbanding on 1 September . Leaving her aircraft behind , the carrier returned to Japan in late July .
Jun 'yō ferried aircraft to Sumatra in mid @-@ August and troops and equipment to the Caroline Islands in September and October . En route from Truk to Kure on 5 November 1943 , Jun 'yō was hit off Bungo Suido by a torpedo from the submarine Halibut . Four men were killed , but the damage was light , other than the disabled rudder . The ship was under repair and refit until 29 February 1944 at Kure . Meanwhile , her air group had been reconstituted at Singapore on 1 November with 24 Zeros , 18 D3As and 9 B5Ns . The aircraft transferred to Truk on 1 December and then to Kavieng at the end of December before reaching Rabaul on 25 January 1944 . Her fighters claimed 40 Allied aircraft shot down and an additional 30 probably destroyed , but the air group was virtually annihilated . The survivors were back at Truk on 20 February and the air group was disbanded .
In the meantime , the Japanese Navy had restructured its carrier air groups so that one air group was assigned to one carrier division and Air Group 652 was assigned to the 2nd Carrier Division with Hiyō , Jun 'yō and Ryūhō on 1 March . The air group was last in priority to be rebuilt and only had 30 Model 21 Zeros , 13 Model 52 Zeros and four D3As on hand on 1 April of its authorized 81 fighters , 36 dive bombers and 27 torpedo bombers . The ship conducted training for her aircraft in the Inland Sea until 11 May when she sailed for Tawi @-@ Tawi in the Philippines . The new base was closer to the oil wells in Borneo on which the Navy relied and also to the Palau and western Caroline Islands where the Japanese expected the next American attack . However , the location lacked an airfield on which to train the green pilots and American submarines were very active in the vicinity which restricted the ships to the anchorage .
= = = Battle of the Philippine Sea = = =
The Japanese fleet was en route to Guimares Island in the central Philippines on 13 June , where they intended to practice carrier operations in an area better protected from submarines , when Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa learned of the American attack on the Mariana Islands the previous day . Upon reaching Guimares , the fleet refuelled and sortied into the Philippine Sea where they spotted Task Force 58 on 18 June . The Americans failed to locate Ozawa 's ships that day and the Japanese turned south to maintain a constant distance between them and the American carriers as Ozawa had decided on launching his air strikes early the following morning . At this time , Air Group 652 consisted of 81 Zeros , 27 D3As , 9 Yokosuka D4Y " Judy " dive bombers and 18 Nakajima B6N " Jill " torpedo bombers , roughly evenly divided among the three ships . The three carriers began launching their first air strike of 26 bomb @-@ carrying A6M2 Zeros , 16 A6M5 Zeros to escort the other aircraft and 7 B6Ns at about 09 : 30 . Most of these aircraft were misdirected and failed to find any American ships , although a dozen persisted in their search and found one of the American task groups . A B6N , 5 bomb @-@ carrying Zeros , and an escorting Zero were shot down by the defending fighters and no damage was inflicted on any American ships .
A second air strike of 27 D3As , 9 D4Ys , 2 B6Ns and 26 escorting Zeros was launched around 11 : 00 , accompanied by at least 18 A6Ms and B6Ns from Shōkaku and Zuikaku . They had also been given an erroneous spot report and could not find any American ships . The 652nd aircraft headed for airfield at Rota and Guam to refuel while those from the other two carriers headed back to them . A pair of Zeros and 6 D4Ys bound for Rota spotted the carriers Wasp and Bunker Hill en route and failed to inflict any damage on the American ships while losing 5 D4Ys to anti @-@ aircraft fire . Radar had spotted those aircraft headed for Guam and they were intercepted by 41 Grumman F6F Hellcats . Only a single A6M5 , 1 D4Y and 7 D3As of the 49 Japanese aircraft survived the encounter and landed .
At dusk , the Japanese turned away to the northwest to regroup and to refuel and the Americans turned west to close the distance . They discovered the retiring Japanese fleet during the afternoon of the following day and Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher ordered an air strike launched . They discovered the ships of the Second Carrier Division and hit Jun 'yō with two bombs near her island . The ship was not badly damaged , but the damage did stop flight operations . Air Group 652 claimed seven American aircraft shot down and four more probably shot down , but lost eleven Zeros , plus another three that had to ditch . The air group was disbanded on 10 July with many of its remaining personnel being assigned to Air Group 653 .
After repairs at Kure , Jun 'yō remained in the Inland Sea without aircraft until 27 October when she was tasked to transport material to Borneo . On 3 November , she was attacked by the submarine Pintado near Makung , but her escorting destroyer , Akikaze , deliberately intercepted the torpedoes and sank with no survivors . On her return voyage , the ship was unsuccessfully attacked by the submarines Barb and Jallao . On 25 November , she sailed for Manila via Makung to rendezvous with the battleship Haruna and the destroyers Suzutsuki , Fuyutsuki , and Maki . Having loaded 200 survivors of the battleship Musashi , Jun 'yō was attacked by the submarines Sea Devil , Plaice and Redfish early in the morning of 9 December 1944 . She was hit by three torpedoes that flooded several compartments and killed 19 men . These gave her a 10 ° – 12 ° list to starboard , but she was able to proceed on one engine . She reached Sasebo the following day and began repairs on 18 December .
The repairs were abandoned in March 1945 for lack of materials and the ship was moved from the dock to Ebisu Bay , Sasebo on 1 April . Efforts to camouflage the ship began on 23 April and she was reclassified as a guard ship on 20 June . Jun 'yō 's armament was ordered removed on 5 August and the ship was surrendered to the Allies on 2 September . An American technical team evaluated the ship 's condition on 8 October and deemed her a constructive total loss . Jun 'yō was stricken from the Navy List on 30 November and scrapped between 1 June 1946 and 1 August 1947 by the Sasebo Ship Company .
= Jan Karol Chodkiewicz =
Jan Karol Chodkiewicz ( c . 1560 – 24 September 1621 ; Belarusian : Ян Караль Хадкевіч , Jan Karal Chadkievič , Lithuanian : Jonas Karolis Chodkevičius ) was a military commander of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth army who was from 1601 Field Hetman of Lithuania , and from 1605 Grand Hetman of Lithuania , and was one of the most prominent noblemen and military commanders of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth of his era . His coat of arms was Chodkiewicz , as was his family name .
He played a major role , often as the top commander of the Commonwealth forces , in the Wallachian campaign of 1599 – 1600 , the Polish – Swedish War of 1600 – 11 , the Polish – Muscovite War of 1605 – 18 , and the Polish – Ottoman War of 1620 – 21 . His most famous victory was the Battle of Kircholm in 1605 , in which he dealt a major defeat to a Swedish army three time the size of his own . He died on the front lines during the battle of Chocim , in the besieged Khotyn Fortress , a few days before the Ottomans gave up on the siege and agreed to negotiate .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Chodkiewicz was born around 1560 ( exact date of his birth is unknown ) as the son of Jan Hieronimowicz Chodkiewicz , Grand Marshal of Lithuania , castellan of Vilnius and Krystyna Zborowska , daughter of a Polish magnate family of Zborowscy . From 1573 he was a student at the Vilnius Jesuit College and the Vilnius University , and from 1586 to 1589 , together with his brother Aleksander , he continued his studies abroad at the University of Ingolstadt . He visited Padua before returning to the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1590 .
He started his military career soon after returning to the Commonwealth , raising a rota of 50 to 100 men . He gained military experience in the fight against the rebellious Cossacks during the Severyn Nalyvaiko 's uprising under Field Crown Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski . During that conflict he participated in the battle of Kaniów on April 14 , 1596 , and in the siege of the Cossack tabor near Lubny . In 1599 , he was appointed the Elder ( starost ) of Samogitia .
Chodkiewicz subsequently assisted Chancellor and Great Crown Hetman Jan Zamoyski in his victorious Wallachian campaign , in which Chodkiewicz participated in the battle of Ploiești on 15 October 1600 . For that campaign , he was given that year the high office of the Field Lithuanian Hetman , the second commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Lithuanian detachment of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth army .
= = = War in the North = = =
A year later , in 1601 , Chodkiewicz accompanied Zamoyski north , to the Duchy of Livonia ( Inflanty ) , where he commanded Lithuanian units on the right wing of the Commonwealth army in a victorious battle of Kokenhausen in late July that year in the war against Sweden . He oversaw the fighting in the Livonia theater after Zamoyski 's return to Poland in 1602 . In April 1603 , he captured Dorpat ( modern Tartu ) and defeated the Swedish forces at Biały Kamień ( the Battle of Weissenstein ) on 23 September 1604 . His crowning achievement was the great victory near the Dvina River in the Battle of Kircholm ( modern Salaspils ) on 27 September 1605 , when , with barely 4000 troops , mostly the heavy cavalry of Polish hussars , he annihilated a Swedish army three times the size of his force . For that feat he received letters of congratulation from Pope Paul V , most of the Catholic royalty of Europe , and even the sultan of Turkey and the shah of Persia . Soon afterward , he was rewarded with the rank of Grand Lithuanian Hetman , in addition to a number of royal land grants and leases .
Yet this great victory was virtually fruitless , owing to the domestic dissensions ; the Sejm ( Commonwealth parliament ) failed to agree on raising the funds needed for the war effort . Chodkiewicz was one of the magnates who remained loyal to king Sigismund III , and helped him to defeat the Sandomierz rebellion ( rokosz of Zebrzydowski ) in 1606 – 1607 . He commanded the right wing of the royal army during the Battle of Guzów on 6 – 7 July 1607 , in which the insurgents were defeated , and then quelled the unrest in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , fighting against another rebellious magnate , Janusz Radziwiłł , until Radziwiłł negotiated a settlement with the king in 1608 . A fresh invasion of Livonia by the Swedes recalled him thither once more , and in 1609 he relieved Riga and recaptured Pernau . He improvised a small fleet and dealt a surprise blow to the Swedish Navy at the Battle of Salis .
= = = Wars in the East and South = = =
Meanwhile , the Dimitriad wars with Muscovy broke out . Instigated by King Zygmunt , the war was unpopular among Lithuanian magnates , and Chodkiewicz was no exception ; in fact his displeasure was so public and significant that he lost the royal favor for a time . Eventually their differences subsided , and Chodkiewicz was sent against the Muscovites , operating first near Smolensk and Pskov . Soon , the Polish – Lithuanian forces started garnering victories , such as the capture of Smolensk , and some , like Grand Crown Hetman Żółkiewski , planned for a grand Polish – Lithuanian – Muscovite Commonwealth . Chodkiewicz was tasked by the king with an advance on Moscow . However , the Sejm neglected to pay for the maintenance of the Army once more , with the result that some units mutinied . Chodkiewicz fought several inconclusive battles against the Muscovites in the fall of 1611 , and then retreated . Disappointed with that outcome , he became once again estranged from the king , and criticized the campaign at the Sejm of 1613 . Over the next few years , in the period of 1613 – 15 , Chodkiewicz defended the Commonwealth gains in the Smolensk area , and dealt with unrest in Lithuania . Not till the crown prince , Władysław arrived with tardy reinforcements did the war could assume a more offensive character once again . The army , nominally commanded by Władysław , but in practice under the experienced command of Chodkiewicz , took the fortress of Dorogobuzh on 11 October 1617 . The siege of Mozhaysk in December of subsequent year did not prove successful , and this marked the end of the conflict .
The Polish @-@ Muscovite War had no sooner been ended by the treaty of Deulino than Chodkiewicz was hastily dispatched southwards to defend the southern frontier against the Turks , who , in the opening phase of the Polish – Ottoman War , defeated Polish forces at Cecora , killing Hetman Zółkiewski . An army of 160 @,@ 000 Turks and 60 @,@ 000 Tatars led by Sultan Osman II in person advanced on the Polish frontier . Opposed it were the Commonwealth forces , numbering about 70 @,@ 000 , half of them a Cossack detachment under Cossack hetman Petro Konashevych @-@ Sahaidachny . Chodkiewicz crossed the Dnieper in September 1621 , and entrenched himself in the Khotyn Fortress , directly in the path of the Ottoman advance . During the Battle of Chocim Chodkiewcz resisted the sultan 's 200 @-@ thousand army for a whole month , . but the cost of victory was his life . A few days before the siege was raised and the Ottomans decided to open negotiations , the aged Grand Lithuanian Hetman , already suffering from illness since the very start of this campaign , died in the fortress on 24 September 1621 .
Chodkiewcz 's body was transported to Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi , where he was buried on 14 October 1621 . A few years later , in the summer of 1622 , his widow arranged for exhumation , and Chodkiewicz was reburied in Ostróg in June that year . In 1627 he was moved to a new chapel in Ostróg , where he reburied again . His body was evacuated from Ostróg during the Chmielnicki Uprising in 1648 , and returned there in 1654 . It was reburied yet again in a new tomb in Ostróg in 1722 .
= = Assessment and remembrance = =
In 1937 , Polish historian Wanda Dobrowolska , wrote in her Polish Biographical Dictionary entry on Chodkiewicz that he was one of the chief members of the " Great Hetman era " , renowned for his talent as a strategist and organizer . She notes that Chodkiewicz possessed an iron will , which he was able to impose on the troops under his command , and that he was an efficient commander , although more respected and feared than beloved by his troops . Dobrowolska notes that he was an energetic and explosive antithesis of the composed Żółkiewski , another great hetman of this era , whom Chodkiewicz disliked and competed with throughout his life .
Chodkiewicz was not particularly involved in the politics of the Commonwealth , although his high office and wealth gave him significant influence ; for the most part he used his political influence , and base of support in Lithuania , to gather support for his military plans , increased the size of the army , and personal gratifications . His life was dominated by warfare , if not on the front lines , then on the political scene against other Lithuanian magnates , particularly the Radziwiłł family and the Sejm politicians whom he held responsible for not passing enough taxes to support the army he wanted .
Over his career he acquired significant wealth , and funded a number of churches and other prestigious buildings . He often worked with the Jesuits , including funding their College in Kražiai . He strongly believed his service for the state should be rewarded with land grants , but at the same time he would often use his own money to pay for the army 's military expenses . In his private life he is remembered as a very proud individual , and for stressing his identity as a member of the Lithuanian nobility . He was a family man , devoted to his family , but his only son , from his marriage in 1593 to Zofia Mielecka , died aged 16 in 1613 , and she died in 1618 . He remarried in 1620 , wedding Anna Alojza Ostrogska in November 1620 , shortly before departing on his final campaign . Also that year his daughter Anna married a Lithuanian magnate , Jan Stanisław Sapieha .
Some poems and other works praising him were written during his lifetime , and a religious work was dedicated to him by the Jesuit Piotr Skarga . More works on Chodkiewicz were written in the years after his death . He was one of Wacław Potocki 's characters in his epic novel on the Chocim war ( Polish : Transakcja wojny chocimskiej ) , and he also appeared in the works of Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz and Zofia Kossak @-@ Szczucka , usually portrayed as a patriot and military genius .
= Last Gasp ( Inside No. 9 ) =
" Last Gasp " is the fourth episode of the first series of British dark comedy anthology television programme Inside No. 9 . It first aired on 26 February 2014 on BBC Two . The story revolves around the ninth birthday of the severely ill Tamsin ( Lucy Hutchinson ) . Tamsin 's parents Jan ( Sophie Thompson ) and Graham ( Steve Pemberton ) have arranged with charity WishmakerUK for singer Frankie J Parsons ( David Bedella ) to visit as a treat for their daughter . Frankie dies after blowing up a balloon , leading to arguments between Graham , WishmakerUK representative Sally ( Tamsin Greig ) and Frankie 's assistant Si ( Adam Deacon ) over the now @-@ valuable balloon containing Frankie 's last breath . The story , written by Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith , was inspired by someone Pemberton had seen on television who collected air from different places . The episode is more comedic than others in the series , and critiques celebrity culture and human greed .
" Last Gasp " received a fairly negative critical response ; in retrospect , Shearsmith claimed that " people hated " the episode . Several critics , including Gerard Gilbert of The Independent , Jack Seale of Radio Times and comedy critic Bruce Dessau — though complimentary of Inside No. 9 generally — considered " Last Gasp " to be weaker than the previous three episodes , but not unwatchable . Other reviewers gave a more positive response , but a particularly scathing review by columnist Virginia Blackburn was published in the Daily Express . On its first showing , " Last Gasp " drew 872 @,@ 000 viewers , lower than any previous episode . Pemberton subsequently sold a balloon containing his own breath on eBay , with proceeds going to a Sport Relief charity .
= = Production = =
" Last Gasp " was inspired by someone Pemberton had seen on children 's programme Multi @-@ Coloured Swap Shop who collected apparently empty jars which actually contained air taken from different places . The idea , which he considered " bizarre " but " very special " , had " haunted " him . This gave him the idea of collecting the breath of celebrities . The death of Michael Jackson and the death of Amy Winehouse , along with the associated collecting of memorabilia , also served as inspiration . For Pemberton , the family and house in " Last Gasp " were very " normal " . The episode was filmed on location in what director David Kerr called an " utterly freezing " house . The finished episode , for Kerr , had a degree of " suburban darkness " in that , though the events unfold in a relatively unremarkable setting , the darker side of human nature is revealed . At the same time , the characters ' arguments lead to humour . Shearsmith described " Last Gasp " as like a My Family episode " gone wrong " .
As the format of Inside No. 9 requires new characters each week , the writers were able to attract actors who may have been unwilling to commit to an entire series . In addition to Pemberton — who played Graham , the father — " Last Gasp " starred Sophie Thompson as Jan , the mother ; Lucy Hutchinson as 9 @-@ year @-@ old Tamsin ; David Bedella as popstar Frankie J Parsons ; Tamsin Greig as Sally , of WishmakerUK ; and Adam Deacon as Si , Parsons 's assistant . It was the first episode of the programme not to star Shearsmith . For Kerr , the typical difficulty associated with the use of child actors was not present in " Last Gasp " ; for him , Hutchinson " was superb . She was brilliant ; she had maturity beyond her years . " Pemberton and Shearsmith had been keen to use Inside No. 9 as a vehicle to work with new people , and had been keen to collaborate with Greig for some time . Kerr said that " one of the real joys of Inside No. 9 " was the opportunity to see actors in very different roles to those in which they had previously starred . He used Greig as his example , saying that the character of Sally was somewhat different from the roles in which Greig had previously performed .
= = Plot = =
On the ninth birthday of the severely ill Tamsin , parents Graham and Jan struggle with a camcorder and blow up balloons . A charity called WishmakerUK has arranged for pop star Frankie J Parsons to visit Tamsin . Frankie arrives , much to the excitement of Jan , accompanied by his personal assistant Si and WishmakerUK representative Sally . Frankie visits Tamsin in her bedroom , and blows up a purple balloon for her . He begins to struggle for breath and then collapses from an intracranial aneurysm . Later , Graham makes tea for Jan and Sally . Jan is upset about Frankie 's death . Si says that no one can touch anything or call an ambulance until Frankie 's manager arrives . Tamsin , sitting in her wheelchair , holds the balloon ; and Graham and Si realise that it may be valuable . Si takes the balloon from Tamsin , and Graham ties it . Sally takes a call from her boss , but does not mention Frankie 's death . She makes excuses to have a colleague cover for her on her next assignment so that she can stay at the house . Graham and Si argue over the balloon , and Graham gives it to Sally , as he considers her " a neutral " . He looks online to work out how much the balloon and accompanying footage may be worth .
Later , Jan starts playing one of Frankie 's CDs , but Graham turns it off to talk about money with Si and Sally . Jan takes Tamsin outside . Tamsin worries that Frankie 's death is her fault because she asked him to blow up the balloon . She asks if Frankie 's soul will go to Heaven , and Jan says that it will . Inside , Si , Sally and Graham argue about how to split the money they will make from the balloon . The argument gets heated after Sally argues that the fact Tamsin will soon die should preclude her from getting a share . As Graham threatens to pop the balloon , Jan reappears and chastises him . Tamsin , who is now considered neutral , takes the balloon . Graham says they should all settle down and have lunch . In the kitchen , Sally and Jan talk about Sally 's work , and , in Tamsin 's bedroom , Graham and Si talk about Parsons , with Si revealing that Parsons was actually unpleasant to work for . There is a loud bang from outside , and everyone goes back into the lounge , erroneously thinking that the balloon has burst . Graham and Si take the balloon to an upstairs bedroom and tuck it into a bed , while Jan turns the music back on .
Everyone sits in silence , waiting for Parsons 's manager to arrive . Jan suggests that Graham blow up another balloon for Tamsin . Sally , Si and Graham realise that , with the camera footage they have , they can blow up all the purple balloons and sell them to multiple bidders . Jan screams when she sees movement in Tamsin 's bedroom , and it is realised that Frankie is still alive . Jan takes Tamsin out of the room and the remaining three agree , after panicked discussion , that they should kill Frankie . Si loses a coin toss and smothers Frankie with a cushion . Later , out on the street , Frankie 's body is put into an ambulance . Si says to Sally and Graham that he will be in touch and leaves . Sally and Graham discuss selling the camcorder footage , and Jan runs inside to see that Tamsin is not in her chair or room . Upstairs , Tamsin crawls onto the bed containing the balloon , carrying a heart @-@ shaped helium balloon . On the street , Sally , Graham and Jan see Tamsin opening the upstairs window . She releases the helium balloon with the balloon containing Frankie 's breath attached . The two float skyward as Graham films .
= = Themes and analysis = =
Comedy critic Bruce Dessau described the episode as containing " a nice if not very subtle critique " of the value of celebrity , and noted that there was " a flicker " of " The Pardoner 's Tale " , a story from writer Geoffrey Chaucer 's collection The Canterbury Tales . Rebecca McQuillan , writing in The Herald , felt the episode captures the " sheer unctuousness " of fandom . She added that , as the plot advances , the venal and vulgar attitudes which are initially hidden behind the characters ' fake grins are revealed . For her , the story takes place around Tamsin , who looks " worldly and disappointed with the human race " . David Chater , of The Times , identified celebrity worship and greed as the episode 's themes .
In South African newspaper The Star , the episode was identified as the most cynical of the first series . For the reviewer , it " parades before us the depravity to which the human animal will stoop , and explores how agendas can be furthered under the noble cover of altruism " . David Upton , writing for PopMatters , called it " easily the most acerbic and most overtly comic " episode of the series . He listed three reasons that the episode does not seem like something produced by Pemberton and Shearsmith : its avoidance of the horrific ; the fact that it does not star Shearsmith ; and its direct focus on celebrity culture , which Upton considers a modern phenomenon . Instead , he suggested that it feels closer to a story from Charlie Brooker 's anthology programme Black Mirror . The focus of " Last Gasp " on comedy to the exclusion of horror , for Upton , leaves it " stranded " when compared to the other episodes .
Some critics questioned the plausibility of the premise . Daily Express columnist Virginia Blackburn felt that there was potential for a comedic critique of the celebrity memorabilia market . Such a story , she suggested , would be based around selling the balloon — not the breath — something she felt may have happened . Paddy Shennan , writing for the Liverpool Echo , questioned the extent to which the ending would actually impact the characters , asking whether they could have nonetheless sold the fake balloons . For freelance journalist Dan Owen the premise " riff [ s ] on the fact [ that ] online auction sites like eBay often sell ludicrous items for huge amounts of money " . Owen argued that the episode 's plot offers an amusing way that such a sale could come about . Though not fraudulent , the sale would nonetheless be " highly disrespectful and money @-@ grabbing " .
= = Reception = =
Gerard Gilbert of The Independent , Jack Seale of Radio Times , Dessau and Owen all stressed that " Last Gasp " was weaker than the three previous episodes of Inside No. 9 . Seale claimed that there were " several sublime moments – but no knockout blow " , while Dessau wrote that " it doesn 't really go anywhere and it resolves itself a little too simplistically " , and Owen felt that the episode " didn 't manage to go anywhere very unexpected ... and just sort of ended " . All three suggested , however , that the episode still had its strengths ; for Seale , it was as " brilliantly acted and constructed as you 'd expect " , Dessau considered it watchable , and Owen felt it was enjoyable to watch with a number of funny moments . Shennan , writing for the Liverpool Echo , wrote that " perhaps there had to be a dud – or , at least , disappointing – episode sooner or later " , noting that you " can 't win ' em all " .
The acting in the episode was praised by Michael Hogan and Rachel Ward , who wrote in The Daily Telegraph that " with their gift for comedy , vulnerability and pathos , Tamsin Grieg [ sic ] and Sophie Thompson ... deliver excellent performances " . Similarly , Owen wrote that " the performances were good — especially from Thompson as the mousy housewife , and I liked the sour expressions from child star Hutchinson " . Nonetheless , he thought it regrettable than a real @-@ world musician had not been cast , especially as he considered it unlikely that Tamsin would admire Parsons . Awarding the episode three and a half out of five , he thought " the set @-@ up ... sublime , the central dilemma amusing , and the execution typically brilliant " . In the review published in The Star , " Last Gasp " was described as " hilarious " . The title , it was suggested , is appropriate , " as I caught myself gasping more than once as its foul contents unfolded " . Upton called the episode " a clever little piece " .
On the day it was shown , " Last Gasp " was selected as comedy " pick of the day " in the Daily Express , but , the following day , an extremely critical review of the episode by Virginia Blackburn was published in the newspaper . She felt that the episode was disappointing and wasted the talent of the actors , and that the concept was " the sort of idea you can imagine two students coming up with after the sixth pint ... and then feeling slightly embarrassed about it when they wake up the next morning " . She summed up the episode by saying that it was neither funny nor clever , and " is so utterly , irredeemably , naffly silly that it ends up being incredibly irritating and nothing else " .
An interview with Shearsmith and Pemberton was published on British comedy website Chortle.co.uk after Inside No. 9 won the Chortle Award for best TV show . The pair were asked if they would ever consider writing an episode with a happy ending . Shearsmith responded by saying " Yes , because that would be the biggest surprise of all ... But last year we had the Last Gasp , and that had quite a happy ending - and people hated that one ! " Similarly , Pemberton suggested that " people are disappointed if we don 't deliver something horrible " .
= = = Viewing figures = = =
Based on overnight viewing figures , " Last Gasp " drew a lower viewership than any previous episode of Inside No. 9 , with 872 @,@ 000 viewers . In most UK listings , it was preceded by Line of Duty , which drew 2 @.@ 2 million viewers ( 9 @.@ 7 % of the audience ) . However , the following episode of Inside No. 9 , " The Understudy " , drew a lower number of viewers still , with 720 @,@ 000 viewers . The final episode of the first series , " The Harrowing " , saw an increase in viewing figures , leaving " Last Gasp " with the second @-@ lowest viewership of the series , below the series average of 904 @,@ 000 people , and the slot average of 970 @,@ 000 people .
= = Charity auction = =
Pemberton listed a balloon containing his breath which had appeared on " Last Gasp " on eBay . Listed with the balloon was a copy of the episode 's poster signed by Pemberton and Shearsmith . The auction was held to raise money for Give It Up , a Sport Relief charity founded by comedian Russell Brand to help those recovering from alcoholism and drug addiction . The winning bid on the auction was for £ 265 @.@ 00 .
= Qualifying Industrial Zone =
Qualifying Industrial Zones ( QIZ ) are industrial parks that house manufacturing operations in Jordan and Egypt . They are special free trade zones established in collaboration with neighboring Israel to take advantage of the free trade agreements between the United States and Israel . Under the trade agreements with Jordan as laid down by the United States , goods produced in QIZ @-@ notified areas can directly access US markets without tariff or quota restrictions , subject to certain conditions . To qualify , goods produced in these zones must contain a small portion of Israeli input . In addition , a minimum 35 % value to the goods must be added to the finished product . The concept was invented by Jordanian businessman Omar Salah .
The first QIZ , Al @-@ Hassan Industrial Estate in Irbid in northern Jordan , was authorized by the United States Congress in 1997 . As of January 2009 , there are five Qualifying Industrial Zones in Jordan and four QIZ designated regions in Egypt . The idea behind the establishment of QIZs was to foster a sense of prosperity and stability in Middle East through economic cooperation and employment .
The zones differ from other trade zones as they are stand @-@ alone entities within one country and not directly connected to other countries . In addition , their products are for exports and domestic consumption in any country , not limited to specific countries , and most importantly operate only under the authority and conditions laid down by the host government .
= = History = =
The concept behind a Qualifying Industrial Zone is credited to Omar Salah , a Jordanian businessman . In 1993 , in anticipation of the Israel – Jordan peace treaty , Salah traveled to Israel with the intention of doing business with Israeli businessmen . He was also interested in business ventures that could take advantage of the eight @-@ year @-@ old free trade agreement between the United States and Israel that allowed Israeli goods to enter the US markets duty @-@ free . After the treaty was signed in 1994 , a business venture was struck between Salah and Delta Galil , where labor was transferred to Irbid in northern Jordan , to take advantage of low labor costs that were forty to seventy percent lower than in Israel . Salah had envisioned that by exploiting Israeli resources such as labor , finances , and contacts , and then leveraging it to produce value @-@ added goods , the economy of Jordan would be benefited . In addition , he surmised that economic cooperation between the two nations would help foster peace in the region .
Salah set up a public share @-@ holding company Century Investments . For doing business with Israel , many Jordanian organizations criticized Salah and boycotted the purchase of output in Jordan . Despite the heavy criticism , Salah nevertheless received tacit support from King Abdullah of Jordan . To combat the boycott , Salah began to work with multinationals with a larger international stake . He then actively lobbied the Jordanian government to set negotiate a free trade agreement with the United States on the lines of the United States @-@ Israel Free Trade Area Implementation Act of 1985 . Faced with little enthusiasm by the Jordanian government , Salah scrutinized the Presidential Proclamation ( No. 6955 ) that was part of the Palestinian agreement signed between the Palestine Liberation Organization and Israel in 1993 . In the agreement , the areas on the border between Israel and Jordan were designated as " Qualifying Industrial Zones " , and goods produced here would not have tariff and quota restrictions to the US markets . Since the Hassan industrial estate in Irbid , where Salah had factories located , was situated far from the bordering areas , it did not qualify for QIZ status .
Salah then lobbied the Jordanian government for extending these regions into other parts of Jordan . Government officials were luke @-@ warm to the idea and told him that it would be " naive to assume " that the United States would give Jordan this status . Unfazed by this response , Salah traveled to the United States and lobbied hard with the US State Department , the White House , and the US Trade Representative that it was in US interests to extend the QIZ into Jordan 's interiors . Lawyers in the United States then told Salah that even if a small portion of Israeli territory was associated with a QIZ , the proposal might materialize . Soon , USTR officials began to travel to Jordan to work on the deal .
Finally , in 1997 , an agreement was signed at the Middle East and North Africa ( MENA ) conference at Doha that established a QIZ agreement with Jordan . On 6 March 1998 , the Al @-@ Hassan Zone in Irbid was designated the first QIZ in Jordan .
After the setting up of the first QIZ , few Jordanian companies took advantage of QIZ benefits due to the general hostility in doing business with Israel . Instead , Chinese and Indian companies quickly took advantage of the vacuum to set up business establishments . The lack of local enthusiasm was criticized by the Jordan Times for missing the " golden opportunity " . Gradually though , more Jordanian businesses began to set up business establishments as political hostilities began to be overshadowed by business economics . Soon after 1998 , an additional twelve sites were given QIZ status by USTR .
Positive results from the Jordanian QIZ led to the Government of Egypt negotiating a separate QIZ protocol with the United States in Cairo on 24 December 2004 . The protocol came into effect in February 2005 .
= = Regulations = =
Under the agreement ( P.L. 104 – 234 ) requires that articles eligible for QIZ status must be manufactured in or directly imported from the areas administered by the Palestine Authority or another notified QIZ and meet the several conditions .
To quality for this scheme a product must be substantially transformed in the manufacturing process . Material and processing costs incurred in a QIZ must total not less than 35 % of the appraised value of the product when imported into the United States . Of this 35 % , 15 % must be either US materials or materials from Israel , and / or Jordan or Egypt depending on the program . The remaining 20 % of the 35 % input must come from Israel and Jordan or Egypt . The remaining 65 % can come from any part of the world . All importers must also certify that the article meet conditions for duty exemption .
Under the sharing agreements , the manufacturer from the Jordanian side must contribute at least 11 @.@ 7 % of the final produce , and the manufacturer on the Israeli side must contribute 8 % ( 7 % on high @-@ tech products ) . Under the Israeli @-@ Egyptian agreement , 11 @.@ 7 % of the inputs must be made in Israel .
The clothing and textile industry has benefited most from this arrangement . As tariffs on these goods into the United States are relatively high , exporters have used the duty @-@ free benefits of QIZs to gain quick access to markets in the United States .
= = Jordan = =
On 6 March 1998 , the United States Trade Representative ( USTR ) designated the Al @-@ Hassan Industrial Estate in the northern city of Irbid as the first QIZ . Since then , an addition twelve QIZs have been also designated across the country . Prominent QIZs include the Al @-@ Hussein Ibn Abdullah II Industrial Estate at Al Karak , owned and operated by the Jordan Industrial Estate Corporation , the Jordan Cyber City in Irbid , the privately owned Al @-@ Tajamouat Industrial Estate at Amman , Ad @-@ Dulayl Industrial Park and El @-@ Zai Ready @-@ wear Manufacturing Company near Zarqa . Upcoming industrial parks include the Gateway QIZ on the northern border with Israel , Aqaba Industrial Estate at Aqaba , and the Mushatta International complex in Amman .
Jordan has seen a substantial economic growth since the QIZ were set up . Exports from Jordan to the United States grew from 15 million USD to over 1 billion USD in 2004 . Government sources have estimated that over 40 @,@ 000 jobs have been created with the set up of QIZs . Investment is currently valued at USD 85 – 100 million and expected to grow to $ 180 to $ 200 million . The success of QIZ have led to the United States and Jordan signing a Free Trade Agreement in 2001 that was approved by the US Congress .
Between 1998 and 2005 Jordan moved up from the United States ' thirteenth to eight largest trading partner among the 20 Middle @-@ East @-@ North African ( MENA ) entities . In 2005 , US exports to and imports from Jordan totalled an estimated $ 1 @.@ 9 billion : U.S. exports , at an estimated $ 646 million , were 1 @.@ 8 times their 1998 level ; US imports , at $ 1 @.@ 3 billion , were 80 times their 1998 level . Despite the 2001 FTA between the United States and Jordan , 75 % of Jordanian articles enter the United States through the QIZ program .
The apparel industry dominates both Jordan 's QIZs and total exports to the United States , accounting for 99 @.@ 9 % of all QIZ exports and 86 % of all Jordanian exports to the United States . The reason for this dominance is that QIZ products enter the United States free of duty , whereas , under the US – Jordan FTA , tariffs will not be fully eliminated until the end of the ten @-@ year phase @-@ in period , in 2011 .
= = Egypt = =
After the WTO phased out quantitative quotas on textile in 2004 under the Agreement on Textile and Clothing ( ATC ) . Egyptian textile and garment producers feared that their industry would be threatened by global competition from China and India . The flood of similar articles from these two nations to the United States could edge out Egyptian exports , and possibly result in the loss of 150 @,@ 000 job opportunities . This was estimated to cost some of the $ 3 @.@ 2 billion in US foreign direct investment in Egypt . Further , Egypt was in search of sources for increased economic growth and trade to provide jobs for its rapidly growing labor force .
Positive results from the Jordanian led to the Government of Egypt negotiating a QIZ protocol in Cairo on 24 December 2004 that came into effect in February 2005 . USTR has designated three QIZs in Egypt – the Greater Cairo Zone , the Alexandria Zone , and the Suez Canal Zone ( 69 CFR 78094 ) . On 4 November 2005 , the USTR designated a fourth zone in the Central Delta region and expanded the Greater Cairo and Suez Canal zones .
The protocol signed between the two nations is a non @-@ reciprocal arrangement and is expected to be a step towards the establishment of a Free Trade Agreement ( FTA ) between the two countries . However negotiations toward a US – Egyptian free trade agreement have recently been suspended over human rights issues .
The results have been positive . Israeli exports to Egypt rose over 30 % from USD 29 million in 2004 to USD 93 @.@ 2 million and exceeded USD 125 million in 2006 . As of 2008 ten QIZs have been set up in Egypt . Some estimate that approximately 20 % of companies based in QIZs are wholly owned by Jordanians .
= = Social impact = =
Although most experts note that companies based in QIZs hire foreign laborers , thousands of Jordanians , particularly women from the rural countryside , have found jobs at garment factories in QIZs . In a traditional society such as Jordan , many of these women had little previous work experience and were largely caretakers of their home . Despite the low wages paid by apparel factories in the QIZs , some women have been able to support their families . However , traditional attitudes toward a woman ’ s place in the home persist , and many families continue to prohibit female members from working in QIZs . ( See Women in Jordan ) In response , the Jordanian Ministry of Labor has worked to ease the adjustment of women moving from the home to a new job by providing free transportation to work , subsidizing the cost of food in QIZs , and paying for dormitories near factories to cut commuting times. and providing childcare The long @-@ term effect of female employment in QIZs are yet to be quantified , and there is some concern that over time , Jordanian women may have difficulty in achieving higher wages in a global economy where apparel manufacturers can easily relocate to cheaper labor markets .
When the QIZ program came into being in 1996 , observers regarded it as a vehicle to support the development of peaceful relations and normalization of commercial ties between Israel and the two Arab states ( Jordan and Egypt ) with which it had signed peace treaties . In both cases , however , a tenuous peace continues to prevail between Israel and the two Arab states . Since the conclusion of
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culture of Southeast Asia , kulintang music ensembles have been playing for many centuries in regions of the Eastern Malay Archipelago — the Southern Philippines , Eastern Indonesia , Eastern Malaysia , Brunei and Timor , although this article has a focus on the Philippine Kulintang traditions of the Maranao and Maguindanao peoples in particular . Kulintang evolved from a simple native signaling tradition , and developed into its present form with the incorporation of knobbed gongs from Sunda . Its importance stems from its association with the indigenous cultures that inhabited these islands prior to the influences of Hinduism , Buddhism , Islam , Christianity or the West , making Kulintang the most developed tradition of Southeast Asian archaic gong @-@ chime ensembles .
Technically , kulintang is the Maguindanao , Ternate and Timor term for the idiophone of metal gong kettles which are laid horizontally upon a rack to create an entire kulintang set . It is played by striking the bosses of the gongs with two wooden beaters . Due to its use across a wide variety groups and languages , the kulintang is also called kolintang by the Maranao and those in Sulawesi , kulintangan , gulintangan by those in Sabah and the Sulu Archipelago and totobuang by those in central Maluku .
By the twentieth century , the term kulintang had also come to denote an entire Maguindanao ensemble of five to six instruments . Traditionally the Maguindanao term for the entire ensemble is basalen or palabunibunyan , the latter term meaning “ an ensemble of loud instruments ” or “ music @-@ making ” or in this case “ music @-@ making using a kulintang . ”
= = Geographic extent = =
Kulintang belongs to the larger unit / stratum of “ knobbed gong @-@ chime culture ” prevalent in Southeast Asia . It is considered one of the region ’ s three major gong ensembles , alongside the gamelan of western Indonesia and piphat of Thailand , Burma , Cambodia and Laos , which use gongs and not wind or string instruments to carry the melodic part of the ensemble . Like the other two , kulintang music is primarily orchestral with several rhythmic parts orderly stacked one upon another . It is also based upon the pentatonic scale . However , kulintang music differs in many aspects from gamelan music , primarily in the way the latter constructs melodies within a framework of skeletal tones and prescribed time interval of entry for each instruments . The framework of kulintang music is more flexible and time intervals are nonexistent , allowing for such things as improvisations to be more prevalent .
Because kulintang @-@ like ensembles extended over various groups with various languages , the term used for the horizontal set of gongs varied widely . Along with it begin called kulintang , it is also called kolintang , kolintan , kulintangan , kwintangan , k ’ lintang , gong sembilan , gong duablas , momo , totobuang , nekara , engkromong , kromong / enkromong and recently kakula / kakula nuada . Kulintang @-@ like instruments are played by the Maguindanao , Maranao , Iranun , Kalagan , Kalibugan and more recently the Tboli , Blaan and Subanao of Mindanao , the Tausug , Samal , Sama / Badjao , Yakan and the Sangir / Sangil of the Sulu , the Ambon , Banda , Seram , Ternate , Tidore , and Kei of Maluku , the Bajau , Suluk , Murut , Kadazan @-@ Dusun , Kadayah and Paitanic Peoples of Sabah , the Malays of Brunei , the Bidayuh and Iban / Sea Dayak of Sarawak , the Bolaang Mongondow and Kailinese / Toli @-@ Toli of Sulawesi and other groups in Banjarmasin and Tanjung in Kalimantan and Timor .
= = Instrument = =
= = = Description = = =
The instrument called the “ kulintang ” ( or its other derivative terms ) consist of a row / set of 5 to 9 graduated pot gongs , horizontally laid upon a frame arranged in order of pitch with the lowest gong found on the players ’ left . The gongs are laid in the instrument face side up atop two cords / strings running parallel to the entire length of the frame , with bamboo / wooden sticks / bars resting perpendicular across the frame , creating an entire kulintang set called a " pasangan " .
The gongs weigh roughly from two pounds to three pounds each , and have dimensions of 6 to 10 inches for their diameters and 3 to 5 inches for their height . Traditionally they were made from bronze but due to the disruption and loss of trade routes between the islands of Borneo and Mindanao during World War II , resulting in loss of access to necessary metal ores , and the subsequent post @-@ war use of scrap metal , brass gongs with shorter decaying tones are now commonplace .
The kulintang frame is known as an " antangan " by the Maguindanao ( which means to “ arrange ” ) and " langkonga " by the Maranao . The frame can be crude , made from simple bamboo / wooden poles , or it can be highly decorated and rich with traditional okil / okir motifs or arabesque designs . The frame is a necessary part of the instrument , and functions as a resonator .
It is considered taboo to step or cross over the antangan while the kulintang gongs are placed on it .
= = = Technique = = =
The kulintang is played by striking the bosses of the gongs with two wooden beaters . When playing the kulintang , the Maguindanao and Maranao would always sit on chairs while for the Tausug / Suluk and other groups that who play the kulintangan , they would commonly sit on the floor . Modern techniques include twirling the beaters , juggling them in midair , changing the arrangement of the gongs either before or while playing , crossings hands during play or adding very rapid fire strokes all in an effort to show off a player ’ s grace and virtuosity .
= = = Casting = = =
Kulintang gongs are made using the cire perdue method , a lost @-@ wax process used for casting the individual gongs . The first phase is the creation of wax molds of the gongs . In the past , before the availability of standardized wax sheets made specifically for foundry use , the molds were made out of either beeswax ( talo ) or candle wax ( kandilà ) . The wax mold is covered with a special mixture of finely powdered coal / mud , which is applied on the wax surface using a brush .
The layers are then left to dry under the sun , after which the entire mold is heated in a furnace to melt away the wax and hardening the coal / mud mixture , leaving behind a hollowed shell . With this hardened mold , molten bronze is poured down the mold ’ s mouth cavity , cooled to a certain degree , then the coal / mud is broken apart , revealing a new gong . The gong is then refined , cleaned , and properly identified by the blacksmith ( pandáy ) . Finally , the gongs are refined using the tongkol process , tuning these either by hammering the boss from the inside to slightly raise its pitch , or by hammering the boss from the outside to lower the pitch . The correct tuning is found by ear , with players striking a sequence of gongs , looking for a melodic contour they are familiar with .
= = = Tuning = = =
Unlike westernized instrumentation , there is no set tuning for kulintang sets throughout the Philippines . Great variation exist between each set due to differences in make , size and shape , alloy used giving each kulintang set a unique pitch level , intervals and timbre . Though the tuning varies greatly , there does exist some uniformity to contour when same melody heard on different kulintang sets . This common counter results in similar interval relationships of more or less equidistant steps between each of the gongs . This tuning system , not based upon equal temperament or upon a system of standard pitches but on a similar / certain pattern of large and small intervals , could also be found among the gamelan orchestras of western Indonesia . In fact , though the Maguindanao , Maranao and Tausug artists technically have no concept of scale ( because emphasis placed on the concept of “ rhythmic modes ” ) , the Pelog and Slendro scales of Java were found to be most satisfactory to their own varying pentatonic / heptatonic scales .
= = = Notation system = = =
Because this music was catered for by acephalous societies , kulintang repertory was unfettered by an indigenous notation system . Compositions were passed down orally from generation to generation negating the need for notation for the pieces . Recent attempts have been made to transcribe the music using cipher notation , with gongs indicated by a numbering system for example , starting from 1 to 8 with the lowest gong starting at number 1 for an eight gong kulintang set .
= = = Feminine instrument = = =
The kulintang is traditionally considered a women ’ s instrument by many groups : the Maguindanao , Maranao , Tausūg / Suluk , Samal , Badjao / Sama , Iranun , Kadazan , Murut , Bidayuh and Iban . Traditionally , the playing of the kulintang was associated with graceful , slow , frail and relaxed movements that showed elegance and decorum common among females . Nowadays , the traditional view of kulintang as strictly for women has waned as both women and men play all five instruments , with some of the more renowned kulintang players being men .
= = Performance = =
The main purpose for kulintang music in the community is to function as social entertainment at a nonprofessional , folk level . This music is unique in that it is considered a public music in the sense everyone is allowed to participate . Not only do the players play , but audience members are also expected to participate . These performances are important in that they bring people in the community and adjacent regions together , helping unify communities that otherwise may not have interacted with one another . Traditionally , when performers play kulintang music , their participation is voluntary . Musicians see performances as an opportunity to receive recognition , prestige and respect from the community and nothing more .
Generally , performances can be classified as either formal ones or informal . During formal performances adherents follow a traditional set of rules that would govern playing and it usually involved people from outside the home . Informal performances are quite the opposite . The strict rules that normally govern play are often ignored and the performers are usually between people well acquainted with one another , usually close family members . These performances usually were times when amateurs practiced on the instruments , young boys and girls gathered the instruments , substituting the kulintang with the saronay and inubab . Ensembles didn ’ t necessary have to have five instruments like formal performances : they could be composed of only four instruments ( three gandingan gongs , a kulintang , an agung , and a dabakan ) , three instruments ( a kulintang , a dabakan , and either an agung or three gandingan gongs ) or simply just one instrument ( kulintang solo ) .
= = Social functions = =
Kulintang music generally could be found as the social entertainment at a host of different occasions . It is used during large feasts , festive / harvest gatherings , for entertainment of visiting friends and relatives , and at parades . Kulintang music also accompanies ceremonies marking significant life events , such as weddings and returnees from the Hajj . Kulintang music also plays a significant role during state functions , used during official celebrations , entertaining of foreign dignitaries and important visitors of distant lands , court ceremonies of either the sultanate or village chieftains , enthroning / coronations of a new leader and the transferral of a sultanate from one family to another .
Kulintang music is prohibited from being played inside mosques and during Islamic rites / observances / holidays , such as the fasting month of Ramadan , where playing is only allowed at night when people are allowed to eat after Iftar . It is also prohibited during the mourning period of the death of important person , during funerals , and during the peak times of the planting and harvest season .
= = = Other uses = = =
Kulintang instrument has uses other than public performances . It also is used to accompany healing ceremonies / rituals ( pagipat ) / animistic religious ceremonies . Though this practice has died out among the Maranao due to its non @-@ Islamic nature , some areas in Mindanao , Sabah and Maluku still practice this ancient tradition .
Kulintang music can be used for communicating long distance messages from one village or longhouse to another . Called apad , these renditions mimic the normal speaking tones of the Maguindanao language , creating a specific message or , through the use of double entendre , a social commentary understood by nearly any adult native Maguindanao speaker . However , apad is falling into disuse because times have changed , and the necessity of its use for long @-@ distance communication purposes has faded away . Anun as a music without a message , is used instead to express sentiments and feelings , and has come more and more into use due to its compatibility with the musical elaborations and idiosyncratic styles of the times .
Kulintang music was also crucial in relation to courtships due to the very nature of Islamic custom , which did not allow for unmarried men and women to intermingle . Traditionally , unmarried daughters were kept in a special chamber in the attic called a lamin , off @-@ limit to visitors and suitors . It was only when she was allowed to play during kulintang performances that suitors were allowed to view her . Because of this , kulintang music was rare socially approved vehicles for interaction among the sexes .
Musical contest , particularly among the Maguindanao , have become a unique feature of these kulintang performances . They occur at almost all the formal occasions mentioned above , particularly weddings . What has made the Maguindanao stand out from the other groups is that they practice solo gong contest – with individual players showcasing their skill on the various ensemble instruments – the agung , gandingan and the kulintang – as opposed to only group contest , where performers from one town and another town are pitted against each other .
= = Compositions = =
= = = Rhythmic modes = = =
Kulintang music has no set compositions due to its concept of rhythmic modes . A rhythmic mode ( or designation or genre or pattern ) is defined as a musical unit that binds together the entire five instrument ensemble . By adding together the various rhythms of each instrument , one could create music and by changing one of the rhythms , one could create different music . This is the basis of the rhythmic mode .
= = = Improvisation = = =
The kulintang player ’ s ability to improvise within the parameters of a rhythmic mode is a must . As with gamelan orchestras , each kulintang mode has a kind of theme the kulintang player “ dresses up ” by variations of ornamentation , manipulating segments by inserting repetitions , extensions , insertions , suspensions , variations and transpositions . This occurs at the discretion of the kulintang player . Therefore , the kulintang player functions not only as the one carrying the melody , but also as the conductor of the entire ensemble . She determines the length of each rendition and could change the rhythm at any time , speeding up or slowing down , accord to her personal taste and the composition she plays .
This emphasis on improvisation was essential due traditional role of the music as entertainment for the entire community . Listeners in the audience expected players to surprise and astound them by playing in their own unique style , and by incorporating improvisation to make newer versions of the piece . If a player simply imitated a preceding player , playing patterns without any improvisation , the audience members would believe she / he to be repetitious and mundane . This also explains why set performance pieces for musical productions are different in some respect — young men / women would be practicing before an event , therefore rarely relying on improvisations .
= = = Maguindanao and Maranao compositions = = =
Though allowing such a variety of rhythms would lead to an innumerable amount of patterns , generally one could categorize these rhythmic modes on the basis on various criteria such as the number of beats in a recurring musical phrase , differences in the melodic and rhythmic groups with the musical phrase , differences in the rhythmic emphasis , and differences in the opening formulas and cadential patterns . For the Maguindanao , three to five typical genres can be distinguished : Duyug , Sinulog , Tidtu , Binalig and Tagonggo . The Maranao on the other hand have only three typical genres — Kapromayas / Romayas , Kapagonor / Onor , and Katitik Pandai / Kapaginandang .
These general genres could be further grouped among each other into styles / subcategories / stylistic modifiers , which are differentiated from one another based on instrumentation , playing techniques , function and the average age and gender of the musicians as well . Generally , these styles are differentiated by what is considered traditional or “ old , ” and more contemporary or “ new . ”
Old styles are considered slow , well @-@ pronounced and dignified like the Maguindanao ’ s kamamatuan and the Maranao ’ s andung . Genres classified under this style have moderate tempos , are rhythmically oriented , balanced , lack many improvisations and are usually played by the older folks and are therefore always played first , to give due respect to the older generation .
New styles such as the Maguindanao ’ s kagungudan and the Maranao ’ s bago , are considered fast , rhythmic and showy . Generally genres under this classification have faster tempos with an emphasis on power and speed , are highly rhythmic and pulsating , and are highly improvised with musicians employing different rhythmic / melodic formulae not used with old patterns . “ Young ” musicians , specifically young men , gravitate toward this style because of its emphasis on virtuosity and one ’ s individualism . Generally played after all kamamatuan pieces have been played to give younger musicians the opportunity to participate . Tagunggo not classified under one of these styles , being more ritualistic than recreational in nature . Tagunggo is a rhythmic mode often used to accompany trance and dance rituals such as sagayan . During the playing of these pieces , a ritual specialist would dance in rhythm with the music calling on the help of ancestral spirits ( tunong ) .
= = = Sulu @-@ type kulintangan compositions = = =
Sulu @-@ type compositions on the kulintangan are found among the Tausug , Samal , Yakan , Sama / Badjao , Iranun and Kadazan @-@ Dusun . Though there exist no identifiable rhythmic or melodic differences between patterns with names such as the Maguindanao , each group has their own music compositions . For instance , the Tausug have three identifiable compositions — Kuriri , Sinug , and Lubak @-@ Lubak — the Yakan have two — Tini @-@ id and Kuriri — and the Dusun have three — Ayas , Kudidi and Tidung . Though these melodies vary even within groups like the Maguindanao and Maranao , one theme which characterizes the Sulu @-@ type is the exchange of short melodic phrases between the kulintangan and the Agungs , where both instruments imitate and duplicate each other 's rhythms very quickly . This is clearly seen in the Tausug Sinug and Yakan Tini @-@ id and Kuriri compositions where this sort of jousting becomes a game of skill and virtuoso playing .
= = = Composition titles = = =
The kulintang repertoire has no fixed labels because the music itself is not considered a fixed entity . Due to the fact it is orally transmitted , the repertoire itself is considered something always in a state of flux due to two primary reasons . First , standardized titles weren ’ t considered a priority . Though to the musicians themselves the melodies would sound similar , the labels they would place on a particular rhythmic mode or style could vary even from household to household within that same village . For the musicians , the emphasis is on the excitement and pleasure of playing the music without much regard to what the piece was referred to as . Secondly , because musicians improvised their pieces regularly , modes and styles were continually revised and changed as they were passed on to a newer generation of musicians , making the pieces and therefore the labels attached to them relevant only during a certain frame of time .
Such issues made attempts to codify the compositions in a uniform manner impossible . An example of this could be found among the Maguindanao where the word binalig is used by contemporary musicians as a name for one of the rhythmic modes associated with kangungudan but it has also been used as a term designating a “ new ” style . Another example concerns the discrepancy among “ old ” and “ new ” genres . With “ new pieces ” continuously proliferating even up till now , pieces only created decades ago are now considered “ old ” even though this is considered a tradition spanning many centuries . These differences could sometimes make discussing this repertoire and the modes and styles within it a bit confounding .
= = History = =
Kulintang music is considered an ancient tradition that predates the influences of Hinduism , Buddhism , Islam , Christianity , and the West . In the Philippines , it represents the highest form of gong music attained by Filipinos and in North Maluku , it is said to have existed for centuries .
As ancient as this music is , there has never been substantial data recorded regarding the kulintang ’ s origins . The earliest historical accounts of instruments resembling those of the present day kulintang are in the writings of various European explorers from the 16th century who would have seen such instruments used in passing .
Because of limited data concerning gong music prior to European exploration , theories abound as to when the prototypes of what is now the present day kulintang came to be . One theory suggest that the bronze gong had an ancient history in Southeast Asia , arriving in the Malay archipelago two or even three thousand years ago , making its way to the Philippines from China in the 3rd century AD . Another theory lays doubt to the former claim , suggesting the kulintang could not have existed prior to the 15th century due to the belief that Javanese gong tradition , which is what the kulintang was believed to be derived from , developed only by the 15th century .
Though different theories abound as to the exact centuries the kulintang was finally realized , there is a consensus that kulintang music developed from a foreign musical tradition which was borrowed and adapted to the indigenous music tradition already present in the area . It ’ s likely the earliest gongs used among the indigenous populace had no recreational value but were simply used for making signals and sending messages .
Kulintang music likely evolved from this simple signaling tradition , transitioning into a period consisting of one player , one @-@ gong type ensembles ( like those found among the Ifugao of Luzon or Tiruray of Mindanao ) , developing into a multi @-@ gong , multiplayer ensemble with the incorporation of concepts originating from Sunda and finally transforming into the present day kulintang ensemble , with the addition of the d ’ bakan , babndir and musical concepts of Islam via Islam traders .
= = = Origin of the gong = = =
The kulintang gong itself is believed to have been one of those foreign musical elements incorporated into kulintang music , derived from the Sundanese kolenang due to its striking similarities . Along with the fact that they play important roles in their respectively ensembles , both the kulintang and kolenang show striking homogeneity in tapered rims ( as opposed to pronouncedly tapered Javanese bonang and non @-@ tapered Laotian khong vong gongs ) . Even the word kulintang is believed to be just an altered form of the Sundanese word kolenang .
It was these similarities that lead theorists to conclude that the kulintang was originally imported to the Philippines during the migration of the kolenang through the Malay Archipelago . Based on the etymology , two routes have been proposed as the route for the kulintang to Mindanao : One from Sunda , through Banjermasin , Brunei and the Sulu Archipelago , a route where the word “ kulintangan ” is commonly used for the horizontal row of gongs ; The other from Sunda , thru , Timor , Sulawesi , Moluccas and Mindanao where the word kolintang / kulintang is commonly seen .
= = = Future = = =
The tradition of kulintang music has been waning throughout the Eastern Malay Archipelago , and has become extinct in some places . Sets of five bronze gong @-@ chimes and a gong making up the totobuang ensembles of Buru island in Central Maluku have also come to disuse . Kolintang sets of bossed kettle gongs were once played in Gorontalo , North Sulawesi long ago but that has all but disappeared , replaced by what locals are presently familiar with — a slab @-@ key instrument known as a kolintang .
The extent of past kulintang tradition in the Philippines , particularly in the Northern and Central islands of Luzon and the Visayas , will never be fully known due to the harsh realities of three hundred years of Spanish colonization . The fact that there are areas which were able to keep kulintang tradition alive during European colonization has caused some observers to aptly term this music “ the music of resistance . ”
Today , the existence of kulintang music is threatened by the influence of globalization , and the introduction of Western and foreign ideals into the region . Younger generations would rather listen to American music , or bike in the streets with other children than spend time practicing and imitating on the traditional instruments of their parents .
However , Philippine kulintang music has had a revival of sorts due to the work of Philippine @-@ born , U.S.-educated musicians / ethnomusicologists Master Danongan " Danny " Kalanduyan and Usopay Cadar , as well as their predecessor Professor José Maceda . Through the work of Professor Robert Garfias , both Cadar and Kalanduyan began teaching and performing traditional kulintang music in the United States during the late 20th century ; quite unexpectedly , the music became a bridge between contemporary Filipino American culture and ancient Philippine tribal traditions .
Both Kalanduyan and Cadar have been impressed that so many people lacking Maguindanaon or Maranao background , and some who are not even Filipino , have become dedicated students and supporters of their cultural heritage . An additional surprise came after a decade @-@ long series of American @-@ based kulintang students traveled to Mindanao to perform , sparking a kulintang renaissance in the Philippines . The groundwork for this Renaissance originated as early as 1978 through the work of one of the early cultural pioneers and activists amongst Filipino Americans , Robert Kikuchi @-@ Yngojo . It was his dedication in the early 80 's that created the cultural awareness in the Fil @-@ Am community of San Franccisco that sparked a cultural movement . The knowledge of outsiders playing traditional kulintang has encouraged the younger generation of musicians in the Philippines , both in Mindanao and in Taguig , Metro Manila . Enthusiastic appreciation by foreigners has given life to a dying tradition , and the music has become a unifying force in the Philippine diaspora . For the first time in history , kulintang music is now formally taught to music students at several universities located throughout Metro Manila .
= = Composition of various ensembles = =
The makeup of kulintang ensembles throughout the region varies between the various cultural groups . Generally , they consist of five to six instruments dominated of course by a melody @-@ playing gong row that functions as a lead / central melodic instrument for the entire ensemble .
= Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara =
Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara ( English : Will Not Get Second Life ) is a 2011 Indian coming @-@ of @-@ age comedy @-@ drama film directed by Zoya Akhtar and produced by Farhan Akhtar and Ritesh Sidhwani of Excel Entertainment . The film features an ensemble cast including Hrithik Roshan as Arjun , Abhay Deol as Kabir and Farhan Akhtar as Imraan . It also stars Katrina Kaif as Laila , Kalki Koechlin as Natasha , and Ariadna Cabrol as Nuria along with Naseeruddin Shah making a special appearance . Made on a budget of ₹ 550 million ( US $ 8 @.@ 2 million ) , the film was shot in Spain , India , Egypt and the United Kingdom .
The story follows three friends , Arjun , Kabir , and Imraan who have been inseparable since childhood . They set off to Spain on a bachelor trip and meet Laila , who falls in love with Arjun and helps him overcome his problem of workaholism . Kabir and his fiancée experience significant misunderstanding in the meanwhile , which they soon overcome . As part of the trip , each friend chooses a dangerous sport for the group to partake .
The music and score was composed by Shankar @-@ Ehsaan @-@ Loy with lyrics by Javed Akhtar . Initially expected to hit theatres on 27 May 2011 , the release of the film was pushed back to 24 June , and once again to 15 July due to technical glitches in post @-@ production . The film had a worldwide release in 1800 screens and was a critical and commercial success . It grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 53 billion ( US $ 23 million ) worldwide . After its theatrical run , the film was nominated for and won several awards in various categories .
= = Plot = =
The film opens with Kabir ( Abhay Deol ) proposing to Natasha ( Kalki Koechlin ) . Their families meet at the engagement party where Natasha learns that Kabir is planning a three @-@ week bachelor road trip to Spain with his school friends Imran ( Farhan Akhtar ) and Arjun ( Hrithik Roshan ) . Kabir explains that the three have a long @-@ standing pact , and that during the road trip , each of them will have to pick an adventure sport which all three will try together . Initially , Arjun is reluctant to take trip as he does not want to lose his pay for missing work . It is later revealed that Arjun 's former girlfriend left him due to his workaholism and his obsession with money . Imran has an additional personal agenda on the trip , to find his biological father Salman Habib ( Naseeruddin Shah ) , an artist in Spain .
They fly to Spain separately , where they plan to visit Costa Brava , Seville , and Pamplona . On the way to Costa Brava , Imran and Kabir find it annoying that Arjun works even during the trip . Imran nonchalantly throws Arjun 's mobile phone out of their car while he is in the middle of an official call . This leads to a heated argument . Arjun , in a fit of rage , accuses Imran of having an affair , four years prior , with Arjun 's previous girlfriend Sonali ( a topic which was very sensitive both to Arjun and Imraan ) . After being pacified by Kabir and reaching their destination , they meet an Anglo Indian named Laila ( Katrina Kaif ) on a beach . Imran flirts with her and makes Arjun jealous . Kabir reveals that he has chosen deep sea diving as their first sport , and they later find that Laila is their diving instructor . Arjun , who cannot swim and is aquaphobic , receives assistance from Laila . She helps him overcome his fears and finish the sport successfully . Upon a request by Laila , they attend the La Tomatina festival with her in Buñol and meet Nuria ( Ariadna Cabrol ) , who falls in love with Imraan . Meanwhile , Natasha becomes suspicious of Kabir 's involvement with Laila when she sees them via webcam and crashes his bachelor party trip , much to Kabir 's discomfort in front of his friends . Imran spends time with Nuria , and Arjun with Laila . After the boys leave , Laila realises she has fallen in love with Arjun and chases them on a bike , not wanting to regret their partition if they do not meet in future . She and Arjun express their feelings for each other with a passionate kiss .
On the way to Seville , Kabir drops Natasha at the airport , while Arjun and Imran notice that something is wrong between them . The trio visit Seville for sky diving , Arjun 's choice . During the task , Imraan is forced to confront his acrophobia and hesitates to take part . However , they complete it without any obstacles . After skydiving , the three men go to a bar and get into a fight with a stranger on whom they had tried to pull a prank . They are jailed after the fight . Salman Habib bails them out and takes them to his home . While speaking to Imraan , Salman reveals that he never wanted the responsibility of a married life with kids , while Imran 's mother did , which is why he never contacted Imran . Imran , heartbroken , realises how his actions must have hurt Arjun four years back . He apologises to Arjun . Arjun , realising that Imran 's apology is heartfelt , hugs him and forgives him .
The trio learn of the bull run in Pamplona , which is Imran 's choice — baffling Kabir and Arjun . Imran calls up Laila , who comes along , surprising Arjun . When confronted by his friends , Kabir confesses to the other two that he is still not ready for a marriage , and that Natasha had gotten the wrong idea ( of him proposing to her ) on seeing the ring that he had bought for his mother as a birthday present . On the morning of the bull run , Imran suggests they make a pact to make a promise if they survive the event . Imran vows to publish his poetry ( he is secretly a poet ) , Arjun vows to go to Morocco with Laila , and Kabir promises to tell Natasha that he does not want to marry her . As they complete the event , the friends gain a renewed sense of their relationships with each other , with others they know , and with themselves .
During the credits , Imran , Kabir , Nuria and Natasha are shown attending the wedding of Arjun and Laila in Morocco and the song Sooraj ki Baahon Me plays . Natasha is seen with a new man , and Kabir and Natasha are still friends . Imran 's poems are revealed throughout the story after each sporting event showing that he had published them .
= = Cast = =
Hrithik Roshan as Arjun Saluja , a financial broker
Abhay Deol as Kabir Dewan , an architect
Farhan Akhtar as Imraan Qureshi , a show @-@ tunes writer
Katrina Kaif as Laila
Kalki Koechlin as Natasha Aurora , an interior designer
Ariadna Cabrol as Nuria
Naseeruddin Shah as Salman Habib
Deepti Naval as Rahila Qureshi
Anisa Butt as Tanya Aurora
Ravi Khemu as Kabir 's Father
Suhel Seth as Natasha 's Father
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The scripting of the film , tentatively titled as Running with the bulls , was completed in November 2009 after three months of work . Zoya and Kagti incorporated real life observations , and specially wrote the character of Imraan for her brother Farhan Akhtar . Akhtar wrote the dialogues for the film . The theme of the film was " about three guys on the verge of making commitments in life " , according to him . They used Javed Akhtar 's poetry as a voice @-@ over because they felt the poetry adds depth to the character and lends voice to their feelings . A special poem was penned down for Katrina 's character , after she was cast in the project . The first choice for the location of principal filming was Mexico , but was later changed to Spain since the climax features running with the bulls and Zoya wanted a country that blended history , culture and sports . The release date of the film was rescheduled thrice because the originally selected editor , Chandan Arora , fell ill and they had to redo the editing .
= = = Casting = = =
Initially , Imran Khan and Ranbir Kapoor were supposed to play two of the three leads , but they declined because they wished to star together in their own production . Farhan Akhtar , Zoya 's brother had worked with her in her debut film Luck By Chance , and was also the dialogue writer of the film , hence Zoya felt that he would know what she exactly wanted from the film . He was the first actor to be cast in the film . He defined his role as a " fun character " and a " guy who for the longest time takes nothing seriously . " Hrithik was chosen for another lead role , since he was a favourite actor of hers . After finalizing the two , she needed someone " who could not just fit in with them visually but also bring something new to the table . " She sought Abhay for the role , as he was her friend and had worked with her before in Reema Kagti 's Honeymoon Travels Pvt. Ltd .
For the role of Laila , Zoya wanted someone with an " accent " , who would be willing to do scuba diving , and was a half Indian and half Caucasian girl . A lot of girls were auditioned for it in New York and London . Later , in a party , she met Katrina Kaif , and chose her . Her role was reportedly described as " a free- spirited girl , a wanderer at heart and a bohemian gypsy by nature . " Zoya had wanted to work with Kalki ever since seeing her in Dev D and That Girl in Yellow Boots . She felt that Kalki would fit the bill for the character of Natasha , since she had " the sense of comedy , but not over the top . " Ariadna was chosen for the role of Nuria , since she was liked for her work in the 2009 Spanish film Eloise . The full cast of the film was confirmed by April 2010 .
= = = Filming = = =
The principal shooting of Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara , which began in June 2010 , took place in Barcelona , Pamplona , Buñol , and Andalusia in Spain , the UK , Egypt and Mumbai . Cinematographer Carlos Catalan , who had worked with Zoya in Luck By Chance , wanted all three actors to appear tanned because he " didn 't want everything glossed over " and wanted to make the film as realistic as possible .
Katrina 's introduction scene was shot on a nudist beach . During the filming , they requested that beach @-@ goers stay out of the frame so that the film would not face objections from the Indian censor board . The La Tomatina festival of Buñol was re @-@ created for the song " Ik Junoon " . Almost sixteen tons of tomatoes worth ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) were flown in from Portugal for the shoot . A scene involving a kiss between Hrithik and Katrina was shot even though the couple were initially reluctant to do so . The filming of the song " Señorita " took place in Alájar , a town in the province of Huelva . The crew warned the locals about the song 's volume because the shooting took place at night . In the third day of shooting , the locals came dressed in costumes , and the mayor of Alájar joined them for the shoot . The climax of the film , which features the Encierro , was shot at Pamplona . The final schedules were at Vashi and Alibag in Mumbai in December 2010 .
= = Soundtrack = =
Composer trio Shankar @-@ Ehsaan @-@ Loy composed the soundtrack for the film , who had also collaborated with Akhtar in Rock On ! ! and Karthik Calling Karthik . The lyrics were written by Javed Akhtar . For the vocals of the flamenco song " Señorita " , the trio roped in Maria del Mar Fernández , a Spanish flamenco singer , in what was her film singing debut . The song also marked the singing debut of Abhay Deol , who rendered the song along with the other two leads , Hrithik Roshan and Farhan Akhtar . The soundtrack met with positive response following its launch from critics , and garnered a significant notice in the music charts .
= = Marketing = =
The trailer of the film was revealed with the prints of Ready , and released online on 15 May 2011 . Excel Entertainment teamed up with Aircel to make promos of the film available on mobile and Internet . The trailer got over 55 million views within 48 hours of its release . Two more promos , one for the song Ik Junoon and one for the song Senorita , were released on 27 May . The music launch and promotion event took place at Nirmal Lifestyle , Mulund , Mumbai . The promos of Khaabon Kay Parinday and Dil Dhadakne Do were released the following week . Farhan Akhtar and Ritesh Sidhwani visited Facebook India to promote the movie . A press conference promoting the film was held on 1 July at Chandigarh . Two dialogue promos of the movie were released on 3 July . The cast and crew embarked on a road trip from Mumbai to Delhi on 7 July via Surat , Vadodra , Ahmedabad , Udaipur , Ajmer and Jaipur that culminated with a concert at Gurgaon . It is believed that British Auto manufacturer Land Rover , which is now owned by Tata Motors , sponsored the Land Rover Discovery driven by the cast members during the trip . A premier at the 12th IIFA Awards was planned before the worldwide release , but it was not executed .
The film 's marketers released branded promotions with Mountain Dew , Gillette and ING Vysya Bank .
The official game for Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara , based on the La Tomatina festival , was released by Jump Games on 19 July 2011 and made available for all leading mobile platforms .
= = Release = =
Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara was initially scheduled to release on 27 May , but was postponed to 24 June and further to 15 July 2011 . It released in 1800 screens worldwide . A special screening of the film was shown at the residence of Shahrukh Khan on 16 July , the birthday of Katrina Kaif . The event was attended by several celebrities besides the film 's cast and crew themselves . However , the Shiv Sena criticised the event as it was held three days after the 2011 Mumbai bombings . The producers of the film donated a cheque containing the collections of the film from around 10 theatres in Mumbai to the Maharashtra government as a mark of charity to the victims of the blasts . On 24 March 2012 , ZNMD was screened exclusively at the Bucks New University in High Wycombe , UK .
The DVD of the film was released on 30 August 2011 . It is available in Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 and Stereo formats with English and Arabic subtitles . The Blu @-@ ray disc is also available .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The film garnered mostly positive reviews from critics . Based on 81 reviews , review aggregate site desimartini.com gave the film the verdict , " A feel good film with a glittering star cast and amazing camera work . Funny dialogues and the chemistry between the three leads make ZNMD an enjoyable experience . " The site 's average audience rating is 3 @.@ 5 / 5 .
Pratim D. Gupta of The Telegraph called Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara " a beautifully scripted journey of catharsis " and praised director Zoya Akhtar for being " fearless in the way she shoots " . In his review for Hindustan Times , Mayank Shekhar praised the film as " a game @-@ changer for Hindi films since Dil Chahta Hai , and wrote " What you take home are memorable , amusing moments of three truly adventurous amigos we 've all grown up with . And will continue to " giving it 4 stars . Shivesh Kumar of IndiaWeekly awarded the movie 4 stars . Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 3 @.@ 5 / 5 stars , calling it a film for " a more evolved , mature and cinema @-@ literate audience that 's geared up to embrace and support newer genres of cinema . " Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India gave the film 3 @.@ 5 / 5 stars and lauded its lead performances : " If Abhay is the anchor of the group , Farhan 's funster role is full of beans and Hrithik 's metamorphosis from uptight , money @-@ minded stock broker to carefree vagabond is a class act . "
S Chatterjee of NDTV , gave the film 3 / 5 stars and maintained that the film 's philosophy is quite old and praised Zoya Akhtar 's direction , stating " Zoya Akhtar , by investing the tale with a delightful lightness of touch and dollops of gentle wit , brings a degree of freshness to bear upon the plot . " Shaikh Ayaz of Rediff rated the film 3 @.@ 5 / 5 stars and felt that Zoya Akhtar had put together a familiar plot but the film 's fresh energy is entertaining . He wrote , " Akhtar 's invigorating characters pump in fresh energy into a film that could have been strictly mediocre " . Kaveree Bamzai of India Today , too was full of praise for Akhtar 's direction and said " By the time I finished watching Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara I was convinced that no one can make a romance as beautifully as a woman " , giving the film 4 stars .
Film critic Subhash K Jha rated it 3 @.@ 5 / 5 and quoted : " Zoya , God bless her aesthetics , sucks us into the beauty of the moment , not giving us any reason to believe that life 's most precious truths are swathed in squalor . " Blessy Chettiar of DNA India , noted the music of the film and Farhan Akhtar 's acting as highlights of the film : " For all this , the storywriters use heavy doses of symbolism . Deep @-@ sea diving at Costa Brava , sky @-@ diving in Sevilla and the San Fermin bull run in Pamplona , not to forget the Tomatina festival in Bunyol , where Arjun finally lets go . Fears are drowned , let open in the sky and finally at the mercy of raging bulls " , he wrote , giving it 3 stars . Rajeev Masand of CNN @-@ IBN stated , " Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara takes the light @-@ hearted tone of a fun , all @-@ boys road trip through Spain to give you a deep and heartfelt message on why we should live life by seizing the moment and following our hearts . " He also praised the performance of the cast , highlighting it as one of the main positives of the film , but points out that the film 's length " sucks some fun of out of the ride " and gave a rating of 3 @.@ 5 stars . On the contrary , Raja Sen of Rediff held that the film " tried too hard to be cool " and gave it 1 @.@ 5 / 5 stars .
Ryan Gilbey of The Guardian was broadly positive about the film : " It 's still playing to full houses , and you can see why . Slick it may be . But tourist board employees representing the various Spanish cities flattered in the movie are not the only ones who will come out grinning . " , though he found the movie " stubbornly un @-@ macho " for a buddy film . The National reviewer Kaleem Aftab , in his 4 star review , noted " Throwing together road trip , romcom and buddy @-@ buddy action in a single picture may sound like an ill @-@ conceived masala mash @-@ up , but like any good dish , the ingredients are blended together with affection to create one of the best feel @-@ good movies of the year . "
= = = Box office = = =
In India , the film was released along with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 . It opened well in the multiplexes , as the occupancy ranged from 70 to 100 percent , despite receiving average opening in the single screens except in the metro cities . The film grossed ₹ 525 million ( US $ 7 @.@ 8 million ) in its opening three @-@ day weekend , including ₹ 73 @.@ 9 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 1 million ) its first day , and a net total of ₹ 265 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 9 million ) on the third day . After ten days of worldwide run , it grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 08 billion ( US $ 16 million ) . In 17 days , it grossed over ₹ 700 million ( US $ 10 million ) in India . With no significant competition other than Singham , Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara remained No. 2 at the box office for 4 weeks after its release . It was one of the highest grossing Bollywood films of 2011 in India and internationally . The film was declared a super @-@ hit in India and Overseas territories .
Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara grossed ₹ 120 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 8 million ) overseas in three days , which made it the biggest opening for an Indian film in 2011 . The film reached top @-@ twenty lists in the US and UK . It grossed £ 896 @,@ 289 in UK , $ 3 @,@ 103 @,@ 656 in USA , $ 387 @,@ 384 in Australia and $ 136 @,@ 380 in New Zealand . As of January 2012 , the film has grossed $ 7 @.@ 25 million overseas .
The film grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 53 billion ( US $ 23 million ) worldwide , surpassing Hrithik 's Dhoom 2 in the worldwide gross , becoming the ninth highest worldwide grosser of all time for a Bollywood film , as of October 2011 .
= = = Legal issues = = =
After the release of the film , PETA objected to the bull running scene in the film and sought support from fans via their Twitter page to ban the film . PETA spokesperson Poorva Joshipura spoke about the event and said " We will now be contacting the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting and Central Board of Film Certification to take action . " The film 's producer Ritesh Sidhwani , retorted by saying " We had submitted all the papers to the Animal Welfare Board India that stated that none of the animals were injured or hurt in any way and only then , the censor board cleared the movie . We are only showing the culture of Spain . " Spanish @-@ American artist Charo sent a letter to Zoya Akhtar on behalf of PETA requesting her to remove all the scenes which related to the running of the bulls .
= = Accolades = =
Post theatrical run , Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara won two awards at the 59th National Film Awards in the Best Audiography and Best Choreography categories . Noted regional ceremonies had the film winning several awards , mainly for the ' Best Film ' and ' Best Director ' . These included the Filmfare Awards , Stardust Awards , Zee Cine Awards , IIFA Awards , NDTV Indian of the Year Awards , Screen Awards , Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Awards and the Asian Film Awards .
= = Sequel = =
Following the film 's release , Zoya Akhtar expressed an idea to make a sequel of the film . Speaking about it , she said " You never know , I might or may not make a sequel . It all depends on the right content . " It has been reported that the characters are expected to reprise their roles in the sequel , if it is officially launched . In an interview with the Hindustan Times , Hrithik expressed an idea for the basic plot of the sequel . He said that it could be set five years after ZNMD and that the original characters would have grown older , having a reason to go on another trip . It has also been agreed upon that a proper script is required , as it is not a part of the " commercial field " of cinema . However , no official confirmations have been made regarding the sequel , despite requests from many viewers . After the IIFA ceremony , Farhan Akhtar commented that there was " no necessity " for the sequel . Later in 2013 , in an interview with HindustanTimes , Zoya expressed interest in scripting for the sequel after completing the shooting of her second movie Dil Dhadakne Do released in June 2015 .
= Baby Not on Board =
" Baby Not on Board " is the fourth entry in the seventh season of the animated television series Family Guy . It premiered on the Fox network in the United States on November 2 , 2008 . The episode features Stewie ( voiced by Seth MacFarlane ) after he is accidentally left at home when the Griffins head for the Grand Canyon . The family soon notice his absence , and they rush home ; however , Peter ( also voiced by MacFarlane ) makes it more difficult for his family because of his immature behavior . Meanwhile , Stewie realizes how much he depends on his family while he is alone .
The episode was written by Mark Hentemann and directed by Julius Wu . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 97 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured a guest performance by Jon Benjamin , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Baby Not on Board " was released on DVD along with eight other episodes from the season on June 16 , 2009 .
= = Plot = =
Peter visits the Quahog Mini @-@ Mart where Chris works after a visit to the local spa . After he threatens to sue the store for Chris ' " sexual remarks " ( in fact a legitimate medical question regarding one of his testicles ) , Peter is given an unlimited gas coupon for a year by Carl . Peter begins to take advantage of the card , even taking a trip into space , until Lois suggests that the family travel to the Grand Canyon . They leave early the next morning but inadvertently leave Stewie behind at home , only realizing that when they visit the site of 9 / 11 . They first contact Joe but cannot get a hold of him . They then contact Cleveland and Quagmire to look after Stewie . After not receiving any calls from either of them , Lois insists that the family return home to Stewie . While driving the car , Peter somehow enters the car next to them , causing the Griffins ' car to crash . When the family attempts to ride a train home , Peter spends the last of the money that they saved on curtain rings . Lois becomes angered and blames all their misfortunes on Peter 's stupidity , only to feel ashamed when he informs her that everyone else respects him for who he is . Eventually , Brian is able to get the family a ride in a pickup truck bound for Quahog .
Meanwhile , Stewie finds out that he has been left alone , and takes his solitude to his advantage . When Cleveland and Quagmire arrive , Stewie believes that they are intruders and sprays tear gas all around them to knock them out . Stewie realizes his mistake , however , and he chains them to the Griffins ' basement wall of his house and forcing them to watch the DirecTV help channel on a continuous loop . When Stewie consumes all of the food in the house , he applies for a job at McBurgertown the local Fast food restaurant , but is fired for stealing food ( despite his insistence it was due to be thrown out anyway ) . Eventually , Stewie realizes how much he depends on his family and is thrilled to see them return . The episode ends with a scene of Cleveland and Quagmire reciting what is said on TV , and Cleveland telling Quagmire , " Did I tell you I 'm getting a spinoff ? " .
= = Production = =
" Baby Not on Board " was written by eventual series showrunner and executive producer Mark Hentemann , who joined the show as a writer in its third season . It was directed by Julius Wu on his first episode of the season , although he would go on to direct the episode " 420 " later in the season . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors for the episode . The episode marked the first time since the show 's creation that celebrities do not feature wide , circular eyes . The staff wanted to make the celebrities look more realistic in contrast to the regular characters ; a good example of this can be seen on Patrick Swayze 's character design for the episode . The Standards and Practices had a problem with Peter saying " masturbate " , so staff writers edited it to " rub one out " . The episode revealed that the character Cleveland Brown was going to start in his own show , which turned out to be the Family Guy spin @-@ off , The Cleveland Show , which later premiered in September 2009 .
" Baby Not on Board " , along with the first eight episodes of the seventh season , were released on DVD by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on June 16 , 2009 , one month after it had completed broadcast on television . The " Volume 7 " DVD release features bonus material including deleted scenes , animatics , and commentaries for every episode .
In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Jon Benjamin , actor Joe Flaherty , and actor Jacob Pressman guest starred in the episode . Recurring voice actors Alexandra Breckenridge , writer Steve Callaghan , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener made minor appearances . Recurring guest voice actors Adam West and Patrick Warburton made guest appearances as well .
= = Cultural references = =
" Baby Not on Board " makes several media references . The plot itself is inspired by the film Home Alone . At the Quahog Day Spa , Peter mentions that he needs the sauna 's treatment after a stressful morning ; the scene cuts to a non @-@ sequitur that parodies the opening scene of Back to the Future . Another scene in the spa references the film Ghost ; representations of the film 's stars , Patrick Swayze and Demi Moore , are on top of Peter 's back giving him a massage . After Lois chastises Peter , he recites the speech John Candy made in Planes , Trains , and Automobiles nearly verbatim . Chris asks his friend why in the Lord of the Rings films Frodo and Gandalf walk to get to Mordor instead of taking the Eagle that was used at the end of the story . When driving to the Grand Canyon , the family sings Bette Midler 's " The Rose " . When Stewie chains Cleveland and Quagmire to the basement wall , he forces them to watch the DirecTV help channel .
When Lois says they haven 't heard from Joe , he is seen screaming the Rifleman 's Creed at his wheelchair like marines do with their rifles in the movie Apocalypse Now and the bootcamp sequence in Full Metal Jacket . When the Griffins return home to Stewie , the background music is an instrumental of " Somewhere In My Memory " by John Williams , which scores a similar scene in Home Alone . When Stewie is exploring the house he finds a Hustler magazine under his brother 's bed , curious of what a vagina looks like. after seeing a page of the magazine , however , he instantly becomes disgusted by the sight of a vagina on one of the pages , retrieves a submachine gun from hammerspace , and shoots the magazine , reducing the it to scraps of paper with the whole magazine of the weapon . Stewie mentions that Aquaman is pretty useless if the crime does not take place on water . Other references included jokes about the television series Lost and actors Robin Williams and Sean Connery .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast on Fox in the United States on November 2 , 2008 , " Baby Not on Board " was watched by 9 @.@ 97 million homes and acquired a 5 @.@ 0 Nielsen rating , the audience measurement systems developed to determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , making it the highest rated episode of the season .
The episode received mixed reviews from television sources and critics . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club gave the episode a C , calling it " without a doubt , the most meta episode I 've seen in quite some time " and said that " if Family Guy wants to make the show itself the butt of every joke , it needs to ramp up the conflict and tone down on the flights of fancy – most of those are funny for a bit , but excess can ruin just about anything . " Another complaint of the episode were the Back to the Future references and the storyline .
Ahsan Haque of IGN gave the episode a much more negative review , calling it " definitely one of the worst Family Guy episodes in years " . He criticized the jokes , calling some pointless and most of them tasteless , saying that the funnier moments of the episode were not enough to make it a worthwhile episode . Robin Pierson of The TV Critic also gave the episode a negative review , calling it " pointless television " , but said that it did feature some entertaining jokes .
= The Sopranos =
The Sopranos is an American crime drama television series created by David Chase . Revolving around the fictional character and family of New Jersey @-@ based Italian American mobster Tony Soprano ( James Gandolfini ) , the show portrays the difficulties he faces as he tries to balance the conflicting requirements of his home life and his criminal organization . These are often highlighted during his therapy sessions with psychiatrist Jennifer Melfi ( Lorraine Bracco ) . The series features Tony 's family members , mafia colleagues , and rivals in prominent roles and story arcs , most notably his wife Carmela ( Edie Falco ) and protégé Christopher Moltisanti ( Michael Imperioli ) .
After the pilot was ordered in 1997 , the show premiered on the premium cable network HBO in the United States on January 10 , 1999 , and ran its six seasons with 86 episodes to June 10 , 2007 . The series then went through syndication and has been broadcast on A & E in the United States and internationally . The Sopranos was produced by HBO , Chase Films , and Brad Grey Television . It was primarily filmed at Silvercup Studios , New York City , and on location in New Jersey . The executive producers throughout the show 's run were David Chase , Brad Grey , Robin Green , Mitchell Burgess , Ilene S. Landress , Terence Winter , and Matthew Weiner .
The Sopranos is widely regarded as the greatest television series of all time . The series also won a multitude of awards , including Peabody Awards for its first two seasons , 21 Primetime Emmy Awards and five Golden Globe Awards . A staple of 2000s American popular culture , the series has been the subject of critical analysis , controversy , and parody . It has spawned books , a video game , high @-@ charting soundtrack albums , and a large amount of assorted merchandise . Several members of the show 's cast and crew who were previously largely unknown to the public have had successful careers after The Sopranos . In 2013 , the Writers Guild of America named The Sopranos the best @-@ written TV series of all time , while TV Guide ranked it the best television series of all time .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Before creating The Sopranos , David Chase had worked as a television producer for more than 20 years . He had been employed as a staff writer / producer for several television series ( including Kolchak : The Night Stalker , Switch , The Rockford Files , I 'll Fly Away , and Northern Exposure ) and had co @-@ created one short @-@ lived original series , Almost Grown , in 1988 . He made his television directorial debut in 1986 with the " Enough Rope for Two " episode of Alfred Hitchcock Presents revival . He also directed episodes of Almost Grown and I 'll Fly Away in 1988 and 1992 , respectively . In 1996 , he wrote and directed the television film The Rockford Files : Punishment and Crime . He served as showrunner for I 'll Fly Away and Northern Exposure in the 1990s . Chase won his first Emmy Award in 1978 for his work on The Rockford Files ( shared with fellow producers ) and his second for writing the 1980 television film Off the Minnesota Strip . By 1996 , he was a coveted showrunner .
The story of The Sopranos was initially conceived as a feature film about " a mobster in therapy having problems with his mother . " After some input from his manager , Lloyd Braun , Chase decided to adapt it into a television series . In 1995 , Chase signed a development deal with production company Brillstein @-@ Grey and wrote the original pilot script .
Drawing heavily from his personal life and his experiences growing up in New Jersey , Chase has stated that he tried to " apply [ his own ] family dynamic to mobsters . " For instance , the tumultuous relationship between series protagonist Tony Soprano and his mother , Livia , is partially based on Chase 's relationship with his own mother . Chase was also in therapy at the time and modeled the character of Dr. Jennifer Melfi
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1920 , and by Paul Peroff in the United States in 1929 . Colonel Heeza Liar , the protagonist of the first animated cartoon series in cinema history , was created by John Randolph Bray in 1913 as an amalgamation of the Baron and Teddy Roosevelt . The Italian director Paolo Azzurri filmed The Adventures of Baron Munchausen in 1914 , and the British director F. Martin Thornton made a short silent film featuring the Baron , The New Adventures of Baron Munchausen , the following year . In 1940 , the Czech director Martin Frič filmed Baron Prášil , starring the comic actor Vlasta Burian as a twentieth @-@ century descendant of the Baron .
For the German film studio Ufa 's twenty @-@ fifth anniversary in 1943 , Joseph Goebbels hired the filmmaker Josef von Báky to direct Münchhausen , a big @-@ budget color film about the Baron . David Stewart Hull describes Hans Albers 's Baron as " jovial but somewhat sinister " , while Tobias Nagle writes that Albers imparts " a male and muscular zest for action and testosterone @-@ driven adventure " . A German musical comedy , Münchhausen in Afrika , made as a vehicle for the Austrian singing star Peter Alexander , appeared in 1957 . Karel Zeman 's 1961 Czech film The Fabulous Baron Munchausen commented on the Baron 's adventures from a contemporary perspective , highlighting the importance of the poetic imagination to scientific achievement ; Zeman 's stylized mise @-@ en @-@ scène , based on Doré 's illustrations for the book , combined animation with live @-@ action actors , including Miloš Kopecký as the Baron .
In the Soviet Union , Soyuzmultfilm released a 16 @-@ minute stop @-@ motion animation Adventures of Baron Munchausen in 1967 , directed by Anatoly Karanovich . Another Soviet animated version was produced as a series of short films , Munchausen 's Adventures , in 1973 and 1974 . The French animator Jean Image filmed The Fabulous Adventures of the Legendary Baron Munchausen in 1979 , and followed it with a 1984 sequel , Moon Madness . Oleg Yankovsky appeared as the Baron in the 1980 Russian television film That Same Munchausen , directed by Mark Zakharov from Grigori Gorin 's play . The film , a commentary on Soviet censorship and social mores , imagines an ostracized Baron attempting to prove the truth of his adventures in a disbelieving and conformity @-@ driven world .
In 1988 , Terry Gilliam adapted the Raspe stories into a lavish Hollywood film , The Adventures of Baron Munchausen , with the Canadian stage actor John Neville in the lead . Roger Ebert , in his review of the film , described Neville 's Baron as a man who " seems sensible and matter @-@ of @-@ fact , as anyone would if they had spent a lifetime growing accustomed to the incredible " . The German actor Jan Josef Liefers starred in a 2012 two @-@ part television film titled Baron Münchhausen ; according to a Spiegel Online review , his characterization of the Baron strongly resembled Johnny Depp 's performance as Jack Sparrow in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Memorials = = =
In 2004 , a fan club calling itself Munchausen 's Grandchildren ( Внучата Мюнхаузена ) was founded in the Russian city of Kaliningrad ( formerly Königsberg ) . The club 's early activities included identifying " historical proofs " of the fictional Baron 's travels through Königsberg , such as a jackboot supposedly belonging to the Baron and a sperm whale skeleton said to be that of the whale in whose belly the Baron was trapped .
On 18 June 2005 , to celebrate the 750th anniversary of Kaliningrad , a monument to the Baron was unveiled as a gift from Bodenwerder , portraying the Baron 's cannonball ride . Bodenwerder sports a Munchausen monument in front of its Town Hall , as well a Munchausen museum including a large collection of illustrated editions of the stories . Another Munchausen Museum ( Minhauzena Muzejs ) exists in Duntes Muiža , Latvia , home of the real Baron 's first wife ; the couple had lived in the town for six years , before moving back to the baronial estate in Hanover . In 2005 , to mark the real @-@ life Baron 's 285th birthday , the National Bank of Latvia issued a commemorative silver coin .
= = = Nomenclature = = =
In 1951 , the British physician Richard Asher published an article in The Lancet describing patients whose factitious disorders led them to lie about their own states of health . Asher proposed to call the disorder " Munchausen 's syndrome " , commenting : " Like the famous Baron von Munchausen , the persons affected have always travelled widely ; and their stories , like those attributed to him , are both dramatic and untruthful . Accordingly , the syndrome is respectfully dedicated to the baron , and named after him " . The disease is now usually referred to as Munchausen syndrome . The name has spawned two other coinages : Munchausen syndrome by proxy , in which illness is feigned by caretakers rather than patients , and Munchausen by internet , in which illness is feigned online .
In 1968 , Hans Albert coined the term " Münchhausen Trilemma " to describe the philosophical problem inherent in having to derive conclusions from premises ; those premises have to be derived from still other premises , and so on forever , leading to an infinite regress interruptible only by circular logic or dogmatism . The problem is named after the similarly paradoxical story in which the Baron saves himself from being drowned in a swamp by pulling on his own hair . The same story also inspired the mathematical term " Munchausen number " , coined by Daan van Berkel in 2009 to describe numbers whose digits , when raised to their own powers , can be added together to form the number itself ( for example , 3435 = 33 + 44 + 33 + 55 ) .
Subclass ATU1889 of the Aarne – Thompson – Uther classification system , a standard index of folklore , was named " Münchhausen Tales " in tribute to the stories . In 1994 , a main belt asteroid was named 14014 Münchhausen in honor of both the real and the fictional Baron .
= 24th Infantry Division ( United States ) =
The 24th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the United States Army . It was inactivated in October 1996 , it was based at Fort Stewart , Georgia and later reactivated at Fort Riley , Kansas . Formed during World War II from the disbanding Hawaiian Division , the division saw action throughout the Pacific theater , first fighting in New Guinea before landing on the Philippine islands of Leyte and Luzon , driving Japanese forces from them . Following the end of the war , the division participated in occupation duties in Japan , and was the first division to respond at the outbreak of the Korean War . For the first 18 months of the war , the division was heavily engaged on the front lines with North Korean and Chinese forces , suffering over 10 @,@ 000 casualties . It was withdrawn from the front lines to the reserve force for the remainder of the war , but returned to Korea for patrol duty at the end of major combat operations .
After its deployment in the Korean War , the division was active in Europe and the United States during the Cold War , but saw relatively little combat until the Persian Gulf War , when it faced the Iraqi military . A few years after that conflict , it was inactivated as part of the post @-@ Cold War U.S. military drawdown of the 1990s . The division was reactivated in October 1999 as a formation for training and deploying U.S. Army National Guard units before its deactivation in October 2006 .
= = History = =
= = = Hawaiian Division = = =
The 24th Infantry Division traces its lineage to Army units activated in Hawaii . It was activated under the Square Division Table of Organization and Equipment ( TO & E ) on 1 March 1921 as the Hawaiian Division at Schofield Barracks , Oahu . The division insignia is based on the taro leaf , emblematic of Hawaii . The division was assigned the 21st Infantry Regiment and the 22nd Infantry Regiment , both of which had been assigned to the US 11th Infantry Division prior to 1921 .
The entire Hawaiian Division was concentrated at a single location during the next few years , allowing it to conduct more effective combined arms training . It was also manned at higher personnel levels than other divisions , and its field artillery was the first to be motorized .
Between August and September 1941 , the Hawaiian Division 's assets were reorganized to form two divisions under the new Triangular Division TO & E. Its brigade headquarters were disbanded and the 27th and 35th Infantry regiments were assigned to the new 25th Infantry Division . Hawaiian Division headquarters was redesignated as Headquarters , 24th Infantry Division on 1 October 1941 . The 24th Infantry Division also received the Hawaiian Division 's Shoulder Sleeve Insignia , which was approved in 1921 .
The division was centered around three infantry regiments : the 19th Infantry Regiment and the 21st Infantry Regiment from the Active duty force , and the 299th Infantry Regiment from the Hawaii National Guard . Also attached to the division were the 13th Field Artillery Battalion , the 52nd Field Artillery Battalion , the 63rd Field Artillery Battalion , the 11th Field Artillery Battalion , the 24th Signal Company , the 724th Ordnance Company , the 24th Quartermaster Company , the 24th Reconnaissance Troop , the 3rd Engineer Battalion , the 24th Medical Battalion , and the 24th Counter Intelligence Detachment .
= = = World War II = = =
The 24th Infantry Division was among the first US Army divisions to see combat in World War II and among the last to stop fighting . The division was on Oahu , with its headquarters at Schofield Barracks , when the Japanese launched their Attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 and the unit suffered some casualties during the attack . Among these casualties were Sgt. Paul J. Fadon ( killed in a truck 10 miles north of Schofield Barracks ) , Pvt. Walter R. French , Pfc. Conrad Kujawa , Pvt. Torao Migita ( killed by friendly fire in downtown Honolulu ) , and Cpt . Theodore J. Lewis ( who became the 24th Infantry Division 's first soldier killed during WWII ) . The division was then charged with the defense of northern Oahu , where it built an elaborate system of coastal defenses throughout 1942 . In July 1942 , the 299th Infantry Regiment was replaced by the 298th Infantry Regiment . One year later , this regiment was replaced by the 34th Infantry Regiment from the Hawaiian Department Reserve . The 34th Infantry remained with the 24th Infantry Division until the end of the war . As an active component unit , the 34th was easier to deploy than the reserve component units , which were less trained .
= = = = Hollandia = = = =
In May 1943 , the 24th Infantry Division was alerted for movement to Australia , and it completed the move to Camp Caves , near Rockhampton , on the eastern coast of Australia by 19 September 1943 . Once deployed , it began intensive combat training . After training , the division moved to Goodenough Island on 31 January 1944 , to prepare for Operation Reckless , the amphibious capture of Hollandia , Netherlands New Guinea ( now Jayapura , Papua province , Indonesia ) .
The 24th landed at Tanahmerah Bay on 22 April 1944 and seized the important Hollandia Airdrome despite torrential rain and marshy terrain . Shortly after the Hollandia landing , the division 's 34th Infantry Regiment moved to Biak to reinforce the 41st Infantry Division . The regiment captured Sorido and Borokoe airdromes before returning to the division on Hollandia in July . The 41st and 24th divisions isolated 40 @,@ 000 Japanese forces south of the landings . Despite resistance from the isolated Japanese forces in the area , the 24th Infantry Division advanced rapidly through the region . In two months , the 24th Division crossed the entirety of New Guinea .
= = = = Leyte = = = =
After occupation duty in the Hollandia area , the 24th Division was assigned to X Corps of the Sixth United States Army in preparation for the invasion of the Philippines . On 20 October 1944 , the division was paired with the 1st Cavalry Division within X Corps , and the two divisions made an assault landing at Leyte , initially encountering only light resistance . Following a defeat at sea on 26 October , the Japanese launched a large , uncoordinated counteroffensive against the Sixth Army . The 24th Division drove up the Leyte Valley , advanced to Jaro and captured Breakneck Ridge on 12 November 1944 , in heavy fighting .
While final clearing operations continued on Leyte , the 24th Division 's 19th Infantry Regiment moved to Mindoro Island as part of the Western Visayan Task Force and landed in the San Jose area on 15 December 1944 . There , it secured airfields and a patrol base for operations on Luzon . Elements of the 24th Infantry Division effected a landing on Marinduque Island . Other elements supported the 11th Airborne Division drive from Nasugbu to Manila .
= = = = Luzon = = = =
The 24th Division was among the 200 @,@ 000 men of the Sixth Army moved to recapture Luzon to helped the regular and constable troops of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and Philippine Constabulary from the Japanese 14th Area Army , which fought delaying actions on the island . The division 's 34th Infantry Regiment landed at San Antonio , Zambales on 29 January 1945 and ran into a furious battle on Zig Zag Pass , where it suffered heavy casualties . On 16 February 1945 the 3rd Battalion , 34th Infantry took part in the amphibious landing on Corregidor and fought the Japanese on the well @-@ defended island . The rest of the division landed at Sablayan , Mindoro on 19 February , cleared the remainder of the island and engaged in numerous mopping up actions during the following month . These operations were complete by 18 March , and the division moved south to attack through Basilan. the division landed at Mindanao on 17 April 1945 and cut across the island to Digos until 27 April , stormed into Davao on 3 May , and cleared Libby airdrome on 13 May . Although the campaign officially closed on 30 June , the division continued to clear up Japanese resistance during July and August 1945 . The 24th Infantry Division and the Philippine Commonwealth military patrolled the region until the official surrender of Japan ended the war . On 15 October 1945 the division left Mindanao for occupation duty on mainland Japan .
Four soldiers were awarded the Medal of Honor during their service with the 24th Infantry Division during World War II . They were James H. Diamond , Charles E. Mower , Harold H. Moon , Jr . , and Francis B. Wai . Members of the 24th Infantry Division also won 15 Distinguished Service Crosses , two Distinguished Service Medals , 625 Silver Star Medals , 38 Soldier 's Medals , 2 @,@ 197 Bronze Star Medals , and 50 Air Medals . The division itself was awarded eight Distinguished Unit Citations for participation in the campaign .
= = = = Occupation of Japan = = = =
After the end of the war , the division remained on mainland Japan . It occupied Kyūshū from 1945 until 1950 . During this time , the US Army shrank . At the end of World War II it contained 89 divisions , but by 1950 , the 24th Infantry Division was one of only 10 active divisions in the force . It was one of four understrength divisions on occupation duty in Japan . The others were the 1st Cavalry Division , 7th Infantry Division , and 25th Infantry Division , all under control of the Eighth United States Army . The 24th Division retained the 19th , 21st , and 34th regiments , but the formations were undermanned and ill @-@ equipped due to the post @-@ war drawdown and reduction in military spending .
= = = Korean War = = =
On 25 June 1950 , 10 divisions of the North Korean People 's Army launched an attack into the Republic of Korea in the south . The North Koreans overwhelmed the South Korean Army and advanced south , preparing to conquer the entire nation . The UN ordered an intervention to prevent the conquest of South Korea . U.S. President Harry S. Truman ordered ground forces into South Korea . The 24th Infantry Division was closest to Korea , and it was the first US division to respond . The 24th Division 's first mission was to " take the initial shock " of the North Korean assault , then try to slow its advance until more US divisions could arrive .
= = = = Task Force Smith = = = =
Five days later , on 30 June , a 406 @-@ man infantry force from 1st Battalion , 21st Infantry Regiment , supported by a 134 @-@ man artillery battery ( also from the 24th Infantry Division ) was sent into South Korea . The force , nicknamed Task Force Smith for its commander , Lieutenant Colonel Charles Smith , was lightly armed and ordered to delay the advance of North Korean forces while the rest of the 24th Infantry Division moved into South Korea . On 4 July , the task force set up in the hills north of Osan and prepared to block advancing North Korean forces . The next day , they spotted an incoming column of troops from the North Korean 105th Armored Division . The ensuing battle was a rout , as the Task Force 's obsolescent anti @-@ tank weapons and understrength units were no match for the North Koreans ' T @-@ 34 Tanks and full @-@ strength formations . Within a few hours , the first battle between American and North Korean forces was lost . Task Force Smith suffered 20 killed and 130 wounded in action . Dozens of US soldiers were captured , and when US forces retook the area , some of the prisoners were discovered to have been executed . According to recently declassified documents the troops were captured and taken to Pyongyang where they are thought to have been murdered about three months later .
Approximately 30 percent of task Force Smith became casualties in the Battle of Osan . The task force delayed the North Korean forces ' advance for only seven hours .
= = = = Pusan Perimeter = = = =
The rest of the 24th Infantry Division arrived in South Korea , through the port of Pusan , followed by elements of the 1st Cavalry Division and 25th Infantry Division from the Eighth Army . As more soldiers arrived , the 24th Infantry Division was placed under the command of I Corps , Eighth Army . For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith , 24th Infantry Division soldiers were repeatedly defeated and pushed south by the North Korean force 's superior numbers and equipment . 24th Infantry Division soldiers were pushed south at and around Chochiwon , Chonan , Pyongtaek , Hadong , and Yechon . The division 's 19th and 34th regiments engaged the North Korean 3rd Infantry Division and the North Korean 4th Infantry Division at the Kum River between 13 and 16 July and suffered 650 casualties of the 3 @,@ 401 men committed there . The next day , the North Korean divisions attacked the 24th Infantry Division 's headquarters in Taejon and overran it in the Battle of Taejon . In the ensuing battle , 922 men of the 24th Infantry Division were killed and 228 were wounded of 3 @,@ 933 committed there . Many soldiers were missing in action , including the division commander , Major General William F. Dean , who was captured and later won the Medal of Honor . On 1 August , the 24th Division 's 19th Infantry Regiment engaged North Korean forces and was again forced back , losing 90 killed . North Korean officers at the battle claimed that some US soldiers were " too frightened to fight . " However , the 24th Infantry Division managed to delay the advancing North Koreans for two days , long enough for significant numbers of UN forces to arrive in Pusan and begin establishing defenses further south . By the time the 24th Infantry Division retreated and reformed , the 1st Cavalry Division was in place behind it . The division suffered over 3 @,@ 600 casualties in the 17 days it fought alone against the 3rd and 4th North Korean divisions .
By 4 August , a perimeter was established around Pusan on the hills to the north of the city and the Naktong River to the west . The Eighth Army , including the 24th Infantry Division , was cornered by the surrounding North Korean army . With UN forces concentrated and North Korean supply lines stretched out , the 24th Infantry Division halted the advance of the North Koreans . The 24th Division was at Naktong , with the 25th Infantry Division to the south , and the 1st Cavalry Division and South Korean forces to the north . The 24th Division was also reinforced by the 2nd Infantry Division , newly arrived in the theater . The 24th was quickly sent to block the North Korean 6th Infantry Division , which attempted to attack the UN forces from the southwest . On 8 August , the North Korean 4th Infantry Division crossed the river and attempted to penetrate the perimeter . After 10 days of fighting , the 24th Infantry Division counterattacked and forced the North Koreans back across the river . By late August 1950 , only 184 of the 34th Regiment 's original 1 @,@ 898 men remained . The regiment was dissolved and was replaced within the 24th by the 5th Regimental Combat Team . The 34th Regiment 's survivors were added to the ranks of the 19th and 21st regiments in an effort to bring them up to strength , and the 5th Infantry remained with the 24th Division until the division withdrew from Korea . Elements of the 24th Infantry Division were moved into reserve on 23 August and replaced by the 2nd Infantry Division . A second , larger North Korean attack occurred between 31 August and 19 September , but the 2nd , 24th , and 25th infantry divisions and the 1st Cavalry Division beat the North Koreans back across the river again .
At the same time , X Corps , with the 7th Infantry Division and 1st Marine Division , attacked Incheon , striking the North Korean army from the rear . The attack routed the surprised North Koreans , and by 19 September , the Eighth Army pushed out of the Pusan Perimeter and advanced north . The 24th Infantry Division advanced to Songju , then to Seoul . The Army advanced north along the west coast of Korea through October . By mid @-@ October , the North Korean Army had been almost completely destroyed , and US President Harry S. Truman ordered General MacArthur to advance all units into North Korea as quickly as possible to end the war . The 24th Infantry Division , with the South Korean 1st Infantry Division , moved to the left flank of the advancing Eighth Army , and moved north along Korea 's west coast . The 24th Division then moved north to Chongju . On 1 November , the division 's 21st Infantry captured Chonggodo , 18 miles from the Yalu River and Korea 's border with China . Units of the Eighth Army and X Corps spread out as they attempted to reach the Yalu and complete the conquest of North Korea as quickly as possible .
= = = = Chinese intervention = = = =
On 25 November , the Chinese entered the war in defense of North Korea . The People 's Liberation Army force , which totaled 260 @,@ 000 troops , flooded into North Korea and caught the Eighth Army by surprise . Chinese forces crushed the UN and South Korean forces with overwhelming numbers , surrounding and destroying elements of the US 2nd Infantry Division , 7th Infantry Division , and South Korean forces . The 24th Infantry Division , on the west coast of the Korean peninsula , was hit by soldiers from the 50th and 66th Chinese field armies . Amid heavy casualties , the Eighth Army retreated to the Imjin River , south of the 38th parallel , having been devastated by the overwhelming Chinese force .
On 1 January 1951 , 500 @,@ 000 Chinese troops attacked the Eighth Army 's line at the Imjin River , forcing it back 50 miles and allowing the Chinese to capture Seoul . The 24th Infantry Division was then reassigned to IX Corps to replace the 2nd and 25th Infantry Divisions , which had been placed in reserve due to heavy losses . The Chinese eventually advanced too far for their supply lines to adequately support them , and their attack stalled .
= = = = Stalemate = = = =
General Matthew B. Ridgway ordered I , IX , and X Corps to conduct a general counteroffensive on the Chinese ( Operation Thunderbolt ) quickly thereafter . The 24th Division , as part of IX Corps , advanced along the center of the peninsula to take Chipyong @-@ ni . The corps ran into heavy resistance and fought for the region until February . Between February and March 1951 , the 24th Infantry Division participated in Operation Killer , pushing Chinese forces north of the Han River . This operation was followed by Operation Ripper , which recaptured Seoul in March . After this , operations Rugged and Dauntless in April saw the division advance north of the 38th parallel and reestablish itself along previously established of defense , code named Kansas and Utah , respectively .
In late April , the Chinese launched a major counterattack . Though the 24th and 25th Infantry Divisions were able to hold their ground against the Chinese 9th CPV Army Corps , the South Korean 6th Infantry Division , to the east , was destroyed by the 13th CPV Army Corps , which penetrated the line and threatened to encircle the 24th and 25th divisions . The 1st Marine Division and 27th British Commonwealth Brigade were able to drive the 13th Army Corps back while the 24th and 25th divisions withdrew on 25 April . The UN forces ' line was moved back to Seoul but managed to hold . In September , the UN forces launched another counteroffensive with the 24th Infantry Division at the center of the line , west of the Hwachon Reservoir . Flanked by the South Korean 2nd and 6th Divisions , the 24th advanced past Kumwha , engaging the 20th and 27th CPV Armies . In November , the Chinese attempted to counter this attack but were unsuccessful . It was at this point , after several successive counteroffensives that saw both sides fighting intensely over the same ground , that the two sides started serious peace negotiations .
In January 1952 , the 24th Infantry Division , which suffered over 10 @,@ 000 casualties in 18 months of fighting , was redesignated as the Far East Theater reserve and pulled out of Korea . It returned to Japan to rebuild . The 34th Infantry Regiment was reconstituted , and the division returned to full strength during the next year , having been replaced in Korea by the 40th Infantry Division of the California Army National Guard . In July 1953 , the division returned to Korea to restore order in prisoner of war camps . It arrived two weeks before the end of the war .
During the war , 10 soldiers of the division were awarded the Medal of Honor . They were William F. Dean , George D. Libby , Melvin O. Handrich , Mitchell Red Cloud , Jr . , Carl H. Dodd , Nelson V. Brittin , Ray E. Duke , Stanley T. Adams , Mack A. Jordan , and Woodrow W. Keeble . Keeble 's medal was awarded on 3 March 2008 , 26 years after his death . The 24th Infantry Division suffered 3 @,@ 735 killed and 7 @,@ 395 wounded during the Korean War . It remained on front @-@ line duty after the armistice until October 1957 , patrolling the 38th parallel in the event that combat would resume . The division then returned to Japan and remained there for a short time .
= = = Cold War = = =
On 1 July 1958 the division was relocated to Augsburg , Germany , replacing the 11th Airborne Division in a reflagging ceremony . The 24th was organized under the Pentomic Division TO & E , in which its combat forces were organized into five oversized battalions ( called " battle groups " ) with no intermediate brigade or regimental headquarters . Although considered an infantry division , the 24th included two airborne battle groups for several months . The 1st Airborne Battle Group , 503rd Infantry left the division for reassignment to the 82nd Airborne Division at Fort Bragg on 7 January 1959 and the 1st Airborne Battle Group , 187th Infantry departed on 8 February 1959 , also for the 82nd .
On 13 July , less than 2 weeks after the reorganization , King Faisal II of Iraq was assassinated in a coup orchestrated by pro @-@ Egyptian officers . The Christian president of Lebanon , pressured by Muslims to join Egypt and Syria in the Gamal Abdel Nasser @-@ led United Arab Republic , requested help from the Eisenhower administration during the 1958 Lebanon crisis .
On the night of 15 July , U.S. Marines from the Sixth Fleet landed at Beirut and secured the Beirut airport . The following day , the 24th Division 's 1st Airborne Battle Group , 187th Infantry deployed to Turkey and flew to Beirut on 19 July . They were joined by a medium tank battalion ( seemingly 3rd Battalion , 35th Armor Regiment ) and support units , which assisted the Marines in forming a security cordon around the city . The force stayed until late October , providing security , making shows of force , including parachute jumps , and training the Lebanese Army . When factions of the Lebanese government worked out a political settlement , they left . The 24th Division 's 1 / 187th lost one soldier killed by a sniper .
The 24th came into international press focus in 1961 when its commanding general , Major General Edwin Walker , was removed from command for making " derogatory remarks of a serious nature about certain prominent Americans ... which linked the persons and institutions with Communism and Communist influence " . The inquiry was sparked by Walker 's " Pro Blue " program and accusations Walker and his Information Officer , Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Roberts , distributed John Birch Society literature as troop information in the 24th .
After the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961 , the Seventh Army began sending infantry units from the divisions in West Germany on a rotating basis to reinforce the Berlin Brigade . The 24th Division 's units participated in this action .
In January 1963 , the 24th was reorganized as a mechanized infantry division under the Reorganization Objective Army Division ( ROAD ) TO & E , which replaced the pentomic battle groups with conventional @-@ sized battalions organized in three combined arms brigades . The 169th Infantry Brigade , previously assigned to the 85th Infantry Division was redesignated the 1st Brigade , 24th Infantry Division . The 85th Division 's 170th Infantry Brigade was redesignated the 2nd Brigade , 24th Infantry Division . The 190th Infantry Brigade , previously assigned to the 95th Infantry Division , became the 3rd Brigade , 24th Infantry Division . In 1965 , the 24th Infantry Division received its distinctive unit insignia .
The 24th remained in Germany , specifically Augsburg , Munich until September 1968 , when it redeployed its 1st and 2nd Brigades to Fort Riley , Kansas , as part of Exercise Reforger while the division 's 3rd Brigade was maintained in Germany . As the US Army withdrew from Vietnam and reduced its forces , the 24th Infantry Division and its three brigades were inactivated on 15 April 1970 at Fort Riley .
In September 1975 , the 24th Infantry Division was reactivated at Fort Stewart , Georgia , as part of the program to build a 16 @-@ division US Army force . Because the Regular Army could not field a full division at Fort Stewart , the 24th had the 48th Infantry Brigade of the Georgia Army National Guard assigned to it as a round @-@ out unit in place of its 3rd Brigade . Targeted for a North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) role , the 24th Division was reorganized as a mechanized division in 1979 . It was one of several divisions equipped with new M1 Abrams tanks and M2 Bradley Fighting Vehicles that formed the core of the U.S. Army 's heavily armored mechanized force for the 15 years that followed .
= = = Gulf War = = =
= = = = Desert Shield = = = =
When the United Nations intervened in Kuwait in 1990 , the 24th Infantry Division , which was part of the Rapid Deployment Force , was one of the first units deployed to Southwest Asia . It arrived in 10 large cargo ships of the US Navy Sealift Command . Advance elements of the 24th Division began arriving in Saudi Arabia on 17 August . Some controversy erupted when the division 's round @-@ out unit , the 48th Infantry Brigade ( Mechanized ) , of the Georgia National Guard , was not called up for service . Army leaders decided that the use of National Guard forces was unnecessary , as they felt the active @-@ duty force had sufficient troops . The 48th Brigade was replaced once the 24th Division was in Saudi Arabia with the regular Army 's 197th Infantry Brigade ( Mechanized ) . The 24th Division was then assigned to XVIII Airborne Corps as the corps ' heavy @-@ armored division .
In the months that followed , the 24th Division played an important part of Operation Desert Shield by providing heavy firepower with its large number of armored vehicles , including 216 M1A1 Abrams tanks . Elements of the division were still arriving in September , and in the logistical chaos that followed the rapid arrival of U.S. forces in the region , the soldiers of the 24th Division were housed in warehouses , airport hangars , and on the desert sand . The 24th remained in relatively stationary positions in defense of Saudi Arabia until additional American forces arrived for Operation Desert Storm . Aviation units of the division included 2nd Squadron , 4th Cavalry , and 1st Battalion , 24th Aviation Regiment .
= = = = Desert Storm = = = =
Operation Desert Storm began with an extensive aerial bombing campaign on 17 January 1991 . When the ground attack commenced on 24 February , the 24th Infantry Division formed the east flank of the corps with the 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment . It blocked the Euphrates River valley to cut off Iraqi forces in Kuwait and little resistance . At this time , the 24th Division 's ranks swelled to over 25 @,@ 000 troops in 34 battalions , commanding 94 helicopters , 241 M1 Abrams tanks , 221 M2 Bradley Armored fighting vehicles , and over 7 @,@ 800 other vehicles . The 24th Infantry Division performed exceptionally well in the theater ; it had been training in desert warfare for several years before the conflict . On 26 February , the 24th Division advanced through the valley and captured Iraqi airfields at Jabbah and Tallil . At the airfields , it encountered entrenched resistance from the Iraqi 37th and 49th Infantry Divisions , as well as the 6th Nebuchadnezzar Mechanized Division of the Iraqi Republican Guard . Despite some of the most fierce resistance of the war , the 24th Infantry Division destroyed the Iraqi formations and captured the two airfields the next day . The 24th then moved east with VII Corps and engaged several Iraqi Republican Guard divisions .
After the Iraqi forces were defeated , the U.N. mandated that the U.S. withdraw from Iraq , ending the Gulf War . By the end of combat operations , the 24th Infantry Division advanced 260 miles and destroyed 360 tanks and other armored personnel carriers , 300 artillery pieces , 1 @,@ 200 trucks , 25 aircraft , 19 missiles , and over 500 pieces of engineer equipment . The division took over 5 @,@ 000 Iraqi prisoners of war while suffering only eight killed , 36 wounded , and five non @-@ combat casualties .
After returning to the United States in spring 1991 , the 24th was reorganized with two brigades at Fort Stewart and the 3rd Brigade reactivated at Fort Benning , Georgia , replacing the 197th Infantry Brigade . In fall 1994 , Iraq again threatened the Kuwaiti border , and two brigades from the division returned to southwest Asia . As part of the Army 's reduction to a ten @-@ division force , the 24th Infantry Division was inactivated on 15 February 1996 and reflagged to become the 3rd Infantry Division . Its three brigades were reflagged as 3rd Infantry Division brigades .
= = = Training command = = =
In the wake of the Cold War , the US Army considered new options for the integration and organization of active duty , Army Reserve and Army National Guard units in training and deployment . Two active duty division headquarters were activated for training National Guard units ; those of the 7th Infantry Division and the 24th Infantry Division . The subordinate brigades of the divisions did not activate , so they could not be deployed as combat divisions . Instead , the headquarters units focused on full @-@ time training .
On 5 June 1999 the 24th Infantry Division was reactivated , this time at Fort Riley , Kansas . From 1999 to 2006 , the 24th Infantry Division consisted of a headquarters and three separate National Guard brigades ; the 30th Heavy Brigade Combat Team at Clinton , North Carolina , the 218th Heavy Brigade Combat Team at Columbia , South Carolina , and the 48th Infantry Brigade Combat Team in Macon , Georgia . The division headquarters was responsible for the Guard brigades should they be called to active duty in wartime . This never occurred , as each brigade deployed individually . The division 's final operations included preparing Fort Riley for the return of the 1st Infantry Division , which was stationed in Germany .
To expand upon the concept of Reserve component and National Guard components , the First Army activated Division East and Division West , two commands responsible for reserve units ' readiness and mobilization exercises . Division East activated at Fort Riley . This transformation was part of an overall restructuring of the US Army to streamline the organizations overseeing training . Division East took control of reserve units in states east of the Mississippi River , eliminating the need for the 24th Infantry Division headquarters . As such , the 24th Infantry Division was subsequently deactivated for the last time on 1 August 2006 at Fort Riley .
= = = Inactivation = = =
Though it was inactivated , the division was initially identified as the third highest priority inactive division in the United States Army Center of Military History 's lineage scheme due to its numerous accolades and long history . All of the division 's flags and heraldic items were moved to the National Infantry Museum at Fort Benning , Georgia following its inactivation . Should the U.S. Army decide to activate more divisions in the future following the activation of the 7th Infantry Division in 2012 , the center will most likely suggest the first new division be the 9th Infantry Division , the second be the 24th Infantry Division , the third be the 5th Infantry Division , and the fourth be the 2d Armored Division .
= = Honors = =
The 24th Infantry Division was awarded five campaign streamers and one unit decoration in World War II , eight campaign streamers and three unit decorations in the Korean War , two campaign streamers for the Gulf War , and one unit award in peacetime , for a total of fifteen campaign streamers and five unit decorations in its operational history .
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= James Hill ( British Army officer ) =
Brigadier Stanley James Ledger Hill DSO & Two Bars , MC ( 14 March 1911 – 16 March 2006 ) was a British Army officer , who served as commander of the 3rd Parachute Brigade , part of the 6th Airborne Division , during World War II . Born in Bath , Somerset , Hill was educated at Marlborough College and the Royal Military College , Sandhurst before joining the British Army in 1931 and being commissioned into the Royal Fusiliers . He commanded a platoon for a short period , and was then attached to the command post of Field Marshal Lord Gort during the Battle of France in May 1940 , where he oversaw the evacuation of Brussels as well as the beach at De Panne during the evacuation of Dunkirk . After a brief period of time in the Irish Free State , he volunteered for parachute training and joined the 1st Parachute Battalion , and was its commanding officer when its parent formation , the 1st Parachute Brigade , was deployed to North Africa .
Hill commanded the battalion during its first airborne operation in North Africa , dropping near the towns of Souk el @-@ Arba and Béja , in Tunisia . It secured Beja and then sent out patrols to harass German troops , ambushing a convoy and inflicting numerous German casualties , and defended a bridge at Medjez el Bab , although it was eventually forced to retreat . Hill was wounded during an attack by the battalion on Gue Hill , in which he attempted to capture three Italian tanks using his revolver ; the crews of two were successfully subdued without incident , but the third opened fire and hit Hill in the chest several times . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) and Légion d 'Honneur for his service in North Africa and then evacuated back to England . There he took command of the 3rd Parachute Brigade in the newly formed 6th Airborne Division , and jumped with the brigade during Operation Tonga , the British airborne landings in Normandy on the night of 5 / 6 June 1944 . After nearly being killed on D @-@ Day , by an aircraft strafing his position , Hill commanded the brigade throughout the rest of the time it was in Normandy , once leading a counter @-@ attack during a German assault and later winning the first Bar to his DSO .
After advancing to the Seine , the 6th Airborne Division was withdrawn to England in September 1944 , but briefly served in the Ardennes in December during the Battle of the Bulge . Hill then commanded 3rd Parachute Brigade during Operation Varsity , the Allied airborne assault over the River Rhine , where he was nearly killed by a glider containing his own personal Jeep . He then commandeered a motorcycle and rode alongside the brigade as the 6th Airborne Division advanced from the Rhine to the River Elbe , at the end of which he was awarded a second Bar to his DSO as well as the American Silver Star . After the war , he was briefly military governor of Copenhagen , for which he was awarded the King Haakon VII Liberty Cross , and also raised and commanded the 4th Parachute Brigade ( Territorial Army ) . Retiring from the British Army in 1949 , he became involved in a number of charities and businesses . He died on 16 March 2006 , aged 95 .
= = Early life = =
Hill was born on 14 March 1911 , in Bath , Somerset , the son of Major General Walter Hill . He was educated at Marlborough College , where he was the head of the college 's Officer Training Corps , and then attended the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst ; there he won the Sword of Honour and became captain of athletics . He joined the British Army in 1931 , being commissioned as a 2nd lieutenant into the Royal Fusiliers ( City of London regiment ) , the regiment which his father commanded . He ran the regimental athletic and boxing associations during his service with the regiment , and in 1936 transferred to the Supplementary Reserve in order to marry his first wife , Denys Gunter @-@ Jones . For the next three years he worked as part of his family 's ferry company .
= = Second World War = =
When the Second World War began in September 1939 , Hill was recalled to his regiment and given command of the 2nd Battalion , Royal Fusiliers ' advance party when the battalion left for France during the same month . The battalion was assigned to the 12th Infantry Brigade , part of the 4th Infantry Division . He then commanded a platoon for several months , when the battalion was stationed along the Maginot Line , before being promoted to the rank of Captain in January 1940 and joining the staff at Allied Headquarters . The Battle of France began in May 1940 , by which time Hill was attached to the command post of Field Marshal Lord Gort ; during this period he was involved in planning the evacuation of the civilian population of Brussels , and also carried Gort 's dispatches to Calais ordering the withdrawal of the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) . At the end of the campaign , he took command of the evacuation of the beach at La Panne , and was on the last destroyer to leave Dunkirk . For these actions , he was awarded the Military Cross . On his return to Britain , he was promoted to Major and travelled to Dublin in the Irish Free State , where he planned for the evacuation of British citizens from the city should German forces land there . When this task was completed , he volunteered for the fledgling Parachute Regiment , part of the British Army 's growing airborne forces , and undertook parachute training ; when the 1st Parachute Battalion was formed on 15 August 1941 , he was appointed as its second @-@ in @-@ command .
The battalion was part of 1st Parachute Brigade , which by mid @-@ 1942 had been expanded into 1st Airborne Division under the command of Major @-@ General F.A.M. Browning . In July 1942 the 1st Parachute Battalion was selected to participate in the Dieppe Raid , and got as far as being loaded onto transport aircraft before poor weather cancelled the operation ; when the raid was planned for a second time the parachute battalion was removed because their deployment was too dependent on there being good weather on the day of the raid . In mid September , as 1st Airborne Division was coming close to reaching full strength , Browning was informed that Operation Torch , the Allied invasion of North Africa , would take place in November . After being informed that an American airborne unit , the 509th Parachute Infantry Battalion , was to be used during the invasion , Browning successfully advocated for the 1st Parachute Brigade to also be included . He argued that a larger airborne force should be utilised during the invasion , as the large distances and comparatively light opposition would provide a number of opportunities for airborne operations . The War Office and Commander in Chief , Home Forces were won over by the argument , and agreed to detach the brigade from 1st Airborne Division and place it under the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower , who would command all Allied troops participating in the invasion . After it had been brought to full operational strength , partly by cross posting personnel from the newly formed 2nd Parachute Brigade , and had been provided with sufficient equipment and resources , the brigade departed for North Africa at the beginning of November 1942 .
= = = North Africa = = =
As an insufficient number of transport aircraft were allocated to the brigade , it was only possible to transport the 3rd Parachute Battalion by air . The rest of the brigade arrived at Algiers on 12 November , with some of its stores arriving slightly later . By the evening , reconnaissance parties had travelled to the airfield at Maison Blanche , with the remainder of the brigade following on the morning of 13 November ; it was quartered in Maison Blanche , Maison Carree and Rouiba . After several ambitious airborne operations were planned but then cancelled by British First Army , on 14 November it directed that a single parachute battalion would be dropped the next day near Souk el @-@ Arba and Béja ; the battalion was to contact French forces at Beja to ascertain whether they would remain neutral , or support the Allies ; secure and guard the cross roads and airfield at Soul el Arba ; and patrol eastwards to harass German forces . 1st Parachute Battalion was selected for the task , to which Hill objected . The battalion had been forced to unload the vessel carrying its supplies and equipment itself , and had also to arrange its own transportation to Maison Blanche as no drivers were provided at Algiers ; when it had arrived at Maison Blanche , it had been subjected to several Luftwaffe air raids that targeted the airfield . Hill argued that as a result his men were exhausted , and he did not believe all of the battalion 's equipment could be sorted out within twenty four hours ; as such he asked for the operation to be postponed for a short period , but this was denied .
Hill faced further problems as he planned for the operation . The American pilots of the Dakota transport aircraft that would transport the battalion were inexperienced and had never conducted a parachute drop before , and there was no time for any training or exercises . There were also no photos of the airfield or the surrounding areas , and only a single , small scale map available for navigation . To ensure that the aircraft found the drop zone and delivered the battalion accurately , Hill sat in the cockpit of the leading Dakota and assisted the pilot . The Dakotas were escorted by four American P @-@ 38 Lightning fighters , which engaged and drove off two roving German fighters , but as the Dakotas approached the Tunisian border they encountered thick clouds and were forced to turn back , landing at Maison Blanche at 11 : 00 . It was decided that the battalion would conduct the operation the next day , which allowed the paratroopers to rest for a night . 1st Parachute Battalion took off on the morning of 16 November , and enjoyed excellent weather that allowed the transport aircraft to drop the battalion accurately around the airfield at Souk el Arba . Most of the paratroopers landed successfully , but one man was killed when his rigging line twisted around his neck mid drop , throttling him ; one officer broke his leg on landing , and four men were wounded when a Sten gun was accidentally fired . The battalion 's second in command , Major Alastair Pearson , remained at the airfield with a small detachment that collected the airborne equipment and supervised the burial of the casualty .
Meanwhile , Hill led the rest of the battalion , approximately 525 strong , in some commandeered trucks towards the town of Béja , an important road and railway centre approximately forty miles from the airfield . The battalion arrived at approximately 18 : 00 and was welcomed by the local French garrison , 3 @,@ 000 strong , which Hill persuaded to cooperate with the paratroopers ; in order to give the garrison and any German observers the impression that he possessed a larger force than he actually did , Hill arranged for the battalion to march through the town several times , wearing different headgear and holding different equipment each time . A short time after the battalion entered Béja , German aircraft arrived and bombed the town , although they caused little damage and no casualties . The next day , ' S ' Company was sent with a detachment of engineers to the village of Sidi N 'Sir , about twenty miles away ; they were to contact the local French forces , believed to be pro British , and harass German forces . The detachment found the village and made contact with the French , who allowed them to pass through towards the town of Mateur ; by nightfall the force had not reached the town , and decided to encamp for the night . At dawn a German convoy of armoured cars passed the detachment , and it was decided to set an ambush for the convoy if it returned , with anti @-@ tank mines being laid on the road and a mortar and Bren guns being set up in concealed positions . When the convoy returned at approximately 10 : 00 the leading vehicle struck a mine and exploded , blocking the road , and the other vehicles were disabled with mortar fire , Gammon bombs and the remaining anti tank mines . A number of Germans were killed and the rest taken prisoner , with two paratroopers being slightly wounded . The detachment returned to Béja with prisoners and several slightly damaged armoured cars . After the success of the ambush , Hill sent a second patrol to harass local German forces , but it was withdrawn after it encountered a larger German force that inflicted several British casualties ; Béja was also bombed by Stuka divebombers , inflicting civilian casualties and destroying a number of houses .
On 19 November , Hill visited the commanding officer of the French forces guarding a vital bridge at Medjez el Bab , and warned him that any attempt by German forces to cross the bridge would be opposed by the battalion . Hill attached ' R ' Company to the French forces to ensure the bridge was not captured . German forces soon arrived at the bridge , and their commanding officer demanded that they be allowed to take control of the bridge and cross it to attack the British positions . The French rejected the German demands , and in conjunction with ' R ' Company repelled subsequent German attacks that lasted several hours . The battalion was reinforced by the U.S. 175th Field Artillery Battalion and elements of the Derbyshire Yeomanry , but , despite fierce resistance , the German forces proved to be too strong , and by 04 : 30 on 20 November the Allied forces had yielded the bridge and the surrounding area to the Germans . Two days later , Hill received information that a strong Italian force , which included a number of tanks , was stationed at Gue Hill . Hill decided to attack the force and attempt to disable the tanks , and the following night moved the battalion , less a small guard detachment that remained at Béja , to Sidi N 'Sir where it linked up with a force of French Senegalese infantry . Hill decided that the battalion 's section of 3 inch mortars would cover ' R ' and ' S ' Companies as they
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start in the season @-@ opener in school history , making his debut against Rice at Robertson Stadium . On September 20 , Kolb threw for 321 yards and four touchdowns and went 20 @-@ for @-@ 29 passing in the 42 – 35 win over Mississippi State . He was named Conference USA Player of the Week for his performance . On October 25 , Kolb accounted for over 400 yards passing and 100 yards rushing against TCU in a 62 @-@ 55 loss to the Horned Frogs , only the fourth time this feat had been achieved in Division I @-@ A. He tied the league record with 578 total yards , and earned Conference USA offensive co @-@ player of the week honors for his performance . Kolb finished the season with 3 @,@ 131 passing yards , 25 touchdowns , and only six interceptions en route to a 7 @-@ 6 record on the year , which ended with a 54 @-@ 48 loss to Hawaii in the Hawaii Bowl . Following the season , Kolb was named Conference USA Freshman of the Year .
= = = 2004 = = =
Kolb was named to the Walter Camp Award , Davey O 'Brien Award and Maxwell Award watchlists prior to the start of the 2004 season . He started in all 11 games in 2004 , finishing first in the conference in total offense with 256 @.@ 1 yards per game , and he passed for 2 @,@ 766 yards and 11 touchdowns .
= = = 2005 = = =
Kolb was named to the Maxwell Award and Davey O 'Brien Award watchlists for the second straight year in 2005 . After a losing season in 2004 , Kolb led the Cougars to a 6 @-@ 5 regular @-@ season record in 2005 . He was named the Cougars ' MVP in the Fort Worth Bowl in a 42 @-@ 13 loss to Kansas after passing for 214 yards and scoring one rushing touchdown . He finished the season with 3 @,@ 258 passing yards , and became the school 's all @-@ time total offense leader . He earned third @-@ team All @-@ Conference USA honors following the season .
= = = 2006 = = =
Kolb was named to the Maxwell Award watchlist for the third consecutive year in 2006 . He was named the consensus Conference USA Preseason Offensive Player of the Year , and he earned preseason all @-@ conference honors . The 2006 season was Kolb 's signature college year , in which he threw 30 touchdowns and only four interceptions on the way to a 10 @-@ 4 record and a Conference USA championship . He went 22 @-@ for @-@ 35 for 235 yards and three touchdowns in a win over Rice University on September 2 , and was named the Conference USA Player of the Week for his efforts . He was named as a finalist for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award on November 1 . He was named the Conference USA Offensive Player of the Year on November 30 . Kolb won the conference 's offensive MVP , but Houston lost to South Carolina 44 @-@ 36 in the Liberty Bowl . He finished the season with 3 @,@ 808 passing yards , 30 touchdowns and four interceptions . Kolb ended his career with 12 @,@ 964 total passing yards , fifth all @-@ time .
Kolb was invited to play in the 2007 East – West Shrine Game on January 20 , 2007 , and the 2007 Senior Bowl on January 27 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Pre @-@ draft = = =
Kolb was rated as the sixth @-@ best quarterback in the 2007 NFL Draft by NFLDraftScout.com , and was projected to be drafted in the third or fourth round . He hired Jeff Nalley and Vann McElroy as his agents prior to the draft , and they hired former NFL quarterback Jerry Rhome to work with Kolb to get him ready for the pre @-@ draft workouts . He worked out with Danny Arnold in Stafford , Texas in February 2007 in order to prepare for the NFL Scouting Combine . Kolb worked out for the Baltimore Ravens in the first week of April , and followed it up with a visit to the Philadelphia Eagles .
= = = Philadelphia Eagles = = =
Kolb was drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in the second round ( 36th overall ) of the 2007 NFL Draft . He was the third quarterback taken in the draft behind JaMarcus Russell ( 1st overall ) and Brady Quinn ( 22nd overall ) . He signed a four @-@ year , $ 4 @.@ 285 million contract with the team on July 25 , 2007 . Kolb spent 2007 as the third @-@ string quarterback behind Donovan McNabb and A. J. Feeley .
In his second year in the league , Kolb was promoted to second @-@ string quarterback ahead of A. J. Feeley . He played the entire second half of the Eagles game against the Baltimore Ravens on November 23 after an infamous benching of McNabb . Kolb threw an interception in the endzone to Ed Reed , who took it back 108 yards for a touchdown , an NFL record . Kolb completed only 17 passes on 34 attempts for 144 yards , throwing no touchdowns and four interceptions during the season .
Kolb 's first NFL start was a 48 @-@ 22 loss against the New Orleans Saints at home on September 20 , 2009 due to an injury to Donovan McNabb . His first career touchdown was recorded in the first quarter of that game on a 71 @-@ yard pass to DeSean Jackson ; he threw for 391 yards on 31 completions . On September 27 , 2009 , Kolb made his second start in place of McNabb , throwing for 327 yards and two touchdowns in a 34 @-@ 14 win against the Kansas City Chiefs . Kolb became the first quarterback in NFL history to throw for more than 300 yards in each of his first two career starts . He was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Week after his efforts against the Chiefs .
Kolb expressed his desire to be the starting quarterback for the Eagles during the 2010 offseason : " Obviously my goal is to be the starter and to start for 16 games and to lead this team as far as we can go . Personally , I don 't have a lot of personal goals right now , they 're more team @-@ oriented , besides me getting on the field and proving I can take over this thing . " Kolb gained many comparisons to the situation Aaron Rodgers endured backing up Brett Favre during his first three seasons . Kolb and Rodgers reached out to one another to share their similar plights .
On March 26 , Adam Schefter reported that the Eagles expected Kolb to be the starting quarterback for the 2010 season . On April 4 , McNabb was traded to the Washington Redskins , making Kolb the starting quarterback . Kolb signed a one @-@ year contract extension worth $ 12 @.@ 25 million on April 29 , keeping him under contract with the Eagles through the 2011 season .
In the Eagles ' season @-@ opener against the Green Bay Packers , the supposed start of the " Kevin Kolb Era , " he was tackled by Packers linebacker Clay Matthews , and sustained a concussion . For precautionary measures , Kolb was withdrawn from the game . After passing a series of tests , he was nonetheless withheld for the game against the Detroit Lions . On September 21 , backup quarterback Michael Vick was named the starting quarterback over Kolb for the rest of the season following Vick 's win over the Lions . Kolb took over for Vick in a game against the Redskins in week 4 after Vick suffered a chest injury . Kolb went 22 @-@ for @-@ 35 with 201 passing yards , one touchdown and an interception in place of Vick . However , he was still beaten by the Redskins and their new starting quarterback , Donovan McNabb , 12 @-@ 17 . Against the Atlanta Falcons in week 6 , Kolb went 23 @-@ for @-@ 29 for 326 yards , three touchdowns and one interception , and was named the NFC Offensive Player of the Week following his performance . During the game , Kolb made an illegal horse @-@ collar tackle on Falcons safety William Moore following an interception . The Eagles were penalized 15 yards and Kolb was later fined $ 5 @,@ 000 by the league , the first time a quarterback was fined for a horse @-@ collar tackle .
After the 2010 season , there was speculation that the Eagles would look to make a deal for Kolb since Vick was the clear starting quarterback . However , due to the 2011 NFL Labor Dispute , the Eagles were unable to trade away Kolb . On July 19 , 2011 , Kolb expressed interest in playing for the Arizona Cardinals , saying " Arizona would be a great place " to play .
= = = Arizona Cardinals = = =
Kolb was traded to the Arizona Cardinals on July 28 , 2011 , in exchange for cornerback Dominique Rodgers @-@ Cromartie and a second @-@ round draft pick in the 2012 NFL Draft ( which the Eagles traded for draft picks used on Vinny Curry and Brandon Boykin ) . Expected to start , Kolb had a decent preseason debut for the Cardinals in preseason play against the Oakland Raiders , going 4 @-@ for @-@ 7 for 68 yards ; among the four completions was a 43 @-@ yard pass to wide receiver Larry Fitzgerald .
Kolb started his first game for the Cardinals on September 11 , 2011 against the Carolina Panthers in the first week of the 2011 NFL season . Kolb was 18 of 27 for 309 yards , two touchdowns , and no picks in the 28 @-@ 21 win over the Panthers . He also posted a 130 @.@ 0 passer rating in the game , third best in the NFL in Week 1 . However , over the rest of the season , his play markedly deteriorated as the Cardinals lost several close games . Furthermore , he was hampered by various injuries . A foot injury ( turf @-@ toe ) that he incurred in a game against the Baltimore Ravens sidelined him for several games . His backup quarterback , John Skelton , performed ably as he stepped in and won games against St. Louis ( once at home , once away ) and against Philadelphia . Upon return from his turf @-@ toe injury , Kevin led the Cardinals to a comeback win against the Dallas Cowboys in overtime . The game was memorable for the blunder committed by Cowboys head coach Jason Garrett , who called a time @-@ out to " ice " his own kicker on a potential game @-@ winning field goal . The ensuing kick after the time @-@ out was not good , and in overtime , Kevin threw a touch @-@ pass to LaRod Stephens @-@ Howling who ran it into the end @-@ zone for the winning score . But in the very next game against the San Francisco 49ers , Kolb was inadvertently kicked in the back of the head early in the first series . He left the game with concussion @-@ related symptoms , and did not return that season .
Following a quarterback battle , Kolb lost his starting position to John Skelton for the 2012 NFL season . Following a Week 1 injury to Skelton , Kolb entered the game during the 4th quarter , leading the team on a come @-@ from @-@ behind victory . Skelton was eventually ruled out for the Week 2 matchup against the New England Patriots . Arizona was handed their first loss of the season by the 2 @-@ 2 St. Louis Rams , by a final score of 17 @-@ 3 . Kolb completed just around 50 % of his passes , and was sacked 9 times ( The 2012 Cardinals became the first team since their 2003 counterparts to allow eight or more sacks in consecutive games ) .
Kolb proved his worth to the coaching staff following October 14 's matchup against the Buffalo Bills , in which Kolb suffered a rib injury late in the fourth quarter . Skelton began taking snaps for the injured Kolb and was only able to complete 2 of 10 passes with a game @-@ costing interception in the OT period . This injury caused Kolb to miss the following seven games , all of which the Cardinals lost .
The Cardinals released Kolb on March 15 , 2013 after failing to agree to a restructured contract .
= = = Buffalo Bills = = =
Kolb agreed to a two @-@ year contract for $ 13 million with the Buffalo Bills on March 30 , 2013 . On August 24 , Kolb suffered a severe concussion in a preseason game against the Washington Redskins . He was placed on injured reserve on August 30 . Kolb was released on March 11 , 2014 .
= = = Retirement = = =
Kolb retired in 2014 due to Post @-@ concussion syndrome , citing lingering effects from 3 career concussions .
= = = Career statistics = = =
Kolb married his wife Whitney Huddleston in February 2007 . Whitney gave birth to their first child , a daughter named Kamryn June , on January 10 , 2009 , and their second child , a daughter named Atley Rose , was born in April 2010 .
= = Personal = =
Kolb majored in business entrepreneurship at the University of Houston .
Kolb competed in North Texas fishing tournaments in the offseason . Kolb also enjoys hunting wild hogs in his spare time . It may seem dangerous to hunt with just a twelve @-@ inch Bowie knife , but Kolb , assured the public , " Our dogs go and find ' em first , and then we stab the pigs . It 's a little bit dangerous , but as long as you know what you 're doing , you 'll be alright . "
On June 28 , 2014 , Kolb was arrested in Willacy County , Texas , for boating while intoxicated .
= Mussel Slough Tragedy =
The Mussel Slough Tragedy was a dispute over land titles between settlers and the Southern Pacific Railroad ( SP ) that took place on May 11 , 1880 , on a farm located 5 @.@ 6 miles ( 9 km ) northwest of Hanford , California , in the central San Joaquin Valley , leaving seven people dead . Frank Norris ' 1901 novel , The Octopus : A Story of California , was inspired by this incident , as was W. C. Morrow 's 1882 novel Blood @-@ Money . May Merrill Miller 's novel , First the Blade , includes a fictionalized account of the conflict . The exact history of the incident has been the source of some disagreement , largely because popular anti @-@ railroad sentiment in the 1880s made the incident to be a clear example of corrupt and cold @-@ blooded corporate greed . Muckraking journalists and anti @-@ railroad activists glorified the settlers and used the events as evidence and justification for their anti @-@ corporate crusades . The site of the episode is now registered as California Historical Landmark # 245 . A historical marker on the east side of 14th Avenue , 350 yards ( 320 m ) north of Elder Avenue , memorializes the site .
= = Background = =
The region known in the late 19th century as the Mussel Slough country was mostly in what was then Tulare County , California , with a small portion in what was then Fresno County ( later the entire area became part of Kings County after the latter was formed in 1893 ) . The Mussel Slough country took its name from a slough which went from the Kings River to Tulare Lake . This area had remained unsettled as it was a broad , dry plain suitable only for cattle ranching . However , in 1866 Congress authorized the railroad companies to build a line through the area , and created numbered lots of one square mile ( or 640 acres ( 3 km2 ) ) each . The Southern Pacific Railroad ( SP ) received the odd @-@ numbered sections of land , totaling about 25 @,@ 000 acres ( 101 km2 ) worth . The even @-@ numbered sections were given to homesteaders by the government and were not subject to the events which followed . Given SP 's history of encouraging settlement and development along its lines , land prices were expected to appreciate considerably .
Settlers , who had spent a great deal of money and time in building their houses and farms , had begun to file for homesteads in the area on the railroad lands starting in 1869 , in anticipation of the completion of the line . In 1872 , the Central Pacific Railroad completed work to Goshen from the north and the Southern Pacific was to construct the southern portion ( although not generally known by the public at the time , the two railroad systems were owned and operated by the same people although they were technically separate corporations ) . The SP 's brochures had stated the price of the land would be " $ 2 @.@ 50 per acre and upwards " , leading many people to mistakenly believe that $ 2 @.@ 50 / acre was a set price . Furthermore , other brochures indicated that any improvements the settlers made to the land would not be counted when the prices were fixed . However , when the settlers attempted to acquire their land , the asking price was significantly greater than that , which SP attributed to rising property values because of the laying of the railroad , although many settlers believed it was due to their own improvements such as irrigation , housing , fences , and barns . Settlers protested against the railroads , but to no avail . A bill in the United States Congress that would have fixed the price at $ 2 @.@ 50 / acre failed to pass . The Southern Pacific then filed and won a lawsuit in 1878 against the settlers , amidst allegations of court bias ( former California Governor Leland Stanford was also president of SP ) .
While the issue was still pending in court , the SP decided to change the course of the route , claiming that was its prerogative , despite the Department of the Interior having already granted homestead rights . Those who had been building homes along the previous course were distraught . Settlers argued in court that by not building the line where the federal government had deeded the land , SP forfeited the title . On the other hand , the SP was convinced of its legal ownership of the land and felt it should have the freedom to set whatever prices it deemed fit for its property . Others took the opportunity to move onto the SP 's parcels , anticipating that the courts would rule against the company , thus allowing them to get the land for free . The Supreme Court finally ruled in Schulenberg v. Harriman 21 Wall . 44 ( 1874 ) that SP still owned the lands and as such , the SP was justified to reclaim the land without compensation unless the settlers were willing to pay their asking price , now up to $ 35 / acre . Still , the Settler 's League , which was formed in 1878 in opposition to the SP 's Mussel Slough actions , even attempted to appeal directly to President Rutherford B. Hayes during his visit to San Francisco in 1880 , presenting him a petition which read ,
Besides the 1874 Supreme Court ruling , a critical moment came on December 15 , 1879 , when Judge Lorenzo Sawyer of the Ninth Circuit Court ruled in Orton , 32 F. 457 ( C.C.D. Cal . 1879 ) , that the federal government controlled the railroad land grants , and more importantly , the state could not control ultra vires acts of corporations .
Given the legal system 's affirmation of its position , the SP began to forcibly remove some of the settlers . Their agents would attempt to serve eviction notices , but often would not find anyone at home , as homeowners knew they were coming . In these cases , the agents then tried removing the furniture from the homes , but the Settler 's League would just put the furniture back after the agents ' departure . Finally , it escalated to the point at which the agents would then disassemble the houses , but again , volunteers would just put them back together . The settlers were not above their own brand of justice , either . People who had purchased land from those forced to sell would be harassed by locals , and in one case one farmer who had aligned with the SP had his house burned down . Those supporting the railroads tended to be wealthier than the others , deriding the Settler 's League as " a set of demagogues " who were " very anxious to get something for nothing . "
Although the settlers received the benefit of a section of public opinion , politically and legally every decision was going the way of the railroad . In March 1880 , Stanford himself attempted a reconciliation by appearing in Hanford and meeting with the Settler 's League in an attempt to find some sort of compromise .
= = The Mussel Slough Tragedy = =
On May 11 , 1880 , a picnic was being held in Hanford which was to feature a speech by pro @-@ settler former California Supreme Court Justice David S. Terry ( who was actually unable to appear ) , when word reached the picnickers that four " railroad men " ( A U.S. Marshal , an SP land appraiser , and two locals ) were actively evicting settlers on railroad lands , and a group of about twenty people left to confront them ( the historical marker indicates that the two local men were Deputy U.S. Marshals , which was not in fact the case ) . However , the rumors were only partially true ; in addition to serving eviction notices , the group was also purchasing land ( and any improvements ) from settlers who had refused to pay SP 's asking price . This act was seen as a betrayal of Stanford 's visit a mere two months earlier .
= = = List of involved persons = = =
= = = = Marshal 's group = = = =
Alonzo W. Poole , U.S. Marshal
William H. Clark , railroad land grader
Walter J. Crow , settler ( killed )
Mills Hartt , settler ( killed )
= = = = Settlers ' group = = = =
James N. Patterson , leader of the group
William Braden
B. S. Burr
James Harris ( killed )
Edwin Haymaker ( died of pneumonia soon after and was considered a victim of the fight )
John E. Henderson ( killed )
Daniel Kelly ( killed )
Iver Knutson ( killed )
Archibald McGregor ( killed )
W. L. Morton
Wayman L. Pryor
John D. Pursell
= = = Sequence of events = = =
The parties met at the homestead of Henry D. Brewer three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Grangeville ( which is near Hanford ) , the marshal 's group having just been at Braden 's house . Later testimony from uninvolved parties indicated that the party of settlers were lightly armed and had every intention of persuading the railroad party to delay their actions until a pending court case could be resolved . However , there was bad blood between Crow and Harris , and Hartt had previously threatened to kill any " sandlappers " ( a derisive term for homesteaders , equivalent to the modern day " redneck " ) , and an argument broke out between them . Harris and Hartt simultaneously opened fire at each other . Crow , a skilled marksman who was armed with a shotgun , singlehandedly killed or wounded most of the settlers ' party . After the initial exchange of gunfire ended , Crow fled the scene , but was shot in the back about 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) away by an unknown assailant before he could reach safety . Poole and Clark did not participate in the battle and left immediately after the incident , possibly defusing tensions enough to avoid further bloodshed .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Afterwards , seventeen people were indicted by a federal grand jury and five were found guilty of wilfully interfering with a marshal in performance of his duties ( Braden , Patterson , Pryor , Purcell , and John J. Doyle , a leader in the Settler 's League ) . They were convicted in federal court ( with Judge Sawyer presiding ) and sentenced to eight months in prison and fined $ 300 each . Their time spent in imprisonment was hardly difficult . Three of the men 's wives were allowed to live with them , and Susan Curtis , daughter of one of the jailers , fell in love with and later married Braden . Upon their release in September 1881 , they were greeted by a joyous crowd of 3 @,@ 000 in Hanford . Such was the anti @-@ railroad sentiment that the five were looked upon as heroes by many across California , and those killed were considered martyrs who had given their lives for a cause .
Nevertheless , the affair brought such a shock that people were sobered . The legal battle had been lost , the railroad had won , and there was not enough public support for changing the policy of granting public lands to railroads . The only concession SP made was to reduce the land price slightly . In the end , most people simply stayed where they were and purchased the land .
= = The Mussel Slough myth = =
The Mussel Slough affair was seized upon by newspaper editors as well as a number of popular writers soon after the tragic shootout , as an example of corporate greed and the abuses of freewheeling market capitalism around the start of the 20th century . Muckraking novels such as W. C. Morrow 's Blood @-@ Money ( 1882 ) and Charles Cyril Post 's Driven from Sea to Sea ; or , Just A ' Campin ' ( 1884 ) exaggerate the fault of the railroad for the events as they unfolded in San Joaquin and romanticize the ranchers according to a Jeffersonian agrarian ideal . Ambrose Bierce attempted to lionize Crow , calling him " this bravest of Americans . "
Later novels depicting the affair , such as the philosopher Josiah Royce 's The Feud of Oakfield Creek ( 1887 ) and novelist Frank Norris ' The Octopus ( 1901 ) are slightly less hagiographic in their portrayals of the Mussel Slough ranchers , but nevertheless give a fairly one @-@ sided , anti @-@ railroad view of the Mussel Slough affair . Richard Orsi 's history of the Southern Pacific , Sunset Limited , includes a chapter outlining some common misconceptions about the Mussel Slough affair which Orsi suggests have been perpetuated through the mythic retellings of Morrow , Post , Royce , and Norris , among others .
The significance of the Mussel Slough myth in the history of California and the Southern Pacific Railroad is evident from a quote by Theodore Roosevelt , who as president focused considerable time and energy in redressing the wrongs and abuses of corporate monopolies throughout the U.S. After reading Norris ' The Octopus , Roosevelt stated he was " inclined to think [ ... ] that conditions were worse in California than elsewhere . " These mythic narratives about Mussel Slough helped bolster public anti @-@ railroad sentiments , and encouraged continued rebellion among homesteaders , squatters and poachers against railroad land agents , who " came to accept squatters as an ordinary , if disagreeable , part of the land business " .
Despite the nationwide attention the incident received , the Mussel Slough Tragedy is not remembered much today as well as later gunfights such as the gunfight at the O.K. Corral . Richard Maxwell Brown argues in No Duty to Retreat that the Mussel Slough shootout did not fit the mold of the gunfight / hero myth , which usually ignores such factors as ideology , and social and economic conflict , thus not implanting it in the lore of the American Old West .
= = Tragedy Oak = =
Six victims of the shooting were carried to the porch of the Brewer house , which was shaded by a tall oak tree . The tree became famously known as the Tragedy Oak . It blew down in a storm in the early 1990s . A piece of the tree was saved as a memorial and is on display at nearby Pioneer Elementary School in Hanford .
= Ahmad ibn Tulun =
Ahmad ibn Tulun ( Arabic : أحمد بن طولون , DMG Aḥmad ibn Ṭūlūn ; ca . 20 September 835 – 10 May 884 ) was the founder of the Tulunid dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria between 868 and 905 . Originally a Turkic slave @-@ soldier , in 868 Ibn Tulun was sent to Egypt as governor by the Abbasid caliph . Within four years Ibn Tulun had established himself as a virtually independent ruler by evicting the caliphal fiscal agent , Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir , taking over control of Egypt 's finances , and establishing a large military force personally loyal to himself . This process was facilitated by the volatile political situation in the Abbasid court and the preoccupation of the Abbasid regent , al @-@ Muwaffaq , with the wars against the Saffarids and the Zanj Rebellion . Ibn Tulun also took care to establish an efficient administration in Egypt . After reforms to the tax system , repairs to the irrigation system , and other measures , the annual tax yield grew markedly . As a symbol of his new regime , he built a new capital , al @-@ Qata 'i , north of the old capital Fustat .
After 875 / 6 he entered into open conflict with al @-@ Muwaffaq , who tried unsuccessfully to unseat him . In 878 , with the support of al @-@ Muwaffaq 's brother , Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tamid , Ibn Tulun took over the governance of Syria as well as the frontier districts with the Byzantine Empire , although control of Tarsus in particular proved tenuous . During his absence in Syria , his eldest son and deputy , Abbas , tried to usurp power in Egypt , leading to the imprisonment of Abbas and the nomination of Ibn Tulun 's second son , Khumarawayh , as his heir . The defection in 882 of a senior commander , Lu 'lu ' , to al @-@ Muwaffaq , and the defection of Tarsus , forced Ibn Tulun to return to Syria . Now virtually powerless , al @-@ Mu 'tamid tried to escape from his brother 's control to Ibn Tulun 's domains but was captured by al @-@ Muwaffaq 's agents , and Ibn Tulun convened an assembly of jurists at Damascus to denounce al @-@ Muwaffaq as a usurper . His attempt in autumn 883 to bring Tarsus to heel failed , and he fell sick . Returning to Egypt , he died in May 884 and was succeeded by Khumarawayh .
Ibn Tulun stands out as the first governor of a major province of the Abbasid Caliphate to not only establish himself as its master independently of the Abbasid court , but to also pass power on to his son . He was thus also the first ruler since the Ptolemaic Pharaohs to make Egypt an independent political power again , with a sphere of influence encompassing Syria and parts of the Maghreb , setting the tone for later Egypt @-@ based regimes like the Ikhshidids and the Fatimids .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Ahmad ibn Tulun was born on the 23rd day of the month of Ramadan 220 AH ( 20 September 835 ) or slightly later , probably in Baghdad . His father , Tulun , was a Turk from a locality known in Arabic sources as Tagharghar or Toghuz [ o ] ghuz , i.e. the Uyghur confederation . In the year 815 / 6 ( 200 AH ) Tulun was taken captive along with other Turks , and sent as part of the tribute of the Samanid governor of Bukhara Nuh ibn Asad to the Caliph al @-@ Ma 'mun ( reigned 813 – 833 ) , who at the time resided in Khurasan . After al @-@ Ma 'mun returned to Baghdad in 819 , these Turkish slaves were formed into a guard corps of slave soldiers ( ghilmān , sing. ghulām ) entrusted to al @-@ Ma 'mun 's brother and eventual successor , al @-@ Mu 'tasim ( r . 833 – 842 ) . Tulun did well for himself , eventually coming to command the Caliph 's private guard . Ahmad 's mother , called Qasim , was one of his father 's slaves . In 854 / 5 , Tulun died , and Qasim is commonly held to have married a second time , to the Turkish general Bayakbak or Bakbak . This report , however , does not appear in Ibn al @-@ Daya or al @-@ Balawi , and may be spurious . According to al @-@ Balawi , after his father 's death Ahmad came under the tutelage by Yalbakh , a close companion of Tulun , who had been taken captive alongside him . At his deathbed , Tulun urged his friend to take care of his wife and son , and Bakbak thereafter treated the young Ahmad as his own son .
The young Ahmad ibn Tulun received a thorough education , involving military training at the new Abbasid capital of Samarra and studies in Islamic theology at Tarsus , acquiring a reputation not only for his knowledge but also for his pious and ascetic way of life . He became popular among his fellow Turks , who would confide secrets and entrust their money and even their women to him . While at Tarsus , Ibn Tulun fought in the frontier wars with the Byzantine Empire . There he also met another senior Turkish leader , Yarjukh , whose daughter , variously given as Majur or Khatun , became his first wife and the mother of his eldest son , Abbas , and his daughter Fatimah . On one occasion , while returning to Samarra , he saved a caravan bearing a caliphal envoy returning from Constantinople from a Bedouin raiding party , and accompanied it to Samarra . This act gained him the favour of Caliph al @-@ Musta 'in ( r . 862 – 866 ) , as well as a thousand gold dinars and the hand of the slave Miyas , the mother of his second son , Khumarawayh . When the Caliph abdicated and went into exile at Wasit in 866 , he chose Ibn Tulun to be his guard . Qubayha , the mother of the new caliph , al @-@ Mu 'tazz ( r . 866 – 869 ) , schemed to remove the deposed al @-@ Musta 'in , and offered Ibn Tulun the governorship of Wasit if he would murder him . Ibn Tulun refused and was replaced by another , who carried out the deed . Ibn Tulun himself played no part in the assassination , but gave his master a burial and returned to Samarra .
= = = Governor of Egypt = = =
Already under Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tasim , senior Turkish leaders began being appointed as governors of provinces of the Caliphate as a form of appanage . Thereby they secured immediate access to the province 's tax revenue for themselves and their troops , bypassing the civilian bureaucracy . The Turkish generals usually remained close to the centre of power in Samarra , sending deputies to govern in their name . Thus when al @-@ Mu 'tazz gave Bakbak charge of Egypt in 868 , Bakbak in turn sent his stepson Ahmad as his lieutenant and resident governor . Ahmad ibn Tulun entered Egypt on 27 August 868 , and the Egyptian capital , Fustat , on 15 September .
Ibn Tulun 's position after his appointment was far from undisputed within his province . As governor of Fustat he oversaw the province 's garrison and was the head of the Muslim community as recognized in his title of " overseer of the army and the Friday prayer " ( wāli al @-@ jaysh waʾl @-@ ṣalāt ) , but the fiscal administration , in particular the collection of the land tax ( kharāj ) was in the hands of the powerful veteran administrator Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir . The latter had been appointed as fiscal agent ( ʿāmil ) already since ca . 861 , and had rapidly become the most hated man in the country as he doubled the taxes and imposed new ones on Muslims and non @-@ Muslims alike . Ibn Tulun quickly signalled his intention to be sole master of his province : on his arrival at Fustat , when both Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir and Shukayr , the head of the postal service ( barīd ) and of correspondence with the caliphal government , came out to meet him with a gift of 10 @,@ 000 dinars , he refused to accept it . For the next four years , Ibn Tulun and his rivals fought via their emissaries and relatives at the caliphal court in Samarra to neutralize each other ; in the end , Ibn Tulun managed to secure Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir 's transfer to Syria in July 871 , and assumed collection of the kharāj himself . At the same time , Ibn Tulun also secured the dismissal of Shukayr , who died shortly after . Thus by 872 Ibn Tulun had assumed control of all branches of the administration in Egypt , becoming de facto independent of the Abbasid central government .
At the time of Ibn Tulun 's appointment , Egypt was undergoing a transformative process . In 834 its early Muslim elite , the Arab settler families ( jund ) of Fustat , lost their privileges and government pay , and power passed to officials sent by the Abbasid court . At about the same time , for the first time the Muslim population began surpassing the Coptic Christians in numbers , and the rural districts were increasingly subject to both Arabization and Islamization . The rapidity of this process , and the influx of settlers after the discovery of gold and emerald mines at Aswan , meant that Upper Egypt in particular was only superficially controlled by the local governor . Furthermore , the persistence of internecine strife and turmoil at the heart of the Abbasid state — the so @-@ called " Anarchy at Samarra " — led to the appearance of millennialist revolutionary movements in the province under a series of Alid pretenders . One of them was Ibn al @-@ Sufi , a descendant of Ali 's son Umar , who rebelled in late 869 and massacred the populace of Esna . In winter 870 he defeated an army sent against him by Ibn Tulun , but was driven to the oases of the desert in spring . He remained there until he was defeated in a struggle with another regional strongman , Abu Abdallah ibn Abd al @-@ Hamid al @-@ Umari in 872 , fleeing to Mecca . There he was seized and imprisoned for a while by Ibn Tulun . One of his followers , Abu Ruh Sukun , rebelled in the oases in 873 / 4 and was successful enough for Ibn Tulun to offer him an amnesty . Ibn al @-@ Sufi 's vanquisher , al @-@ Umari , was another descendant of Ali who had created an autonomous principality around the gold mines , defeating the forces sent against him . Another revolt broke out in 874 / 5 by the governor of Barqa , Muhammad ibn al @-@ Faraj al @-@ Farghani . Ibn Tulun tried to reconcile him at first but was eventually forced to send an army to besiege and storm the city , although the reprisals were limited . The re @-@ imposition of his authority over Barqa however led to the strengthening of ties with Ifriqiya to the west , including , according to Ibn al @-@ Athir , the erection of a series of lighthouses and messaging beacons along the coast .
In the meantime , in Palestine , the local governor , Isa ibn al @-@ Shaykh al @-@ Shaybani , had used the anarchy in Iraq to set up a quasi @-@ independent Bedouin regime , intercepting the tax caravans from Egypt and threatening Damascus . When Caliph al @-@ Muhtadi ascended the throne in July 869 , he offered a general amnesty , and wrote to Ibn al @-@ Shaykh , offering a pardon in exchange for him handing over the treasure he had wrongfully appropriated . When Ibn al @-@ Shaykh refused , the Caliph ordered Ibn Tulun to march against him . Ibn Tulun complied and began a mass purchase of black African ( Sudān ) and Greek ( Rūm ) slaves to form an army over the winter of 869 / 70 , but no sooner had he arrived at al @-@ Arish with his army in summer 870 than orders came to turn back . Ibn al @-@ Shaykh 's revolt was crushed soon after by another Turkish soldier , Amajur al @-@ Turki , who continued to govern Syria for the Abbasids until his death in 878 . This episode was nevertheless of major importance as it allowed Ibn Tulun to recruit an army of his own with caliphal sanction . The Tulunid army , which eventually grew to reportedly 100 @,@ 000 men — other sources give a breakdown of 24 @,@ 000 Turkish ghilmān and 42 @,@ 000 black African and Greek slaves , as well as a mercenary corps composed mostly of Greeks — became the foundation of Ibn Tulun 's power and independence . For his personal protection , Ibn Tulun reportedly employed a corps of ghilmān from Ghur .
Ibn Tulun 's stepfather Bakbak was murdered in 869 / 70 , but luckily for him in the summer of 871 the supervision of Egypt passed to his father @-@ in @-@ law Yarjukh . Yarjukh not only confirmed Ibn Tulun in his post , but in addition conferred to him the authority over Alexandria and Barqa . In 873 , Ibn Tulun entrusted the government of Alexandria to his eldest son , Abbas . Ibn Tulun 's growing power was manifested in the establishment of a new palace city to the northeast of Fustat , called al @-@ Qata 'i , in 870 . The project was a conscious emulation of , and rival to , the Abbasid capital Samarra . Just like Samarra , the new city was designed as quarters for Ibn Tulun 's new army with the aim of reducing frictions with the urban populace of Fustat . Each unit received an allotment or ward ( whence the city 's name ) to settle , after which the ward was named . The new city 's centrepiece was the Mosque of Ibn Tulun , which was built in 878 – 880 under the supervision of the Mesopotamian Christian architect Ibn Katib al @-@ Farghani . A royal palace adjoined the mosque , and the rest of the city was laid out around them . Beside government buildings , it included markets , a hospital ( al @-@ bimāristān ) that provided services free of charge , and a hippodrome . Nevertheless , Ibn Tulun himself preferred to reside in the Coptic monastery of Qusayr outside Fustat .
= = = Ibn Tulun 's new regime = = =
The administration of Egypt was already well developed before Ibn Tulun 's arrival , with a number of departments ( dīwāns ) responsible for the collection of the land tax , the supervision of the post , the public granaries ( dīwān al @-@ ahrāʿ ) , the Nile Delta lands ( dīwān asfal al @-@ arḍ ) , and possibly a privy purse ( dīwān al @-@ khaṣṣ ) for the governor 's personal use . A chancery ( dīwān al @-@ inshāʾ ) possibly also already existed , but it may have been first established under Ibn Tulun , when he remodelled the Egyptian administration after the Abbasid central government . Most of the officials employed by Ibn Tulun were like him trained in the caliphal court at Samarra . Ibn Tulun 's chancellor was the capable Abu Ja 'far Muhammad ibn Abd al @-@ Kan ( died 891 ) , while other important positions in the administration were held by the four al @-@ Muhajir brothers and Ibn al @-@ Daya . Al @-@ Balawi also reports several anecdotes about Ibn Tulun 's extensive use of spies and his own ability to uncover spies sent against him , and claims that the chancery was established so that Ibn Tulun could check up on every piece of correspondence with the caliphal court .
Unsurprisingly , given his own origins as a slave soldier , Ibn Tulun 's regime was in many ways typical of the " ghulām system " that became one of the two main paradigms of Islamic polities in the 9th and 10th centuries , as the Abbasid Caliphate fragmented and new dynasties emerged . These regimes were based on the power of a regular army composed of the ghilmān , but in turn , according to Hugh N. Kennedy , " the paying of the troops was the major preoccupation of government " . It is therefore in the context of the increased financial requirements that in 879 , the supervision of the finances in Egypt and Syria passed to Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al @-@ Madhara 'i , the founder of the al @-@ Madhara 'i bureaucratic dynasty that dominated the fiscal apparatus of Egypt for the next 70 years . Although , as Zaky M. Hassan notes , " fragmentary evidence does not permit a thorough assessment of Tulunid economic and financial policies " , it appears that the peace and security provided by the Tulunid regime , the establishment of an efficient administration , and repairs and expansions to the irrigation system , coupled with a consistently high level of Nile floods , resulted in a major increase in revenue . By the time of Ibn Tulun 's death , income from the land tax alone had risen from 800 @,@ 000 dinars under Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir to the sum of 4 @.@ 3 million dinars , and Ibn Tulun bequeathed his successor a fiscal reserve of ten million dinars . Crucial to this was the reform of the tax assessment and collection system , including the introduction of tax farming — which at the same time led to the rise of a new landholding class . Additional revenue was collected from commercial activities , most notably textiles and in particular linen .
Ibn Tulun 's regime was highly centralized , but also featured " consistent attempts to win the backing of Egypt 's commercial , religious and social élite " , according to Zaky M. Hassan . Thus the wealthy merchant Ma 'mar al @-@ Jawhar functioned both as Ibn Tulun 's personal financier and as the head of an informal intelligence network through his contacts in Iraq . A further " notable characteristic " of Ibn Tulun 's rule , according to Thierry Bianquis , was " the quality of relations it maintained with Christians and Jews " ; according to a letter by the Patriarch of Jerusalem , Elias III , when he took over Palestine , he appointed a Christian as governor of Jerusalem , and possibly even of the provincial capital , Ramla , thereby putting an end to the persecution of Christians and allowing the renovation of churches .
= = = Expansion into Syria = = =
In the early 870s , a major change took place in the Abbasid government , as the Abbasid prince al @-@ Muwaffaq emerged as the de facto regent of the empire , sidelining his brother , Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tamid ( r . 870 – 892 ) . Officially , al @-@ Muwaffaq controlled the eastern half of the Caliphate , while al @-@ Mu 'tamid 's son and first heir al @-@ Mufawwad controlled the western , with the aid of the Turkish general Musa ibn Bugha . In reality al @-@ Muwaffaq held the actual reins of power . Al @-@ Muwaffaq however was preoccupied with the more immediate threats to the Abbasid government presented by the rise of the Saffarids in the east and by the Zanj Rebellion in Iraq itself , as well as with keeping in check the Turkish troops and managing the internal tensions of the caliphal government . This gave Ibn Tulun the necessary space to consolidate his own position in Egypt . Ibn Tulun kept himself out of the Zanj conflict , and even refused to recognize al @-@ Mufawwad as his suzerain , who in turn did not confirm him in his position .
Open conflict between Ibn Tulun and al @-@ Muwaffaq broke out in 875 / 6 , on the occasion of a large remittance of revenue to the central government . Counting on the rivalry between the Caliph and his over @-@ mighty brother to maintain his own position , Ibn Tulun forwarded a larger share of the taxes to al @-@ Mu 'tamid instead of al @-@ Muwaffaq : 2 @.@ 2 million dinars went to the Caliph and only 1 @.@ 2 million dinars to his brother . Al @-@ Muwaffaq , who in his fight against the Zanj considered himself entitled to the major share of the provincial revenues , was angered by this , and by the implied machinations between Ibn Tulun and his brother . Al @-@ Muwaffaq sought a volunteer to replace him , but all the officials in Baghdad had been bought off by Ibn Tulun and refused . Al @-@ Muwaffaq sent a letter to the Egyptian ruler demanding his resignation , which the latter predictably refused . Both sides geared for war . Ibn Tulun created a fleet and fortified his borders and ports , including Alexandria , and a new fortress on Rawda Island to protect Fustat . Al @-@ Muwaffaq nominated Musa ibn Bugha as governor of Egypt and sent him with troops to Syria . In the event , due to a combination of lack of pay and supplies for the troops , and the fear generated by Ibn Tulun 's army , Musa never got further than al @-@ Raqqah . After ten months of inaction and a rebellion by his troops , Musa returned to Iraq . In a public gesture of support for al @-@ Mu 'tamid and opposition to al @-@ Muwaffaq , Ibn Tulun would assume the title of " Servant of the Commander of the Faithful " ( mawlā amīr al @-@ muʾminīn ) in 878 .
Ibn Tulun now seized the initiative . Having served in his youth in the border wars with the Byzantine Empire at Tarsus , he now requested to be conferred the command of the frontier districts of Cilicia ( the Thughūr ) . Al @-@ Muwaffaq initially refused , but following the Byzantine successes of the previous years al @-@ Mu 'tamid prevailed upon his brother and in 877 / 8 Ibn Tulun received responsibility for the entirety of Syria and the Cilician frontier . Ibn Tulun marched into Syria in person . He received the submission of the son of Amajur , who had recently died , whom he appointed governor at Ramla , and proceeded to take possession of Damascus , Homs , Hama , and Aleppo . At Damascus Ibn Tulun encountered his old rival Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir , who since his eviction from Egypt had served as Amajur 's ʿāmil for Palestine and Damascus . Ibn al @-@ Mudabbir was fined 600 @,@
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ians .
After the death of Theobald III , Count of Champagne , the leadership of the Crusade passed to Boniface of Montferrat , a friend of the Hohenstaufen Philip of Swabia . Both Boniface and Philip had married into the Byzantine Imperial family . In fact , Philip 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Alexios Angelos , son of the deposed and blinded Emperor Isaac II Angelos , had appeared in Europe seeking aid and had made contacts with the crusaders . Alexios offered to reunite the Byzantine church with Rome , pay the crusaders 200 @,@ 000 silver marks , join the crusade and provide all the supplies they needed to get to Egypt . Innocent was aware of a plan to divert the Crusade to Constantinople and forbade any attack on the city , but the papal letter arrived after the fleets had left Zara .
= = = = Crusader sack of Constantinople ( 1204 ) = = = =
The crusaders arrived at Constantinople in the summer of 1203 and quickly attacked , started a major fire that damaged large parts of the city , and briefly seized control . Alexios III fled from the capital , and Alexios Angelos was elevated to the throne as Alexios IV along with his blind father Isaac . However , Alexios IV and Isaac II were unable to keep their promises and were deposed by Alexios V. The crusaders again took the city on 13 April 1204 , and Constantinople was subjected to pillage and massacre by the rank and file for three days . Many priceless icons , relics , and other objects later turned up in Western Europe , a large number in Venice . According to Choniates , a prostitute was even set up on the Patriarchal throne . When Innocent III heard of the conduct of his crusaders , he castigated them in no uncertain terms . But the situation was beyond his control , especially after his legate , on his own initiative , had absolved the crusaders from their vow to proceed to the Holy Land . When order had been restored , the crusaders and the Venetians proceeded to implement their agreement ; Baldwin of Flanders was elected Emperor of a new Latin Empire , and the Venetian Thomas Morosini was chosen as Patriarch . The lands divided up among the leaders included most of the former Byzantine possessions , though resistance would continue through the Byzantine remnants of the Nicaea , Trebizond , and Epirus . Although Venice was more interested in commerce than conquering territory , it took key areas of Constantinople , and the Doge took the title of " Lord of a Quarter and Half a Quarter of the Roman Empire " .
= = = Fall = = =
= = = = Empire in exile = = = =
After the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by Latin crusaders , two Byzantine successor states were established : the Empire of Nicaea , and the Despotate of Epirus . A third , the Empire of Trebizond , was created by Alexios I of Trebizond a few weeks before the sack of Constantinople . Of the three successor states , Epirus and Nicaea stood the best chance of reclaiming Constantinople . The Nicaean Empire struggled to survive the next few decades , however , and by the mid @-@ 13th century it had lost much of southern Anatolia . The weakening of the Sultanate of Rûm following the Mongol invasion in 1242 – 43 allowed many beyliks and ghazis to set up their own principalities in Anatolia , weakening the Byzantine hold on Asia Minor . In time , one of the Beys , Osman I , created an empire that would eventually conquer Constantinople . However , the Mongol invasion also gave Nicaea a temporary respite from Seljuk attacks , allowing it to concentrate on the Latin Empire to its north .
= = = = Reconquest of Constantinople = = = =
The Empire of Nicaea , founded by the Laskarid dynasty , managed to reclaim Constantinople from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus . This led to a short @-@ lived revival of Byzantine fortunes under Michael VIII Palaiologos , but the war @-@ ravaged Empire was ill @-@ equipped to deal with the enemies that now surrounded it . To maintain his campaigns against the Latins , Michael pulled troops from Asia Minor and levied crippling taxes on the peasantry , causing much resentment . Massive construction projects were completed in Constantinople to repair the damage of the Fourth Crusade , but none of these initiatives was of any comfort to the farmers in Asia Minor suffering raids from Muslim ghazis .
Rather than holding on to his possessions in Asia Minor , Michael chose to expand the Empire , gaining only short @-@ term success . To avoid another sacking of the capital by the Latins , he forced the Church to submit to Rome , again a temporary solution for which the peasantry hated Michael and Constantinople . The efforts of Andronikos II and later his grandson Andronikos III marked Byzantium 's last genuine attempts in restoring the glory of the Empire . However , the use of mercenaries by Andronikos II would often backfire , with the Catalan Company ravaging the countryside and increasing resentment towards Constantinople .
= = = = Rise of the Ottomans and fall of Constantinople = = = =
The situation became worse for Byzantium during the civil wars after Andronikos III died . A six @-@ year @-@ long civil war devastated the empire , allowing the Serbian ruler Stefan Dušan ( r . 1331 – 1346 ) to overrun most of the Empire 's remaining territory and establish a Serbian Empire . In 1354 , an earthquake at Gallipoli devastated the fort , allowing the Ottomans ( who were hired as mercenaries during the civil war by John VI Kantakouzenos ) to establish themselves in Europe . By the time the Byzantine civil wars had ended , the Ottomans had defeated the Serbians and subjugated them as vassals . Following the Battle of Kosovo , much of the Balkans became dominated by the Ottomans .
The Byzantine emperors appealed to the West for help , but the Pope would only consider sending aid in return for a reunion of the Eastern Orthodox Church with the See of Rome . Church unity was considered , and occasionally accomplished by imperial decree , but the Orthodox citizenry and clergy intensely resented the authority of Rome and the Latin Rite . Some Western troops arrived to bolster the Christian defence of Constantinople , but most Western rulers , distracted by their own affairs , did nothing as the Ottomans picked apart the remaining Byzantine territories .
Constantinople by this stage was underpopulated and dilapidated . The population of the city had collapsed so severely that it was now little more than a cluster of villages separated by fields . On 2 April 1453 , Sultan Mehmed 's army of 80 @,@ 000 men and large numbers of irregulars laid siege to the city . Despite a desperate last @-@ ditch defence of the city by the massively outnumbered Christian forces ( c . 7 @,@ 000 men , 2 @,@ 000 of whom were foreign ) , Constantinople finally fell to the Ottomans after a two @-@ month siege on 29 May 1453 . The last Byzantine emperor , Constantine XI Palaiologos , was last seen casting off his imperial regalia and throwing himself into hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat after the walls of the city were taken .
= = = Political aftermath = = =
By the time of the fall of Constantinople , the only remaining territory of the Byzantine Empire was the Despotate of the Morea ( Peloponnese ) , which was ruled by brothers of the last Emperor , Thomas Palaiologos and Demetrios Palaiologos . The Despotate continued on as an independent state by paying an annual tribute to the Ottomans . Incompetent rule , failure to pay the annual tribute and a revolt against the Ottomans finally led to Mehmed II 's invasion of Morea in May 1460 . Demetrios asked the Ottomans to invade and drive Thomas out . Thomas fled . The Ottomans moved through the Morea and conquered virtually the entire Despotate by the summer . Demetrios thought the Morea would be restored to him to rule , but it was incorporated into the Ottoman fold .
A few holdouts remained for a time . The island of Monemvasia refused to surrender and it was first ruled for a short time by an Aragonese corsair . When the population drove him out they obtained the consent of Thomas to place themselves under the Pope 's protection before the end of 1460 . The Mani Peninsula , on the Morea 's south end , resisted under a loose coalition of the local clans and then that area came under Venice 's rule . The very last holdout was Salmeniko , in the Morea 's northwest . Graitzas Palaiologos was the military commander there , stationed at Salmeniko Castle . While the town eventually surrendered , Graitzas and his garrison and some town residents held out in the castle until July 1461 , when they escaped and reached Venetian territory .
The Empire of Trebizond , which had split away from the Byzantine Empire just weeks before Constantinople was taken by the Crusaders in 1204 , became the last remnant and last de facto successor state to the Byzantine Empire . Efforts by the Emperor David to recruit European powers for an anti @-@ Ottoman crusade provoked war between the Ottomans and Trebizond in the summer of 1461 . After a month @-@ long siege , David surrendered the city of Trebizond on 14 August 1461 . The Empire of Trebizond 's Crimean principality , the Principality of Theodoro ( part of the Perateia ) , lasted another 14 years , falling to the Ottomans in 1475 .
A nephew of the last Emperor , Constantine XI , Andreas Palaiologos claimed to have inherited the title of Byzantine Emperor . He lived in the Morea until its fall in 1460 , then escaped to Rome where he lived under the protection of the Papal States for the remainder of his life . Since the office of emperor had never been technically hereditary , Andreas ' claim would have been without merit under Byzantine law . However , the Empire had vanished , and Western states generally followed the Roman @-@ church @-@ sanctioned principles of hereditary sovereignty . Seeking a life in the west , Andreas styled himself Imperator Constantinopolitanus ( " Emperor of Constantinople " ) , and sold his succession rights to both Charles VIII of France and the Catholic Monarchs . However , no one ever invoked the title after Andreas 's death .
Constantine XI died without producing an heir , and had Constantinople not fallen he might have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother , who were taken into the palace service of Mehmed II after the fall of Constantinople . The oldest boy , re @-@ christened as Has Murad , became a personal favorite of Mehmed and served as Beylerbey ( Governor @-@ General ) of the Balkans . The younger son , renamed Mesih Pasha , became Admiral of the Ottoman fleet and Sancak Beg ( Governor ) of the Province of Gallipoli . He eventually served twice as Grand Vizier under Mehmed 's son , Bayezid II .
Mehmed II and his successors continued to consider themselves heirs to the Roman Empire until the demise of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century . They considered that they had simply shifted its religious basis as Constantine had done before , and they continued to refer to their conquered Eastern Roman inhabitants ( Orthodox Christians ) as Rûm . Meanwhile , the Danubian Principalities ( whose rulers also considered themselves the heirs of the Eastern Roman Emperors ) harboured Orthodox refugees , including some Byzantine nobles .
At his death , the role of the emperor as a patron of Eastern Orthodoxy was claimed by Ivan III , Grand duke of Muscovy . He had married Andreas ' sister , Sophia Paleologue , whose grandson , Ivan IV , would become the first Tsar of Russia ( tsar , or czar , meaning caesar , is a term traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine Emperors ) . Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and Constantinople . The idea of the Russian Empire as the successive Third Rome was kept alive until its demise with the Russian Revolution .
= = Economy = =
The Byzantine economy was among the most advanced in Europe and the Mediterranean for many centuries . Europe , in particular , could not match Byzantine economic strength until late in the Middle Ages . Constantinople operated as a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all of Eurasia and North Africa , in particular as the primary western terminus of the famous Silk Road . Until the first half of the 6th century and in sharp contrast with the decaying West , the Byzantine economy was flourishing and resilient .
The Plague of Justinian and the Arab conquests would represent a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of stagnation and decline . Isaurian reforms and , in particular , Constantine V 's repopulation , public works and tax measures , marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204 , despite territorial contraction . From the 10th century until the end of the 12th , the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury and travellers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital .
The Fourth Crusade resulted in the disruption of Byzantine manufacturing and the commercial dominance of the Western Europeans in the eastern Mediterranean , events that amounted to an economic catastrophe for the Empire . The Palaiologoi tried to revive the economy , but the late Byzantine state would not gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces . Gradually , it also lost its influence on the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms , and its control over the outflow of precious metals and , according to some scholars , even over the minting of coins .
One of the economic foundations of Byzantium was trade , fostered by the maritime character of the Empire . Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export ; silks were certainly imported into Egypt , and appeared also in Bulgaria , and the West . The state strictly controlled both the internal and the international trade , and retained the monopoly of issuing coinage , maintaining a durable and flexible monetary system adaptable to trade needs .
The government attempted to exercise formal control over interest rates , and set the parameters for the activity of the guilds and corporations , in which it had a special interest . The emperor and his officials intervened at times of crisis to ensure the provisioning of the capital , and to keep down the price of cereals . Finally , the government often collected part of the surplus through taxation , and put it back into circulation , through redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials , or in the form of investment in public works .
= = Science , medicine and law = =
The writings of Classical antiquity never ceased to be cultivated in Byzantium . Therefore , Byzantine science was in every period closely connected with ancient philosophy , and metaphysics . In the field of engineering Isidore of Miletus , the Greek mathematician and architect of the Hagia Sophia , produced the first compilation of Archimedes works c . 530 , and it is through this tradition , kept alive by the school of mathematics and engineering founded c . 850 during the " Byzantine Renaissance " by Leo the Geometer that such works are known today ( see Archimedes Palimpsest ) . Indeed , geometry and its applications ( architecture and engineering instruments of war ) remained a specialty of the Byzantines .
Though scholarship lagged during the dark years following the Arab conquests , during the so @-@ called Byzantine Renaissance at the end of the first millennium Byzantine scholars re @-@ asserted themselves becoming experts in the scientific developments of the Arabs and Persians , particularly in astronomy and mathematics . The Byzantines are also credited with several technological advancements , particularly in architecture ( e.g. the pendentive dome ) and warfare technology ( e.g. Greek fire ) .
Although at various times the Byzantines made magnificent achievements in the application of the sciences ( notably in the construction of the Hagia Sophia ) , and although they preserved much of the ancient knowledge of science and geometry , after the 6th century Byzantine scholars made few novel contributions to science in terms of developing new theories or extending the ideas of classical authors .
In the final century of the Empire , Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying , in person and in writing , ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to early Renaissance Italy . During this period , astronomy and other mathematical sciences were taught in Trebizond ; medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars .
In the field of law , Justinian I 's reforms had a clear effect on the evolution of jurisprudence , and Leo III 's Ecloga influenced the formation of legal institutions in the Slavic world . In the 10th century , Leo VI the Wise achieved the complete codification of the whole of Byzantine law in Greek , which became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law , generating interest to the present day .
= = Religion = =
The Byzantine Empire was a theocracy , said to be ruled by God working through the Emperor . Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst argues , " The Byzantine Empire became a theocracy in the sense that Christian values and ideals were the foundation of the empire 's political ideals and heavily entwined with its political goals . " Steven Runciman says in his book on The Byzantine Theocracy ( 2004 ) :
The constitution of the Byzantine Empire was based on the conviction that it was the earthly copy of the Kingdom of Heaven . Just as God ruled in Heaven , so the Emperor , made in his image , should rule on earth and carry out his commandments ... It saw itself as a universal empire . Ideally , it should embrace all the peoples of the Earth who , ideally , should all be members of the one true Christian Church , its own Orthodox Church . Just as man was made in God 's image , so man 's kingdom on Earth was made in the image of the Kingdom of Heaven . " The survival of the Empire in the East assured an active role of the Emperor in the affairs of the Church . The Byzantine state inherited from pagan times the administrative , and financial routine of administering religious affairs , and this routine was applied to the Christian Church . Following the pattern set by Eusebius of Caesarea , the Byzantines viewed the Emperor as a representative or messenger of Christ , responsible particularly for the propagation of Christianity among pagans , and for the " externals " of the religion , such as administration and finances . As Cyril Mango points out , the Byzantine political thinking can be summarised in the motto " One God , one empire , one religion " .
The imperial role in the affairs of the Church never developed into a fixed , legally defined system . With the decline of Rome , and internal dissension in the other Eastern Patriarchates , the Church of Constantinople became , between the 6th and 11th centuries , the richest and most influential center of Christendom . Even when the Empire was reduced to only a shadow of its former self , the Church continued to exercise significant influence both inside and outside of the imperial frontiers . As George Ostrogorsky points out :
The Patriarchate of Constantinople remained the center of the Orthodox world , with subordinate metropolitan sees and archbishoprics in the territory of Asia Minor and the Balkans , now lost to Byzantium , as well as in Caucasus , Russia and Lithuania . The Church remained the most stable element in the Byzantine Empire .
The official state Christian doctrine was determined by the first seven ecumenical councils , and it was then the emperor 's duty to impose it to his subjects . An imperial decree of 388 , which was later incorporated into the Codex Justinianus , orders the population of the Empire " to assume the name of Catholic Christians " , and regards all those who will not abide by the law as " mad and foolish persons " ; as followers of " heretical dogmas " .
Despite imperial decrees and the stringent stance of the state church itself , which came to be known as the Eastern Orthodox Church or Eastern Christianity , the latter never represented all Christians in Byzantium . Mango believes that , in the early stages of the Empire , the " mad and foolish persons " , those labelled " heretics " by the state church , were the majority of the population . Besides the pagans , who existed until the end of the 6th century , and the Jews , there were many followers – sometimes even emperors – of various Christian doctrines , such as Nestorianism , Monophysitism , Arianism , and Paulicianism , whose teachings were in some opposition to the main theological doctrine , as determined by the Ecumenical Councils .
Another division among Christians occurred , when Leo III ordered the destruction of icons throughout the Empire . This led to a significant religious crisis , which ended in mid @-@ 9th century with the restoration of icons . During the same period , a new wave of pagans emerged in the Balkans , originating mainly from Slavic people . These were gradually Christianised , and by Byzantium 's late stages , Eastern Orthodoxy represented most Christians and , in general , most people in what remained of the Empire .
Jews were a significant minority in the Byzantine state throughout its history , and , according to Roman law , they constituted a legally recognised religious group . In the early Byzantine period they were generally tolerated , but then periods of tensions and persecutions ensued . In any case , after the Arab conquests , the majority of Jews found themselves outside the Empire ; those left inside the Byzantine borders apparently lived in relative peace from the 10th century onwards .
Georgian monasteries first appear in Constantinople and on Mount Olympos in northwestern Asia Minor in the second half of the ninth century , and from then on Georgians played an increasingly important role in the Empire .
= = Art and literature = =
Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious and with exceptions at certain periods is highly conventionalised , following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms . Painting in fresco , illuminated manuscripts and on wood panel and , especially in earlier periods , mosaic were the main media , and figurative sculpture very rare except for small carved ivories . Manuscript painting preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works . Byzantine art was highly prestigious and sought @-@ after in Western Europe , where it maintained a continuous influence on medieval art until near the end of the period . This was especially so in Italy , where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the 12th century , and became formative influences on Italian Renaissance art . But few incoming influences affected Byzantine style . By means of the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church , Byzantine forms and styles spread to all the Orthodox world and beyond . Influences from Byzantine architecture , particularly in religious buildings , can be found in diverse regions from Egypt and Arabia to Russia and Romania .
In Byzantine literature , four different cultural elements are recognised : the Greek , the Christian , the Roman , and the Oriental . Byzantine literature is often classified in five groups : historians and annalists , encyclopaedists ( Patriarch Photios , Michael Psellus , and Michael Choniates are regarded as the greatest encyclopaedists of Byzantium ) and essayists , and writers of secular poetry . The only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines is the Digenis Acritas . The remaining two groups include the new literary species : ecclesiastical and theological literature , and popular poetry .
Of the approximately two to three thousand volumes of Byzantine literature that survive , only three hundred and thirty consist of secular poetry , history , science and pseudo @-@ science . While the most flourishing period of the secular literature of Byzantium runs from the 9th to the 12th century , its religious literature ( sermons , liturgical books and poetry , theology , devotional treatises , etc . ) developed much earlier with Romanos the Melodist being its most prominent representative .
= = Music = =
The ecclesiastical forms of Byzantine music , composed to Greek texts as ceremonial , festival , or church music , are , today , the most well @-@ known forms . Ecclesiastical chants were a fundamental part of this genre . Greek and foreign historians agree that the ecclesiastical tones and in general the whole system of Byzantine music is closely related to the ancient Greek system . It remains the oldest genre of extant music , of which the manner of performance and ( with increasing accuracy from the 5th century onwards ) the names of the composers , and sometimes the particulars of each musical work 's circumstances , are known .
The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih ( d . 911 ) ; in his lexicographical discussion of instruments cited the lyra ( lūrā ) as the typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun ( organ ) , shilyani ( probably a type of harp or lyre ) and the salandj ( probably a bagpipe ) . The first of these , the early bowed stringed instrument known as the Byzantine lyra , would come to be called the lira da braccio , in Venice , where it is considered by many to have been the predecessor of the contemporary violin , which later flourished there . The bowed " lyra " is still played in former Byzantine regions , where it is known as the Politiki lyra ( lit . " lyra of the City " i.e. Constantinople ) in Greece , the Calabrian lira in Southern Italy , and the Lijerica in Dalmatia . The second instrument , the organ , originated in the Hellenistic world ( see Hydraulis ) and was used in the Hippodrome during races . A pipe organ with " great leaden pipes " was sent by the emperor Constantine V to Pepin the Short King of the Franks in 757 . Pepin 's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812 , beginning its establishment in Western church music . The final Byzantine instrument , the bagpipes , known as Dankiyo ( from ancient Greek : angion ( Τὸ ἀγγεῖον ) " the container " ) , had been played even in Roman times . Dio Chrysostom wrote in the 1st century of a contemporary sovereign ( possibly Nero ) who could play a pipe ( tibia , Roman reedpipes similar to Greek aulos ) with his mouth as well as by tucking a bladder beneath his armpit . The bagpipes continued to be played throughout the empire 's former realms through to the present . ( See Balkan Gaida , Greek Tsampouna , Pontic Tulum , Cretan Askomandoura , Armenian Parkapzuk , and Romanian Cimpoi . )
= = Cuisine = =
The Byzantine culture was , initially , the same as Late Greco @-@ Roman , but over the following millennium of the empire 's existence it slowly changed into something more similar to modern Balkan and Anatolian culture . The cuisine still relied heavily on the Greco @-@ Roman fish @-@ sauce condiment garos , but it also contained foods still familiar today , such as the cured meat pastirma ( known as " paston " in Byzantine Greek ) , baklava ( known as koptoplakous κοπτοπλακοῦς ) , tiropita ( known as plakountas tetyromenous or tyritas plakountas ) , and the famed medieval sweet wines ( Commandaria and the eponymous Rumney wine ) . Retsina , wine flavored with pine resin , was also drunk , as it still is in Greece today , producing similar reactions from unfamiliar visitors ; " To add to our calamity the Greek wine , on account of being mixed with pitch , resin , and plaster was to us undrinkable , " complained Liutprand of Cremona , who was the ambassador sent to Constantinople in 968 by the German Holy Roman Emperor Otto I. The garos fish sauce condiment was also not much appreciated by the unaccustomed ; Liutprand of Cremona described being served food covered in an " exceedingly bad fish liquor . " The Byzantines also used a soy sauce like condiment , murri , a fermented barley sauce , which , like soy sauce , provided umami flavoring to their dishes .
= = Recreation = =
Byzantines were avid players of tavli ( Byzantine Greek : τάβλη ) , a game known in English as backgammon , which is still popular in former Byzantine realms , and still known by the name tavli in Greece . Byzantine nobles were devoted to horsemanship , particularly tzykanion , now known as polo . The game came from Sassanid Persia in the early period and a Tzykanisterion ( stadium for playing the game ) was built by Theodosius II ( r . 408 – 450 ) inside the Great Palace of Constantinople . Emperor Basil I ( r . 867 – 886 ) excelled at it ; Emperor Alexander ( r . 912 – 913 ) died from exhaustion while playing , Emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 – 1118 ) was injured while playing with Tatikios , and John I of Trebizond ( r . 1235 – 1238 ) died from a fatal injury during a game . Aside from Constantinople and Trebizond , other Byzantine cities also featured tzykanisteria , most notably Sparta , Ephesus , and Athens , an indication of a thriving urban aristocracy . The game was introduced to the West by crusaders , who developed a taste for it particularly during the pro @-@ Western reign of emperor Manuel I Komnenos .
= = Government and bureaucracy = =
In the Byzantine state , the emperor was the sole and absolute ruler , and his power was regarded as having divine origin . The Senate had ceased to have real political and legislative authority but remained as an honorary council with titular members . By the end of the 8th century , a civil administration focused on the court was formed as part of a large @-@ scale consolidation of power in the capital ( the rise to pre @-@ eminence of the position of sakellarios is related to this change ) . The most important administrative reform , which probably started in the mid @-@ 7th century , was the creation of themes , where civil and military administration was exercised by one person , the strategos .
Despite the occasionally derogatory use of the terms " Byzantine " and " Byzantinism " , the Byzantine bureaucracy had a distinct ability for reconstituting itself in accordance with the Empire 's situation . The elaborate system of titulature and precedence gave the court prestige and influence . Officials were arranged in strict order around the emperor , and depended upon the imperial will for their ranks . There were also actual administrative jobs , but authority could be vested in individuals rather than offices .
In the 8th and 9th centuries , civil service constituted the clearest path to aristocratic status , but , starting in the 9th century , the civil aristocracy was rivalled by an aristocracy of nobility . According to some studies of Byzantine government , 11th @-@ century politics were dominated by competition between the civil and the military aristocracy . During this period , Alexios I undertook important administrative reforms , including the creation of new courtly dignities and offices .
= = = Diplomacy = = =
After the fall of Rome , the key challenge to the Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its neighbours . When these nations set about forging formal political institutions , they often modelled themselves on Constantinople . Byzantine diplomacy soon managed to draw its neighbours into a network of international and inter @-@ state relations . This network revolved around treaty making , and included the welcoming of the new ruler into the family of kings , and the assimilation of Byzantine social attitudes , values and institutions . Whereas classical writers are fond of making ethical and legal distinctions between peace and war , Byzantines regarded diplomacy as a form of war by other means . For example , a Bulgarian threat could be countered by providing money to the Kievan Rus ' .
Diplomacy in the era was understood to have an intelligence @-@ gathering function on top of its pure political function . The Bureau of Barbarians in Constantinople handled matters of protocol and record keeping for any issues related to the " barbarians " , and thus had , perhaps , a basic intelligence function itself . John B. Bury believed that the office exercised supervision over all foreigners visiting Constantinople , and that they were under the supervision of the Logothetes tou dromou . While on the surface a protocol office – its main duty was to ensure foreign envoys were properly cared for and received sufficient state funds for their maintenance , and it kept all the official translators – it probably had a security function as well .
Byzantines availed themselves of a number of diplomatic practices . For example , embassies to the capital would often stay on for years . A member of other royal houses would routinely be requested to stay on in Constantinople , not only as a potential hostage , but also as a useful pawn in case political conditions where he came from changed . Another key practice was to overwhelm visitors by sumptuous displays . According to Dimitri Obolensky , the preservation of the ancient civilisation in Europe was due to the skill and resourcefulness of Byzantine diplomacy , which remains one of Byzantium 's lasting contributions to the history of Europe .
= = = Flags and insignia = = =
For most of its history , the Byzantine Empire did not know or use heraldry in the West European sense . Various emblems ( Greek : σημεία , sēmeia ; sing. σημείον , sēmeion ) were used in official occasions and for military purposes , such as banners or shields displaying various motifs such as the cross or the labarum . The use of the cross , and of images of Christ , the Virgin Mary and various saints is also attested on seals of officials , but these were personal rather than family emblems .
Double @-@ headed eagle
Tetragrammic cross
= = Language = =
Apart from the Imperial court , administration and military , the primary language used in the eastern Roman provinces even before the decline of the Western Empire was Greek , having been spoken in the region for centuries before Latin . Following Rome 's conquest of the east its ' Pax Romana ' , inclusionist political practices and development of public infrastructure , facilitated the further spreading and entrenchment of Greek language in the east . Indeed , early on in the life of the Roman Empire , Greek had become the common language of the Church , the language of scholarship and the arts , and , to a large degree , the lingua franca for trade between provinces and with other nations . Greek for a time became diglossic with the spoken language , known as Koine ( eventually evolving into Demotic Greek ) , used alongside an older written form until Koine won out as the spoken and written standard .
The use of Latin as the language of administration persisted until formally abolished by Heraclius in the 7th century . Scholarly Latin would rapidly fall into disuse among the educated classes although the language would continue to be at least a ceremonial part of the Empire 's culture for some time . Additionally , Vulgar Latin remained a minority language in the Empire , mainly along the Dalmatian coast ( Dalmatian ) and among the Romanian peoples .
Many other languages existed in the multi @-@ ethnic Empire , and some of these were given limited official status in their provinces at various times . Notably , by the beginning of the Middle Ages , Syriac had become more widely used by the educated classes in the far eastern provinces . Similarly Coptic , Armenian , and Georgian became significant among the educated in their provinces , and later foreign contacts made Old Church Slavic , Middle Persian , and Arabic important in the Empire and its sphere of influence .
Aside from these , since Constantinople was a prime trading center in the Mediterranean region and beyond , virtually every known language of the Middle Ages was spoken in the Empire at some time , even Chinese . As the Empire entered its final decline , the Empire 's citizens became more culturally homogeneous and the Greek language became integral to their identity and religion .
= = Legacy = =
Byzantium has been often identified with absolutism , orthodox spirituality , orientalism and exoticism , while the terms " Byzantine " and " Byzantinism " have been used as bywords for decadence , complex bureaucracy , and repression . In the countries of Central and Southeast Europe that exited the Eastern Bloc in the late 1980s and early 1990s , the assessment of Byzantine civilisation and its legacy was strongly negative due to their connection with an alleged " Eastern authoritarianism and autocracy . " Both Eastern and Western European authors have often perceived Byzantium as a body of religious , political , and philosophical ideas contrary to those of the West . Even in 19th @-@ century Greece , the focus was mainly on the classical past , while Byzantine tradition had been associated with negative connotations .
This traditional approach towards Byzantium has been partially or wholly disputed and revised by modern studies , which focus on the positive aspects of Byzantine culture and legacy . Averil Cameron regards as undeniable the Byzantine contribution to the formation of the medieval Europe , and both Cameron and Obolensky recognise the major role of Byzantium in shaping Orthodoxy , which in turn occupies a central position in the history and societies of Greece , Romania , Bulgaria , Russia , Georgia , Serbia and other countries . The Byzantines also preserved and copied classical manuscripts , and they are thus regarded as transmitters of the classical knowledge , as important contributors to the modern European civilization , and as precursors of both the Renaissance humanism and the Slav Orthodox culture .
As the only stable long @-@ term state in Europe during the Middle Ages , Byzantium isolated Western Europe from newly emerging forces to the East . Constantly under attack , it distanced Western Europe from Persians , Arabs , Seljuk Turks , and for a time , the Ottomans . From a different perspective , since the 7th century , the evolution and constant reshaping of the Byzantine state were directly related to the respective progress of Islam .
Following the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 , Sultan Mehmed II took the title " Kaysar @-@ i Rûm " ( the Ottoman Turkish equivalent of Caesar of Rome ) , since he was determined to make the Ottoman Empire the heir of the Eastern Roman Empire . According to Cameron , regarding themselves as " heirs " of Byzantium , the Ottomans preserved important aspects of its tradition , which in turn facilitated an " Orthodox revival " during the post @-@ communist period of the Eastern European states .
= = Annotations = =
= = = Byzantine studies , resources and bibliography = = =
Fox , Clinton R. What , If Anything , Is a Byzantine ? ( Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors )
Byzantine studies homepage at Dumbarton Oaks . Includes links to numerous electronic texts .
Byzantium : Byzantine studies on the Internet . Links to various online resources .
Translations from Byzantine Sources : The Imperial Centuries , c . 700 – 1204 . Online sourcebook .
De Re Militari . Resources for medieval history , including numerous translated sources on the Byzantine wars .
Medieval Sourcebook : Byzantium . Numerous primary sources on Byzantine history .
Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life . Hosted by the University of Vienna ; in English .
Constantinople Home Page . Links to texts , images and videos on Byzantium .
Byzantium in Crimea : Political History , Art and Culture .
Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences ( with further resources and a repository with papers on various aspects of the Byzantine Empire )
= Apatosaurus =
Apatosaurus ( / əˌpætəˈsɔːrəs / ; meaning " deceptive lizard " ) is a genus of extinct sauropod dinosaurs that lived in North America during the Late Jurassic period . Othniel Charles Marsh described and named the first @-@ known species , A. ajax in 1877 , and a second species , A. louisae , was discovered and named by William H. Holland in 1916 . They lived about 152 to 151 million years ago ( mya ) , during the early Tithonian age , and are now known from fossils in the Morrison Formation of modern @-@ day Colorado , Oklahoma , and Utah , in the United States . Apatosaurus had an average length of 21 – 22 @.@ 8 m ( 69 – 75 ft ) , and an average mass of 16 @.@ 4 – 22 @.@ 4 t ( 16 @.@ 1 – 22 @.@ 0 long tons ; 18 @.@ 1 – 24 @.@ 7 short tons ) . A few specimens indicate a maximum length of 11 – 30 % greater than average and a mass of 32 @.@ 7 – 72 @.@ 6 t ( 32 @.@ 2 – 71 @.@ 5 long tons ; 36 @.@ 0 – 80 @.@ 0 short tons ) .
The cervical vertebrae of Apatosaurus are less elongated and more heavily constructed than those of Diplodocus , a diplodocid like Apatosaurus , and the bones of the leg are much stockier despite being longer , implying that Apatosaurus was a more robust animal . The tail was held above the ground during normal locomotion . Apatosaurus had a single claw on each forelimb and three on each hindlimb . The skull of Apatosaurus , long thought to be similar to Camarasaurus , is much more similar to that of Diplodocus . Apatosaurus was a generalized browser that likely held its head elevated . To lighten its vertebrae , Apatosaurus had air sacs that made the bones internally full of holes . Like that of other diplodocids , its tail may have been used as a whip to create loud noises .
The skull of Apatosaurus was confused with that of Camarasaurus and Brachiosaurus until 1909 , when the holotype of A. louisae was found , and a complete skull just a few meters away from the front of the neck . Henry Fairfield Osborn disagreed with this association , and went on to mount a skeleton of Apatosaurus with a Camarasaurus skull cast . Until 1970 , Apatosaurus skeletons were mounted with speculative skull casts , when McIntosh showed that more robust skulls assigned to Diplodocus were more likely from Apatosaurus .
Apatosaurus is a genus in the family Diplodocidae . It is one of the more basal genera , with only Amphicoelias , and possibly a new , unnamed genus more primitive . While the subfamily Apatosaurinae was named in 1929 , the group was not used validly until an extensive 2015 study . Only Brontosaurus is also in the subfamily , with the other genera being considered as synonyms or reclassified as diplodocines . Brontosaurus has long been considered a junior synonym of Apatosaurus ; its only species was reclassified as A. excelsus in 1903 . However , the 2015 study concluded that Brontosaurus was a valid genus of sauropod distinct from Apatosaurus . Nevertheless , not all paleontologists agree with this division . As it existed in North America during the late Jurassic , Apatosaurus would have lived aside dinosaurs such as Allosaurus , Camarasaurus , Diplodocus , and Stegosaurus .
= = Description = =
Apatosaurus was a large , long @-@ necked , quadrupedal animal with a long , whip @-@ like tail . Its forelimbs were slightly shorter than its hindlimbs . Most size estimates are based on specimen CM 3018 , the type specimen of A. louisae . In 1936 , this was measured to be 21 @.@ 8 m ( 72 ft ) , by measuring the vertebral column . Current estimates are similar , which find the individual was 21 – 22 @.@ 8 m ( 69 – 75 ft ) long and had a mass of 16 @.@ 4 – 22 @.@ 4 t ( 16 @.@ 1 – 22 @.@ 0 long tons ; 18 @.@ 1 – 24 @.@ 7 short tons ) . A 2015 study that estimated the mass of volumetric models of Dreadnoughtus , Apatosaurus , and Giraffatitan estimates CM 3018 at 21 @.@ 8 – 38 @.@ 2 t ( 21 @.@ 5 – 37 @.@ 6 long tons ; 24 @.@ 0 – 42 @.@ 1 short tons ) , similar in mass to Dreadnoughtus . Past estimates have put the creature 's mass as high as 35 @.@ 0 t ( 34 @.@ 4 long tons ; 38 @.@ 6 short tons ) . Some specimens of A. ajax ( like OMNH 1670 ) represent individuals 11 – 30 % longer , suggesting masses twice that of CM 3018 or 32 @.@ 7 – 72 @.@ 6 t ( 32 @.@ 2 – 71 @.@ 5 long tons ; 36 @.@ 0 – 80 @.@ 0 short tons ) , potentially rivalling the largest titanosaurs .
The skull is small in comparison with the size of the animal . The jaws are lined with spatulate ( chisel @-@ like ) teeth suited to a herbivorous diet . The snout of Apatosaurus and similar diplodocoids are squared , with only Nigersaurus having a squarer skull . The braincase of Apatosaurus is well preserved in specimen BYU 17096 , which also preserved much of the skeleton . A phylogenetic analysis found that the braincase had a similar morphology to those of other diplodocoids . Some skulls of Apatosaurus have been found still in articulation with their teeth . Those teeth that have the enamel surface exposed do not show any scratches on the surface ; instead they display a sugary texture and little wear .
Like those of other sauropods , the neck vertebrae are deeply bifurcated ; they carried neural spines with a large trough in the middle , resulting in a wide , deep neck . The vertebral formula for the holotype of A. louisae is 15 cervicals , 10 dorsals , 5 sacrals , and 82 caudals . The caudal vertebra number may vary , even within species . The cervical vertebrae of Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus are stouter and more robust than those of other diplodocids , were found to be most similar to Camarasaurus by Charles Whitney Gilmore . In addition , they support cervical ribs that extend farther towards the ground than in diplodocines , and have the vertebrae and ribs narrower towards the top of the neck , making the neck nearly triangular in cross @-@ section . In Apatosaurus louisae , the atlas @-@ axis complex of the first cervicals is nearly fused . The dorsal ribs are not fused or tightly attached to their vertebrae , instead being loosely articulated . Apatosaurus has ten dorsal ribs on either side of the body . The large neck was filled with an extensive system of weight @-@ saving air sacs . Apatosaurus , like its close relative Supersaurus , has neural tall spines , which make up more than half the height of the individual bones of its vertebrae . The shape of the tail is unusual for a diplodocid ; it is comparatively slender because of the rapidly decreasing height of the vertebral spines with increasing distance from the hips . Apatosaurus also had very long ribs compared to most other diplodocids , giving it an unusually deep chest . As in other diplodocids , the tail transformed into a whip @-@ like structure towards its end .
The limb bones are also very robust . Within Apatosaurinae , the scapula of Apatosaurus louisae is intermediate in morphology between those of A. ajax and Brontosaurus excelsus . The arm bones are stout , so the humerus of Apatosaurus resembles that of Camarasaurus , as well as Brontosaurus . However , the humeri of Brontosaurus and A. ajax are more similar to each other than they are to A. louisae . In 1936 , Charles Gilmore noted that previous reconstructions of Apatosaurus forelimbs erroneously proposed that the radius and ulna could cross ; in life they would have remained parallel . Apatosaurus had a single large claw on each forelimb , a feature shared by all sauropods more derived than Shunosaurus . The first three toes had claws on each hindlimb . The phalangeal formula is 2 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 , meaning the innermost finger ( phalanx ) on the forelimb has two bones and the next has one . The single manual claw bone ( ungual ) is slightly curved and squarely truncated on the anterior end . The pelvic girdle includes the robust ilia , and the fused ( co @-@ ossified ) pubes and ischia . The femora of Apatosaurus are very stout ; some of the most robust femora of any member of Sauropoda . The tibia and fibula bones are different from the slender bones of Diplodocus , but are nearly indistinguishable from those of Camarasaurus . The fibula is longer and more slender than the tibia . The foot of Apatosaurus has three claws on the innermost digits ; the digit formula is 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 3 @-@ 2 . The first metatarsal is the stoutest , a feature shared among diplodocids .
= = Discovery and species = =
The name Apatosaurus ajax was coined in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh , Professor of Paleontology at Yale University , based on a nearly complete skeleton ( holotype , YPM 1860 ) discovered the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Gunnison County , Colorado . The composite term Apatosaurus comes from the Greek words apatē ( ἀπάτη ) / apatēlos ( ἀπατηλός ) meaning " deception " / " deceptive " , and sauros ( σαῦρος ) meaning " lizard " ; thus , " deceptive lizard " . Marsh gave it this name based on the chevron bones , which are dissimilar to those of other dinosaurs ; instead , the chevron bones of Apatosaurus showed similarities with those of mosasaurs . During excavation and transportation , the bones of the holotype skeleton were mixed with those of another Apatosaurus individual originally described as Atlantosaurus immanis ; as a consequence , some elements cannot be ascribed to either specimen with confidence anymore . Marsh distinguished the new genus Apatosaurus from Atlantosaurus on the basis of the number of sacral vertebrae , with Apatosaurus possessing three and Atlantosaurus four . Two years later , Marsh announced the discovery of a larger and more complete specimen at Como Bluff , Wyoming . Marsh decided to give this specimen a new name , because conventions and the relative sparse fossil record at that time meant that features then used to distinguish genera and species have now been found to be more widespread among sauropods . He named the new species Brontosaurus excelsus . All specimens currently considered Apatosaurus were from the Morrison Formation , the location of the excavations of Marsh and his rival Edward Drinker Cope .
Another specimen , in American Museum of Natural History and under the specimen number 460 , which is occasionally assigned to Apatosaurus , is very complete ; only the head , feet , and sections of the tail are missing , and it was the first sauropod skeleton mounted . The specimen was found north of Medicine Bow , Wyoming in 1898 by Walter Granger , and took the entire summer to extract . To complete the mount , sauropod feet that were discovered at the same quarry and a tail fashioned to appear as Marsh believed it should — which had too few vertebrae — were added . In addition , a sculpted model of what the museum thought the skull of this massive creature might look like was made . This was not a delicate skull like that of Diplodocus — which was later found to be more accurate — but was based on " the biggest , thickest , strongest skull bones , lower jaws and tooth crowns from three different quarries " . These skulls were likely those of Camarasaurus , the only other sauropod for which good skull material was known at the time . The mount construction was overseen by Adam Hermann , who failed to find Apatosaurus skulls . Hermann was forced to sculpt a stand @-@ in skull by hand . Osborn said in a publication that the skull was " largely conjectural and based on that of Morosaurus " ( now Camarasaurus ) .
In 1903 , Elmer Riggs published a study that described a well @-@ preserved skeleton of a diplodocid from the Grand River Valley near Fruita , Colorado , Field Museum of Natural History specimen P25112 . Riggs thought that the deposits were similar in age to those of the Como Bluff in Wyoming , from which Marsh described Brontosaurus . Most of the skeleton was found , and after comparison with both Brontosaurus and Apatosaurus ajax , Riggs realized that the holotype of A. ajax was immature , and thus the features distinguishing the genera were not valid . Since Apatosaurus was the earlier name , Brontosaurus should be considered a junior synonym of Apatosaurus . Because of this , Riggs recombined Brontosaurus excelsus as Apatosaurus excelsus . Based on comparisons with other species proposed to belong to Apatosaurus , Riggs also determined that the Field Columbian Museum specimen was likely most similar to A. excelsus .
Despite Riggs ' publication , Henry Fairfield Osborn , who was a strong opponent of Marsh and his taxa , labeled the Apatosaurus mount of the American Museum of Natural History Brontosaurus . Because of this decision the name Brontosaurus was commonly used outside of scientific literature for what Riggs considered Apatosaurus , and the museum 's popularity meant that Brontosaurus became one of the best known dinosaurs , even though it was invalid throughout nearly all of the 20th and early 21st centuries .
It was not until 1909 that an Apatosaurus skull was found during the first expedition , led by Earl Douglass , to what would become the Carnegie Quarry at Dinosaur National Monument . The skull was found a short distance from a skeleton ( specimen CM 3018 ) identified as the new species Apatosaurus louisae , named after Louise Carnegie , wife of Andrew Carnegie who funded field research to find complete dinosaur skeletons in the American West . The skull was designated CM 11162 ; it was very similar to the skull of Diplodocus . Another smaller skeleton of A. louisae was found nearby CM 11162 and CM 3018 . The skull was accepted as belonging to the Apatosaurus specimen by Douglass and Carnegie Museum director William H. Holland , although other scientists — most notably Osborn — rejected this identification . Holland defended his view in 1914 in an address to the Paleontological Society of America , yet he left the Carnegie Museum mount headless . While some thought Holland was attempting to avoid conflict with Osborn , others suspected Holland was waiting until an articulated skull and neck were found to confirm the association of the skull and skeleton . After Holland 's death in 1934 , museum staff placed a cast of a Camarasaurus skull on the mount .
While most other museums were using cast or sculpted Camarasaurus skulls on Apatosaurus mounts , the Yale Peabody Museum decided to sculpt a skull based on the lower jaw of a Camarasaurus , with the cranium based on Marsh 's 1891 illustration of the skull . The skull also included forward @-@ pointing nasals — something different to any dinosaur — and fenestrae differing from the drawing and other skulls .
No Apatosaurus skull was mentioned in literature until the 1970s when John Stanton McIntosh and David Berman redescribed the skulls of Diplodocus and Apatosaurus . They found that though he never published his opinion , Holland was almost certainly correct , that Apatosaurus had a Diplodocus @-@ like skull . According to them , many skulls long thought to pertain to Diplodocus might instead be those of Apatosaurus . They reassigned multiple skulls to Apatosaurus based on associated and closely associated vertebrae . Even though they supported Holland , it was noted that Apatosaurus might have possessed a Camarasaurus @-@ like skull , based on a disarticulated Camarasaurus @-@ like tooth found at the precise site where an Apatosaurus specimen was found years before . On October 20 , 1979 , after the publications by McIntosh and Berman , the first true skull of Apatosaurus was mounted on a skeleton in a museum , that of the Carnegie . In 1998 , the Felch Quarry skull that Marsh included in his 1896 skeletal restoration was suggested to belong to Brachiosaurus instead . In 2011 , the first specimen of Apatosaurus where a skull was found articulated with its cervical vertebrae was described . This specimen , CMC VP 7180 , was found to differ in both skull and neck features from A. louisae , but shared many features of the cervical vertebrae with A. ajax . Another well @-@ preserved skull is Brigham Young University specimen 17096 , a well preserved skull and skeleton , with a preserved braincase . The specimen was found in Cactus Park Quarry of western Colorado .
Almost all modern paleontologists agreed with Riggs that the two dinosaurs should be classified together in a single genus . According to the rules of the ICZN ( which governs the scientific names of animals ) , the name Apatosaurus , having been published first , has priority as the official name ; Brontosaurus was considered a junior synonym and was therefore long discarded from formal use . Despite this , at least one paleontologist — Robert T. Bakker — argued in the 1990s that A. ajax and A. excelsus were in fact sufficiently distinct for the latter to merit a separate genus .
In 2015 Emanuel Tschopp , Octávio Mateus , and Roger Benson released a paper on diplodocoid systematics , and proposed that genera could be diagnosed by 13 differing characters , and species separated based on 6 . The minimum number for generic separation was chosen based on the fact that A. ajax and A. louisae differ in 12 characters , and Diplodocus carnegiei and D. hallorum differ in 11 characters . Thus , 13 characters were chosen to validate the separation of genera . The 6 differing features for specific separation were chosen by counting the number of differing features in separate specimens generally agreed to represent one species , with only one differing character in D. carnegiei and A. louisae , but five differing features in B. excelsus . Therefore , Tschopp et al. argued that Apatosaurus excelsus , originally classified as Brontosaurus excelsus , had enough morphological differences from other species of Apatosaurus that it warranted being reclassified as a separate genus again . The conclusion was based on a comparison of 477 morphological characteristics across 81 different dinosaur individuals . Among the many notable differences are the wider — and presumably stronger — neck of Apatosaurus species compared to B. excelsus . Other species previously assigned to Apatosaurus , such as Elosaurus parvus and Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin were also reclassified as Brontosaurus . Some features proposed to separate Brontosaurus from Apatosaurus include : posterior dorsal vertebrae with the centrum longer than wide ; the scapula rear to the acromial edge and the distal blade being excavated ; the acromial edge of the distal scapular blade bears a rounded expansion ; and the ratio of the proximodistal length to transverse breadth of the astragalus is 0 @.@ 55 or greater . Paleontologist Michael D 'Emic made a critique . Palaeontologist Donald Prothero criticized the mass media reaction to this study as superficial and premature , concluding :
Until someone has convincingly addressed the issue , I ’ m going to put “ Brontosaurus ” in quotes and not follow the latest media fad , nor will I overrule Riggs ( 1903 ) and put the name in my books as a valid genus .
= = = Valid species = = =
Multiple species of Apatosaurus have been designated from scant material . Marsh named as many species as he could , which resulted in many being based upon fragmentary and indistinguishable remains . In 2005 , Paul Upchurch and colleagues published a study that analyzed the species and specimen relationships of Apatosaurus . They found that A. louisae was the most basal species , followed by FMNH P25112 , and then a polytomy of A. ajax , A. parvus , and A. excelsus . Their analysis was revised and expanded with many additional diplodocid specimens in 2015 , which resolved the relationships of Apatosaurus slightly differently , and also supported separating Brontosaurus from Apatosaurus .
Apatosaurus ajax was named by Marsh in 1877 after Ajax , a hero from Greek mythology . Marsh designated the incomplete , juvenile skeleton YPM 1860 as its holotype . The species is less studied then Brontosaurus and A. louisae , especially because of the incomplete nature of the holotype . In 2005 , many specimens in addition to the holotype were found assignable to A. ajax , YPM 1840 , NSMT @-@ PV 20375 , YPM 1861 , and AMNH 460 . The specimens date from the late Kimmeridgian to the early Tithonian ages . In 2015 , only the A. ajax holotype YPM 1860 assigned to the species , with AMNH 460 found either to be within Brontosaurus , or potentially its own taxon . However , YPM 1861 and NSMT @-@ PV 20375 only differed in a few characteristics , and cannot be distinguished specifically or generically from A. ajax . YPM 1861 is the holotype of " Atlantosaurus " immanis , which means it might be a junior synonym of A. ajax .
Apatosaurus louisae was named by Holland in 1916 , being first known from a partial skeleton that was found in Utah . The holotype is CM 3018 , with referred specimens including CM 3378 , CM 11162 , and LACM 52844 . The former two consist of a vertebral column ; the latter two consist of a skull and a nearly complete skeleton , respectively . Its specimens all come from the late Kimmeridgian of Dinosaur National Monument . In 2015 , Tschopp et al. found the type specimen of Apatosaurus laticollis to nest closely with CM 3018 , meaning the former is likely a junior synonym of A. louisae .
The cladogram below is the result of an analysis by Tschopp , Mateus , and Benson ( 2015 ) . The authors analyzed most diplodocid type specimens separately to deduce which specimen belonged to which species and genus .
= = = Reassigned species = = =
Apatosaurus grandis was named in 1877 by Marsh in the article that described A. ajax . It was briefly described , figured , and diagnosed . Marsh later mentioned it was only provisionally assigned to Apatosaurus when he reassigned it to his new genus Morosaurus in 1878 . Since Morvosaurus has been considered a synonym of Camarasaurus , C. grandis is the oldest @-@ named species of the latter genus .
Apatosaurus excelsus was the original type species of Brontosaurus , first named by Marsh in 1879 . Elmer Riggs reclassified Brontosaurus as a synonym of Apatosaurus in 1903 , transferring the species B. excelsus to A. excelsus . In 2015 , Tschopp , Mateus , and Benson argued that the species was distinct enough to be placed in its own genus so they reclassified it back into Brontosaurus .
Apatosaurus parvus , first described from a juvenile specimen as Elosaurus in 1902 by Peterson and Gilmore , was reassigned to Apatosaurus in 1994 , and then to Brontosaurus in 2015 . Multiple other , more mature specimens were assigned to it following the 2015 study .
Apatosaurus minimus was originally described as a specimen of Brontosaurus sp. in 1904 by Osborn . In 1917 , Henry Mook named it as its own species , A. minimus , for a pair of ilia and their sacrum . In 2012 , Mike P. Taylor and Matt J. Wedel published a short abstract describing the material of " A. " minimus , finding it hard @-@ to @-@ place among either Diplodocoidea or Macronaria . While it was placed with Saltasaurus in a phylogenetic analysis , it was thought to represent instead some form with convergent features from many groups . The study of Tschopp et al. did find that a camarasaurid position for the taxon was supported , but noted that the position of the taxon was found to be highly variable and there was no clearly more likely position .
Apatosaurus alenquerensis was named in 1957 by Albert @-@ Félix de Lapparent and Georges Zbyweski . It was based on post cranial material from Portugal . In 1990 , this material was reassigned to Camarasaurus , but in 1998 it was given its own genus , Lourinhasaurus . This was further supported by the findings of Tschopp et al. in 2015 , where Lourinhasaurus was found to be sister to Camarasaurus and other camarasaurids .
Apatosaurus yahnahpin was named by James Filla and Patrick Redman in 1994 . Bakker made A. yahnahpin the type species of a new genus , Eobrontosaurus in 1998 , and Tschopp reclassified it as Brontosaurus yahnahpin in 2015 .
= = Classification = =
Apatosaurus is a member of the family Diplodocidae , a clade of gigantic sauropod dinosaurs . The family includes some of the longest creatures ever to walk the earth , including Diplodocus , Supersaurus , and Barosaurus . Apatosaurus is sometimes classified in the subfamily Apatosaurinae , which may also include Suuwassea , Supersaurus , and Brontosaurus . Othniel Charles Marsh described Apatosaurus as allied to Atlantosaurus within the now @-@ defunct group Atlantosauridae . In 1878 , Marsh raised his family to the rank of suborder , including Apatosaurus , Atlantosaurus , Morosaurus ( = Camarasaurus ) and Diplodocus . He classified this group within Sauropoda , a group he erected in the same study . In 1903 , Elmer S. Riggs said the name Sauropoda would be a junior synonym of earlier names ; he grouped Apatosaurus within Opisthocoelia . Sauropoda is still used as the group name . In 2011 , John Whitlock published a study that placed Apatosaurus a more basal diplodocid , sometimes less basal than Supersaurus .
Cladogram of the Diplodocidae after Tschopp , Mateus , and Benson ( 2015 ) .
= = Palaeobiology = =
It was believed throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries that sauropods like Apatosaurus were too massive to support their own weight on dry land . It was theorized that they lived partly submerged in water , perhaps in swamps . Recent findings do not support this ; sauropods are now thought to have been fully terrestrial animals . A study of diplodocid snouts showed that the square snout , large proportion of pits , and fine , subparallel scratches of the teeth of Apatosaurus suggests it was a ground @-@ height , nonselective browser . It may have eaten ferns , cycadeoids , seed ferns , horsetails , and algae . Stevens and Parish ( 2005 ) speculate that these sauropods fed from riverbanks on submerged water plants .
A 2015 study of the necks of Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus found many differences between them and other diplodocids , and that these variations may have shown that the necks of Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus were used for intraspecific combat . Various uses for the single claw on the forelimb of sauropods have been proposed . One suggestion is that they were used for defense , but their shape and size makes this unlikely . It was also possible they were for feeding , but the most probable use for the claw was grasping objects such as tree trunks when rearing .
Trackways of sauropods like Apatosaurus show that they may have had a range of around 25 – 40 km ( 1
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1951 . Neither rendition appeared in the record charts .
= = = Recording and composition = = =
On August 5 , 1951 , after a Sonny Boy Williamson II recording session , Elmore James recorded " Dust My Broom " at Ivan Scott 's Radio Service Studio in Jackson , Mississippi . James , who provided the vocals and amplified slide guitar , is accompanied by Williamson on harmonica , Leonard Ware on bass , and Frock O 'Dell on drums . The recording studio had not made the transition to tape technology , so the group was recorded direct @-@ to @-@ disc using one microphone . It was the only song recorded by James ; Trumpet 's McMurray felt that his other songs were not suitable for recording . However , Williamson and James ' cousin , Homesick James , later claimed that McMurry secretly taped the performance and that Elmore was so upset that he was unable to record a B @-@ side . McMurray denied this and presented a check made out to and endorsed by James the day before the session to show his knowledge of and agreement to participate in the recording .
To record his song , Elmore James used Robert Johnson 's first four verses and concluded with one similar to that found in Arthur Crudup 's 1949 recording :
James ' song also followed Johnson 's melody , key , and tempo , but adhered more closely to the chord changes of a typical twelve @-@ bar blues . However , according to musicologist Robert Palmer , he " transformed what had been a brisk country blues into a rocking , heavily amplified shuffle " . Besides the backing musicians , the most notable addition to the song is James ' overdriven slide guitar , which plays the repeating triplet figure and adds a twelve @-@ bar solo after the fifth verse . Compared to Johnson guitar work , Gioia describes them as " more insistent , firing out a machine @-@ gun triplet beat that would become a defining sound of the early rockers " . His use of vibrato with the slide has been called as " his distinctive jangling guitar style " by musicologist Charlie Gillett . Music critic Cub Koda notes that , in James ' hands , " this may be the most famous blues riff of all time , [ n ] ext to the four @-@ note intro of Bo Diddley 's ' I 'm a Man ' " .
= = = Releases and charts = = =
Elmore James never recorded any more of his own material for Trumpet , although he later appeared as a sideman . McMurry , who was unaware of prior recordings of the song , arranged to copyright " Dust My Broom " in James ' name and subsequently issued the single , with a rendition of " Catfish Blues " by Bobo Thomas as the B @-@ side . Both songs listed the performer as " Elmo James " , although James does not perform with Thomas . Regional record charts show that " Dust My Broom " gradually gained popularity in different parts of the U.S. It eventually entered Billboard magazine 's national Top R & B singles chart April 5 , 1952 and peaked at number nine . In 1955 , after the release of an updated version by another record label , McMurray leased the recording to Ace Records , who re @-@ released it . Jewel Records also re @-@ released the original Trumpet recording as a single in 1965 .
Since it was originally released by Trumpet , the original recording does not appear on many of James ' early compilation albums by Crown / Kent . However , it is included on King Biscuit Time , a Sonny Boy Williamson II collection by Arhoolie Records , and a James box set , The Early Classic Recordings 1951 – 1956 . The versions of " Dust My Broom " that appear on many Fire / Fury / Enjoy / Sphere / Sue compilations , such as King of the Slide Guitar , were recorded during his first session in Chicago in 1959 and last session in New York in late @-@ 1962 or early @-@ 1963 . These later renditions do not include harmonica , but have piano accompaniment .
= = = Derivatives and " Dust My Blues " = = =
The success of the single by the relatively small Trumpet Records led other record companies to pursue James in the hope of landing his follow @-@ up singles . Joe Bihari , who owned Los Angeles @-@ based Modern Records with his brothers , and his talent scout Ike Turner were one of the first . A later session in Chicago produced " I Believe " , a " Dust My Broom " knockoff , that became a number nine charting single and the first issued on the new Modern subsidiary Meteor Records in 1953 . Being able to score two hits within a year with essentially the same song by the same artist prompted record companies to exploit it as much as possible . Thus , many re @-@ workings of " Dust My Broom " with small variations were recorded by James for different record labels during his career .
In 1955 , Flair Records , another Bihari label , issued a reworking of the song titled " Dust My Blues " ( catalogue no . 1074 ) . Recorded in New Orleans at Cosimo Matassa 's J & M Studios , James was backed by veteran New Orleans musicians , including bassist Frank Fields , drummer Earl Palmer , and pianist Edward Frank . Topping calls it " a powerful reincarnation of the old broom theme " and Gillett adds that it is " a fine hard driving song " . " Dust My Blues " is perhaps the definitive re @-@ recording of the James ' original , with an updated accompaniment . It appeared in some regional charts when the single was reissued in the 1960s . Following the 1964 UK release of " Dust My Blues " , James ' slide guitar sound was adapted by many British blues @-@ oriented guitarists .
= = = Recognition = = =
Elmore James ' " Dust My Broom " was inducted into the Blues Foundation Blues Hall of Fame in 1983 ; Jim O 'Neal that it received more votes than any other record in the first year of balloting for singles . His song was also inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1998 . In 2003 , the original 1951 Trumpet recording was selected for preservation in the U.S. Library of Congress ' National Recording Registry , which commented " James is known to have tinkered with his guitar pickups and fans still argue about how he achieved his signature sound . Whatever combination of guitar and pickup was used in his slide guitar opening , Elmore James created the most recognizable guitar riff in the history of the blues " .
= Law school of Beirut =
The law school of Beirut ( also known as the law school of Berytus and the school of Roman law at Berytus ) was a center for the study of Roman law in classical antiquity located in Beirut ( Latin : Berytus ) . It flourished under the patronage of the Roman emperors and functioned as the Roman Empire 's preeminent center of jurisprudence until its destruction in A.D. 551 .
The law schools of the Roman Empire established organized repositories of imperial constitutions and institutionalized the study and practice of jurisprudence to relieve the busy imperial courts . The archiving of imperial constitutions facilitated the task of jurists in referring to legal precedents . The origins of the law school of Beirut are obscure . The earliest written mention of the school dates to 239 , when its reputation had already been established . The school attracted young , affluent Roman citizens , and its professors made major contributions to the Codex of Justinian . The school achieved such wide recognition throughout the Empire that Beirut was known as the " Mother of Laws " . Beirut was one of the few schools allowed to continue teaching jurisprudence when Byzantine emperor Justinian I shut down other provincial law schools .
The course of study at Beirut lasted for five years and consisted in the revision and analysis of classical juridic texts and imperial constitutions , in addition to case discussions . Justinian took a personal interest in the teaching process , charging the bishop of Beirut , the governor of Phoenicia Maritima and the teachers with discipline maintenance in the school .
The school 's facilities were destroyed in the aftermath of a massive earthquake that hit the Phoenician coastline . It was moved to Sidon but did not survive the Arab conquest of 635 . Ancient texts attest that the school was next to the ancient Anastasis church , vestiges of which lie beneath the Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral in Beirut 's historic center .
= = Background = =
As the guarantor of justice , the Roman emperor was expected to devote substantial amounts of time to judicial matters . He was the chief magistrate whose major prerogative ( jus ) was the ordering of all public affairs , for which he could demand assistance from anyone at any time .
With legal appeals , petitions from subjects and judicial queries of magistrates and governors , the emperors were careful to consult with the jurists ( iuris consulti ) , who were usually secretaries drafted from the equestrian order . From the reign of Augustus ( 27 BC – AD 14 ) , jurists began compiling organized repositories of imperial edicts ( constitutiones ) , and juristic scholarship became an imperially sponsored function of administration . Every new judicial decision was founded on archived legal precedents and earlier deliberations . The edict repositories and the imperially sponsored juristic scholarship gave rise to the earliest law school system of the Western world , aimed specifically at training professional jurists .
= = History = =
During the reign of Augustus , Beirut was established under the name Colonia Iulia Augusta Felix Berytus ( and granted the status of Ius Italicum ) as a colony for Battle of Actium veterans from the fifth Macedonian and the third Gallic legions . It was chosen as a regional center instead of the more prominent Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon , which had a history of belligerence against Rome .
Beirut was first mentioned in writing as a major center for the study of law in the 239 works of Gregory Thaumaturgus , the bishop of Neo @-@ Caesarea . Other early written sources do not mention when the law school was established , and the date is much debated among modern historians and scholars . Edward Gibbon suggested its founding may have been directed by locally born Emperor Alexander Severus , who reigned during A.D. 222 – 235 ; this hypothesis had been supported by Gilles Ménage , a late 17th @-@ century French scholar . Italian jurist Scipione Gentili , however , attributed the school 's foundation to Augustus , while 19th @-@ century German theologian Karl Hase advocated its establishment shortly after the victory at Actium ( 31 BC ) . Adolf Friedrich Rudorff dated it to the reign of Hadrian , while Franz Peter Bremer suggested that it opened around 200 , based on Thaumaturgus .
Theodor Mommsen linked the establishment of the law school in Beirut with the need for jurists , since the city was chosen to serve as a repository for Roman imperial edicts concerning the eastern provinces . After arriving in Beirut , these were translated into Greek , published and archived . This function was first recorded in 196 , the date of the earliest constitutions contained in the Gregorian Codex , but the city is thought to have served as a repository since earlier times . The proximity of the repository to the law school allowed the Beiruti jurists to consult archived documents and for students to learn of the most recent imperial decrees — an advantage that the law schools of Caesarea Maritima and Alexandria lacked .
The 3rd @-@ century emperors Diocletian and Maximian issued constitutions exempting the students of the law school of Beirut from compulsory service in their hometowns . In the 4th century , the Greek rhetorician Libanius reported that the school attracted young students from affluent families and deplored the school 's instructional use of Latin , which was gradually abandoned in favor of Greek in the course of the century . By the 5th century , Beirut had established its leading position and repute among the Empire 's law schools ; its teachers were highly regarded and played a chief role in the development of juristic learning in the East to the point that they were dubbed " Oecumenical Masters " . From 425 , the law school of Constantinople became a rival center of law study and was the only school , along with Beirut 's , to be maintained after Justinian I closed those of Alexandria , Caesarea Maritima and Athens in 529 because their teachings contradicted with Christian faith .
On July 9 , 551 , the Phoenician coastal cities were devastated by a high @-@ magnitude earthquake . In Beirut the earthquake was followed by a tsunami and a fire that obliterated the city . In the aftermath , 30 @,@ 000 people lost their lives , including many students from abroad . Justinian allocated funds to rebuild Beirut , and the law school was temporarily moved to the southern Phoenician city of Sidon , pending reconstruction ; the best teachers , however , moved to Constantinople . Misfortune hit Beirut again in 560 when a massive fire ravaged the recovering city . The law school was not reopened , and all prospect for its return was abandoned with the Arab conquest in 635 .
= = Academia = =
The study course at the law school of Beirut was restricted to Roman law ; it did not cover the local laws of the province of Phoenicia . Ancient texts provide an idea of the curriculum , the teaching method , the course languages and its duration .
= = = Preparatory studies = = =
Potential students were expected to have undergone grammar , rhetoric and encyclopedic sciences studies . Another prerequisite was the mastery of Greek and Latin , given that the classical juridic references and imperial constitutions used in the teaching program were written in Latin . The aspirants could pursue their preparatory studies in public schools or have private tutors .
= = = Curriculum = = =
Little is known about the Beirut law school 's curriculum before the 5th century . The Scholia Sinaitica and the Scholia to the Basilica provide glimpses of the school 's teaching method , comparable to the method of rhetoric schools at the time . The lecturer would discuss and analyze juridic texts by adding his own comments , which included references to analogous passages from imperial constitutions or from the works of prominent classical Roman jurists , such as Ulpian . He would then formulate the general legal principles and use these to resolve legal problems inspired from actual , practical cases . This method differed from the scheme of classical times in which the student had to master the law basics before engaging in case studies .
Jurisprudence was taught in Latin , even in the law schools of the East , but toward the end of the fourth and the beginning of the 5th century , Latin was supplanted by Greek at Beirut , which was the long @-@ established lingua franca of the eastern territories of the Roman Empire . A similar shift probably occurred at the school of Constantinople at about the same time .
The Omnem constitution at the beginning of the Digest is the only source of information about the existing study system in the 5th century until the Justinian reforms of 533 . The old program was a four @-@ year course to be completed before the age of 25 . The courses were based on the works of Gaius , Ulpian , Papinian and Paulus . Students attended lectures for three years and spent the fourth year in private study of Paulus ' Responsa ; they had the option to stay for a fifth year to study imperial constitutions . The students of each year were distinguished by special nicknames : first year , Dupondii ; second , Edictales ; third , Papinianistae ; fourth , Lytae .
Justinian 's Omnem constitution fixed the duration of the legal course in the schools of Beirut and Constantinople at five years . The courses consisted of lectures and self @-@ study using materials advanced in his Corpus Juris Civilis , namely the Institutiones ( Institutes ) , Digesta ( Digest ) and Codex ( Code ) . First @-@ year students were lectured on the Institutes and on the first part of the Digest ; second @-@ year students were taught the greater part of the Digest , and third @-@ year students had to learn various texts from Papinian and the leges singulares . There were no lectures during the course 's fourth year but the pupils studied the remainder of the Digest . Nicknames were still given according to the year of study , but Justinian changed the name of first @-@ year students from the frivolous Dupondii ( which means " two pennies " ) to Iustiniani novi and dubbed fifth @-@ year students Prolytae . At the end of the course , graduands were given certificates allowing them to work as court advocates or in the imperial civil service .
= = = Professorial body = = =
Ancient texts reveal the names and deeds of some of the most notable law professors at the Beirut school . The scarce sources include historical accounts , juridic works , anthologies , ancient correspondences and funerary inscriptions .
Antioch @-@ based rhetoric teacher Libanius wrote many letters of correspondence to Domninus the Elder , a 4th @-@ century law school professor . In 360 , Libanius invited Domninus to leave Beirut and teach with him at the rhetoric school of Antioch . Domninus apparently declined the offer , since later correspondence to him from Libanius , between 361 and 364 , served as recommendations for law school candidates .
The most brilliant era of Beirut 's law school , spanning the century between 400 and 500 , was known as the era of the " Ecumenical Masters " ( Greek : τῆς οἰκουμένης διδάσκαλοι ) . During this period , a succession of seven highly esteemed law masters was largely responsible for the revival of legal education in the Eastern Roman Empire . The seven revered masters , cited with praise by 6th @-@ century scholars , were Cyrillus , Patricius , Domninus , Demosthenes , Eudoxius , Leontius and Amblichus .
Cyrillus was the founder of the ecumenical school of jurists . He is believed to have taught as of c . 400 or c . 410 . Styled " the great " due to his reputation as a teacher , he was known for his direct use of ancient sources of law and for interpreting jurists such as Ulpian and Papinian . Cyrillus wrote a precise treatise on definitions that supplied the materials for many important scholia appended to the first and second titles of the eleventh book of the Basilica . Patricius was praised in the third preface of the Justinian Digest ( Tanta @-@ Dedoken ) as a distinguished professor of the Beirut law school . Archaeological excavations done in Beirut at the turn of the 20th century revealed a funerary monument believed to have belonged to Patricius . The son of Eudoxius , Leontius was described by ecclesiastical historian Zacharias Rhetor , who was his first @-@ year student in 487 or 488 , to have a great reputation in the legal field . He was raised to the office of Praetorian prefect of the East under Emperor Anastasius I between 503 and 504 , and became Magister militum in 528 . Leontius was also involved as a commissioner in the preparation of the first codex of Justinian . His contemporary , Amblichus , wrote a commentary on Ulpian 's Libri ad Edictum .
Historical sources also tell of Euxenius , a teacher at the Beirut law school who taught during the times of the " Ecumenical Masters " . Euxenius was the brother of the city 's bishop Eustathius and was involved in the 460 religious controversy caused by Timothy Aelurus , which opposed the Miaphysites to the followers of the Council of Chalcedon . Dorotheus , Anatolius ( son of Leontius ) and Julianus were school professors contemporary to Justinian I. The first two were summoned to the imperial court and commissioned to draft the Digesta . Under the supervision of Tribonian , Dorotheus also collaborated with Theophilus , a Constantinopolitan law teacher , in drafting the Institutiones . Julianus , the last known professor of Beirut 's law school , was extolled by Theaetetus as " the light of the law " . After the earthquake , Julianus left Beirut and settled in Constantinople , where he authored the Epitome Iuliani in 555 .
Under Justinian , there were eight teachers in the law schools of the Byzantine Empire , presumably four in each of Beirut and Constantinople 's schools . Justinian mandated the supervision and enforcement of discipline in the school of Beirut to the teachers , the city 's bishop and the governor of Phoenicia Maritima .
= = = Notable students = = =
While most of the law school 's students are not remembered by history , ancient historians and sources recount the stories of some of those who were deemed notable and achieved fame .
According to Eusebius of Caesarea , Pamphilus of Caesarea was born into a rich family in Beirut in the latter half of the 3rd century and attended its law school . Pamphilus later became the presbyter of Caesarea Maritima and the founder of its extensive Christian library . He is celebrated as a martyr by both the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church . Eusebius also tells of martyred brothers Aphian and Aedesius , born to a noble Lycian family . They converted to Christianity while studying law in Beirut and were persecuted and executed for their beliefs .
Fourth @-@ century historian Eunapius wrote of Anatolius , a high @-@ ranking Roman official known to his enemies as Azutrio . Anatolius occupied the offices of consul of Syria , vicarius of the Diocese of Asia , proconsul of Constantinople , urban prefect of Constantinople in 354 , and Praetorian prefect of Illyricum until his death in 360 . In his account of Anatolius , Eunapius summarized : " He reached the summit of the science of law . Nothing about this is surprising because Beirut , his homeland , is the mother and nurse of these studies " . Libanius ' correspondence with Gaianus of Tyre discusses the latter 's achievements after his graduation from the law school of Beirut ; Gaianus became the consular governor of Phoenicia in 362 . Gazan lawyer and church historian Sozomen , also a law student at Beirut , wrote in his Historia Ecclesiastica about Triphyllius , a convert to Christendom who became the bishop of Nicosia . Triphyllius received juridic training in Beirut and was criticized by his teacher Saint Spyridon for his atticism and for using legal vocabulary instead of that of the Bible .
Zacharias Rhetor studied law at Beirut between 487 and 492 , then worked as a lawyer in Constantinople until his imperial contacts won him the appointment as bishop of Mytilene . Among Rhetor 's works is the biography of Severus , the last miaphysite patriarch of Antioch and one of the founders of the Syriac Orthodox Church , who had also been a law student in Beirut as of 486 . Another late 5th @-@ century student was John Rufus , an anti @-@ Chalcedonian priest who moved to Maiuma after the expulsion of his master , Peter the Fuller . In Maiuma , John Rufus authored the Plerophoriae and the Life of Peter the Iberian .
= = Location = =
Historically , Roman stationes or auditoria , where teaching was done , stood next to public libraries housed in temples . This arrangement was copied in the Roman colony at Beirut . The first mention of the school 's premises dates to 350 , but the description does not specify its location . In the 5th century , Zacharias Rhetor reported that the school stood next to the " Temple of God " , the description of which permitted its identification with the Byzantine Anastasis cathedral .
At the turn of the 20th century , archaeological excavations in the souq between the Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral and Saint George Cathedral of the Maronites unearthed a funerary stele etched with an epitaph to a man named Patricius , " whose career was consecrated for the study of law " . The epitaph was identified as being dedicated to the famous 5th @-@ century law school professor . In 1994 , archaeological diggings underneath the Saint George Greek Orthodox Cathedral in Beirut Central District 's Nejmeh Square identified structural elements of the Anastasis cathedral , but they were restricted to an area of 316 square metres ( 3 @,@ 400 sq ft ) and failed to unearth the interred school .
= = Reputation and legacy = =
The law school of Beirut supplied the Roman Empire , especially its eastern provinces , with lawyers and magistrates for three centuries until the school 's destruction . The influx of students was abundant and persistent because of the affluence , honor and secured employment offered by the profession . A degree in law became highly sought following an edict issued in 460 by Emperor Leo I. The edict ordered that candidates for the bar of the Eastern praetorian prefecture had to produce certificates of proficiency from the law teachers who instructed them at one of the recognized law schools of the Empire .
The in @-@ depth studies of the juridic classical works in Beirut , and later in Constantinople , conferred an unprecedented scientific dimension to jurisprudence ; this academic movement gave rise to the minds behind Justinian 's juridic reforms . As a result of the new understanding of the classical juridic texts , the imperial laws of the late 5th and early 6th centuries were clearer and more coherent than those of the early Postclassical Era , according to legal historian George Mousourakis and other scholars .
The school garnered accolades throughout its existence and was bestowed with the title Berytus Nutrix Legum ( Beirut , Mother of Laws ) by Eunapius , Libanius , Zacharias Rhetor and finally by Emperor Justinian . His 533 Omnem constitution read :
These three works which we have composed we desire should be put in their hands in royal cities as well as in the most fair city of Berytus , which may well be styled the nursing mother of law , as indeed previous Emperors have commanded , but in no other places which did not enjoy the same privilege in old times , as we have heard that even in the brilliant city of Alexandria , and in Caesarea and others , there have been ignorant men who , instead of doing their duty , conveyed spurious lessons to their pupils , and such as these we desire to make desist from that attempt by laying down the above limits , so that , if they should hereafter be guilty of such conduct and carry on their duties outside the royal cities and the metropolis Berytus , they may be punished by a fine of ten pounds of gold and be expelled from the city in which instead of teaching the law they transgress the law .
From the 3rd century , the school tolerated Christian teachings , producing a number of students who would become influential church leaders and bishops , such as Pamphilus of Caesarea , Severus of Antioch and Aphian . Under Cyrillus , the first of the Ecumenical Masters , the Christian faith was consolidated as an integral element of the juristic training .
Two professors from the law school of Beirut , Dorotheus and Anatolius , had such a repute for their wisdom and knowledge that they were especially praised by Justinian in the opening of his Tanta constitution . The emperor summoned both professors to assist his minister Tribonian in compiling the Codex of Justinian , the Empire 's body of civil laws issued between 529 and 534 . The Tanta passage reads :
Dorotheus , an illustrious man , of great eloquence and quæstorian rank , whom , when he was engaged in delivering the law to students in the most brilliant city of Berytus , we , moved by his great reputation and renown , summoned to our presence and made to share in the work in question ; again , Anatolius , an illustrious person , a magistrate , who , like the last , was invited to this work when acting as an exponent of law at Berytus , a man who came of an ancient stock , as both his father Leontius and his grandfather Eudoxius left behind them an excellent report in respect of legal learning ...
For centuries following its compilation , the work of Justinian 's commission was studied and incorporated into the legal systems of different nations and has profoundly impacted the Byzantine law and the Western legal tradition . Peter Stein asserts that the texts of ancient Roman law have constituted " a kind of legal supermarket , in which lawyers of different periods have found what they needed at the time . "
The Corpus Juris Civilis remained the basis of Byzantine law until the publication of the Ecloga legum in 741 by Emperor Leo III and his son and co @-@ regent Constantine V. The Ecloga was a shortened and more philanthropic version of the Codex of Justinian , whose dispositions were more in tune with Christian values . It was written in Greek , since Latin had fallen into disuse , and its provisions continued to be applied in later centuries in the neighboring Balkan and Asia Minor regions , with surviving translations in Slavic , Armenian and Arabic . Emperor Basil I , who ruled in the 9th century , issued the Prochiron and the Epanagoge , which were legal compilations invalidating parts of the Ecloga and restoring the Justinian laws . The Prochiron served as the basis for the legal writings of the 12th @-@ century first archbishop of Serbia , Saint Sava . His legal compilation was intended for the Serbian church but the influential work was adopted as the basic constitution for the Bulgarian and Russian orthodox churches . Around 900 , Emperor Leo VI commissioned the Basilica , a Greek rewriting of the Justinian laws that is considered the ancestor of modern Greece 's law until the enactment of the Code of 1940 .
The Codex of Justinian also had a great influence on Western law , particularly on the juridic history and tradition of western Europe and its American colonies . In Italy , a single complete copy of the Justinian Digest survived and lay forgotten until its rediscovery in 1070 . In 1088 , Irnerius , a jurist and teacher of the liberal arts in Bologna , was the first to teach the newly recovered Digest and the rest of Justinian 's books . He and his successors explained the Roman laws to their students by means of glosses or explanatory notes written on the edges or between the text lines . The Roman legal concepts resulting from the studies of these " glossators " spread to the universities and law courts of Europe . The Roman law revival that started in Italy , during the Middle Ages , was taken up by France , the Netherlands and Germany in later centuries . The enactment of the German Civil Code in 1900 put an end to the application of extant forms of law derived from the Justinian codes in most European states .
The reputation of Beirut as " mother of laws " reemerged in modern times . In 1913 , Paul Huvelin , the first dean of the newly established Université Saint @-@ Joseph 's Faculty of Law , dedicated the inaugural speech to the classical law school of Beirut in an effort to confer legitimacy to the new academy . The epithet Berytus Nutrix Legum is used as a motto and as part of the emblem of the Beirut Bar Association , founded in 1919 . It is also featured in the seal and flag of the Municipality of Beirut .
= Ralambo =
Ralambo was the ruler of the Kingdom of Imerina in the central Highlands region of Madagascar from 1575 to 1612 . Ruling from Ambohidrabiby , Ralambo expanded the realm of his father , Andriamanelo , and was the first to assign the name of Imerina to the region . Oral history has preserved numerous legends about this king , including several dramatic military victories , contributing to his heroic and near @-@ mythical status among the kings of ancient Imerina . The circumstances surrounding his birth , which occurred on the highly auspicious date of the first of the year , are said to be supernatural in nature and further add to the mystique of this sovereign .
Oral history attributes numerous significant and lasting political and cultural innovations to King Ralambo . He is credited with popularizing the consumption of beef in the Kingdom of Imerina and celebrating this discovery with the establishment of the fandroana New Year 's festival which traditionally took place on the day of Ralambo 's birth . According to legend , circumcision and polygamy were also introduced under his rule , as was the division of the noble class ( andriana ) into four sub @-@ castes . Oral history furthermore traces the tradition of royal idols ( sampy ) in Imerina to the reign of Ralambo , who made heavy use of these supernatural objects to expand his realm and consolidate the divine nature of his sovereignty . Due to the enduring cultural legacy left by this king , Ralambo is often considered a key figure in the development of Merina cultural identity .
= = Early life = =
Born in the sacred highland village of Alasora to King Andriamanelo and Queen Randapavola , Ralambo was the only one of his parents ' children to survive to adulthood . According to one legend , as a child he may have been known by the name Rabiby , being given the name Ralambo after successfully killing a particularly ferocious wild boar ( lambo ) in the woods . Another story attributes his name to a wild boar that walked past the threshold of the house where his mother was resting shortly after giving birth to him . However , both of these explanations are likely to have originated at some point after his reign ; it is more probable that he took the name Ralambo after propagating the consumption of the meat of the zebu , called lambo in the proto @-@ Malagasy language and the Malayo @-@ Polynesian tongue from which it derived .
A popular legend imbues the birth of Ralambo with a mystical character . The legend relates that his mother , who was known in her youth as Ramaitsoanala ( " Green Forest " ) , was the daughter of the Vazimba water goddess Ivorombe ( " Great Bird " ) . With the assistance of her celestial mother , Ramaitsoanala confronted and overcame numerous obstacles . After her marriage to Andriamanelo ( whereupon she assumed the name Queen Randapavola ) , one of these obstacles took the form of reproductive difficulties : six consecutive times Randapavola miscarried or lost her children in infancy . When she was pregnant with her seventh child , the queen was especially afraid for her unborn child because the number seven was traditionally associated with death . This time , Randapavola sought the guidance of an astrologer to protect the unborn child from an evil fate . On his advice she chose to defy the tradition of delivering the baby at her parents ' home village of Ambohidrabiby , rather choosing the village of Alasora , to the north of Antananarivo , because this cardinal direction embodied great power . According to the tale , the queen gave birth in a house built to resemble a boat ( called a kisambosambo ) evocative of the transoceanic origins of the Malagasy people . There , Randapavola took the name Rasolobe upon delivering a healthy son , Ralambo , on the first day of the first month of the year ( Alahamady ) , the most auspicious date for the birth of a sovereign .
= = Reign = =
Ralambo 's many enduring and significant political and cultural achievements of his reign have earned him a heroic and near mythical status among the greatest ancient sovereigns of Merina history . Ralambo was the first to assign the name of Imerina ( " Land of the Merina people " ) to the central highland territories where he ruled . He moved his capital from Alasora to Ambohidrabiby , location of the former capital of his maternal grandfather King Rabiby . The first sub @-@ divisions of the andriana noble caste were created when Ralambo split it into four ranks . He introduced the traditions of circumcision and family intermarriage ( such as between parent and step @-@ child , or between half @-@ siblings ) among Merina nobles , these practices having already existed among certain other Malagasy ethnic groups . The practice of sanctifying deceased Merina sovereigns is also believed to have originated with this king .
Ralambo is credited with introducing the tradition of polygamy in Imerina . The Merina legend of the origin of this practice was recorded in the 19th @-@ century collection of Merina andriana oral history and genealogy entitled Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara . According to this source , Ralambo had already married once when his servant encountered the beautiful princess Rafotsimarobavina and four female companions gathering edible greens in a valley west of Ambohidrabiby . Upon hearing of her beauty , Ralambo instructed the servant to make her a marriage offer on his behalf . The servant asked three times , and each time the princess refused to give her consent , instead replying " If Ralambo is king and I am queen . " The fourth time , after Ralambo had instructed his servant to carry her to him by force , the princess agreed to marry on the condition that it be done properly with the consent of her parents , a condition to which the king agreed . Ralambo then informed his first wife of his intention to marry again , to which she replied , " I approve your decision , " and the marriage was made . Ralambo ultimately took four wives in total : Rafotsitohina , Rafotsiramarobavina , Ratsitohinina and Rafotsindrindra . These marriages produced three daughters and twelve sons , the eldest of whom , Andriantompokoindrindra , was passed over for Ralambo 's succession in favor of his second son , Andrianjaka .
Ralambo expanded and defended his realm through a combination of diplomacy and successful military action aided by the procurement of the first firearms in Imerina by way of trade with kingdoms on the coast . According to legend , when a group of warriors from a village near the Ikopa river attempted to attack the village of Ambohibaoladina , Ralambo so frightened the warriors with the noise of a single shotgun blast that every warrior ran into the Ikopa river and drowned . Imposing a capitation tax for the first time ( the vadin @-@ aina , or " price of secure life " ) , he was able to establish the first standing Merina royal army and established units of blacksmiths and silversmiths to equip them . He famously repelled an attempted invasion by an army of the powerful western coastal Betsimisaraka people at a site now known as Mandamako ( " Lazy " ) at Androkaroka , north of Alasora . The Betsimisaraka traditionally only fought at night and so were found asleep in their camp by Ralambo and his men and were easily vanquished . In another famous incident , Ralambo 's army set a trap for a Vazimba king named Andrianafovaratra who claimed to control thunder . Ralambo 's emissary , a man named Andriamandritany , was sent to the Vazimba king to invite him to participate in a contest of superiority against Ralambo . While Andrianafovaratra traveled to join Ralambo for the competition , Andriamandritany set fire to the Vazimba capital of Imerinkasinina . The Vazimba king saw the smoke and began to hasten back to the village but was captured in an ambush laid by Ralambo 's troops and was forced to exile himself in the forests far to the east .
= = = Fandroana = = =
According to oral history , the wild zebu cattle that roamed the Highlands were first domesticated for food in Imerina under the reign of Ralambo . Different legends attribute the discovery that zebu were edible to the king 's servant or to Ralambo himself . Ralambo disseminated this discovery throughout his realm , as well as the practice and design of cattle pen construction . Ralambo is likewise credited with founding the traditional ceremony of the fandroana ( the " Royal Bath " ) , although others have suggested he merely added certain practices to the celebration of a long @-@ standing ritual . Among the Merina , legend characterizes the fandroana as a festival established by Ralambo to celebrate his culinary discovery .
According to one version of the story , while traversing the countryside , Radama and his men came across a wild zebu so exceptionally fat that the king decided to make a burnt offering of it . As the zebu flesh cooked , the enticing smell led Ralambo to taste the meat . He declared zebu meat to be fit for human consumption . In honor of the discovery , he decided to establish a holiday called fandroana that would be distinguished by the consumption of well @-@ fattened zebu meat . The holiday was to be celebrated on the day of his birth , which coincided with the first day of the year . To this end , the holiday symbolically represented a community @-@ wide renewal that would take place over a period of several days before and after the first of the year .
Although the precise form of the original holiday cannot be known with certainty and its traditions have evolved over time , 18th- and 19th @-@ century accounts provide insight into the festival as it was practiced at that time . Accounts from these centuries indicate that all family members were required to reunite in their home villages during the festival period . Estranged family members were expected to attempt to reconcile . Homes were cleaned and repaired and new housewares and clothing were purchased . The symbolism of renewal was particularly embodied in the traditional sexual permissiveness encouraged on the eve of the fandroana ( characterized by early 19th @-@ century British missionaries as an " orgy " ) and the following morning 's return to rigid social order with the sovereign firmly at the helm of the kingdom . On this morning , the first day of the year , a red rooster was traditionally sacrificed and its blood used to anoint the sovereign and others present at the ceremony . Afterward the sovereign would bathe in sanctified water , then sprinkle it upon attendees to purify and bless them and ensure an auspicious start to the year . Children would celebrate the fandroana by carrying lighted torches and lanterns in a nighttime processional through their villages . The zebu meat eaten over the course of the festival was primarily grilled or consumed as jaka , a preparation reserved uniquely for this holiday . This delicacy was made during the festival by sealing shredded zebu meat with suet in a decorative clay jar . The confit would then be conserved in an underground pit for twelve months to be served at the next year 's fandroana .
= = = Sampy = = =
Amulets and idols fashioned from assorted natural materials have occupied an important place among many ethnic groups of Madagascar for centuries . Ody , personal amulets believed to protect or allocate powers to the wearer , were commonplace objects possessed by anyone from slave children to kings . The name sampy was given to those amulets that , while physically indistinguishable from ody , were distinct in that their powers extended over an entire community . The sampy were often personified — complete with a distinct personality — and offered their own house with guardians dedicated to their service . Ralambo amassed twelve of the most reputed and powerful sampy from neighboring communities . He furthermore transformed the nature of the relationship between sampy and ruler : whereas previously the sampy had been seen as tools at the disposal of community leaders , under Ralambo they became divine protectors of the leader 's sovereignty and the integrity of the state which would be preserved through their power on the condition that the line of sovereigns ensured the sampy were shown the respect due to them . By collecting the twelve greatest sampy — twelve being a sacred number in Merina cosmology — and transforming their nature , Ralambo strengthened the supernatural power and legitimacy of the royal line of Imerina .
The Tantara ny Andriana eto Madagasikara , the 19th @-@ century transcription of Merina oral history , offers an account of the idols ' introduction into Imerina . According to legend , one day during Ralambo 's reign a woman named Kalobe arrived in Imerina carrying a small object wrapped in banana leaves and grass . She had traveled from her village located at Isondra in Betsileo country to the south which had been destroyed by fire , walking the great distance and traveling only at night in order to deliver to the king what she called Kelimalaza ( " the Little Famous One " ) , giving the impression that it was no less than the greatest treasure in the land . Ralambo took the sampy and built a house for it in a nearby village . He then selected a group of adepts who were to study under Kalobe to learn the mysteries of Kelimalaza . Oral history maintains that Kalobe was " made to disappear " after the adepts ' training was completed in order to prevent her from absconding with the precious idol .
Not long after , the legend continues , a group of Sakalava ( or , by some accounts , Vazimba ) warriors were preparing to attack a village north of Alasora called Ambohipeno . Ralambo announced that it would be sufficient to throw a rotten egg at the warriors , and Kelimalaza would take care of the rest . According to oral history , the egg was thrown and hit a warrior in the head , killing him on contact ; his corpse fell onto another warrior and killed him , and this corpse fell onto another and so forth , until the warriors had all been destroyed , forevermore confirming the power of Kelimalaza as the protector of the kingdom in the minds of the Merina populace . Similarly , at the besieged Imerina village of Ambohimanambola , invoking Kelimalaza was said to have produced a massive hailstorm that wiped out the enemy warriors .
The honored place that Ralambo awarded to Kelimalaza encouraged others like Kalobe to bring their own sampy to Ralambo from neighboring lands where they had been introduced long before by the Antaimoro . First after Kelimalaza was Ramahavaly , said to control snakes and repel attacks . The next arrival , Manjakatsiroa , protected the sovereignty of the king from rivals and became the favorite of Ralambo , who kept it always near him . Afterward came Rafantaka , believed to protect against injury and death ; others followed , all of Antaimoro origin with the possible exception of Mosasa , which had come from the Tanala forest people to the east . The propagation of similar sampy at the service of less powerful citizens consequently increased throughout Imerina under Ralambo 's rule : nearly every village chief , as well as many common families , had one in their possession and claimed the powers and protection their communal sampy offered them . These lesser sampy were destroyed or reduced to the status of ody ( personal talismans ) by the end of the reign of Ralambo 's son , Andrianjaka , officially leaving only twelve truly powerful sampy ( known as the sampin 'andriana : the " Royal Sampy " ) which were all in the possession of the king . These royal sampy , including Kelimalaza , continued to be worshiped until their supposed destruction in a bonfire by Queen Ranavalona II upon her public conversion to Christianity in 1869 .
= = Death and succession = =
Ralambo is believed to have died around 1612 . He was buried in the traditional stone tomb of his grandfather , King Rabiby , which still stands at the highland village of Ambohidrabiby . According to a 19th @-@ century source , his death was mourned for a full year . His burial reportedly took place at night and a royal mausoleum ( trano masina ) was constructed over his tomb , a royal Merina tradition that would continue until the collapse of the 19th century Kingdom of Madagascar . The rules of succession established by Andriamanelo obliged Ralambo to pass over his eldest son ( by his second wife ) in favor of the succession of Andrianjaka , his younger son by his first wife , Rafotsindrindramanjaka .
= Petersen Rock Garden =
Petersen Rock Garden , formerly Petersen 's Rock Garden and also known as the Petersen Rock Gardens , is a rock garden and museum on 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) , located between the cities of Bend and Redmond in Deschutes County , Oregon , United States . Rasmus Petersen , a Danish immigrant who settled in Central Oregon in the early 1900s , began constructing the garden in 1935 using rocks he found within an 85 @-@ mile ( 137 km ) radius of his family home . Petersen constructed detailed miniature castles , churches and other small buildings and monuments from a variety of rock types . He incorporated other design elements such as bridges , water features and natural landscaping . Petersen worked on the garden until his death in 1952 ; the garden has remained in his family 's care since then . The garden , considered a roadside attraction with novelty architecture , includes roaming peafowl and a museum with a gift shop that sells rocks .
In 2011 , Petersen Rock Garden was named one of Oregon 's Most Endangered Places by the Historic Preservation League of Oregon ( now known as Restore Oregon ) . In 2012 , accidental damage to one of the stone bridges by a contractor catalyzed an effort to document the garden using laser scanning and other technologies . The garden was closed temporarily in 2013 to undergo repair and review for listing on the National Register of Historic Places . Petersen has been praised for his creative work , and the garden has received a positive reception for its uniqueness and local significance . Listing on the National Register was achieved on October 30 , 2013 .
= = Description = =
Petersen Rock Garden , considered a roadside attraction with " eclectic " novelty architecture , is located 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) off U.S. Route 97 , 10 miles ( 16 km ) north of Bend and 7 miles ( 11 km ) south of Redmond . It contains dozens of " fanciful " and " intricately detailed " miniature buildings , including castles , churches and cottages , constructed from agate , jasper , lava , malachite , obsidian , petrified wood and thundereggs . The 4 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) grounds also contain roaming peafowl and a small museum with a gift shop that sells rocks , including crystals , fossils and semiprecious gemstones . The museum features a fluorescent room with miniature castles constructed from manganese , tungsten , uranium and zinc that glow in the dark . Petersen Rock Garden is open every day from 9 a.m. until closing time , which varies depending on the season . As of 2009 , admission is $ 4 @.@ 50 for adults , at self @-@ pay stations . It is not a member of the Oregon Museums Association .
= = History = =
Rasmus Petersen , a Danish immigrant who settled in Central Oregon in the early 1900s at age 17 , began constructing the rock garden on the grounds of his family home in 1935 . The " eccentric " farmer used rocks that he found within an 85 @-@ mile ( 137 km ) radius . He attempted to evoke his native country with his designs , but also created monuments to the United States , including a concrete American flag and a 7 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) replica of the Statue of Liberty . Petersen incorporated other design elements such as bridges , water features ( lagoons , lily ponds and streams ) and natural landscaping . He worked on the garden until his death in 1952 ; the garden has remained in his family 's care since then . A bronze plaque in front of the Statue of Liberty replica reads : " Enjoy yourself : it 's later than you think . " Petersen 's Rock Garden became known as Petersen Rock Garden in the mid @-@ 1950s . At its height , supported by traffic from the Old Bend @-@ Redmond Highway , the garden drew approximately 150 @,@ 000 visitors a year .
The garden is managed and owned by Petersen 's grand @-@ stepdaughter , Susan Caward , and her family , who has struggled to maintain the lawns and dozens of sculptures . In 2011 , the garden was named one of Oregon 's Most Endangered Places by the Historic Preservation League of Oregon ( now known as Restore Oregon ) . The " Endangered Places " program raises awareness of the state 's " historic treasures in need of the advocacy and support to save them from demise " . According to the League , the deteriorating garden needed " maintenance , a business plan and a publicity campaign to ensure stewardship and funds are available to overcome vandalism , theft , and condition issues " . In 2012 , a contractor accidentally damaged one of the stone bridges , catalyzing an effort to document the garden using laser scanning and other technologies . The Portland @-@ based company i @-@ Ten measured and archived the site 's geospatial data , allowing potential future rebuilding to match the original construction .
The garden was closed from February 1 through May 24 , 2013 to undergo repair and review for listing on the National Register of Historic Places . The family and ten volunteers worked for nearly six months to restore the grounds . The cleanup process included the removal of dead vegetation and junk from outbuildings , and an estate sale that included items from before Petersen 's death . On May 25 , 2013 , Petersen Rock Garden hosted its " grand reopening " . The opening was attended by members of the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs , who sang and blessed the garden . Caward has considered opening a cafe on the grounds , and turning the family home into a bed and breakfast . Owen Evans , a friend of the family who has assisted with the restoration , has also envisioned a museum reorganization , a small amphitheater to host outdoor concerts and other events , and additional rock sculptures mimicking Petersen 's style .
Petersen Rock Garden was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 30 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
According to the Northwest Digital Archives , photographer Myron Symons typed the following description of the garden during the 1940s within a photo album that is now part of University of Washington Libraries , Special Collections :
Miniature castles , picturesque fountains and beautiful terraces within the grounds pictured here , on the Rasmus Peterson [ sic ] place between Bend and Redmond , Oregon , tell their own stories , but unless the visitor inspects the grounds carefully , and with a questing heart , he will fail to read the strange stories told by the ancient stones used in the construction .... Look twice at that bit of petrified wood , for it is a remnant of a great redwood forest that once flourished in Central Oregon .... Examine that banded rock carefully : It is a bit of a thunderegg hatched in the lavas of old Oregon .... Feel the cool surface of those glass @-@ like rocks : They are volcanic glasses melted in plutonic fires .... Trace the growth rings on that bit of petrified sequoia : They tell a story of weather born of oceans that swept over beaches now elevated into Oregon mountains . Enjoy the blooms of these rock gardens , but do not overlook the stories of the rocks .
Petersen Rock Garden has attracted visitors from around the world . In 2009 , The Oregonian 's Terry Richard wrote that Petersen 's work is " more than a half @-@ century old , but it 's still amazing " . The Historic Preservation League of Oregon considers the garden a " real gem " for its local significance and its " unique expression of mid @-@ century roadside architecture " . Moon Publications described it as a " full @-@ fledged rock fantasy " and a " rock garden to end all rock gardens " , with a " funky " museum . Via , the online magazine for the American Automobile Association 's West Coast club , called the garden " folksy " and Petersen " imaginative " for his work .
The garden has inspired at least one other Oregon resident to construct rock sculptures . Following his visit to Petersen Rock Garden in the early 1980s , Ira McKissen built nearly a dozen castles on the terraces of his Rowena home ; some of them have since been relocated to his daughter 's house , located 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of The Dalles along the Historic Columbia River Highway ( U.S. Route 30 ) . In 2013 , Pennan Brae released a music video for the song " Don 't Know Nothing ' Bout Love " , which was filmed at Petersen Rock Garden .
= Nicholas Fuller ( lawyer ) =
Sir Nicholas Fuller ( 1543 – 23 February 1620 ) was an English barrister and Member of Parliament . After studying at Christ 's College , Cambridge , Fuller became a barrister of Gray 's Inn . His legal career there began prosperously — he was employed by the Privy Council to examine witnesses — but was hampered later by his representation of The Puritans , a religious group which did not conform with the established Church of England . Fuller was repeatedly in contention with the ecclesiastical courts , including the Star Chamber and Court of High Commission , and was once expelled for the zeal with which he defended his client . In 1593 he was returned as the Member of Parliament for St Mawes , where he campaigned against the extension of recusancy laws . Outside of Parliament , he successfully brought a patents case which not only undermined the right of the Crown to issue patents but accurately predicted the attitude taken by the Statute of Monopolies two decades later .
Returned to Parliament in 1604 for the City of London , Fuller became considered the " leader of the opposition " due to his conflict with the government over policy , fighting the impositions on currants , the patent on blue starch , and opposing the proposed union with Scotland on legal and economic grounds . In 1607 , in what became known as Fuller 's Case , he again began challenging the Court of High Commission , and eventually got the Court of Common Pleas under Sir Edward Coke to agree that the common law courts had the power to free imprisoned ecclesiastical prisoners . These encounters with the ecclesiastical courts were described as " bruising " , but by 1610 he was considered an " elder statesman " , introducing bills on ecclesiastical reform and the statutory management of customs duties . He continued to sit in Parliament until his death on 23 February 1620 .
= = Early life and career = =
Fuller was born in 1543 to Nicholas Fuller of Neat 's Hall on the Isle of Sheppey , a merchant from London . In December 1560 he was admitted to Christ 's College , Cambridge , and graduated in 1563 , joining Gray 's Inn during the same year . After an initial upset ( on 26 May 1579 , it was noted that " Mr Fuller , Reader of Staple Inn , is discharged for negligence , and fined £ 1 " ) , Fuller was highly successful at Gray 's ; he became Reader on 26 May 1587 , Dean of the chapel on 8 February 1588 and Treasurer in 1591 . Fuller was a Puritan , and much engaged in their legal and other activities , for example , he arranged a lecturer for St Christopher le Stocks , a church in London , in April 1577 .
From December 1588 he was employed repeatedly by the Privy Council to examine witnesses , and in 1590 was charged with interrogating Sir Thomas Fitzherbert . Although his career had begun promisingly , Fuller soon found himself at odds with the authorities due to his religion , and the religion of those he chose to represent . A favoured barrister of Puritans prosecuted based on their faith , Fuller represented John Udall at Croydon assizes , when Udall was charged with having written A Discovery of the Discipline , an allegedly seditious book . The judge instructed the jury to find Udall guilty , and " leave the felony to us " ; Fuller protested so vociferously at this that he was forced out of the court . In 1591 , following the collapse of their case in front of the Court of High Commission , Thomas Cartwright and other Puritan ministers were tried by the Star Chamber ; Fuller provided legal representation . The case was made more complicated when several of the ministers , on 16 July 1591 , " proclaimed Elizabeth deposed , and William Hacket the new messiah and king of Europe " ; this certainly was sedition , and saw the ministers confined to Fleet Prison , along with Fuller for offering to represent them . Cartwright and several other ministers were never convicted , however , which is attributed to " the highly professional resistance of the puritan lawyers [ which ] perhaps owed much to Nicholas Fuller " . Fuller was confined until 15 August .
= = Parliament = =
= = = Puritanism and patents = = =
Fuller was returned for St Mawes in 1593 , apparently thanks to the influence of William Cecil , and immediately began campaigning against government attempts to extend recusancy laws to Protestant splitters from the Church of England . The government introduced two such bills ; the second , sent down from the House of Lords on 5 April 1593 , was protested down by Fuller as " dangerous to good subjects " , because it made " schisms to be equal with seditions and treasons , which is against the equity of the former law " . According to records , " upon a motion of Mr Fuller ’ s , the whole committee assented to the striking out of the title and the whole preamble . No man spake for it " . While an MP , Fuller became involved in patents cases , which continued after he left Parliament in 1597 .
Patents were initially intended to provide protection to merchants of new industries , making England an attractive country to conduct business in . The granting of these patents was highly popular with the monarch , both before and after the statute of Monopolies , because of the potential for raising revenue . A patentee was expected to pay heavily for the patent , and unlike a tax raise ( another method of raising Crown money ) any public unrest as a result of the patent was normally directed at the patentee , not the monarch . Over time , this became more and more problematic : instead of temporary monopolies on specific , imported industries , long @-@ term monopolies came about over common commodities , including salt and starch . These " odious monopolies " led to a showdown between the Crown and Parliament , in which it was agreed , on 28 November 1601 , to turn the power to administer patents over to the common law courts ; at the same time , Elizabeth revoked a number of the more restrictive and damaging monopolies . One of the monopolies capable of being addressed at the common law was that over playing cards , which was granted to Edward Darcy on 13 June 1600 . Darcy , in 1602 , began proceedings against a Mr Allen for infringing on this patent .
The Crown was represented by Sir Edward Coke , then Attorney @-@ General for England and Wales , while George Croke and Fuller appeared for Allen . Coke argued that the Crown had the right to restrict " games of common good " , while Croke said that the free trade principles of the City of London rendered the patent invalid . Fuller , however , " stole the show " . He stated that only a new trade , or " a new engine tending to the furtherance of a trade that never was used before ; and that for the good of the realm , the King may grant him a monopoly patent for some reasonable time until the subjects may learn the same , in consideration of the good that he doth bring by his invention , otherwise not " . In this he accurately predicted the attitude taken by the Statute of Monopolies two decades later .
= = = Leader of the opposition = = =
Fuller did not stand for election to the Commons in 1597 ; after its dissolution , he was returned for the City of London in the 1604 Parliament of James I. He was highly active in opposing the government , to the point where academics consider him the " leader of the opposition " , although this was not a formal title at the time . During his first year , Fuller opposed the impositions on currants , the patent on blue starch , presented a petition on economic grievances ( which delayed the passage of the subsidy bill ) , supported the restoration of removed ministers and further attacked the powers of the Court of High Commission .
In 1606 , the government announced plans for a formal union between England and Scotland . This project was treated with great suspicion in the House of Commons , and Fuller took the lead in opposing it . Although he used racist language , saying in December 1606 that " the Scots in other countries are more like pedlars than merchants " , this was aimed at drumming up support from xenophobic elements , and Wright concludes he was not himself a xenophobe . His main concern , rather , was over economic issues . Fuller argued that the Scottish merchants would undercut and impoverish English ones , and that the markets could not handle such an influx , saying that it was " fit that we seek room to place them in before we admit them " . There was also a legal and constitutional element . The proposal was to allow all Scottish citizens , born before or after the union , to become English citizens , exercisable through the Royal Prerogative . Fuller argued that this right was only exercisable by Parliament , and believed that the extension of the Royal Prerogative would lead to future encroachment on the civil liberties of English citizens .
= = Fuller 's Case and the Case of Prohibitions = =
In 1607 , Fuller began challenging the Court of High Commission yet again , an ecclesiastical court established by the monarch with near unlimited power . The High Commission was vastly unpopular amongst both common lawyers and Members of Parliament , as the idea of " prerogative law " challenged both authorities . The appointment of Richard Bancroft as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1604 caused the issue to grow in importance ; Bancroft 's zeal and strictness " could hardly fail to produce an atmosphere in which principles and issues would crystallize , in which logic would supplant reasonableness " . The judges , particularly Sir Edward Coke , began to unite with Parliament in challenging the High Commission . The High Commission tried people for heresy , based on their internal thoughts and private beliefs , in " a trap to catch unwary or ingenuous men - ' an unlawful process of poking about in the speculation of finding something chargeable ' " .
In what became known as Fuller 's Case , Fuller had several clients fined by the High Commission for non @-@ conformity , and stated that the High Commission 's procedure was " popish , under jurisdiction not of Christ but of anti @-@ Christ " . For this , Fuller was held in custody for contempt of court . The Court of King 's Bench argued that this was a lay matter , while the High Commission claimed it fell under their jurisdiction . In the end Fuller was convicted by the High Commission , although of heresy rather than contempt , and sent to Fleet prison . On 6 November 1608 , the common law judges and members of the High Commission were summoned before the King and told that they would argue and allow him to decide . Unable to even argue properly , instead " [ standing ] sullen , merely denying each other 's statements " , the group were dismissed and reconvened a week later . Sir Edward Coke , speaking for the judges , argued that ecclesiastical courts only had jurisdiction as long as no temporal matters were involved ; once this happened , it became a matter for the common law courts .
At this point the King 's own position in relation to the law , and his authority to decide this matter , was brought up , in what became known as the Case of Prohibitions . James stated that " In cases where there is not express authority in law , the King may himself decide in his royal person ; the Judges are but delegates of the King " . Coke challenged this , saying " the King in his own person cannot adjudge any case , either criminal - as treason , felony etc , or betwixt party and party ; but this ought to be determined and adjudged in some court of justice , according to the Law and Custom of England " . Coke further stated that " The common law protecteth the King " , to which James replied " The King protecteth the law , and not the law the King ! The King maketh judges and bishops . If the judges interpret the laws themselves and suffer none else to interpret , they may easily make , of the laws , shipmen 's hose ! " . Coke rejected this , stating that while the monarch was not subject to any individual , he was subject to the law . Until he had gained sufficient knowledge of the law , he had no right to interpret it ; he pointed out that such knowledge " demanded mastery of an artificial reason ... which requires long study and experience , before that a man can attain to the cognizance of it " . Victorious , Coke freely left , and continued to issue writs of prohibition against the High Commission .
= = Later career and death = =
By 1610 , Fuller was considered an " elder statesman " within Parliament , " although his influence may have been somewhat weakened by the bruising encounters with high commission and star chamber " . He introduced two bills to reform or remove ecclesiastical committees and courts , which passed in the House of Commons of England on 21 May and 20 June , though both were later rejected by the Lords . On 3 November he began campaigning to have customs duties put into a statutory framework , again against the Court of High Commission , which , he claimed , as an unelected and autonomous body could not be trusted , but rather Parliament should be given jurisdiction . In a speech on 23 June 1610 he said that " the laws of England are the most high inheritance of the land , whereby both king and subjects are directed and guided " . Customs were " not at the king ’ s pleasure to be increased without the consent of the subjects " , and " impositions and customs laid on subjects ’ goods and merchandise ... was always done by several acts of parliament " . Wright notes that this was apparently greeted with complete silence , possibly because , while the MPs agreed that civil liberties had been eroded , they felt it was too dangerous to reclaim them . On 23 February 1620 , Fuller died at his home , Chamberhouse , at Crookham in Thatcham , Berkshire and was buried at the village 's parish church on 2 March . Most of his estate was passed to his wife , Sarah ( sister of Samuel Backhouse MP ) , and his eldest son , Nicholas , who died only four months later , leaving a three @-@ year @-@ old son .
= Night of the Blood Beast =
Night of the Blood Beast is a 1958 American science @-@ fiction horror film about a team of scientists who are stalked by an alien creature , which implants its embryos in an astronaut 's body during a space flight . Produced by exploitation filmmaker Roger Corman and his brother Gene , it was one of the first films directed by Bernard L. Kowalski and was written by first @-@ time screenwriter Martin Varno , who was 21 years old . It starred several actors who had regularly worked with Roger Corman , including Michael Emmet , Ed Nelson , Steve Dunlap , Georgianna Carter and Tyler McVey .
It took Varno six weeks to write the script , the original working title of which was Creature from Galaxy 27 . The story was partially influenced by the real @-@ life Space Race and the Howard Hawks film The Thing from Another World ( 1951 ) . Screenwriters Jerome Bixby and Harold Jacob Smith gave Varno uncredited assistance with the dialogue . With a budget of about $ 68 @,@ 000 , it was shot over seven days at the Charlie Chaplin Studios , Bronson Canyon and a television station on Mount Lee in Hollywood .
The Blood Beast alien costume was also previously used in the Roger Corman film Teenage Cave Man ( 1958 ) , which was filmed just two weeks earlier . Art director Daniel Haller , who built the rocket @-@ ship and other props , slept at the sound stage between work sessions . Following dissatisfaction with his treatment by the Cormans , Varno pursued two successful arbitration cases , one of which was for underpayment . The other was in response to Gene Corman 's original story writing credit , even though Varno claimed to have written the entire story himself .
The film was featured in a 1996 episode of the comedy television series , Mystery Science Theater 3000 .
= = Plot = =
A rocket @-@ ship carrying astronaut John Corcoran ( Michael Emmet ) launches and orbits the Earth , marking the United States ' first manned space launch . Shortly after taking off , the ship is struck by an unknown object , forcing Corcoran to abort the mission and land . However , the equipment cannot handle the fast descent back into the atmosphere and the ship crash lands in the woods , killing Corcoran . Dave Randall ( Ed Nelson ) and Donna Bixby ( Georgianna Carter ) , two technicians from a nearby space agency tracking station , locate the crashed ship and recover Corcoran 's body . They are baffled , however , by what appears to be a giant tear in the side of the destroyed spacecraft and a mud @-@ like substance covering some of the wreckage . Randall and Bixby are joined by lead scientist Dr. Alex Wyman ( Tyler McVey ) , technician Steve Dunlap ( John Baer ) and physician Julie Benson ( Angela Greene ) , who was also Corcoran 's fiancee . Wyman observes that Corcoran 's body exhibits no signs of rigor mortis , and that the blood pooling beside him is not livid as it should be . The team brings the corpse back to their lab to run tests and find further irregularities . Although the body lacks a heartbeat or pulse , it maintains the blood pressure of a living human being . After looking at his blood in a microscope , they find unusual , unidentifiable cells that seem resistant to destruction from human white blood cells .
The team tries to call for further assistance , but find the radio is
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favourable conditions throughout much of its existence . Due to a mid – level ridge to the east , the cyclone progressed on a southward track . Dovi eventually steered to the southwest , and continued to intensify steadily after fluctuating due to diurnal temperature variations , becoming a Category 1 equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale on February 8 . An anticyclone positioned to the west of the system moved closer to Dovi , providing an improved environment . After developing an eye later that day , Dovi attained its maximum wind speeds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) sustained over 10 minutes . The cyclone then again steered towards the south , encountering high wind shear and cooler sea surface temperatures . As a result , Dovi quickly weakened as its convection was displaced . While its outflow in its western and southern quadrants remained favorable , elsewhere outflow was deteriorating . On February 10 , Dovi 's minimum barometric pressure was 980 mbar ( 28 @.@ 94 inHg ) as it moved south – southeast at 11 km / h ( 7 mph ) . The weakening Dovi became an extratropical cyclone on February 11 . The remnants continued drifting southwest ; the Meteorological Service of New Zealand in Wellington stopped issuing information on it on February 13 .
Despite its close proximity to islands along its path , Dovi caused only minimal damage . Oceanic swells and storm surge were felt in some coastal areas . Strong winds were reported in the southern Cook Islands and Niue . Damage to banana plantations on Palmerston Island was reported , but Dovi caused no fatalities .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Eseta = = =
Cyclone Eseta developed on March 10 from an area of disturbed weather that originated in the vicinity of Vanuatu . At the time the cyclone was in very favourable conditions , in an area with warm sea – surface temperatures , low wind shear , and with development enhanced by an MJO pulse traversing the area at the time . After convection began to wrap around the center of circulation , the low – pressure area was named Eseta . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began issuing warnings on Eseta at 1200 UTC on March 10 ; Eseta had a minimum pressure of 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 39 inHg ) at the time . As the cyclone was on the western periphery of a mid – level ridge , it moved in a south – southeastwardly direction , initially at 13 km / h ( 8 mph ) . It then intensified quickly , and the next day developed a ragged eye . As it began to curve around the mid – level ridge , its forward speed increased to 21 km / h ( 13 mph ) . Favorable conditions continued on March 12 , and Eseta underwent rapid intensification , with its barometric pressure falling 40 mbar ( 1 @.@ 2 inHg ) to a minimum of 930 mbar ( 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . Wind speeds increased to 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) sustained for 10 minutes . However , the cyclone only maintained this intensity for 12 hours before entering an area of strong vertical wind shear . It continued to accelerate in forward speed , but shower activity became elongated and the eye dissipated . The next day , Eseta had a forward speed of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . As a result , the cyclone lost tropical characteristics on March 14 . The JTWC issued its last warning on Eseta at 0000 UTC on March 4 as it became extratropical . Eseta was absorbed by a front the next day .
Although Eseta was well offshore of any islands in the Pacific , rains and wind caused some damage . Western regions of Fiji reported heavy rain and flooding as the cyclone passed to its south . As a weakening cyclone , Eseta passed over the Tongan island of Eua , destroying fruit trees and kava crops . No deaths were reported due to Eseta .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Erica = = =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Erica was a powerful cyclone considered the worst to affect New Caledonia since Cyclone Beti . It developed from a monsoonal trough on March 4 just off Queensland in the Australian cyclone region . Once it entered the South Pacific cyclone region on March 12 , Erica steadily intensified in a favourable environment , reaching peak intensity on March 13 as a Category 5 equivalent on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . On that day Erica paralleled the coast of New Caledonia , before making landfall on the southern end of the island at L 'Île @-@ des @-@ Pins . At the same time the cyclone entered an area with strong wind shear and thus began to weaken . After passing the island , an extratropical transition began , weakening the cyclone as it moved southeast . On March 15 , Erica completed its transition into an extratropical cyclone and fully dissipated the next day .
Cyclone Erica severely impacted the island nation of New Caledonia , causing intense winds and heavy rain . An estimated 892 families were affected by the cyclone on the island , and two people were killed . As many as 60 % of people on the west coast lost power . On March 17 only seventeen of the sixty @-@ six secondary schools on the island were functioning . After the storm it was feared that the existing dengue fever epidemic on the island would spread . Erica caused US $ 15 million in damages , primarily on New Caledonia .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Fili = = =
Cyclone Fili formed on April 13 from an area of convection northeast of Fiji . As marginal windshear abated , the disturbance began to organise , and cyclonic rotation was noted . A tropical upper tropospheric trough to the southwest helped enhance upper – level divergence in the system . RSMC Nadi began issuing warnings at 0000 UTC on April 14 . Despite forecasts that Fili would merge with an extratropical cyclone , overnight convective organisation improved . Dvorak satellite estimates gave a rating of 3 @.@ 0 , implying winds of 85 km / h ( 55 mph ) . The JTWC issued their only warning on Fili at 0600 UTC on April 14 . RSMC Nadi named the storm Fili at 1800 UTC on the same day , east – southeast of Tongatapu . At the time , Fili was travelling southeast at 35 km / h ( 20 mph ) . During the day a nearby upper – level trough helped accelerate Fili southeast and then southward . However , Fili quickly lost tropical characteristics under intense wind shear , becoming an extratropical cyclone the next day and merging with a cold front by 1200 UTC on March 15 . No damage was reported as a result of Fili due to its distance from land masses .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Gina = = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical disturbance persisted northeast of Vanuatu , with persistent convection extending toward the Solomon Islands . On June 4 , both the JTWC and RSMC Nadi classified the system as a tropical depression . With a ridge to the south , it moved to the west @-@ southwest , quickly intensifying into Tropical Storm Gina by June 5 about 970 km ( 600 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Honiara . By 0000 UTC on June 7 , the JTWC upgraded Gina to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , after an eye became evident on satellite images . Interaction with the nearby remnants of Tropical Cyclone Epi caused convection to decrease . On June 7 , FMS reported that Gina attained peak intensity as a low @-@ end Category 3 tropical cyclone on the Australian intensity scale , with winds of 140 km / h ( 90 mph ) . The JTWC recorded winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) . A compact cyclone with a well @-@ defined eye , Gina encountered stronger wind shear and cooler waters . After turning southeast and then east @-@ southeast in response to a rapidly approaching trough , Gina quickly deteriorated as the convection became displaced from the centre . By June 9 , the centre became uncertain as Gina stalled to the west @-@ northwest of Port Vila . Winds diminished below gale force the next day .
Gina struck the island of Tikopia that had already sustained catastrophic damage from Cyclone Zoe less than two months previously . The storm brought high winds and torrential rains that triggered landslides . Dozens of homes were damaged and many areas newly re @-@ planted after Cyclone Zoe were devastated again . The impacts of Gina reportedly set back recovery efforts by nearly six months . A total of 112 newly built houses and 128 newly built kitchens were severely damaged , and another 37 homes sustained minor damage . The newly planted winter crop was lost due to sea spray , and 143 bags of rice , given as relief supplies after Cyclone Zoe , were lost . Following the storm , additional relief supplies and food were rushed to residents to ensure their safety . These consisted of local foods , sago and mesh wiring , worth $ 14 @,@ 400 . A ship carrying five people became stranded in the Coral Sea during the storm when their engine failed on June 7 . A mayday signal was put out by the captain but rough seas produced by the storm hampered rescue efforts . The five were safely rescued later that day , but two more people were discovered to be missing .
= = = Other systems = = =
During the opening days of the tropical cyclone year 2002 @-@ 03 , a westerly wind burst occurred and lead to the formation of Typhoon Chataan and Tropical Depression 17F . The system was first noted as a tropical depression during July 3 , while it was located about 800 km ( 495 mi ) to the northwest of Honiara in the Solomon Islands of Guadalcanal . Over the next couple of days the system moved westwards before it was last noted during July 5 . During October 21 , Tropical Disturbance 01F developed about 410 km ( 250 mi ) to the northwest of Port Vila , Vanuatu . It moved southeast and developed into a poorly organised tropical depression . It remained disorganized and accelerated towards the southeast , and was last noted by RSMC Nadi at 1800 UTC on October 22 . On December 10 , RSMC Nadi reported that Tropical Disturbance 03F had developed within a trough of low pressure , about 635 km ( 395 mi ) to the northeast of Pago @-@ Pago on the American Samoan island of Tutuila . The depression drifted towards the south , and was classified as a tropical depression the next day . Further development of the depression was prevented by dry air wrapping into the system and vertical windshear displacing convection . The depression was no longer monitored by RSMC Nadi on December 15 after it had become sheared , but it was briefly referred to as a " weak tropical depression " on December 19 and 20 .
On January 30 , the poorly organised Tropical Disturbance 08F developed within a convergence zone about 325 km ( 200 mi ) to the northeast of Apia on the Samoan island of Upolu . Over the next few days the system remained weak and poorly organized , and was classified as a tropical depression during February 5 . The depression then moved westwards , before dissipating on February 9 . Tropical Disturbance 10F developed on February 15 , about 170 km ( 105 mi ) to the north of the Fijian Dependency of Rotuma Island . The system was poorly defined and disorganised , while convection surrounding the system was mostly confined to the southern and eastern flanks of the low level circulation . Over the next few days the disturbance remained weak and was last noted during February 21 , while nestled within the Solomon Islands . On March 6 , Tropical Depression 11F developed under an upper trough of low pressure about 220 km ( 140 mi ) to the northeast of Nadi , Fiji . Convection surrounding the depression was displaced to the north of the low level circulation center . The depression remained weak over the next couple of days , and was last noted during March 8 . A fairly disorganized tropical disturbance developed during April 6 , within a monsoonal convergence zone , about 236 km ( 145 mi ) to the northeast of Port Vila , Vanuatu . It was initially located within an area of weak vertical windshear , but was expected to move into an area of stronger vertical windshear over the following 24 hours and gradually become extratropical . During the next day , as the disturbance moved southwards , it was assigned the designation 14F , before it was dropped by RSMC Nadi during April 8 , as convection surrounding the system became sheared and displaced . On April 13 , Tropical Disturbance 15F developed within a monsoon trough , about 355 km ( 220 mi ) to the southeast of Apia , Samoa . The system moved towards the south , with convection surrounding it poorly organised , and displaced to the north of the depression 's low level circulation centre . The depression was then last noted , during the next day as Tropical Depression 16F developed into Tropical Cyclone Fili .
= = Seasonal effects = =
= Vidyasagar Setu =
Vidyasagar Setu ( Bidyasagôr Setu ) , also known as the Second Hooghly Bridge ( Dbitiyô Hugli Setu ) , is a toll bridge over the Hooghly River in West Bengal , India , linking the cities of Kolkata ( previously known as Calcutta ) and Howrah .
With a total length of 823 metres ( 2 @,@ 700 ft ) , Vidyasagar Setu is the longest cable – stayed bridge in India . It was the second bridge to be built across the Hooghly River ; the first , the Howrah Bridge ( also known as Rabindra Setu ) 3 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 3 mi ) to the north , was completed in 1943 . Named after the educationist reformer Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar , it cost ₹ 3 @.@ 88 billion to build . The project was a joint effort between the public and private sectors , under the control of the Hooghly River Bridge Commissioners ( HRBC ) .
Initially , under the toll collection regime of the HRBC , daily traffic was recorded to be a minimum of 28 @,@ 000 vehicles and a maximum of 39 @,@ 000 vehicles in 2000 , but fell to a maximum of around 30 @,@ 000 vehicles by December 2002 , when the management of the toll plaza was handed over to a private firm . Subsequently , the daily traffic reached a minimum of 45 @,@ 000 vehicles and a maximum of 61 @,@ 000 vehicles by early 2008 , against a maximum capacity of 85 @,@ 000 vehicles per day . The original management of the toll revenue collection by HRBC was consequently criticized for corruption and significant loss of revenue .
= = History = =
Population and commercial activity grew rapidly after India gained independence in August 1947 . The only link across the Hooghly River , the Howrah Bridge , between Howrah and Kolkata , was subject to much traffic congestion , with over 85 @,@ 000 vehicles every day . This necessitated planning for a new bridge across the river so that it could connect to the major cities of Mumbai ( Bombay ) , Delhi and Chennai ( Madras ) through the national highways located close to the bridge .
The foundation stone for the bridge was laid by Indira Gandhi on 20 May 1972 . The bridge took more than 22 years to complete and cost Indian Rupees 3 @.@ 88 billion , but in seven of those years there was no construction activity . The bridge is named after the 19th @-@ century Bengali educationist reformer Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar . Work on the cable @-@ stayed bridge started with the construction of the well curb on the Calcutta bank end on 3 July 1979 .
There are three other bridges on the Hooghly River connecting Kolkata with Howrah district : Vivekananda Setu built in 1932 , ( road @-@ cum @-@ rail bridge ) – the first to be commissioned , and which had become old and needed repairs ; Howrah Bridge , a cantilever bridge commissioned in 1943 , now renamed as Rabindra Setu ( since 1965 in honour of the Noble Laurette Rabindranath Tagore ) ; and Nivedita Setu ( named after Sister Nivedita ) , also known as the Second Vivekananda Setu , which is 50 metres ( 160 ft ) downstream of the old Vivekananda Setu and was commissioned on 4 June 2007 .
= = Construction = =
The bridge was designed by Schlaich Bergermann & Partner , and checked by Freeman Fox & Partners and Bharat Bhari Udyog Nigam Limited . Construction was carried out by the consortium of " The Braithwaite Burn and Jessop Construction Company Limited " ( BBJ ) . The Hooghly River Bridge Commission ( HRBC ) was responsible for the commissioning operations of the bridge .
Construction began on 3 July 1979 , and the bridge was commissioned on 10 October 1992 by the Hooghly River Bridge Commission .
= = Architectural features = =
Vidyasagar Setu is a cable @-@ stayed bridge , with 121 cables in a fan arrangement , built using steel pylons 127 @.@ 62 metres ( 418 @.@ 7 ft ) high . With a total length of 823 metres ( 2 @,@ 700 ft ) , Vidyasagar Setu is the longest cable – stayed bridge in India . The deck is made of composite steel @-@ reinforced concrete with two carriageways . The total width of the bridge is 35 metres ( 115 ft ) , with 3 lanes in each direction and a 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 ft 11 in ) -wide footpath on each side . The deck over the main span is 457 @.@ 20 metres ( 1 @,@ 500 @.@ 0 ft ) long . The two side spans are supported by parallel wire cables and are 182 @.@ 88 metres ( 600 @.@ 0 ft ) long . Vidyasagar Setu is a toll bridge . It has capacity to handle more than 85 @,@ 000 vehicles in a day .
The design of the bridge differs slightly from other bridges , which are of live load composite construction . The difference is in the dead load design concept adopted for this bridge and concreting of the side spans done with support provided by the intermediate trestle . The deck is designed with a grid structure of girders . One set of girders are at the end and another set in the middle , which are braced by girders spaced on an average at 4 @.@ 2 metres ( 14 ft ) centre to centre .
A deck crane was used for the construction of the main span of the bridge . A specially designed crane of 45 tonne capacity was used to erect the pylons of the bridge . The structural steel used in the bridge weighs about 13 @,@ 200 tonnes . The pylons , which are 128 metres ( 420 ft ) in height , are designed as free standing portals . They are provided with two cross portal members , one at the bottom and another at the top , below the pylon head . The deck is connected to the end piers by bolts embedded in the chambers of the piers . Pylons made of 4 m × 4 m ( 13 ft × 13 ft ) steel boxes of riveted construction were raised on the two side spans of the bridge ; one set is on the Calcutta side and the other is on the Howrah side . The six pylons on the Calcutta side of the bridge were installed using 75 MT and 50 MT cranes , while on the Howrah end , a single 50 MT crane was used . Anchorage of the pylon with the base of piers was effected through Dywidag rods , duly anchored in the piers . Cables were erected from the four pylon heads with the help of 32 MT hoist frames . The hoist frames were mounted on top of each pylon . Sheave blocks , winches and snatch blocks were used to facilitate the lifting , and cables inside the pylons were stressed with jacks . Pressure grouting was performed to fill the voids between the wire and the high @-@ density polyethylene ( HDPE ) tubes . A two tonne tower crane , fixed inside the pylons , lifted the cables into position .
The bridge has been subject to prototype wind tunnel tests at the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore . Bearings are used in vertical and horizontal directions , with grouted collars in four segments at the two end piers and horizontal bearings at the two middle piers to achieve stability against lateral movement . Maurer Söhne expansion joints were provided to allow for 400 millimetres ( 16 in ) horizontal expansion at the free ends . Fixed end slab seal type expansion joints 115 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) were used for horizontal expansion of the joints . Other essential components provided in the bridge structure are the handrails , lightning arresters , crash barriers , gas service support structures , telephone and electric lines , lifts in the pylons , and a maintenance gantry .
= = Post @-@ construction Scenario = =
Over the years , several accidents have occurred on the bridge resulting in traffic congestion , and sometimes closure of the bridge for a few hours . To relieve the heavy traffic congestion at the entry to the bridge , the Hooghly River Bridge Commissioners ( HRBC ) plan to build two one @-@ way @-@ exit and entry – ramps . These are planned with a semi @-@ circular layout in the form of side wings , which will facilitate easy flow of traffic , before the toll plaza , on roads leading to the Howrah railway station . There are also plans to improve the lighting on the bridge by installing LED lamps and search lights covering the four pylons , the bridge spans , cables and under @-@ deck . An electronic toll collection system is scheduled to be introduced by 2014 , to help improve the flow of traffic across the bridge .
The traffic projections for the bridge at the planning stage have not been achieved . A traffic survey carried out for a week during June 2012 recorded traffic of 29 @,@ 000 vehicles over the bridge in comparison to a projected 85 @,@ 000 . A survey conducted during the same period in June 2012 indicated a figure of 31 @,@ 865 vehicles , though it is reported by the concerned traffic and transportation engineer that the rate of increase in traffic has been one percent per year on the basis of traffic surveys carried out from the time of commissioning of the bridge . The reason for the fall in traffic during 2012 is attributed to the peak monsoon effect during the survey period .
= HM Armed Smack Inverlyon =
His Majesty 's or HM Armed Smack Inverlyon was a fishing smack that was converted to a Q @-@ ship during the First World War . Q @-@ ships served as decoys to lure German submarines near enough so that concealed weapons could be brought to bear and sink the submarines . On 15 August 1915 , Inverlyon succeeded in luring German submarine UB @-@ 4 within range and sinking her with nine shots from her gun . The Royal Navy Gunner in command of the vessel , Ernest Martin Jehan , received the Distinguished Service Cross and members of Inverlyon 's crew shared the bounty offered for German submarines . After Inverlyon 's Q @-@ ship career ended , she returned to fishing , but was sunk by U @-@ 55 on 1 February 1917 .
= = Career = =
Inverlyon was a fishing smack of 59 tons burthen that was a part of the fishing fleet at Lowestoft on the Suffolk coast . The wooden boat had a flush deck , two masts , and no engine . Inverlyon 's sails were fore @-@ and @-@ aft rigged and may have been red ochre in colour , the traditional sail colour for British smacks .
In February 1915 , Germany began its first submarine offensive of the First World War . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom , were to be sunk , and the British fishing fleet was not exempt . In mid @-@ June , for example , the German submarine UB @-@ 2 had sunk six smacks off Lowestoft in a two @-@ day period .
One method devised to deal with U @-@ boat attacks was the decoy or Q @-@ ship , designed to lure submarines that were targeting merchant shipping close enough so that concealed guns or other weapons could sink them . Inverlyon was selected to become a Q @-@ ship , was outfitted with either a 3 @-@ pounder ( 47 mm ) or a 6 @-@ pounder ( 57 mm ) gun , and entered the service of the Royal Navy on 2 August 1915 . Inverlyon 's fishing crew and skipper were all temporarily inducted into the Trawler section of the Royal Naval Reserve . Regular Royal Navy Gunner Ernest Martin Jehan and three other gunners from HMS Dryad — a former torpedo boat operating as a minesweeper out of Lowestoft — were assigned to Inverlyon , with Jehan in command .
On 14 August , the 59 @-@ ton smack Bona Fide was stopped by a U @-@ boat , boarded , and sunk with explosives 35 nautical miles ( 65 km ) east @-@ northeast from Lowestoft . This attack was likely by UB @-@ 4 , because she was operating in that area on her fourteenth patrol . Regardless of the identity of Bona Fide 's attacker , UB @-@ 4 did approach a group of smacks in the vicinity the next day . Unbeknown to UB @-@ 4 's commander , Oberleutnant zur See Karl Gross , one of the fishing vessels was the disguised Inverlyon .
Around 20 : 20 , UB @-@ 4 surfaced near Inverlyon , and Gross , on the conning tower of UB @-@ 4 , began shouting out commands to Inverlyon 's crew in German . Jehan , after waiting until UB @-@ 4 closed to within 30 yards ( 27 m ) of Inverlyon , ordered the White Ensign raised and gave the command to open fire . A burst of three rounds from the Inverlyon 's weapon scored hits on the conning tower , the second shot destroying part of the bridge and sending Gross into the water . UB @-@ 4 , with no one at the helm , drifted behind Inverlyon , and when clear , Inverlyon 's gunner unleashed another six shots into the hull of UB @-@ 4 at point @-@ blank range . All the while , small arms fire from Inverlyon 's crew peppered the submarine . The U @-@ boat began going down by the bow , becoming nearly vertical before disappearing below the surface . Inverlyon 's fishing skipper , a man named Phillips , dived in to attempt the rescue of a crewman from UB @-@ 4 . Phillips was unable to reach him before the crewman went under and met same fate as Gross and UB @-@ 4 's twelve other crewmen .
As UB @-@ 4 went down she fouled Inverlyon 's nets — which had been deployed to keep up the appearance of a real fishing boat — essentially anchoring Inverlyon in place . The Q @-@ ship 's crew , not having a wireless set on board , sent word of the encounter with another smack . This was followed up by releasing messenger pigeons the following morning , requesting instructions on what to do with UB @-@ 4 . The thought of salvaging the snagged U @-@ boat was rejected , so the nets were cut , freeing UB @-@ 4 to sink to the bottom . UB @-@ 4 's wreck lies at position 52 ° 43 ′ N 2 ° 18 ′ E. On 19 November 1915 Jehan was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross ( DSC ) for the sinking of UB @-@ 4 , and the crewmen of Inverlyon split the submarine bounty paid by the Admiralty .
About three weeks after she sank UB @-@ 4 , Inverlyon had the opportunity to sink another U @-@ boat , but was unsuccessful . The U @-@ boat encountered may have been either UB @-@ 2 or UB @-@ 16 , which both sank fishing vessels in the area on 7 and 8 September . By 1916 , Inverlyon had ended her short @-@ lived Q @-@ ship career and returned to being a fishing boat . Jehan , in addition to his DSC , was subsequently specially promoted to lieutenant on 4 January 1916 for his war service ; he retired from the Royal Navy on 29 October 1920 .
On 1 February 1917 , the German submarine U @-@ 55 shelled and sank Inverlyon 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ) from Trevose Head at position 50 ° 47 ′ N 5 ° 5 ′ W ; there were no reported casualties .
= Improbable ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Improbable " is 13th episode of the ninth season and the 195th episode overall of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States and Canada on April 7 , 2002 on Fox , and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom . It was written and directed by series creator and executive producer Chris Carter . The episode is a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology , or overarching fictional history , of The X @-@ Files . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 1 and was viewed by 9 @.@ 1 million viewers . The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , Reyes and her fellow agents investigate a serial killer who uses numerology to choose his victims . Soon , Reyes and Scully meet an unusual man who may prove more of a hindrance than a help .
" Improbable " features Burt Reynolds playing God . Reynolds was chosen after he expressed his desire to appear in an episode of The X @-@ Files to Robert Patrick . Carter approved the idea and Reynolds thoroughly enjoyed filming the episode . " Improbable " contains several elaborate effects , such as a cityscape rendered to look like Reynolds ' head . Furthermore , the episode contains themes pertaining to fate , free will , and numerology . The tagline for this episode is " Dio Ti Ama " , meaning " God loves you " in Italian , replacing the usual phrase " The Truth is Out There . "
= = Plot = =
Agent Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) is investigating a series of cases that she believes are linked by numerology . While explaining the case to Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , Scully spots another possible link - a mark made by the killer 's ring on the victims ' faces . On consulting a numerologist , Reyes ties the murders together . However , the killer also finds the numerologist , murdering her .
Meanwhile , the killer is shown meeting up with a mysterious man ( Burt Reynolds ) who seems to know a lot about him and his murderous ways . He speaks in an enigmatic way , but his words do not seem to make any difference to the killer . Reyes ' numerology theories do not go down well at the FBI , but the pattern of the killings , when viewed on a map , seem to show a spiral . Scully and Reyes revisit the murdered numerologist 's office and meet the killer in the elevator . Scully recognizes the ring on the killer 's hand as the agents exit the elevator , and draws her gun on him . The killer slips back into the elevator and gets to the parking lot first . Reyes and Scully arrive only to see a car fleeing the garage and the gate closing behind it .
They meet another person hiding in a car and demand that he come out . It is the strange man . To pass the time , Burt engages Reyes and Scully in a game of checkers , whose colors ( red & black ) are surrogates for Scully ( a redhead ) and Reyes ( a brunette ) . These are the anticipated hair @-@ colors of the next two victims . The exiting car was assumed to contain the killer , but realizing the killer might still be inside , they search the garage and are surprised by the killer . However , John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) arrives in the nick of time to shoot him . The mysterious man has completely disappeared . In a nearby Italian neighborhood , a party is in progress . Two men sing a jovial song and lead a crowd through the streets . The camera zooms out to reveal that the entire neighborhood , when viewed from above , suggests the appearance of Burt 's face , hinting to the fact that he might be God .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Carter later explained that humorous episodes were important to the show , especially during the " pitch @-@ black " ninth season . He reasoned " there are the downbeats , and then you need the relief in the tension . " The name Vicki Burdick came from a high school student Chris Carter knew . Carter felt that he needed to kill the character " all out of fondness . " Before casting Ellen Greene , Carter had first spotted her on the movie , The Little Shop of Horrors both in " New York and Los Angeles . " The first scene shot for Greene 's character took a " long day " . Carter called her a " trouper " and said she was open to the direction he gave her . She had a lot of information to remember , which made the scene even more difficult . The set for that scene was created by Tim Stepeck who was the set decorator during the ninth season . Annabeth Gish later revealed that her lines were difficult to remember . She explained , " I remember learning my lines and thinking , ' Oh my God . I 've got to memorize this . It 's scary . Like physics united theory , all of that . "
This was the last episode filmed by Carter to feature Scully in the FBI autopsy scene at 20th Century Fox . The different numbers seen in this scene was used to " conceit , this idea that numerology is an important part of our life and plays a part , but it really is just used here to illustrate the idea of patterns , patterns of behavior , of the ways in which numbers rule both the universe and our lives and our ability to solve things , to solve our mysteries of life , to solve these cases , which will lead them , as we 'll see as the act comes to a close here , they are both [ Scully and Reyes ] believers of the numerological episode . " The tagline for this episode is " Dio Ti Ama " , meaning " God loves you " in Italian , replacing the usual phrase " The Truth is Out There . " The normal line " Executive Producer : Chris Carter " is also rendered in Italian , reading , " Produttore Esecutivo : Chris Carter " .
= = = Casting = = =
Burt Reynolds was chosen for " Improbable " after he expressed his desire to appear in an episode of The X @-@ Files to Robert Patrick . Carter approved the idea and told Patrick that he would " write something good " . He later noted that " as a young man , [ Reynolds ] meant something to me " and that the opportunity to work with him was " surreal " . After Carter had written the script , he presented it to Reynolds for his approval ; Reynolds approved of the script and agreed to be in the episode . Robert Patrick later noted that Reynolds " had a great time , and he loved working with everybody . " Ray McKinnon ( Dead Man 's Walk , The Missing , Needful Things ) plays the role of the gambling serial killer Mad Wayno .
= = = Effects and music = = =
The final scene , featuring Burt 's face superimposed onto the cityscape , was created by special effects supervisor Mat Beck . The only actual footage in the scene is a pull @-@ back shot of the carnival that was filmed 110 feet in the air via crane . A CGI cityscape was then created that resembled Burt Reynolds ' head . The two shots were sewn together , and a blur effect was added to " [ make ] it sell " . An alternate version of the scene was created that featured Chris Carter 's head instead of Reynolds ' . This version was included as a bonus feature on the season nine DVD set . The score for the episode , like the rest of the series , was composed by Mark Snow . Snow based much of the music in the episode on records made by Karl Zéro , on the request of Carter . Carter later noted that " I had heard his music and it was so far out and it fit with exactly what I wanted to do because I wanted to recreate [ the yearly celebration in ] Little Italy . [ ... ] I wanted to create that festival . "
= = Themes = =
According to Chris Carter , the whole idea behind the episode was about numbers and that the " significance of numbers in our lives starts here on the card table where the players are being dealt a hand each . " He continued with " the idea is that we 're all dealt hands , genetic hands , and maybe even numerological hands that give us basically the tools with which we deal and / or use for our lives . " He further stated that the idea was that it was " free will " and " fate " , continued with that fate was determined by our own genetics .
The villain in the story , Mad Wayne , had been dealt a bad hand in life . Because of his situation , he acts on his bad impulses . Carter elaborated , " Is it fate that Wayne is about , the character , this is what I was interested in exploring here . As we 'll see with the introduction in a moment of a character who throws all of this into question – God – we 're going to see what his place is in all of this , or at least explore what Burt Reynolds , playing God here , has to do with the character Wayne . " The main idea behind the episode , was that God knows all the numbers , because they are his numbers and he is laying them down and is in " charge of the big game " . Being that God is trying to show us the game , as it was a " game " to be " won or lost " , and Wayne has lost this game .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Improbable " first aired in the United States on April 14 , 2002 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 1 , meaning that it was seen by an estimated 5 @.@ 1 % of the nation 's households . The episode was viewed by 5 @.@ 38 million households and 9 @.@ 1 million viewers " Improbable " was the 57th most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending April 14 .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Improbable " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity awarded the episode a " B + " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five , and called the script " very witty " . The two wrote that " the brilliance of Chris Carter 's direction " allowed the viewer of the episode to see it " from God 's point of view " . Shearman and Pearson concluded that the episode " is not as smart as it thinks it is . But it 's still pretty smart . " John Keegan , writing for Critical Myth , on the other hand , gave the episode a more mixed review and gave it a 6 out of 10 rating . He wrote that " overall , this episode was amusing enough , but there was nothing about it that would prompt me to rank it as highly as the more inspired " lite " episodes of previous seasons . And considering that the sixth and seventh seasons suffered tremendously from too many episodes like this , it 's a shame to see them do it again . " M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , called the episode " bizarre yet amusing " and said that the central numerology story " doesn 't feel like it 's enough to sustain an entire episode " .
The Guardian listed " Improbable " as one of the " 13 best X @-@ Files episodes ever " . UGO named God / Mr. Burt as one of the " Top 11 X @-@ Files Monsters " , noting that " as [ series creator Chris Carter ] imagines him , [ God ] is a benevolent deity , constantly prodding his creatures to look at the patterns before them , to see the overall plan that he 's laid out . He 's doomed to failure , and he knows it , though it doesn 't stop him from trying " .
= Hugh Cloberry Christian =
Sir Hugh Cloberry Christian KB ( 1747 – 23 November 1798 ) was an officer of the Royal Navy who saw service during the American War of Independence , and the French Revolutionary Wars .
Details of his early life are obscure , but he appears to have served initially in the English Channel and the Mediterranean , before obtaining the rank of captain and going out to North America with Commodore Joshua Rowley . Christian was Rowley 's flag @-@ captain on HMS Suffolk for several years , and saw action in several of the naval engagements of the American War of Independence .
Returning to Britain at the end of the war , he spent a period without active employment , before receiving a post as second captain aboard Lord Howe 's flagship , the 100 @-@ gun HMS Queen Charlotte , during the Spanish Armament . He temporarily left her when the crisis abated , but the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars led to his return to Queen Charlotte . Christian stepped down from her in 1794 to join the Transport Board , and in 1795 was promoted to rear @-@ admiral .
He was made commander @-@ in @-@ chief in the West Indies and given the task of transporting a large troop convoy . Twice he attempted the crossing of the Atlantic , and twice he was forced back by severe gales which ravaged his fleet and wrecked a number of the merchant ships in the convoy . He made a third attempt in 1796 , and succeeded in shepherding the fleet to its destination . He was then active in using the troops and his naval forces to capture the islands of Saint Lucia , Saint Vincent and Grenada , before returning to England . He was made second in command at the Cape of Good Hope in 1797 , succeeding to commander @-@ in @-@ chief the following year , and he died while in command there in November 1798 .
= = Family and early life = =
Christian , descended from residents of the Isle of Man , was born at Hook Norton , Oxfordshire in 1747 . His father , Thomas Christian , was a captain with his own privateer , whilst his mother , Anne Penny was a poet . He followed his father into the navy in 1761 , spending time in the English Channel and the Mediterranean , but few details of his early service survive , other than that he took his lieutenant 's examination in 1767 , and received his commission on 21 January 1771 . He married Ann Leigh , resident of the Isle of Wight on 6 March 1775 , and was promoted to master and commander in 1778 .
= = American War of Independence = =
Christian received a further promotion to flag @-@ captain on 8 December 1778 and took command of the 74 @-@ gun HMS Suffolk , flying the broad pennant of Commodore Joshua Rowley . Rowley sailed from Spithead on 25 December in command of a squadron of seven ships of the line , which was part of the fleet under the overall command of Lord Shuldham escorting the trade convoys to the colonies . Rowley and the Suffolk were assigned to the West Indies @-@ bound convoy . The Suffolk arrived in the Leeward Islands on 12 February 1779 , and Christian remained with Rowley in the West Indies , serving with Vice @-@ Admiral John Byron at the Battle of Grenada on 6 July 1779 . Christian led the van of the British attack , and the Suffolk lost seven killed and 25 wounded . Byron returned to England after this , being replaced by Rear @-@ Admiral Hyde Parker , with Rowley retaining Suffolk as his flagship . Towards the end of 1779 intelligence reached Parker that three French ships had been sighted from Morne Fortune , sailing northward . Parker sent Rowley to intercept them , and after chasing them for several hours , all three were captured . They were revealed to be the 42 @-@ gun Fortunée , the 36 @-@ gun Blanche and the 28 @-@ gun Ellis , with all three being added to the Royal Navy .
Christian was again in action on 18 December , helping to capture and destroy a large French convoy off Martinique , and took part in the engagements off Martinique under Admiral George Rodney in April 1780 . Over the three engagements that took place , Suffolk lost one man killed , and 33 wounded . Rowley shifted his flag to the 74 @-@ gun HMS Conqueror after these clashes , and Christian was transferred to command the 38 @-@ gun HMS Fortunee , the frigate he had helped to capture in 1779 . He was present at the Battle of the Chesapeake on 5 September 1781 , after which he returned to the West Indies . He and Fortunee formed part of Sir Samuel Hood 's fleet , with Christian being present at the Battle of St. Kitts on 25 and 26 January 1782 , attached to the centre division . He was still with Rodney 's fleet when the Battle of the Saintes was fought against the Comte de Grasse on 9 to 12 April 1782 .
= = End of the war = =
Christian sailed north from Jamaica on 21 July 1782 with Admiral Hugh Pigot 's fleet , arriving at New York on 5 September . Returning to Port Royal with Hood 's fleet in February the following year , he spent several months cruising in the area . He returned to England with Hood in April 1783 , and left active service following the end of the war with the signing of the Treaty of Paris . He presumably did not receive any further employment until the Spanish Armament in 1790 , when he is recorded as being appointed as second captain aboard Lord Howe 's flagship , the 100 @-@ gun HMS Queen Charlotte . The easing of tensions meant that Queen Charlotte was paid off at the end of the year , and Christian again found himself without a ship .
= = French Revolutionary Wars = =
The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in early 1793 provided Christian with further employment . Queen Charlotte was recommissioned , and he again became her second captain , still under Lord Howe . He stepped down from his post in August the following year , becoming a commissioner of the Transport Board , and on 1 June 1795 he was advanced to rear @-@ admiral of the blue . He was then appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the West Indies station , and was instructed to take a fleet out with a convoy of transports , carrying soldiers for operations against the French and Dutch colonies there . He duly hoisted his flag aboard the 98 @-@ gun HMS Prince George and assembled his squadron and the transports , numbering over two hundred merchants carrying 16 @,@ 000 men , and making up the largest troop convoy to leave England to that date .
= = = Attempts to cross the Atlantic = = =
The fleet did not leave Spithead until 16 November , the departure having been delayed until late in the season . The delay proved disastrous : two days after departing , a westerly gale blew up , dispersing the fleet and driving the ships back to port . Several of the merchants were wrecked with heavy loss of life ; over 200 bodies were washed up on the coastline between Portland and Bridport .
Christian shifted his flag to the 90 @-@ gun HMS Glory , after deeming the Prince George to be too badly damaged to take to sea , and after gathering his fleet again , set sail on another attempt to cross the Atlantic on 9 December . Again the ships encountered severe gales that caused considerable damage , forcing nine of the warships and fifty of the merchants to struggle back to port on 29 January . Some of the convoy successfully made the crossing , while others were wrecked , or captured by enemy ships . The storms were afterwards alluded to as ' Christian 's Gales ' . Christian again shifted his flag , this time to the 74 @-@ gun HMS Thunderer while he waited for repairs to his ships to be completed , and the merchants gathered to make a third attempt to reach the West Indies . While ashore he was invested as a Knight Companion of the Order of the Bath on 17 February 1796 , and on 20 March he left Spithead again , bound for the West Indies . The third voyage was successful , and he arrived at Carlisle Bay , Barbados on 21 April . He joined with the forces of the station 's current commander , Sir John Laforey several days later , and took over the command from him . Christian assembled his forces , and on 26 April sailed to invade St Lucia , with a detachment of troops under Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Ralph Abercromby . The invasion was successful and the island was surrendered to the British on 25 May . Christian went on to use his naval forces to support the reduction and capture of the islands of Saint Vincent and Grenada .
= = Later years = =
Christian was succeeded as commander in the West Indies by Rear @-@ Admiral Henry Harvey , who had arrived in late June , and Christian returned to England in October aboard HMS Beaulieu . He was advanced to rear @-@ admiral of the white on 20 February 1797 , and was appointed as second in command of the Cape of Good Hope station later in the year and duly sailed to take up the post on the 44 @-@ gun HMS Virginie . He succeeded Admiral Thomas Pringle as the station commander in 1798 , but died on 23 November that year at the age of 51 . His wife , who had been seriously ill for sometime , died two months later , without having heard of her husband 's death . Hugh Cloberry Christian had been created a peer , and chose the title of Lord Ronaldsway to honour his ancestor , Manx politician Illiam Dhone , but died before the patent reached him . He was buried at the Cape . Of the two sons and three daughters he had had with his wife , one became a rear @-@ admiral , Hood Hanway Christian .
= Sheffield =
Sheffield ( / ˈʃɛfiːld / ) is a city and metropolitan borough in South Yorkshire , England . Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire , its name derives from the River Sheaf , which runs through the city . With some of its southern suburbs annexed from Derbyshire , the city has grown from its largely industrial roots to encompass a wider economic base . The population of the City of Sheffield is 563 @,@ 749 ( mid @-@ 2014 est . ) and it is one of the eight largest regional English cities that make up the Core Cities Group . Sheffield is the third largest English district by population . The metropolitan population of Sheffield is 1 @,@ 569 @,@ 000 .
In the 19th century , Sheffield gained an international reputation for steel production . Many innovations were developed locally , including crucible and stainless steel , fuelling an almost tenfold increase in the population in the Industrial Revolution . Sheffield received its municipal charter in 1843 ,
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becoming the City of Sheffield in 1893 . International competition in iron and steel caused a decline in these industries in the 1970s and 1980s , coinciding with the collapse of coal mining in the area .
The 21st century has seen extensive redevelopment in Sheffield along with other British cities . Sheffield 's gross value added ( GVA ) has increased by 60 % since 1997 , standing at £ 9 @.@ 2 billion in 2007 . The economy has experienced steady growth averaging around 5 % annually , greater than that of the broader region of Yorkshire and the Humber .
The city is in the valleys of the River Don and its four tributaries , the Loxley , the Porter Brook , the Rivelin and the Sheaf . 61 % of Sheffield 's entire area is green space , and a third of the city lies within the Peak District national park . There are more than 250 parks , woodlands and gardens in the city , and an estimated 2 million trees , giving Sheffield the highest ratio of trees to people of any city in Europe . The city has a long sporting heritage , and is home to the world 's oldest football club .
= = History = =
The area now occupied by the City of Sheffield is believed to have been inhabited since at least the late Upper Palaeolithic period , about 12 @,@ 800 years ago . The earliest evidence of human occupation in the Sheffield area was found at Creswell Crags to the east of the city . In the Iron Age the area became the southernmost territory of the Pennine tribe called the Brigantes . It is this tribe who are thought to have constructed several hill forts in and around Sheffield . Following the departure of the Romans , the Sheffield area may have been the southern part of the Celtic kingdom of Elmet , with the rivers Sheaf and Don forming part of the boundary between this kingdom and the kingdom of Mercia . Gradually , Anglian settlers pushed west from the kingdom of Deira . A Celtic presence within the Sheffield area is evidenced by two settlements called Wales and Waleswood close to Sheffield . The settlements that grew and merged to form Sheffield , however , date from the second half of the first millennium , and are of Anglo @-@ Saxon and Danish origin . In Anglo @-@ Saxon times , the Sheffield area straddled the border between the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle reports that King Eanred of Northumbria submitted to King Egbert of Wessex at the hamlet of Dore ( now a suburb of Sheffield ) in 829 , a key event in the unification of the kingdom of England under the House of Wessex . After the Norman conquest , Sheffield Castle was built to protect the local settlements , and a small town developed that is the nucleus of the modern city .
By 1296 , a market had been established at what is now known as Castle Square , and Sheffield subsequently grew into a small market town . In the 14th century , Sheffield was already noted for the production of knives , as mentioned in Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Canterbury Tales , and by the early 1600s it had become the main centre of cutlery manufacture in England outside London , overseen by the Company of Cutlers in Hallamshire . From 1570 to 1584 , Mary , Queen of Scots , was imprisoned in Sheffield Castle and Sheffield Manor .
During the 1740s , a form of the crucible steel process was discovered that allowed the manufacture of a better quality of steel than had previously been possible . In about the same period , a technique was developed for fusing a thin sheet of silver onto a copper ingot to produce silver plating , which became widely known as Sheffield plate . These innovations spurred Sheffield 's growth as an industrial town , but the loss of some important export markets led to a recession in the late 18th and early 19th century . The resulting poor conditions culminated in a cholera epidemic that killed 402 people in 1832 . The population of the town grew rapidly throughout the 19th century ; increasing from 60 @,@ 095 in 1801 to 451 @,@ 195 by 1901 . The town was incorporated as a borough in 1842 and was granted a city charter in 1893 . The influx of people also led to demand for better water supplies , and a number of new reservoirs were constructed on the outskirts of the town . The collapse of the dam wall of one of these reservoirs in 1864 resulted in the Great Sheffield Flood , which killed 270 people and devastated large parts of the town . The growing population led to the construction of many back @-@ to @-@ back dwellings that , along with severe pollution from the factories , inspired George Orwell in 1937 to write : " Sheffield , I suppose , could justly claim to be called the ugliest town in the Old World " .
A recession in the 1930s was halted by increasing international tensions as the Second World War loomed ; Sheffield 's steel factories were set to work manufacturing weapons and ammunition for the war effort . As a result , the city became a target for bombing raids , the heaviest of which occurred on the nights of 12 and 15 December 1940 , now known as the Sheffield Blitz . More than 660 lives were lost and many buildings destroyed .
In the 1950s and 1960s , many of the city 's slums were demolished , and replaced with housing schemes such as the Park Hill flats . Large parts of the city centre were also cleared to make way for a new system of roads . Increased automation and competition from abroad resulted in the closure of many steel mills . The 1980s saw the worst of this run @-@ down of Sheffield 's industries , along with those of many other areas of the UK . The building of the Meadowhall Centre on the site of a former steelworks in 1990 was a mixed blessing , creating much needed jobs but hastening the decline of the city centre . Attempts to regenerate the city were kick @-@ started when the city hosted the 1991 World Student Games , which saw the construction of new sporting facilities such as the Sheffield Arena , Don Valley Stadium and the Ponds Forge complex .
Sheffield is changing rapidly as new projects regenerate some of the more run @-@ down parts of the city . One such , the Heart of the City Project , has initiated a number of public works in the city centre : the Peace Gardens were renovated in 1998 , the Millennium Galleries opened in April 2001 , the Winter Gardens were opened in May 2003 , and a public space to link these two areas , the Millennium Square , was opened in May 2006 . Additional developments included the remodelling of Sheaf Square , in front of the recently refurbished railway station . The new square contains " The Cutting Edge " , a sculpture designed by Si Applied Ltd and made from Sheffield steel .
Sheffield was particularly hard @-@ hit during the 2007 United Kingdom floods and the 2010 Big Freeze . Many landmark buildings such as Meadowhall and the Sheffield Wednesday grounds flooded due to being close to nearby rivers that flow through the city .
= = Government = =
Sheffield is governed at the local level by Sheffield City Council . It consists of 84 councillors elected to represent 28 wards : three councillors per ward . Following the 2016 local elections , the distribution of council seats is Labour 57 , Liberal Democrats 19 , the Green Party 4 and UKIP 4 . The city also has a Lord Mayor ; though now simply a ceremonial position , in the past the office carried considerable authority , with executive powers over the finances and affairs of the city council .
For much of its history the council was controlled by the Labour Party , and was noted for its leftist sympathies ; during the 1980s , when Sheffield City Council was led by David Blunkett , the area gained the epithet the " Socialist Republic of South Yorkshire " . However , the Liberal Democrats controlled the Council between 1999 and 2001 and took control again from 2008 to 2011 .
The majority of council @-@ owned facilities are operated by independent charitable trusts . Sheffield International Venues runs many of the city 's sporting and leisure facilities , including Sheffield Arena and the English Institute of Sport . Museums Sheffield and the Sheffield Industrial Museums Trust take care of galleries and museums owned by the council .
The city returns five members of parliament to the House of Commons , with a sixth , the Member of Parliament for Penistone and Stocksbridge representing parts of Sheffield and Barnsley . The former Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg is also an MP for Sheffield , representing Sheffield Hallam .
= = Geography = =
Sheffield is located at 53 ° 23 ′ N 1 ° 28 ′ W. It lies directly beside Rotherham , from which it is separated largely by the M1 motorway . Although Barnsley Metropolitan Borough also borders Sheffield to the north , the town itself is a few miles further away . The southern and western borders of the city are shared with Derbyshire ; in the first half of the 20th century Sheffield extended its borders south into Derbyshire , annexing a number of villages , including Totley , Dore and the area now known as Mosborough Townships . Directly to the west of the city are the Peak District National Park and the Pennine hill range , while the South Yorkshire Coalfield lies to the east .
Sheffield is a geographically diverse city . The city nestles in a natural amphitheatre created by several hills forming the eastern foothills of the Pennines , and the confluence of five rivers : Don , Sheaf , Rivelin , Loxley and Porter . As such , much of the city is built on hillsides with views into the city centre or out to the countryside . The city 's lowest point is just 29 metres ( 95 ft ) above sea level near Blackburn Meadows , while some parts of the city are at over 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) ; the highest point being 548 metres ( 1 @,@ 798 ft ) at High Stones , near Margery Hill . However , 79 % of the housing in the city is between 100 and 200 metres ( 330 and 660 ft ) above sea level .
Estimated to contain over two million trees , Sheffield has more trees per person than any other city in Europe , and according to Sheffield City Council , it is England 's greenest city , a claim that was reinforced when it won the 2005 Entente Florale competition . It has over 170 woodlands ( covering 10 @.@ 91 sq mi or 28 @.@ 3 km2 ) , 78 public parks ( covering 7 @.@ 07 sq mi or 18 @.@ 3 km2 ) and 10 public gardens . Added to the 52 @.@ 0 square miles ( 134 @.@ 7 km2 ) of national park and 4 @.@ 20 square miles ( 10 @.@ 9 km2 ) of water this means that 61 % of the city is greenspace . Despite this , about 64 % of Sheffield householders live further than 300 metres ( 328 yd ) from their nearest greenspace , although access is better in less affluent neighbourhoods across the city . Since 2012 there have been disputes between the city council and residents over the fate of the city 's 36 @,@ 000 highway trees , with 2000 having been felled by October 2015 as part of the £ 2 billion Streets Ahead road improvement scheme .
Sheffield also has a very wide variety of habitat , comparing favourably with any city in the United Kingdom : urban , parkland and woodland , agricultural and arable land , moors , meadows and freshwater @-@ based habitats . There are six areas within the city that are designated as sites of special scientific interest .
The present city boundaries were set in 1974 ( with slight modification in 1994 ) , when the former county borough of Sheffield merged with Stocksbridge Urban District and two parishes from the Wortley Rural District . This area includes a significant part of the countryside surrounding the main urban region . Roughly a third of Sheffield lies in the Peak District National Park . No other English city included parts of a national park within its boundary , until the creation in March 2010 of the South Downs National Park , part of which lies within Brighton and Hove .
= = = Climate = = =
Like the rest of the United Kingdom , the climate in Sheffield is generally temperate . The Pennines to the west of the city can create a cool , gloomy and wet environment , but they also provide shelter from the prevailing westerly winds , casting a " rain shadow " across the area . Between 1971 and 2000 Sheffield averaged 824 @.@ 7 millimetres ( 32 @.@ 47 in ) of rain per year ; December was the wettest month with 91 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 62 in ) and July the driest with 51 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 01 in ) . July was also the hottest month , with an average maximum temperature of 20 @.@ 8 ° C ( 69 @.@ 4 ° F ) . The average minimum temperature in January and February was 1 @.@ 6 ° C ( 34 @.@ 9 ° F ) , though the lowest temperatures recorded in these months can be between − 10 and − 15 ° C ( 14 and 5 ° F ) , although since 1960 , the temperature has never fallen below − 9 @.@ 2 ° C ( 15 @.@ 4 ° F ) , suggesting that urbanisation around the Weston Park site during the second half of the 20th century may prevent temperatures below − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) occurring .
The coldest temperature to be recorded in recent years was − 8 @.@ 2 ° C ( 17 @.@ 2 ° F ) . ( Note : The official Weston Park Weather Station statistics , which can also be viewed at Sheffield Central Library , has the temperature at − 8 @.@ 7 ° C ( 16 @.@ 3 ° F ) , recorded on 20 December , and states that to be the lowest December temperature since 1981 . )
The coldest temperature ever recorded in the city of Sheffield at Weston Park , since records began in 1882 , is − 14 @.@ 5 ° C ( 5 @.@ 9 ° F ) , registered in February 1895 . The lowest daytime maximum temperature in the city since records began is − 5 @.@ 6 ° C ( 21 @.@ 9 ° F ) , also recorded in February 1895 .
More recently , a − 4 @.@ 4 ° C ( 24 @.@ 1 ° F ) was recorded as a daytime maximum at Weston Park , on 20 December 2010 . ( from the Weston Park Weather Station statistics , which also can be viewed at Sheffield Central Library . )
On average , through the winter months of December to March , there are 67 days during which ground frost occurs .
The Weston Park Weather station , established in 1882 , is one of the longest running weather stations in the United Kingdom . It has recorded weather for more than 125 years , and a 2008 report showed that the climate of Sheffield is warming faster than it has at any time during this period , with 1990 and 2006 being the hottest years on record . In collaboration with the Stockholm Environment Institute , Sheffield developed a carbon footprint ( based on 2004 / 05 consumption figures ) of 5 @,@ 798 @,@ 361 tonnes per year . This compares to the UK 's total carbon footprint of 698 @,@ 568 @,@ 010 tonnes per year . The factors with the greatest impact are housing ( 34 % ) , transport ( 25 % ) , consumer ( 11 % ) , private services ( 9 % ) , public services ( 8 % ) , food ( 8 % ) and capital investment ( 5 % ) . Sheffield City Council has signed up to the 10 : 10 campaign .
= = = Subdivisions = = =
Sheffield is made up of many suburbs and neighbourhoods , many of which developed from villages or hamlets that were absorbed into Sheffield as the city grew . These historical areas are largely ignored by the modern administrative and political divisions of the city ; instead it is divided into 28 electoral wards , with each ward generally covering 4 – 6 areas . These electoral wards are grouped into six parliamentary constituencies . Sheffield is largely unparished , but Bradfield and Ecclesfield have parish councils , and Stocksbridge has a town council .
= = Demography = =
The United Kingdom Census 2001 reported a resident population for Sheffield of 513 @,@ 234 , a 2 % decline from the 1991 census . The city is part of the wider Sheffield urban area , which had a population of 640 @,@ 720 . In 2011 the racial composition of Sheffield 's population was 84 % White ( 81 % White British , 0 @.@ 5 % White Irish , 0 @.@ 1 % Gypsy or Irish Traveller , 2 @.@ 3 % Other White ) , 2 @.@ 4 % of mixed race ( 1 @.@ 0 % White and Black Caribbean , 0 @.@ 2 % White and Black African , 0 @.@ 6 % White and Asian , 0 @.@ 6 % Other Mixed ) , 8 % Asian ( 1 @.@ 1 % Indian , 4 % Pakistani , 0 @.@ 6 % Bangladeshi , 1 @.@ 3 % Chinese , 1 @.@ 0 % Other Asian ) , 3 @.@ 6 % Black ( 2 @.@ 1 % African , 1 % Caribbean , 0 @.@ 5 % Other Black ) , 1 @.@ 5 % Arab and 0 @.@ 7 % of other ethnic heritage . In terms of religion , 53 % of the population are Christian , 6 % are Muslim , 0 @.@ 6 % are Hindu , 0 @.@ 4 % are Buddhist , 0 @.@ 2 % are Sikh , 0 @.@ 1 % are Jewish , 0 @.@ 4 % belong to another religion , 31 % have no religion and 7 % did not state their religion . The largest quinary group is 20- to 24 @-@ year @-@ olds ( 9 % ) because of the large university student population .
The population of Sheffield peaked in 1951 at 577 @,@ 050 , and has since declined steadily . However , the mid @-@ 2007 population estimate was 530 @,@ 300 , representing an increase of about 17 @,@ 000 residents since 2001 .
Although a city , Sheffield is informally known as " the largest village in England " , because of a combination of topographical isolation and demographic stability . It is relatively geographically isolated , being cut off from other places by a ring of hills . ( Local folklore insists that , like Rome , Sheffield was built " on seven hills " . ) The land surrounding Sheffield was unsuitable for industrial use , and now includes several protected green belt areas . These topographical factors have served to restrict urban spread , resulting in a relatively stable population size and a low degree of mobility .
= = Economy = =
After many years of decline , the Sheffield economy is going through a strong revival . The 2004 Barclays Bank Financial Planning study revealed that , in 2003 , the Sheffield district of Hallam was the highest ranking area outside London for overall wealth , the proportion of people earning over £ 60 @,@ 000 a year standing at almost 12 % . A survey by Knight Frank revealed that Sheffield was the fastest @-@ growing city outside London for office and residential space and rents during the second half of 2004 . This can be seen by the current surge of redevelopments , including the City Lofts Tower and accompanying St Paul 's Place , Velocity Living and the Moor redevelopment , the forthcoming NRQ and the recently completed Winter Gardens , Peace Gardens , Millennium Galleries and many projects under the Sheffield One redevelopment agency . The Sheffield economy grew from £ 5 @.@ 6 billion in 1997 ( 1997 GVA ) to £ 9 @.@ 2 billion in 2007 ( 2007 GVA ) .
The " UK Cities Monitor 2008 " placed Sheffield among the top ten " best cities to locate a business today " , the city occupying third and fourth places respectively for best office location and best new call centre location . The same report places Sheffield in third place regarding " greenest reputation " and second in terms of the availability of financial incentives .
Sheffield has an international reputation for metallurgy and steel @-@ making . Many innovations in these fields have been made in Sheffield , for example Benjamin Huntsman discovered the crucible technique in the 1740s at his workshop in Handsworth . This process was rendered obsolete in 1856 by Henry Bessemer 's invention of the Bessemer converter . Thomas Boulsover invented Sheffield Plate ( silver @-@ plated copper ) in the early 18th century . Stainless steel was invented by Harry Brearley in 1912 , and the work of F. B. Pickering and T. Gladman throughout the 1960s , 1970s and 1980s was fundamental to the development of modern high @-@ strength low @-@ alloy steels . Further innovations continue , with new advanced manufacturing technologies and techniques being developed on the Advanced Manufacturing Park by Sheffield 's universities and other independent research organisations . Organisations located on the AMP include the Advanced Manufacturing Research Centre ( AMRC , a research partnership between the Boeing Company and the University of Sheffield ) , Castings Technology International ( CTI ) , The Welding Institute ( TWI ) , and William Cook Group .
Forgemasters , founded in 1805 , is the sole remaining independent steel works in the world and dominates the north east of Sheffield around the Lower Don Valley . The firm has a global reputation for producing the largest and most complex steel forgings and castings and is certified to produce critical nuclear components , with recent projects including the Royal Navy 's Astute class submarines . The firm also has the capacity for pouring the largest single ingot ( 570 tonnes ) in Europe and is currently in the process of expanding its capabilities .
While iron and steel have long been the main industries of Sheffield , coal mining has also been a major industry , particularly in the outlying areas , and the Palace of Westminster in London was built using limestone from quarries in the nearby village of Anston . Other areas of employment include call centres , the City Council , universities and hospitals .
Sheffield is a major retail centre , and is home to many High Street and department stores as well as designer boutiques . The main shopping areas in the city centre are on The Moor precinct , Fargate , Orchard Square and the Devonshire Quarter . Department stores in the city centre include John Lewis , Marks and Spencer , Atkinsons and Debenhams . Sheffield 's main market was once Castle Market , built above the remains of the castle . This is due to be demolished . Sheffield Moor market opened in 2013 . Shopping areas outside the city centre include the Meadowhall shopping centre and retail park , Ecclesall Road , London Road , Hillsborough , Firth Park and the Crystal Peaks shopping centre . In a 2010 survey of forecast expenditure at retail centres in the United Kingdom , Meadowhall was ranked 12th and Sheffield City Centre 19th .
Sheffield has a District Energy system that exploits the city 's domestic waste , by incinerating it and converting the energy from it to electricity . It also provides hot water , which is distributed through over 25 miles ( 40 km ) of pipes under the city , via two networks . These networks supply heat and hot water for many buildings throughout the city . These include not only cinemas , hospitals , shops and offices , but also universities ( Sheffield Hallam University and the University of Sheffield ) , and residential properties . Energy generated in a waste plant produces 60 megawatts of thermal energy and up to 19 megawatts of electrical energy from 225 @,@ 000 tonnes of waste .
In 2012 , Sheffield City Region Enterprise Zone was launched to promote development in a number of sites in Sheffield and across the wider region . In March 2014 additional sites were added to the zone .
= = Transport = =
= = = National and international travel = = =
= = = = Road = = = =
Sheffield is linked into the national motorway network via the M1 and M18 motorways . The M1 skirts the north @-@ east of the city , linking Sheffield with London to the south and Leeds to the north , and crosses Tinsley Viaduct near Rotherham ; the M18 branches from the M1 close to Sheffield , linking the city with Doncaster , Robin Hood Doncaster Sheffield Airport , and the Humber ports . The Sheffield Parkway connects the city centre with the motorways .
= = = = Rail = = = =
Major railway routes through Sheffield railway station include the Midland Main Line , which links the city to London via the East Midlands , the Cross Country Route which links the East of Scotland and Northeast of England with the West Midlands and the Southwest , and the lines linking Liverpool and Manchester with Hull and East Anglia . With the redevelopment of London St Pancras station ( now St Pancras International ) complete , Sheffield has a direct connection to continental Europe . East Midlands Trains run services to St Pancras International and Eurostar run services from there to France and Belgium . The Master Cutler , a named passenger express train running from Sheffield railway station to London St Pancras , provides a direct connection to the capital .
The coalition government announced in October 2010 that Sheffield would be included in the proposed High Speed Rail network connecting the North of England with London . The plan will see Sheffield and Leeds served by the same line which will connect with another to Manchester just south of Birmingham , with London Euston station being the probable London terminus . Construction of the Yorkshire / East Midlands High Speed line is likely to begin 2025 and services begin operation in 2032 .
Other trains serving Sheffield ( apart from East Midland Trains ) are provided by CrossCountry , TransPennine Express and Northern . Aside from the main railway station there are five other stations in Sheffield . Meadowhall , a bus , rail and tram interchange , is the second largest station and accommodates a number of services including the long distance CrossCountry service . Dore and Totley , Woodhouse , Chapeltown and Darnall stations serve as commuter stations for suburban communities but are also connected to the national rail network .
= = = = Coach = = = =
Coach services running through Sheffield are operated by National Express and to a lesser extent Megabus , part of the Stagecoach Group . National Express services call at Sheffield Interchange , Meadowhall Interchange and Meadowhead Bus Stop . Megabus services only call at Meadowhall . National Express services 564 , 560 , 350 , 320 , 310 and 240 call at Sheffield , as do others on a less frequent basis . The 560 / 564 service is a direct connection to London Victoria Coach Station via Chesterfield and Milton Keynes , operating 12 times a day in both directions . The 350 and 240 services connect Sheffield to Manchester Airport and Heathrow / Gatwick Airports respectively . Two Megabus services , the M12 and M20 , call at Sheffield en route to London from Newcastle upon Tyne and Inverness respectively .
= = = = Canal = = = =
The Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation ( S & SY ) is a system of navigable inland waterways ( canals and canalised rivers ) in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire . Chiefly based on the River Don , it runs for a length of 43 miles ( 69 km ) and has 29 locks . It connects Sheffield , Rotherham and Doncaster with the River Trent at Keadby and ( via the New Junction Canal ) the Aire and Calder Navigation .
= = = = Air = = = =
Following the closure of Sheffield City Airport in 2008 , the closest international airport to Sheffield is Doncaster Sheffield Airport , which is located 18 miles ( 29 km ) less than 40 minutes from the city centre . It operates on the site of the former RAF Finningley . DSA airport opened on 28 April 2005 and is served mainly by charter and budget airlines . It handles about one million passengers a year .
A new link road , due to open in January 2016 , will connect Doncaster Sheffield Airport to the M18 motorway , reducing the journey time from Sheffield city centre from 40 to 25 minutes .
East Midlands Airport is within one hour 's drive of the city , and Manchester Airport is connected directly to Sheffield by a direct train every hour .
= = = Local travel = = =
The A57 and A61 roads are the major trunk roads through Sheffield . These run east – west and north – south respectively , crossing in the city centre , from where the other major roads generally radiate spoke @-@ like . An inner ring road , mostly constructed in the 1970s and extended in 2007 to form a complete ring , allows traffic to avoid the city centre , and an outer ring road runs to the east , south east and north , nearer the edge of the city , but does not serve the western side of Sheffield .
Sheffield does not have as extensive a suburban and inter @-@ urban railway network as other comparable British cities . However , there are several local rail routes running along the city 's valleys and beyond , connecting it with other parts of South Yorkshire , West Yorkshire , Nottinghamshire , Lincolnshire and Derbyshire . These local routes include the Penistone Line , the Dearne Valley Line , the Hope Valley Line and the Hallam Line . As well as the main stations of Sheffield and Meadowhall , there are five suburban stations , at Chapeltown , Darnall , Woodhouse , Dronfield and Dore .
The Sheffield Supertram ( not derived from the previous tramways ) , operated by Stagecoach , opened in 1994 , shortly after the similar Metrolink scheme in Manchester . Its network consists of 37 miles ( 60 km ) of track and three lines , from Halfway to Malin Bridge ( Blue Line ) , from Meadowhall to Middlewood ( Yellow Line ) , and from Meadowhall to Herdings Park ( Purple Line ) , with all three lines running via the city centre . The system contains both on @-@ street and segregated running , depending upon the section and line .
The Supertram serves as an important connection between areas in the North East of Sheffield ( namely Meadowhall and Valley Centertainment ) and the city centre . Because it is operated by the Stagecoach Group , the ticketing system for the Supertram is integrated with Stagecoach buses in Sheffield , meaning passengers can switch between the two modes of transport without having to buy a separate ticket . The network is due to be extended to Rotherham Parkgate by 2017 , with a fleet of new " train @-@ trams " sharing a conventional rail line between Sheffield and Rotherham .
Sheffield 's local bus infrastructure has its main hub at Sheffield Interchange . Other bus stations lie at Halfway , Hillsborough and Meadowhall . A flurry of new operators was created after deregulation in 1986 , though a series of mergers has reduced the number .
There are numerous bus operators within Sheffield : First South Yorkshire , Stagecoach Yorkshire , TM Travel , Hulleys of Baslow , Powells , G & J Holmes and Sheffield Community Transport . First South Yorkshire , became by far the largest bus operator and in recent years implemented a series of fare rises and service cuts which saw bus ridership drop . Recent developments have seen Stagecoach Sheffield taking over Yorkshire Terrier , Andrews and parent company Yorkshire Traction , thus forming one company and in the process expanding their bus services in the city . This has resulted in increased competition , and price drops on certain routes . A zero @-@ fare bus service , the FreeBee ( Operated by First South Yorkshire ) , operated a circular route around the city centre from the Sheffield Interchange . The FreeBee buses stopped in 2014 and is due to save £ 8 million .
In 2008 , the Bus Rapid Transit Scheme between Sheffield and Rotherham was approved by the Yorkshire and Humber Assembly 's Regional Transport Board . There are plans for two routes ; one ( the Northern route ) via Meadowhall and Templeborough , and the other via the developing employment centre and Waverley .
= = = = Cycling = = = =
For cycling , although hilly , Sheffield is compact and has few major trunk roads . It is on the Trans @-@ Pennine Trail , a National Cycle Network route running from West to East from Southport in Merseyside to Hornsea in the East Riding of Yorkshire and North to South from Leeds in West Yorkshire to Chesterfield in Derbyshire . There are many cycle routes going along country paths in the woods surrounding the city .
= = Education = =
= = = Universities and colleges = = =
Sheffield has two universities , the University of Sheffield and Sheffield Hallam University . The two combined bring about 65 @,@ 000 students to the city every year . Sheffield University was established in 1897 as University College Sheffield and became the University of Sheffield in 1905 .
Sheffield Hallam University ( SHU ) is a university on two sites in Sheffield . City Campus is located in the city centre , close to Sheffield railway station , and Collegiate Crescent Campus is about two miles away , adjacent to Ecclesall Road in south @-@ west Sheffield . The university is the third largest in the UK , with more than 37 @,@ 000 students ( of whom over 4 @,@ 000 are international students ) , 4 @,@ 170 staff and 747 courses . Sheffield Hallam University 's history goes back to 1843 with the establishment of the Sheffield School of Design . During the 1960s several independent colleges ( including the School of Design ) joined to become Sheffield Polytechnic ( Sheffield City Polytechnic from 1976 ) and was finally renamed Sheffield Hallam University in 1992 .
Sheffield has three main further education providers , The Sheffield College , Longley Park Sixth Form College and Chapeltown Academy . The Sheffield College is organised on a federal basis and was originally created from the merger of six colleges around the city , since reduced to just four : Sheffield City ( formerly Castle ) near the city centre , Hillsborough , serving the north of the city and Norton and Peaks to the south .
= = = Secondary , primary and pre @-@ school education = = =
There are 137 primary schools , 26 secondary schools – of which 9 have sixth forms : ( High Storrs , King Ecgberts , King Edward VII , Silverdale , Meadowhead , Tapton , UTC Sheffield , Notre Dame Catholic High and All Saints Catholic High ) – and a sixth @-@ form college , Longley Park Sixth Form College . The city 's five independent private schools include Birkdale School and the Sheffield High School . There are also 12 special schools and a number of Integrated Resource Units in mainstream schools which are , along with all other schools , managed by Sheffield City Council . All schools are non @-@ selective , mixed sex schools ( apart from Sheffield High School which is an all @-@ girls school ) . The Early Years Education and Childcare Service of Sheffield City Council manages 32 nurseries and children 's centres in the city .
= = Sport = =
Sheffield has a long sporting heritage . In 1857 a collective of cricketers formed the world 's first @-@ ever official football club , Sheffield F.C. , and the world 's second @-@ ever , Hallam F.C. , who also play at the world 's oldest football ground in the suburb of Crosspool . Sheffield and Hallam are today Sheffield 's two major non @-@ league sides , although Sheffield now play just outside the city in nearby Dronfield , Derbyshire . Sheffield and Hallam contest what has become known as the Sheffield derby . By 1860 there were 15 football clubs in Sheffield , with the first ever amateur league and cup competitions taking place in the city .
Sheffield is best known for its two professional football teams , Sheffield United , known locally as The Blades , and Sheffield Wednesday , known locally as The Owls . United , who play at Bramall Lane south of the city centre , compete in the Football League One , whilst Wednesday , who play at Hillsborough in the north west of the city , compete in the Football League Championship . The two clubs contest the Steel City Derby , which is considered by many to be one of the most fierce football rivalries in English Football . In the pre @-@ war era , both Wednesday and United enjoyed large amounts of success and found themselves two of the country 's top clubs ; Sheffield Wednesday became champions of the Football League consecutively in 1902 – 03 and 1903 – 04 , then again in 1928 – 29 , whilst Sheffield United had won it in 1897 – 98 . In the FA Cup the teams were also two of the forerunners , United winning it on 4 occasions and Wednesday on 3 . Post war , and Wednesday were beaten finalists in the 1966 FA cup . During the 1970s and early 1980s the two sides fell from grace , with Wednesday finding themselves in the Third Division by the mid 70s and United as far as the Fourth Division in 1981 . Wednesday once again became one of England 's high @-@ flying clubs following promotion back to the First Division in 1984 , winning the League Cup in 1991 , competing in the UEFA Cup in 1992 – 93 , and reaching the final of both the League Cup and FA Cup in the same season . United and Wednesday were both founding members of the Premier League in 1992 , but The Blades were relegated in 1994 . The Owls remained until 2000 . Both clubs have gone into decline in the 21st Century , Wednesday twice relegated to League One and United suffering the same fate in 2011 , despite a brief spell in the Premier League in 2006 – 07 . Sheffield Wednesday 's new owner Dejphon Chansiri is aiming for promotion back to the Premier League by 2017 .
Rotherham United , who play in the Championship , did play their home games in the city between 2008 and 2012 , having moved to play at Sheffield 's Don Valley Stadium in 2008 following a dispute with their previous landlord at their traditional home ground of Millmoor , Rotherham . However , in July 2012 , the club moved to the new 12 @,@ 000 seat New York Stadium in Rotherham , whilst United and Wednesday contest the Steel City derby . There are also facilities for golf , climbing and bowling , as well as a newly inaugurated national ice @-@ skating arena ( IceSheffield ) .
Sheffield Eagles RLFC are the city 's professional Rugby league team who play their matches at Owlerton Stadium . They currently play in the second tier of the professional league , the Championship and are current champions , having won back to back titles in 2012 and 2013 . Their most successful moment came in 1998 , when , against all the odds they defeated Wigan Warriors in the Challenge Cup final , despite being huge underdogs . The team then hit troubled times before reforming in 2003 . Since then they have played their rugby in the Championship ( second tier ) . In 2011 , they made the playoffs finishing in fifth place . They made the Grand Final , by defeating Leigh , who were huge favourites in a playoff semi final . In the final , they were comprehensively beaten by Featherstone . Sheffield also put in a bid to be a host city for the 2013 Rugby League World Cup , but their bid was unsuccessful .
Sheffield is also home to the Sheffield Steelers ice hockey team who play out of the 8 @,@ 500 seater Sheffield Arena . They play in the 10 team professional Elite Ice Hockey League . Many of Sheffield 's sporting facilities were built for the World Student Games , which the city hosted in 1991 , including Sheffield Arena and the Ponds Forge international diving and swimming complex . Ponds Forge is also the home of Sheffield City Swimming Club , a local swimming club competing in the Speedo league . The former Don Valley International Athletics Stadium , once the largest athletics stadium in the UK , was also constructed for the Universiade games . The Sheffield Ski Village was the largest artificial ski resort in Europe , before being destroyed in a series of suspected arson attacks in 2012 and 2013 . The city also has two indoor climbing centres . Sheffield was the UK 's first National City of Sport and is now home to the English Institute of Sport – Sheffield , where British athletes trained for the 2012 Olympics .
Sheffield also has close ties with snooker , with the city 's Crucible Theatre being the venue for the World Snooker Championships . The English Institute of Sport hosts most of the top fencing competitions each year , including the National Championships for Seniors , Juniors ( U20 's ) and Cadets ( U17 's ) as well as the 2011 Senior European Fencing Championships . The English squash open is also held in the city every year . The International Open and World Matchplay Championship bowls tournaments have both been held at Ponds Forge . The city also hosts the Sheffield Tigers rugby union , Sheffield Sharks basketball , Sheffield University Bankers hockey , Sheffield Steelers ice hockey and Sheffield Tigers speedway teams . Sheffield also has many golf courses all around the city .
Sheffield was selected as a candidate host city by the Football Association ( FA ) as part of the English 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cup bid on 16 December 2009 . Hillsborough Stadium was chosen as the proposed venue for matches in Sheffield . The bid failed .
The National Hockey League 's Stanley Cup was made in Sheffield in 1892 . Sheffield is also home to the Sheffield Steel Rollergirls , a roller derby team .
Sheffield hosted the finish of Stage 2 of the 2014 Tour de France . Within the City limits and located just 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the finish , was the ninth and final climb of the stage , the Category 4 Côte de Jenkin Road . The one point in the King of the Mountains Competition was claimed by Chris Froome of Team Sky . The climb was just 0 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ) long at an average gradient of 10 @.@ 8 % . The stage was won by the eventual overall winner , Vincenzo Nibali of Astana Pro Team .
= = Culture and attractions = =
Sheffield made the shortlist for the first city to be designated UK City of Culture , but in July 2010 it was announced that Derry had been selected .
= = = Attractions = = =
The Sheffield Walk of Fame in the City Centre honours famous Sheffield residents past and present in a similar way to the Hollywood version . Sheffield also had its own Ferris Wheel known as the Wheel of Sheffield , located atop Fargate shopping precinct . The Wheel was dismantled in October 2010 and moved to London 's Hyde Park . Heeley City Farm and Graves Park are home to Sheffield 's two farm animal collections , both of which are fully open to the public .
There are about 1 @,@ 100 listed buildings in Sheffield ( including the whole of the Sheffield postal district ) . Of these , only five are Grade I listed . Fifty @-@ nine are Grade II * , but the overwhelming majority are listed as Grade II . Compared to other English cities , Sheffield has few buildings with the highest Grade I listing : Liverpool , for example , has 26 Grade I listed buildings . This situation led the noted architecture historian Nikolaus Pevsner , writing in 1959 , to comment that the city was " architecturally a miserable disappointment " , with no pre @-@ 19th @-@ century buildings of any distinction . By contrast , in November 2007 , Sheffield 's Peace and Winter Gardens beat London 's South Bank to gain the Royal Institute of British Architects ' Academy of Urbanism " Great Place " Award , as an " outstanding example of how cities can be improved , to make urban spaces as attractive and accessible as possible " .
= = = Music = = =
Sheffield has been home to several well @-@ known bands and musicians , with a notably large number of synthpop and other electronic bands originating from the city . These include The Human League , Heaven 17 , ABC and the more industrially inclined Cabaret Voltaire & Clock DVA . This electronic tradition has continued : techno label Warp Records was a central pillar of the Yorkshire Bleeps and Bass scene of the early 1990s , and has gone on to become one of the UK 's oldest and best @-@ loved dance music labels . More recently , other popular genres of electronic music such as bassline house have originated in the city . Sheffield was once home to a number of historically important nightclubs in the early dance music scene of the 1980s and 90s , Gatecrasher One was one of the most popular clubs in the North of England until its destruction by fire on 18 June 2007 .
A number of major music acts , including Joe Cocker , Def Leppard , Paul Carrack ( of Mike + The Mechanics ) , Arctic Monkeys , Bring Me the Horizon , Pulp and Moloko , hail from the city . Indie band The Long Blondes originated from the city , as part of what the NME dubbed the New Yorkshire scene .
In 1999 , the National Centre for Popular Music , a museum dedicated to the subject of popular music , was opened in the city . It was not as successful as was hoped , however , and later evolved to become a live music venue ; then in February 2005 , the unusual steel @-@ covered building became the students ' union for Sheffield Hallam University . Live music venues in the city include the Harley Hotel , Leadmill , West Street Live , the Boardwalk , Dove & Rainbow , The Casbah , The Cremorne , Corporation , New Barrack Tavern , The Broadfield Hotel , Redstone bar and nightclub , the City Hall , the University of Sheffield Students ' Union , the Studio Theatre at the Crucible Theatre , the O2 Academy Sheffield and The Grapes .
Sheffield hosts a number of festivals , the Grin Up North Sheffield Comedy Festival , the Sensoria Music & Film Festival and the Tramlines Festival . The Tramlines Festival was launched as an annual music festival in 2009 , it is held throughout venues in Sheffield City Centre , and features local and national artists . The city is also home to several local orchestras and choirs , such as the Sheffield Symphony Orchestra , the Sheffield Philharmonic Orchestra , the Sheffield Chamber Orchestra , the City of Sheffield Youth Orchestra , the Sheffield Philharmonic Chorus and the Chorus UK community choir .
= = = Theatres = = =
Sheffield has two large theatres , the Lyceum Theatre and the Crucible Theatre , which together with the smaller Studio Theatre make up the largest theatre complex outside London , located in Tudor Square . The Crucible Theatre is the home ( since 1977 ) of the World Snooker Championships and hosts many well @-@ known stage productions throughout the year . The Lyceum , which opened in 1897 , serves as a venue for touring West End productions and operas by Opera North , as well as locally produced shows . Sheffield also has the Montgomery Theatre , a small 420 seater theatre located a short distance from Tudor Square , opposite the town hall on Surrey Street . There are also a large number of smaller amateur theatres scattered throughout the city .
= = = Museums = = =
Sheffield 's museums are managed by two distinct organisations . Museums Sheffield manages the Weston Park Museum ( a Grade II * listed Building ) , Millennium Galleries and Graves Art Gallery . Sheffield Industrial Museums Trust manages the museums dedicated to Sheffield 's industrial heritage of which there are three . Kelham Island Museum ( located just to the North of the city centre ) showcases the city 's history of steel manufacturing . Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet ( in the south of the city ) is a Grade I Listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument . Shepherd Wheel ( in the south @-@ East of the city ) is a former water @-@ powered grinding workshop , Grade II listed and a Scheduled Ancient Monument .
= = = Greenspace = = =
Sheffield has a reputed 2 million trees and is known as the greenest city in Europe . Consequently , there are many parks and woods throughout the city and beyond . There are 83 parks in Sheffield ( 13 ' City ' Parks , 20 ' District ' Parks and 50 ' Local ' Parks ) which are located throughout the city . Included in the city parks category are 3 of Sheffield 's 6 public gardens ( The Sheffield Botanical Gardens , The Peace Gardens and Hillsborough Walled Gardens , with the Sheffield Winter Gardens , Beauchief Gardens and Lynwood Gardens being the separate entities ) .
The Sheffield Botanical Gardens are on a 19 @-@ acre site located to the south west of the city centre and date back to 1836 . The site includes a large , Grade II listed , Victorian era glasshouse . The Peace Gardens , neighboured next to the Town Hall and forming part of the Heart of the City project , occupy a 0 @.@ 67 hectare site in the centre of the city . The site is dominated by its water features , principle among which is the Goodwin Fountain . Made up of 89 individual jets of water , this fountain lies at the corner of the quarter @-@ circle shaped Peace Gardens and is named after a notable Sheffield industrialist . Since their redevelopment in 1998 , the Peace gardens have received a number of regional and national accolades . Hillsborough Walled Garden is located in Hillsborough Park , to the north west of the city centre . The gardens date back to 1779 and have been dedicated to the victims of the Hillsborough Disaster since the redevelopment of the gardens in the early 1990s . The Winter Garden , lying within the Heart of the City , is a large wood framed , glass skinned greenhouse housing some 2 @,@ 500 plants from around the world .
Also within the city there are a number of nature reserves which when combined occupy 1 @,@ 600 acres ( 6 @.@ 5 km2 ) of land . There are also 170 woodland areas within the city , 80 of which are classed as ancient .
The South West boundary of the city overlaps with the Peak District National Park , the first national park in England ( est . 1951 ) . As a consequence , several communities actually reside within both entities . The Peak District is home to many notable , natural , features and also man @-@ made features such as Chatsworth House , the setting for the BBC series Pride and Prejudice .
Sheffield City Council has created a new chain of parks spanning the hill side behind Sheffield Station . The park , known as Sheaf Valley Park , has an open @-@ air amphitheatre and will include an arboretum . The site was once home to a medieval deer park , latterly owned by the Duke of Norfolk .
= = = Entertainment = = =
Sheffield has five cinema complexes , three of which are in the city centre and a further two in the Lower Don Valley . One of these complexes is located at Valley Centertainment , a leisure and entertainment complex in the Don Valley . It was built on land previously occupied by steel mills near what is now Meadowhall and the Sheffield Arena . It is home to several restaurants , bars , a cinema multiplex and a bowling alley . It is also the largest Cineworld complex in the United Kingdom , containing 20 screens in one building . Odeon Sheffield , situated on Arundel Gate in the city Centre and Vue , located within Meadowhall Shopping Centre , are the two other mainstream cinemas in the city . The Showroom , an independent cinema showing non @-@ mainstream productions , is located in Sheaf Square , close to Sheffield station . In 2002 the Showroom was voted as the best Independent cinema in the country by Guardian readers . A Curzon Cinemas complex has also recently opened in the city centre , close to the existing Odeon complex . The cinema is based in the former Sheffield Banking Company building , located just off Arundel Gate . The cinema features 4K resolution projectors and was opened in January 2015 .
Owing to its long history , Sheffield has a large number of pubs throughout the city . West Street , running through the heart of the West End district of the city centre , is home to many pubs , bars and clubs and attracts many student visitors . A recent addition to the city 's nightlife is Leopold Square , situated just off the northern end of West Street . Aagrah , an Indian restaurant in the square which serves Kashmiri cuisine , has recently been voted " Best Restaurant Group in the UK " at the prestigious British Curry Awards .
= = = Media and film = = =
Sheffield has two commercial newspapers , The Star and Sheffield Telegraph , both published by Johnston Press PLC . The Star has been published daily since 1897 ; the Sheffield Telegraph , now a weekly publication , originated in 1855 .
Sheffield has its own TV station ; Sheffield Live TV , a not @-@ for @-@ profit company which began broadcasting on 23 September 2014 . [ 2 ] SLTV has been awarded a 12 @-@ year licence to provide the digital terrestrial broadcasting service . Regional broadcasters BBC Yorkshire and Yorkshire Television also cover the city . Five local radio stations broadcast in the city . The professional services are BBC Radio Sheffield , the independent Hallam FM and its sister station Magic AM . Sheffield is also home to two FM licensed community radio stations : Sheffield Live 93 @.@ 2 , and Burngreave Community Radio on 103 @.@ 1 .
HBS Radio ( Hospital Broadcasting Sheffield ) broadcasts a 24 @-@ hour service to the Royal Hallamshire , Jessop Wing , Northern General and Weston Park Hospitals . HBS is operated by volunteers from studios at the Royal Hallamshire Hospital and is provided free to bedside terminals via Hospedia and on medium wave 1431am from a transmitter at the Northern General Hospital .
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plays The Full Monty , Threads , Looks and Smiles , When Saturday Comes , Whatever Happened to Harold Smith ? , The History Boys and Four Lions are set in the city . F.I.S.T. and Kill List also include several scenes filmed in Sheffield and a substantial part of Among Giants was filmed in the city . The documentary festival Sheffield Doc / Fest has been run annually since 1994 at the Showroom Cinema , and in 2007 Sheffield hosted the Awards of the International Indian Film Academy .
= = Public services = =
Sheffield is policed by South Yorkshire Police ( a territorial police force ) whose headquarters are in the city . Sheffield constitutes one of its four Basic Command Units ( Barnsley , Doncaster and Rotherham being the other three ) . The force polices an area of approximately 1 @,@ 554 square kilometres and is the 13th largest force in England , Wales and Northern Ireland . The force has in its possession one Police helicopter , known as Sierra Yankee 99 .
Medical services in Sheffield are provided by three NHS Foundation Trusts . Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust provides healthcare to people ( primarily adults ) throughout Sheffield and South Yorkshire . The trusts title includes the word ' teaching ' because it undertakes training of medical students at the University of Sheffield and has strong links to Sheffield Hallam University as well . The trust has two campuses : The West Campus containing the Royal Hallamshire Hospital , the Jessop Wing ( maternity wing ) , Weston Park Hospital ( specialist cancer treatment ) and Charles Clifford Dental Hospital . The Northern General Hospital is the second ' campus ' and is a large facility in the northern suburbs of Sheffield , containing the city 's A & E department . Sheffield Children 's NHS Foundation Trust provides healthcare for children within the city of Sheffield , South Yorkshire and the UK as a whole .
Sheffield Health and Social Care NHS Foundation Trust provides mental health services , services for people with learning disabilities , substance misuse services , long term neurological conditions , as well as a consortium of GP practises . The Sheffield Institute for Motor Neurone Disease ( also known as Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience – SITraN ) has been developed by the University of Sheffield .
Ambulances are provided by the Yorkshire Ambulance Service , which itself is an NHS trust . Fire services in Sheffield are provided by South Yorkshire Fire and Rescue Service . For the purposes of fire @-@ fighting and rescue , Sheffield is divided into East and West sub @-@ divisions .
Domestic waste services in Sheffield are provided by Veolia Environmental Services under contract from and on behalf of the council . Domestic recycling services were recently improved with the addition of glass recycling bins for each home .
Council owned / run buildings are maintained by Kier Group Sheffield in partnership with the council .
= = Sister cities = =
The " Sheffield International Linking Committee " promotes Sheffield overseas , especially with five sister cities :
Chengdu , People 's Republic of China
Anshan , People 's Republic of China
Bochum , Germany
Donetsk , Ukraine
Estelí , Nicaragua
A further four cities have a Friendship Agreement with Sheffield :
Kawasaki , Japan
Kitwe , Zambia
Kotli , Pakistan @-@ administered Kashmir
Pittsburgh , United States
Two roads in Sheffield have been named after sister cities ; a section of the A6102 in Norton is named Bochum Parkway , and a road in Hackenthorpe is named Donetsk Way . Likewise in Bochum , Germany there is a major road called the Sheffield @-@ Ring .
= Colorado Ranger =
The Colorado Ranger is a horse breed from the Colorado High Plains in the United States . The breed is descended from two stallions imported from Turkey to the US state of Virginia in the late 1800s . These stallions were then bred to ranch horses in Nebraska and Colorado , and in the early 1900s the two stallions who every registered Colorado Ranger traces to , Patches # 1 and Max # 2 , were foaled . The breed was championed by rancher Mike Ruby , who founded the Colorado Ranger Horse Association in 1935 . Original registry membership limits resulted in many Colorado Ranger horses being registered instead as Appaloosas , but pedigree research is ongoing to discover additional horses who trace their ancestry back to the original stallions .
By 2005 , more than 6 @,@ 000 Colorado Ranger horses had been registered . Colorado Rangers may be any solid color or carry leopard spotting patterns . Pinto coloration and American Paint Horse breeding are not allowed , nor are draft horse and pony breeding . Colorado Ranger horses may be dual registered with the Appaloosa Horse Club , and approximately 90 percent are .
= = Characteristics and registration = =
Colorado Ranger horses may be of any color except pinto , and pinto or American Paint Horse breeding is not allowed within five generations of any registered horse 's pedigree . They stand 14 @.@ 2 to 16 hands ( 58 to 64 inches , 147 to 163 cm ) high . The breed has a straight facial profile , long , muscular neck and deep chest . The shoulders and croup are sloping , connected by a short back . Colorado Ranger horses are still used for their original purpose as ranch horses . They are also shown , both in Western and English disciplines , although mainly the former , and used for trail and pleasure riding . They are known for their athleticism , good disposition and abilities as stock horses .
All registered Colorado Ranger Horses trace directly to one of two foundation sires in their pedigree . The first is Patches # 1 and the second is Max # 2 , a son of another horse named Max born in 1918 . Registered Colorado Rangerbreds may be bred to registered Thoroughbreds , American Quarter Horses , Appaloosas , Arabians and AraAppaloosas , and the resulting progeny registered as purebred Colorado Rangerbreds . Horses with draft horse or pony blood may not be registered . Colorado Ranger Horses may be double @-@ registered with the Appaloosa Horse Club , but Appaloosas may not be registered with the CRHA unless they have the proper bloodlines . Approximately 90 percent of Colorado Ranger horses are dual @-@ registered .
= = History = =
The original foundation ancestors of the Colorado Ranger were two stallions brought to the United States and given to US president Ulysses S. Grant by the Turkish Sultan Abdul Hamid II in 1878 . The first horse was a gray Barb named Linden Tree , foaled in 1874 . The second was a desertbred Arabian , also gray , named Leopard , foaled in 1873 . The two stallions reached Virginia in 1879 , after their voyage from Turkey . Upon reaching Virginia , they spent 14 years in the breeding herds of Randolph Huntington , a noted breeder of trotting and roadster horses . In 1896 , Randolph leased Leopard and Linden Tree to a friend of Grant 's , named General Colby , who used to stallions to breed a number of mares on his ranch in Nebraska . These breedings were successful at producing high @-@ quality ranch horses , and a few years later several ranches in Colorado collaborated to buy a group of horses , including one stallion , from the Colby Ranch . All of the mares were sired by one of the two imported sires , and the stallion , a few @-@ spot leopard Appaloosa , was a grandson of Leopard on both sides of his pedigree . The influence of Linden Tree and Leopard on American horse breeding was such that they are now listed in the studbooks for the Arabian Horse Association and the Jockey Club ( which registers Thoroughbreds ) , both major breed associations in the United States .
= = = 20th century = = =
The Colorado ranchers used the horses purchased from Colby to improve their existing ranch stock , and the progeny of these crossings became the Colorado Ranger Horse . Although leopard coloration was not originally an aim of the breeding program , many of the resulting horses bore spotted coat patterns , and breeders began to include the patterning as one of their goals . Two other stallions also became influential foundation sires of the breed . One was a Colorado @-@ born leopard @-@ spot colt named Max , foaled in 1918 . The second was a Barb stallion named Spotte , imported from North Africa in 1918 by the owner of the W.R. Thompson Cattle Company as a wedding gift for his daughter . This stallion provided another important infusion of Barb blood , which had been diluted in the breed since Linden Tree had been imported from Turkey .
Mike Ruby , a horseman from the Colorado High Plains , became interested in the breed and acquired Max and Patches , a son of the original Colby Ranch stallion . During his time breeding Colorado Ranger horses , he kept complete records of every horse that he bred , which became the initial pedigree record for the breed association . Ruby was invited to bring two stallions to the Denver Stock Show in 1934 , and chose to take Leopard # 3 and Fox # 10 . The names Colorado Rangers and Colorado Rangerbreds were coined during this show by members of the now @-@ Colorado State University faculty , in reference to the horses having been bred on the ranges of Colorado . Although " Colorado Ranger " is the official name of the breed , the nickname of " Rangerbreds " is still commonly used .
Ruby was influential in saving some of the highest @-@ quality Ranger stock during the severe drought of the 1930s , by driving them over 300 miles ( 480 km ) to better pasture in a history @-@ making journey . When the rains returned to eastern Colorado , he again made the drive to return the horses to their original pasture . After re @-@ establishing his herd , Ruby developed a practice of leasing groups of his Rangerbred horses to other ranchers throughout the western United States for use as breeding stock . Through this practice , Colorado Ranger horses influenced , and were in return influenced by , the Quarter Horse , Appaloosa and other western stock horse breeds .
In 1935 , Ruby founded the Colorado Ranger Horse Association ( CRHA ) , and was granted a corporate charter for the association in 1938 . Ruby remained president of the organization from 1935 until his death in 1942 . The registry initially imposed a 50 @-@ member limit , and many Ranger horses , whose breeders were not allowed to become members , were instead registered with the Appaloosa Horse Club . The member limit was lifted in 1964 , and since then pedigree research has continued to find and register horses with Ranger breeding that are un @-@ registered or registered as Appaloosas . During the 1980s , some Lusitano blood was allowed into the breed , but this practice has been discontinued . The CRHA states that up to 1 in 8 registered Appaloosas may have Colorado Ranger blood , and as such be eligible for registry with the CRHA . As of 2005 , there were more than 6 @,@ 000 horses registered with the CRHA , with between 100 and 125 new horses registered annually . While originally bred in the western US , today many Colorado Rangers are found in the midwest and eastern parts of the country , including the states of Michigan , Ohio and Pennsylvania . They are also found in Canada , where there is at least one large breeding farm .
= Mycena acicula =
Mycena acicula , commonly known as the orange bonnet , or the coral spring Mycena , is a species of fungus in the Mycenaceae family . It is found in Asia , the Caribbean , North America and Europe . The fruit bodies , or mushrooms , of the fungus grow on dead twigs and other woody debris of forest floors , especially along streams and other wet places . They have small orange @-@ red caps , up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter , held by slender yellowish stems up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long . The gills are pale yellow with a whitish edge . Several other Mycena species look similar , but may be distinguished by differences in size and / or microscopic characteristics . M. acicula is considered inedible because of its small size .
= = Taxonomy = =
First named Agaricus acicula by the German scientist Jacob Christian Schäffer in 1774 , the species was also referred to as Agaricus miniatus by another German , naturalist August Batsch . It was given its current name in 1871 by Paul Kummer . Rolf Singer transferred the species to the genera Hemimycena and Marasmiellus , but the binomials resulting from these transfers are now considered synonyms . The fungus is classified in the section Aciculae of the genus Mycena .
The specific epithet acicula is derived from the Latin word meaning " small needle " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " orange bonnet " , or the " coral spring Mycena " .
= = Description = =
The cap is initially convex , but as it matures , it expands to a bell @-@ shape , typically reaching 0 @.@ 3 to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter . The cap sometimes has a small abrupt umbo ( a central bump ) , and the cap margin is pressed closely against the stem when young , often flaring or curving slightly inward . As the cap expands , a narrow sterile ( i.e. , without any reproductive cells typical of the hymenium ) band which frequently becomes lobed or irregularly @-@ jagged often forms at the extreme margin . The cap surface is smooth , faintly translucent @-@ striate when moist , at first pruinose but soon naked . The color is red when young , soon becoming yellowish toward the margin , and slowly fading to bright orange @-@ yellow . The flesh is thin , brittle , yellow , and has no distinctive odor or taste .
The gills are adnate ( with gills broadly attached to the stem , slightly above the bottom of the gill , with most of the gill fused to the stem ) or slightly rounded next to the stem . The individual gills are close to subdistant , with between 10 – 14 reaching the stem , and two or three tiers of lamellulae ( short gills that do not reach the stem ) . The gills are moderately broad , pale orange to whitish , often yellowish at the base and whitish along the edges . The stem is 1 to 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) long , and up to 1 mm thick ; flexuous ( winding from side to side ) , brittle , with the base covered with sharp , straight , and stiff white hairs . The surface is densely white @-@ pruinose initially , but soon becomes naked with a subsequent color shift to orange @-@ yellow or lemon yellow . This species has been described as " a delight to behold " , but " one usually has to get down on hands and knees to find it ! "
The fruit bodies of Mycena acicula are considered inedible , as they are too small and insubstantial to be considered for consumption .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are roughly spindle @-@ shaped ( i.e. , tapering at each end ) , with dimensions of 9 – 11 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 µm . They are nonamyloid , meaning they do not take up iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored and measure 20 – 22 by 5 – 6 µm . The cheilocystidium and pleurocystidia ( cystidia found on the edge and face , respectively , of a gill ) are similar , club @-@ shaped to spindle @-@ shaped or egg @-@ shaped , and have apices that are often covered with a resinous secretion . The hyphae that comprise the cap cuticle are up to 3 @.@ 5 µm wide , clamped , and covered with cylindrical excrescences that measure 2 – 9 by 1 – 3 µm . The hyphae of the cortical layer of the stem are up to 4 @.@ 5 µm wide , clamped , and densely covered with simple to somewhat branched , cylindrical to inflated excrescences that are up to 20 by 5 µm . These latter excrescences are embedded in gelatinous matter .
= = = Similar species = = =
Mycena adonis , M. floridula , and M. leptophylla are larger species belonging to the section Adonidae of the genus Mycena . In that section , among other differences , the hyphae of the cortical layer ( the outer layer of tissue ) of the stem are smooth . M. oregonensis is similar in appearance to M. acicula , but the cap is yellower , the gills are broadly adnate or decurrent with a short tooth , the gill edge is orange to bright yellow , and the stem is dry , not sticky . The hyphae of the cortical layer of the stem are smooth and not embedded in gelatinous matter , and in European collections the basidia are two @-@ spored and do not have clamps . M. strobilinoides , a North American and European species , looks similar with its orange cap , but may be distinguished microscopically by the cheilocystidia which are densely covered by excrescences ; it also has a larger cap , up to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) . M. aurantiidisca can be distinguished by the reddish @-@ orange cap which tends to become paler at the margin . Mycena specialist Alexander H. Smith further noted of M. acicula that it could readily be mistaken for a Hygrophorus .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Mycena acicula grow singly , in groups , or somewhat clustered on debris in wet places , especially along streams or the borders of swamps . The appearance of the fruit bodies is not significantly influenced by the effect of rainfall , perhaps because " such minute fungi are largely determined by the microenvironment prevailing under dense vegetation , etc . , which is no doubt less affected by recent rain than more exposed situations . " The fungus is widely distributed throughout the eastern United States and Canada and occurs in Washington , Oregon , and California along the Pacific Coast . It has also been reported from Trinidad , Britain , Norway , Spain , Korea , and the Ussuri River Valley in the northeast of China .
= Arthur Jackson ( sport shooter ) =
Lieutenant Colonel Arthur Charles Jackson ( May 15 , 1918 – January 6 , 2015 ) was an American competitive sport shooter . In his international career , he captured numerous medals across three Summer Olympic Games , three ISSF World Shooting Championships , and two editions of the Pan American Games . He began shooting in the seventh grade and joined the rifle team at Brooklyn Technical High School in 1934 . He competed in local and regional tournaments prior to World War II , during which he worked at the Sperry Corporation and later served as a bombardier in the Pacific Theater of Operations . His first international tournament was the 1948 Summer Olympics and his last was the 1956 edition , at which point he began a career in public service with the Central Intelligence Agency in Europe , Asia , and Latin America . He stopped competing at the international level in 1957 and retired from the CIA at the end of 1974 . After several years as an instructor and coach , he continued participating in smaller tournaments through the 1990s .
= = Early life = =
Jackson was born on May 15 , 1918 in Brooklyn . He first started shooting during the seventh grade , when his hobby of shooting marbles cost him his job at a dry cleaning and tailoring shop . He attended Brooklyn Technical High School , where he joined the rifle team after saving for a year to afford the fifteen cent ammunition fee for the tryouts . He won his first team event in 1934 at a tournament in New Haven , Connecticut , obtaining individual honors in the process , and followed it up in 1936 with a group trophy and another individual accolade at a competition held at his high school and sponsored by the New York Stock Exchange . Following graduation , he briefly worked at General Motors prior to taking up a position at an engineering firm that specialized in diesel engines .
Jackson also followed his sporting pursuits after graduation and soon joined the Woodhaven American Legion Auxiliary Rifle Club , where his coach was Morris Fisher , a five @-@ time Olympic gold medalist . After taking part in several regional tournaments , with varying degrees of success , he enrolled in the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn ( now the Polytechnic Institute of New York University ) in 1939 and began competing in the collegiate league . His success in local and state events grew and he continued participating in these and regional tournaments prior to the United States ' entry into World War II .
= = World War II and competitive career = =
By 1942 Jackson had held a job at the Sperry Corporation for several years and his work was considered essential to the war effort . With a brother serving overseas , he was not permitted to train for combat until June 1944 , at which point he signed up for the Air Corps branch of the United States Army . He trained to be a bombardier at what is now Webb Air Force Base in Big Spring , Texas and graduated with the rank of second lieutenant . He served briefly as an instructor and then a combatant in the Pacific Theater of Operations until the surrender of Japan . He left the army in 1946 with the rank of First Lieutenant .
Upon his return to New York , Jackson joined the Long Island Antlers Club and resumed competitive sport shooting , as well as his career at Sperry 's . He was admitted into St. John 's University on a shooting scholarship , but declined , and instead entered the Clarence H. White School of Modern Photography . During his studies he earned a spot on the United States ' delegation to shooting at the 1948 Summer Olympics , where he finished 16th in a field of 36 competitors in the 300 metre rifle three positions event . He then took up a job at the Pratt Institute in the photography department and began training for the 1949 ISSF World Shooting Championships , where he won gold in the 50 + 100 m rifle prone position individual event and silver in the team version . In 1950 he turned down a position as head of promotions at the Winchester Repeating Arms Company so that he could continue competing , with his next international stop being the 1951 Pan American Games . Here he captured the only two gold medals not won by the Argentinians in individual events , the three positions and prone rifle competitions at 50 meters , as well as silver in the high power rifle , three positions at 50 meters tournament . Upon his return , he was ordered to Lowry Air Force Base in Denver , Colorado to join the Radar Photo Interpreters ' School . Following graduation , he reported to Strategic Air Command in Roswell , New Mexico .
Jackson was eventually sent to Selfridge Air National Guard Base in Michigan to help form the first Air Force Rifle Team and trained at Palm Beach Air Force Base in West Palm Beach , Florida during the winter months . His next international stop was the 1952 ISSF World Shooting Championships , where he took home gold in the 50 m rifle prone position with 60 ( individual and team ) and 40 shots ( individual ) and the bronze in the 300 m standard rifle ( individual ) and 50 m rifle prone position with 40 shots ( team ) . He then traveled to the 1952 Summer Olympics , where he won a bronze medal in the 50 metre rifle prone event and finished 12th in a field of 44 competitors in the 50 m rifle three positions tournament . Upon his return to the United States , he discovered that he had been promoted to the rank of Captain .
The 1954 ISSF World Shooting Championships were dominated by the Soviet Union , but Jackson still managed to take home a gold medal as a member of the United States ' 50 + 100 m rifle prone position team . He fared better at the 1955 Pan American Games , taking home gold medals in both the individual and team versions of the rifle , three positions and prone at 50 meters , as well as the team high power rifle , three positions at 50 meters . He married Nancy Ord in 1956 and began training for that year 's Summer Olympics , where he again finished 12th in a field of 44 competitors in the 50 m rifle three positions event and 31st in among 44 participants in the 50 metre rifle prone tournament .
= = Later life = =
Following the 1956 Games Jackson began working overseas with the Central Intelligence Agency , first in Germany where he joined the Rhein @-@ Main Gun Club . He participated in the 1957 Swiss National Championships and temporarily retired shortly thereafter . He was soon offered a chance to be a judge at the 1958 ISSF World Shooting Championships , but was forced to decline due to his obligations with the CIA . Following his activities in Europe , he settled down in Annandale , Virginia , resumed his CIA duties in Washington , D.C. , and became a member of the Fairfax Gun Club . He was sent to the Republic of China in 1962 , and then Japan the following year , before he was able to return to Virginia in 1965 , but by 1968 he was back in Japan for a four @-@ year stint . He next spent two years in the Panama Canal Zone before retiring from the CIA and the Air Force with the rank of Lieutenant colonel at the end of 1974 and soon moved to Wolfeboro , New Hampshire . From 1978 through 1983 he took up work as a shooting instructor and coach around New England and continued competing in tournaments through the 1990s . In 2011 was the presenter for the National Rifle Association 's Henry Fulton Trophy , awarded to the highest scorer in the team match of their Palma Championship . He was made a member of the Connecticut State Rifle and Revolver Association Shooters Hall of Fame in 1985 and the United States International Shooting Hall of Fame in 1999 . The Arthur C. Jackson Trophy , awarded by the NRA to the highest scorer at the World Black Powder Long Range International Championships , is named in his honor . He died at the age of 96 on January 6 , 2015 in Concord , New Hampshire .
= Doro ( musician ) =
Dorothee Pesch ( born 3 June 1964 ) , popularly known as Doro Pesch or Doro , is a German hard rock singer @-@ songwriter , formerly front @-@ woman of the heavy metal band Warlock . The name Doro has also been associated with the touring band accompanying the singer , whose members have continuously changed in more than twenty years of uninterrupted activity , the most stable presences guaranteed by bassist Nick Douglas and drummer Johnny Dee .
Doro started her career in garage bands in native Düsseldorf underground scene and achieved media visibility and some commercial success with Warlock in the 1980s . Warlock were starting to have an opening in the US market , when they went through many line @-@ up changes and Pesch was left the only original member of the band . She started a solo career under the name Doro , in order to avoid legal battles between her record label PolyGram and her former manager . She released two albums in the US with producers Joey Balin and Gene Simmons , but they were not the breakthrough that she hoped .
During the rise of grunge and alternative rock in the 1990s , her record label relegated her productions only to the European region , where she continued to tour extensively . She remained a successful charting artist in Germany , despite living and producing her albums in the US . When classic heavy metal found again the favour of the public , she returned to tour all over the world and her popularity as a veteran singer grew considerably , inspiring many new female metal artists . Doro is also known for her duets performed both live and in studio with other singers and musicians of the metal scene , whom she has befriended in her long career .
To this date , she has released sixteen studio albums , the latest being Raise Your Fist in 2012 . Doro continues her recording career and is prolific touring artist all over the world . When not on tour , she resides in New York City .
= = Biography = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
Dorothee Pesch was born in Düsseldorf , Germany on 3 June 1964 , the only child of Walter , a truck driver , and Barbara Pesch . Doro 's first memory of rock music is the song " Lucille " by Little Richard , which she sang when she was three years old . She learned to play piano and started singing at the age of ten years , when she was exposed to the glam rock of bands like T. Rex , Sweet and Slade . When she was sixteen and after a life @-@ threatening form of tuberculosis , she decided to dedicate more of her time and energy to singing , without giving up her study of graphic design . In 1980 , she was accepted in her first band called Snakebite , which was playing rock music in a Düsseldorf basement used as rehearsal space by many other underground groups . The first recording with Doro on vocals was a cheap 7 @-@ track demo released by Snakebite for promotion . When Snakebite disbanded in 1981 , Doro went on to sing for the garage bands Beast and Attack , before forming Warlock with Peter Szigeti , Rudy Graf , Thomas Studier , and Michael Eurich in 1982 .
= = = The Warlock years ( 1982 – 1988 ) = = =
Warlock signed their first recording contract with Mausoleum Records and released their debut album Burning the Witches in 1984 . Doro attracted immediately the attention of fans and press , becoming the spokesperson and the main means of promotion for the band . The mix of traditional heavy metal and power ballads , together with her voice and stage presence led Warlock to success , an exception in the 80s ' metal scene dominated by male @-@ fronted metal bands . Warlock signed a new contract with the major label Phonogram and released the albums Hellbound in 1985 and True as Steel in 1986 , sharing the stage of European rock festivals with some of the best hard rock and heavy metal bands of the period . On 16 August 1986 , Doro was the first woman to front a metal band at the Monsters of Rock festival in Castle Donington , England , the most important European rock meeting of the 80s . Warlock 's long tours in Europe , supporting W.A.S.P. and Judas Priest , pushed Doro to give up her day job as a graphic designer to devote her life to music . In this period she also received vocal coaching .
After the completion of the tour in support of True as Steel , Doro took charge of business and went to live in New York City , USA , where Warlock recorded their fourth and last studio album Triumph and Agony . The album was their most successful , going Gold in Germany and reaching No. 80 in the Billboard 200 US album chart . It includes the songs " All We Are " and " Für immer " ( Forever ) , Warlock 's best known tracks , also because of the intense rotation of their videos on MTV . Warlock opened for Dio in Europe and embarked on their only US tour , supporting Megadeth . At the end of the US tour , Doro remained the sole German in the band after all the other original members had quit , replaced by American musicians . In 1989 , while writing material for a new album , she lost a legal cause with the band 's former manager for the rights to the name and merchandise of Warlock . Her record label forced her to accept the publication of new albums under the name Doro , in order to continue her career . Doro persevered in the legal battle for the Warlock name and eventually regained the rights in 2011 .
= = = Doro in the US ( 1989 – 1990 ) = = =
What should have been the fifth Warlock release became Force Majeure , the first Doro album , published in February 1989 . It was recorded in the US by Joey Balin , and is the natural successor of Triumph and Agony , continuing the band 's drift towards radio @-@ friendly pop metal in contrast with the European power metal of Warlock ’ s earlier works . The album sold quite well in Europe , but it had limited success in the US , lurking at the bottom of the Billboard 200 chart .
Following the tour to promote Force Majeure , the final Warlock line @-@ up disbanded and Doro concentrated on her solo career . She decided to keep her Swiss manager Alex Grob , but renounced to be part of a band with whom to share songwriting duties and career decisions . She contacted KISS bassist and childhood idol Gene Simmons , who was taking a second career as talent scout and record producer . Simmons was willing to start a collaboration and produced the album Doro , with the help of Black ' n Blue guitarist Tommy Thayer and Pat Regan . Doro was recorded in California with large use of writers and session musicians from the KISS entourage . Doro recently declared that Simmons " was the best producer we ever had ! "
A band formed by the American musicians Thomas Jude on guitars , Paul Morris on keyboards , Nick Douglas on bass and Tom Coombs on drums was assembled for the supporting tour . Doro was a more commercial offering than the previous album , but resulted in a flop in the US . On the contrary , it sold well in Europe , accelerating PolyGram 's decision to interrupt the publication of Doro 's albums in America , where the commercial appeal of glam metal and classic rock acts was rapidly declining in favor of grunge and alternative rock . Doro concluded 1990 playing some dates in Germany , opening for Scorpions .
= = = Doro in Europe ( 1991 – 1999 ) = = =
The German singer experimented a new direction for her music in 1991 , when she recorded the album True at Heart in country music haven Nashville , Tennessee , with local musicians and mainstream producer Barry Beckett . Dann Huff of the melodic hard rock band Giant contributed his lead guitar work to the album . New band members Michael Tyrrell on guitar , Jeff Bruno on guitar and keyboards , and Tony Mac on drums were recruited for the following European tour .
Despite living in the US and losing visibility in the English @-@ spoken media , Doro remained very popular in Germany , where her albums always charted and where in 1991 she sang on a charity song by the " German Rock Project " called " Let Love Conquer the World " .
Returning in the US after the European tour , Doro was put in contact with Jack Ponti , a mainstream songwriter and producer from New Jersey , to work on her next two albums . Ponti at the time was the producer of some minor glam metal acts and the A & R manager of Skid Row and Nelson . The album Angels Never Die , released in 1993 , was produced and largely written and performed by Ponti himself and Vic Pepe with the help of various session musicians . It contains a mix of melodic hard rock songs and power ballads , typical of the commercial pop metal albums of the period . The album had limited success in Europe , but the video for the song " Bad Blood " was voted Best Anti @-@ Racism Video during the first MTV Europe Music Awards ceremony in 1994 . The tour in support of Angels Never Die introduced in the line @-@ up of Doro 's band the American musicians Joe Taylor ( ex @-@ Lita Ford Band ) on lead guitar , Jimmy DiLella ( ex @-@ Waysted , Mariah and Tyketto ) on guitar and keyboards , and Chris Branco on drums ; Branco was soon replaced by Johnny Dee ( ex @-@ Waysted and Britny Fox ) and this line @-@ up recorded in 1993 the live album Doro Live , released also in VHS . Doro headlined her first Wacken Open Air festival on 20 August 1993 .
Machine II Machine , the second album produced by Jack Ponti , was created through the collaborative efforts of musicians with very different musical backgrounds . The result is an album that explores new grounds for Doro , bringing her sound closer to mainstream rock music . Machine II Machine was mixed by Kevin Shirley and released in 1995 . It was her last studio album published by PolyGram / Vertigo , finally fulfilling the ten @-@ year contract with the label that Warlock had signed in 1985 . PolyGram did not renovate her contract and Doro entered in negotiations with other record labels . Russ Irwin and Frank Ferrer replaced respectively DiLella and Dee for the following tour . In a pause of her touring schedule in October 1995 , Doro made her acting debut as a guest star on the German television soap opera Verbotene Liebe ( Forbidden Love ) . In various interviews Doro remembered how " it was pretty difficult to carry on " as a heavy metal musician in those years and how she was sometimes reduced to odd jobs like singing at weddings and private parties .
Doro signed a worldwide contract with the major record label WEA ( now Warner Music Group ) at the end of 1995 and started writing new material with Jürgen Engler and Chris Lietz of the German industrial metal and EBM band Die Krupps , who she had met while working on remixes of songs from Machine II Machine . Doro also worked on other songs with Jimmy Harry and Fred Maher in the US . The resulting album , titled Love Me in Black , took three years to be completed and features a massive use of electronics and drum machines , along with a heavier sound than its predecessors . WEA judged the album unsuitable for the US market and published it only in Germany . American guitarist Mario Parrillo ( ex @-@ Detente and Fear of God ) joined Taylor , Douglas and the returning Johnny Dee in Doro 's band for the following tour , which included another participation at the Wacken Open Air festival .
After the " Love Me in Black " tour in 1998 , Doro parted ways with WEA , unsatisfied of the scarce promotion that the album had received , and signed with the German label SPV / Steamhammer . Through the decisive action of her American fan club , she also received and accepted a proposal from Koch Records for a US deal .
= = = The return ( 2000 – 2003 ) = = =
In 2000 , the album Calling the Wild was published in two different versions in Europe and in the US , with the latter containing also re @-@ recorded and remixed versions of songs from Love Me in Black . The tracks of Calling the Wild are played by a large number of session musicians and feature contributions from Bob Kulick , Slash , Al Pitrelli and Eric Singer . The album includes the songs " Love Me Forever " and " Alone Again " , recorded in California with the leader of the English band Motörhead Ian ' Lemmy ' Kilminster , starting a tradition of singing duets that Doro maintained for all the 2000s and beyond . The music of Calling the Wild is straight hard rock and heavy metal , in Doro 's words going " from super heavy to super sensitive with good messages " , and leaves behind the experimental twists of her works of the 1990s . The song " Burn It Up " was written to be the anthem of the Düsseldorf – based NFL Europe football team Rhein Fire .
At the beginning of the century heavy metal was regaining the favors of the public worldwide and Doro made her comeback in the US with a date at New Jersey Metal Meltdown II festival in March . She then started her first US tour in ten years supporting Dio and Yngwie Malmsteen , and received a very warm welcome from the audience . Doro 's band toured also in Europe , visiting Russia for the first time , and Pesch made a guest appearance at Wacken Open Air 2001 for a duet with Sabina Classen of the German thrash metal band Holy Moses on the song " Too Drunk to Fuck " .
While touring with Dio in the US in late 2000 , Mario Parrillo fell ill and died a short time later from an undiagnosed form of cancer . Oliver Palotai , a young German @-@ Hungarian classically trained musician , took his place on guitar and keyboards in Doro 's band after the end of the tour .
Doro was again in a recording studio to produce her eighth studio album , titled Fight , in 2002 . Before the album release , she played , among others , at the two largest German metal festivals , Wacken Open Air and Bang Your Head ! ! ! . The new album was the first to feature the creative contribution of all the members of her touring band , who played in all the tracks . Guest musicians on the album were Jean Beauvoir , Chris Caffery , Russ Ballard and Type O Negative singer Peter Steele , who sang in a duet with Doro on " Descent " . The song " Always Live to Win " replaced " Burn It Up " as Rhein Fire 's anthem , while the song " Fight " was the first of four anthems composed by Doro and used to introduce the fights of her friend and German female boxing champion Regina Halmich ( the others are " She 's Like Thunder " , " The Queen " and a new version of " All We Are " ) . Because of her friendship with Halmich , Doro was involved in an exhibition match on German RTL Television , which opposed her to Michaela Schaffrath .
= = = Metal Queen ( 2003 – present ) = = =
By this time , both fans , press and internet community often referred to Doro with the moniker Metal Queen , to show their respect and deference for the uninterrupted career of the German singer on the heavy metal scene . During her European tour with Saxon , Bonfire and Circle II Circle , Doro organized a special concert at Phillips Halle in Düsseldorf to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the release of her first album , Burning the Witches , and invited many musicians that she had befriended and collaborated with in her career . On 13 December 2003 , she performed in front of more than 6 @,@ 000 people with guests Blaze Bayley , Udo Dirkschneider , Lemmy , Mikkey Dee , Jean Beauvoir , Claus Lessmann and members of Saxon and Circle II Circle . During the show , Doro played three songs with her former bandmates of Warlock , in their line @-@ up of 1986 . The concert was released on a double DVD in 2006 with the title 20 Years – A Warrior Soul .
The long world tour to promote Fight brought Doro for the first time in some countries of Eastern Europe , in Australia and Thailand . Live footage from that tour was published in the double DVD Für Immer of 2003 , which went Gold in Germany . She also held two concerts in Germany with a full symphonic orchestra , where she converted her rock songs to new acoustic and classical versions . These new live experiences pushed her to experiment the recording of a full acoustic and symphonic album , containing both new and re @-@ arranged songs . The production of Classic Diamonds took eight months , requiring a thirty @-@ elements symphonic orchestra and the arranging abilities of Oliver Palotai and producer Torsten Sickert to be completed . The album was released by AFM Records in September 2004 , and Doro went on tour in Europe with her usual touring band and elements of the orchestra to offer semi @-@ acoustic shows . The tour had started with a live performance of Doro and the Classic Night Orchestra at Wacken Open Air 2004 , the first time ever of a full symphonic orchestra at the renowned German metal festival . Her acoustic performance included also a duet with Blaze Bayley on the Iron Maiden song " Fear of the Dark " . In the same night , Doro was reunited again with her bandmates of Warlock to perform their old songs .
The EP Let Love Rain on Me , containing single versions of songs from Classic Diamonds , was an unexpected hit in Spain , where it reached No. 7 in the Singles chart .
In 2004 , Doro recorded with actor Dirk Bach a metal version of the song " Gimme Gimme Gimme " and performed it live on stage on the ABBA Mania Show of German RTL Television .
Doro Pesch was cast as the warrior Meha in the prehistoric action movie Anuk @-@ Der Weg des Kriegers ( Anuk @-@ The Way of the Warrior ) , written , directed and interpreted by Luke Gasser and shot in Switzerland in 2005 . The film was released in 2006 and features also Marc Storace , lead singer of the Swiss hard rock band Krokus . During the period of shooting , she wrote and recorded new songs in Switzerland with local session musicians and the production of Gasser , who used three of those songs for the soundtrack of the movie . More songs were recorded in Germany in the spare time between tours with her band and usual collaborators , and released in 2006 in the album Warrior Soul . The screenplay for a second movie with the same cast was written in the following years and Gasser finally found the funding to start production in 2012 .
In the same year , Doro Pesch contributed to the benefit CD for the museum association of Borussia Dortmund the song entitled " Tief in meinem Herzen " ( Deep in My Heart ) , a modified version of her classic " Für Immer " re @-@ written for this purpose . She also did a live performance at the Westfalen Stadium before a game of Borussia Dortmund and was one of the first visitors in Borusseum , when it opened . Her father was a fan of Borussia , she said in an interview with the spokesperson of the BVB .
In the following tour Doro was present at various festivals around the world . Among them , the band headlined the very first female @-@ fronted metal US festival Flight of the Valkyries on 27 June 2007 in Saint Paul , Minnesota . They were also at the Summer Breeze Open Air festival in Dinkelsbühl , Bavaria in August 2007 , at the fifth edition of the Metal Female Voices Fest in Wieze , Belgium on 19 October 2007 , where she dueted with Sabina Classen on " All We Are " , and at the Heavy Christmas Meeting on 15 December 2007 in Düsseldorf . On July 2008 , they were at the Magic Circle Festival in Bad Arolsen , Germany and at Hard Rock Hell in Prestatyn , Wales on 5 December 2008 . Doro 's band visited for the first time China in November 2008 . Chris Caffery replaced Joe Taylor on lead guitar for some US dates in 2007 , and also Oliver Palotai had to be replaced in various tour dates by Italian guitarist Luca Princiotta , because of his multiple commitments with Blaze , Kamelot and Sons of Seasons .
Both Taylor and Palotai were in the band on 13 December 2008 at the more than three @-@ hour special concert that Doro held at ISS Dome in Düsseldorf to celebrate her 25th anniversary of activity in front of 9 @,@ 000 spectators . The show was introduced by performances of the bands Holy Moses , Leaves ' Eyes and Arch Enemy . The main part began with songs from Doro 's career , including duets with Bobby Ellsworth ( Overkill ) , Jean Beauvoir , Chris Boltendahl ( Grave Digger ) , Axel Rudi Pell , Klaus Meine and Rudolf Schenker ( Scorpions ) , Tarja Turunen ( ex @-@ Nightwish ) , Warrel Dane ( Nevermore ) , Liv Kristine , Floor Jansen , Ji @-@ In Cho , Girlschool and other female singers who had sung in the single " Celebrate " , issued a few months before the show . The show included another reunion of the 1986 formation of Warlock and culminated with all the guests , other musicians ( like Alexander Krull , Tom Angelripper , members of Saltatio Mortis ) and friends of the German singer on stage to sing " All We Are " . The event was recorded and released in 2010 in the double DVD 25 Years in Rock ... and Still Going Strong by Nuclear Blast , Doro 's new record label .
A few days after the show and despite a precarious health state due to strong eye inflammation , Doro was in Tilburg , the Netherlands , to participate at the first edition of Christmas Metal Symphony , where she sang accompanied by a band of Dutch metal musicians and by a symphonic orchestra .
Doro 's album Fear No Evil was released in January 2009 and entered in many charts all over Europe . It was her last collaboration with guitarist Joe Taylor , who left to join Cycle of Pain . His place in the band was taken by the Dutch guitarist Bas Maas ( ex @-@ After Forever ) . The line @-@ up of Pesch , Maas , Princiotta , Douglas and Dee went on a world tour for most of 2009 and 2010 , reaching North and South America , Russia , China and , for the first time , Japan . Doro supported Saxon in their 2009 UK tour and Motörhead in Germany in 2010 . During this prolonged time on the road , guitarist Princiotta was sometimes substituted by Robert Katrikh or by Harrison Young . Doro 's band appeared at festivals all over the world , including Wacken Open Air and Metal Female Voices Fest 7 ( where she dueted again with Tarja Turunen ) in 2009 , Hellfest in France , Bang Your Head ! ! ! in Germany and Bloodstock Open Air in Great Britain in 2010 .
In 2009 , she wrote the Wacken anthem " We Are the Metalheads " for the 20th anniversary of Wacken Open Air festival . The song was released as single on 30 July 2009 and was performed by Doro Pesch and Wacken @-@ organizer Thomas Jensen 's ex @-@ band Skyline .
On 13 March 2010 , Doro celebrated her 2500th live show with a special concert in Düsseldorf with guests Krypteria , Luke Gasser , Marc Storace , Schmier ( from the band Destruction ) , Sabina and Andy Classen . Always in 2010 , Doro , Schmier , Mille Petrozza ( Kreator ) and Alf Ator ( Knorkator ) lent their voices to the German version of Metalocalypse , the US animated show about Dethklok , the world 's most popular death metal band .
Doro was again on tour in 2011 and participated at Metal Female Voices Fest 9 . She also toured Spain and Italy as guest vocalist for the tribute band Dio Disciples , formed by musicians of the band Dio which performed songs taken from the long career of the late Ronnie James Dio . In 2010 , she had already participated in Germany to a tribute benefit concert for the Stand Up and Shout Cancer foundation for cancer research , which celebrated the life and work of Dio .
In 2012 she recorded in the US , Germany and Scandinavia songs for a new album titled Raise Your Fist , released in October . The first single " Raise Your Fist in the Air " was released in August 2012 .
In June 2013 , the music magazine Metal Hammer assigned Doro the Golden God Legend award .
To celebrate her 30th stage anniversary , Doro held a two @-@ day concert at CCD Stadthalle in her hometown of Düsseldorf on 2 and 3 May 2014 . She was accompanied by the Classic Night Orchestra for the first show . Guest singers included Biff Byford , Chris Caffery , Udo Dirkshneider , Blaze Bailey , Marc Storace , Tom Angelripper , Mr Lordi and Hansi Kürsch . Also the Lordi @-@ guitarist Amen was featured on the show on May 2 .
= = Duets = =
Doro Pesch is well known in the metal scene for her many duets with both expert singers and new artists . The duets started to indulge the wish of the German singer to work with artists that she admired and that had influenced her . She found the amicable availability of many musicians she had met in her career to contribute to her albums and live performances and , as an exchange of favors between singers , she appeared both in live shows and in studio albums of those same artists . This happened , for example , with Udo Dirkschneider in the rock ballad " Dancing with an Angel " and with Twisted Sister on the song " White Christmas " on their album A Twisted Christmas of 2004 .
Also new bands and artists requested Doro 's vocals to enhance their productions , usually with the same mechanism of reciprocity , like After Forever on the song " Who I Am " and Tarja Turunen on the song " The Seer " . Both After Forever 's singer Floor Jansen and Turunen appeared also as guest singers in Doro 's albums and live shows . The band Krypteria , which had opened for Doro in the tours of 2009 and 2010 , obtained a duet with Ji @-@ In Cho on their song " Victoria " in a similar way .
Frequent occasions for live duets happen during tours , such as the 2010 European tour with Motörhead , when Doro sang on stage with Lemmy their classic tunes " Killed by Death " and " Born to Raise Hell " , or with Saxon in 2011 on " Denim & Leather " .
More recently , Doro has contributed to the song " A Dream That Cannot Be " by Swedish melodic death metal band Amon Amarth , on their album Jomsviking , released in 2016 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
In the 1980s the presence of women in rock , and in particular in heavy metal bands , was usually considered by press and fans more for glamour and sexual exploitation than for the musicianship showed . Doro Pesch was one of the few exceptions ; her qualities as vocalist and songwriter in Warlock , her commitment in promoting their music and her avoidance of posturing as a sex symbol won the respect of a solid fan base in the expanding European metal scene of that period , ensuring a long string of favorable articles and covers on the principal European metal magazines . In an interview in 2006 Doro remembered how " we lived in paradise and had not noticed it , ( ... ) we thought at the time , that now it goes on and on and the success would continue automatically , ( ... ) then came the great awakening " .
Warlock were starting to make a solid reputation in the US , when the taste of the audience for classic metal acts shifted in favor of grunge , leaving the singer 's mission to conquer the American market
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" and " Climbing over rocky mountain " : Spencer , Roderick , conductor ( 1972 ) . Thespis , or The Gods Grown Old . Fulham Light Operatic Society . Rare Recorded Editions SRRE 132 / 3 .
" Little maid of Arcadee " has been included in two Sullivan anthologies :
Adams , Donald , singer ( 1971 , LP ) . Donald Adams Sings Sullivan and Gilbert , Brookledge Classics SM @-@ GS @-@ 1 .
Benton , Jeffrey , singer ( 1992 , cassette ) . If Doughty Deeds , Symposium 1124 .
= Tipitina =
" Tipitina " is a song written and made famous by Professor Longhair . The song has been widely covered , and the Professor Longhair version was recorded in 1953 for Atlantic Records . " Tipitina " was first released in 1953 and rereleased on the album New Orleans Piano in 1972 . The song , which is considered a New Orleans music standard , was added to the US National Recording Registry in 2011 because of its cultural significance . The subject of " Tipitina " is unknown . The New Orleans music venue , Tipitina 's , was named for the song , and Tipitina 's Foundation bears the Tipitina name .
= = Background = =
Pianist Henry Roeland " Roy " Byrd , known as Professor Longhair , was a prominent New Orleans musician . He played syncopated music that combined blues , ragtime , zydeco , rhumba , mambo and calypso . His singing was characterized as hoarse . His peripatetic recording career began in 1949 with " Mardi Gras In New Orleans " and " She 's Got No Hair " with a group credited as " Longhair and his Shuffling Hungarians . " A year later at Mercury Records and Roy Byrd & his Blues Jumpers rerecorded " She 's Got No Hair " as " Bald Head " , which broke through as his only national R & B hit . In 1953 , at Atlantic Records , he recorded " Tipitina " , which is now regarded as his " signature song " .
= = Details = =
The melody is derived from Champion Jack Dupree 's " Junker 's Blues " . Rolling Stone described the song as a " rhumba @-@ style track " that has become a quintessential New Orleans standard . According to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , which inducted Longhair in 1992 , " The hum @-@ along nonsense syllables and stutter stepping left @-@ hand rhythm of ' Tiptina ' is both a symbol and staple of New Orleans music . "
Allen Toussaint described learning the song as a " rite of passage " . The subject of the song is unknown . Among the speculated subjects are a place and a person . Hugh Laurie recorded a cover of the song around the time of its selection to the National Recording Registry . He commented about the mystery as follows : " I thought it was better not knowing . It adds to its mystique and its power to make me laugh and cry all in one go . "
After the song 's original release it only became a hit in New Orleans . However , it was not that successful in the rest of the United States . The 1953 Professor Longhair version and the 1972 Dr. John version are both considered " Classic non Hot 100 songs " .
= = Critical response = =
In 2011 , the song was included in the National Recording Registry . Byrd received a Grammy Hall of Fame Award for this song . The song was listed among the 500 Songs That Shaped Rock in 1994 by the Rock ad Roll Hall of Fame . The song was also listed in the 1001 Songs : The Great Songs of All Time and the Artists , Stories and Secrets Behind Them ( 2006 ) by Toby Creswell as well as the Rock Song Index : The 7500 Most Important Songs for the Rock and Roll Era ( 2005 ) by Bruce Pollock .
The National Recording Registry announcement for this song said the song is " a signature distillation of the musical ideas and personality that inspired and influenced such New Orleans pianists as Fats Domino , Huey " Piano " Smith , James Booker , Dr. John and Allen Toussaint " . According to Creswell , " Tipitina " " marshalled New Orleans rhythm into a sparkling package " .
= = Selected recorded versions = =
The song has been widely covered .
Professor Longhair : from New Orleans Piano ( 1972 , recorded 1953 )
Dr. John : from Dr. John 's Gumbo ( 1972 )
Hugh Laurie : from his debut album , Let Them Talk ( 2011 )
= = = Professor Longhair version = = =
The Professor Longhair version was recorded in New Orleans in November 1953 under the name Professor Longhair & His Blues Scholars . According to John Crosby 's Professor Longhair : a bio @-@ discography , performers included Roy Byrd ( vocals , piano ) , Lee Allen ( tenor saxophone ) , Frank Fields ( bass ) , Earl Palmer ( drums ) , and Alvin " Red " Tyler ( baritone saxophone ) . However , the Atlantic Records Discography credits Edgar Blanchard as the bassist . It was released as a single in 1953 and then re @-@ released in 1972 . It is included on several albums including the New Orleans Piano ( 1972 ) , which has two different takes . Other albums that include this version are Martin Scorsese Presents the Blues : Piano Blues ( 2003 ) and Doctors , Professors , Kings & Queens ( 2004 ) .
= = In popular culture = =
A version by Bo Dollis & The Wild Magnolias is in the Bones season 1 episode " The Man in the Morgue " ( an episode set in New Orleans ) .
" Tipitina " , the November 25 , 2012 season 3 finale of Treme ( a TV series about New Orleans in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina ) , used the song twice .
= Geoffroy 's tamarin =
Geoffroy 's tamarin ( Saguinus geoffroyi ) , also known as the Panamanian , red @-@ crested or rufous @-@ naped tamarin , is a tamarin , a type of small monkey , found in Panama and Colombia . It is predominantly black and white , with a reddish nape . Diurnal , Geoffroy 's tamarin spends most of its time in trees , but does come down to the ground occasionally . It lives in groups that most often number between three and five individuals , and generally include one or more adults of each gender . It eats a variety of foods , including insects , exudates , fruits and other plant parts . Insects and fruits account for the majority of its diet , but exudates are also important . But since its teeth are not adapted for gouging trees to get to the sap , it can only eat exudates when they are easily available .
Although a variety of reproductive methods are used , the most common is for a single adult female in the group to be reproductively active and to mate with multiple adult males in the group . After a gestation period of about 145 days , she gives birth to either a single infant or twins . Males contribute significantly to care of the infants . Sexual maturity is reached at about 2 years , and it can live up to 13 years . Geoffroy 's tamarin is classified as being of " least concern " by the IUCN .
= = Taxonomy = =
Like the other tamarins and marmosets , Geoffroy 's tamarin is a New World monkey classified within the family Callitrichidae . In 2001 , Colin Groves included the Callitrichids in the family Cebidae , which also includes capuchin monkeys and squirrel monkeys , but in 2009 Anthony Rylands and Russell Mittermeier reverted to older classifications which considered Callitrichidae a separate family . It is a member the genus Saguinus , the genus containing most tamarins . There are no recognized subspecies . In 1977 , Philip Hershkovitz classified Geoffroy 's tamarin as a subspecies of the cotton @-@ top tamarin ( Saguinus oedipus ) , which resides exclusively in Colombia , based on fur coloration , cranial and mandibular morphology , and ear size . However , more recent research indicates that the two taxa differ sufficiently to be considered separate species .
= = Physical description = =
In common with other callitrichides ( tamarins and marmosets ) , Geoffroy 's tamarin is a small monkey . With a length of between 225 and 240 millimetres ( 8 @.@ 9 and 9 @.@ 4 in ) , excluding the tail , it is the smallest Central American monkey . The tail length is between 314 and 386 millimetres ( 12 @.@ 4 and 15 @.@ 2 in ) . Males have an average weight of 486 grams ( 17 @.@ 1 oz ) , and females are slightly larger on average , with an average weight of 507 grams ( 17 @.@ 9 oz ) . The fur on its back is variegated black and yellow , with pale legs , feet and chest . Its face is nearly bare , but the head has reddish fur with a triangle @-@ shaped patch in the front of the head . The tail is chestnut @-@ red and has a black tip .
= = Behavior = =
Like all callitrichides , Geoffroy 's tamarin is diurnal and arboreal . Unlike some other New World monkeys , it does come down to the ground occasionally . This is normally done only in special circumstances , such as to acquire certain foods or to get to a tree it cannot otherwise reach . Group size is generally between three and nine monkeys , with three to five being most common . Groups often consist of more than one adult of each gender . Adults of both genders migrate between groups . Groups show some degree of territorial defense . Population densities on Barro Colorado Island in Panama range between 3 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 7 monkeys per square kilometer , but in other areas the population density can be as much as 20 to 30 monkeys per square kilometer . On average , Geoffroy 's tamarin ranges 2061 meters per day . Home range size varies between 9 @.@ 4 hectares and 32 hectares .
Communication occurs both though vocalization and by visual gestures . Vocalizations that have been recorded include whistles , twitters , trills , loud or soft sharp notes , sneezes and long rasps . Body postures and displays that reveal more of the white coloration , such as standing on hind legs and piloerection , tend to be associated with aggression . Females often signal willingness to mate by rapidly coiling their tails .
Unlike squirrels , which often move through the canopy by climbing and descending vertical tree trunks , Geoffroy 's tamarin generally avoids large vertical supports during travel . It prefers to move across thin branches , ascending and descending by long leaps . To the extent Geoffroy 's tamarin uses large vertical supports for travel , it uses them most often for ascending rather than descending .
Geoffroy 's tamarin generally avoids sympatric small and medium size monkey species such as the white @-@ headed capuchin and the Panamanian night monkey . Avoidance is spatial with respect to the capuchin , and temporal in the case of the night monkey , since Geoffroy 's tamarin is only active during daylight hours and the Panamanian night monkey is only active at night . Geoffroy 's tamarin is rarely observed in the vicinity of squirrels , although this appears to be the result of the squirrels avoiding interactions with the larger tamarins . Geoffroy 's tamarin generally attempts to escape when birds of prey approach , regardless of whether the bird presents a true danger . However , the tamarins ignore one bird of prey , the double @-@ toothed kite , which sometimes follows the tamarins in an apparent effort to feed on small animals disturbed by the tamarins .
The diet of Geoffroy 's tamarin is similar to some species of tyrant flycatcher birds in Panama , and they share similar vocalizations . The tamarins may use the flycatcher calls to help find favorable food sources . The flycatchers and tamarins have different patterns of activity , which minimizes competition for similar food sources . The flycatchers are most active shortly after dawn and tend to rest in the middle of the day . The tamarins do not become active until about 45 minutes after full daylight , but remain active for most of the remaining daylight hours until an hour or less before sunset .
= = = Diet = = =
Geoffroy 's tamarin has a varied diet that includes fruits , insects , exudates ( gums and saps ) , and green plant parts . The diet varies seasonally . A study by Paul Garber estimated that the diet was made up of 40 % insects , 38 % fruit , 14 % exudates ( almost entirely from Anacardium excelsum cashew trees ) , and 8 % other items . Another study , on Barro Colorado Island , showed 60 % fruit , 30 % insects and 10 % green plant parts , including large amounts of elephant ear tree ( Enterolobium cyclocarpum ) sap . Another study showed a diet about equally split between insects ( mostly grasshoppers ) and fruit . Unlike marmosets , tamarins do not have dentition adapted for gouging trees , so Geoffroy 's tamarin eats sap only when it is easily accessible . It generally hunts for insects by making quick movements on thin , flexible supports . In contrast , it generally feeds on sap while clinging to large vertical tree trunks .
In one study , Geoffroy 's tamarin drank water from the corollas of Ochroma limonesis flowers . However , it is believed to also drink from tree holes , similar to other tamarin species .
= = Reproduction = =
Geoffroy 's tamarin can give birth throughout the year , but the birthing peak is from April to June . A single infant or twins can be born , although it is not uncommon for one of the twins to perish within the first few months . The gestation period is believed to be about 145 days , similar to the cottontop tamarin . The interbirth period ranges between 154 and 540 days , with an average of 311 days . The longer interbirth periods occur after twins . Infants weigh between 40 and 50 grams ( 1 @.@ 4 and 1 @.@ 8 oz ) and are born fully furred . The infant 's fur is colored differently than the parents ' ; the infant has black fur on the body and tail , with a beige blaze and white face . The infant coloration reduces the visibility of white , which is associated with aggressive displays by the species .
Both polyandrous and polygynous mating occurs , and males contribute heavily to parental care . But typically , only one adult female in a group is reproductively active , and reproductively active females mate with multiple males if given the opportunity . Males carry and groom infants more than females do . Older siblings may also contribute to infant care , although infants prefer to be carried by their parents than their siblings . Infants become mobile at 2 to 5 weeks , and begin eating solid food at 4 to 7 weeks . They are independent at 10 to 18 weeks and are fully weaned at 15 to 25 weeks . Geoffroy 's tamarin becomes sexually mature at about 2 years , and can live up to 13 years .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Geoffroy 's tamarin lives in various types of forest , including primary and secondary forest , and dry and moist tropical forest . In Panama , it prefers secondary forests with moderate humidity . It occurs in central and eastern Panama , with the range extending slightly west of the Panama Canal zone . It is less common on the Atlantic coast of Panama than the Pacific coast , and is only abundant on the Atlantic coast in areas near the Canal zone that have been modified by man . It occurs in Metropolitan Natural Park , an urban park within Panama City . In Colombia , it occurs on the Pacific coast west of the Andes , south to the Rio San Juan . The eastern boundary of its range in Colombia was once thought to be the Rio Atrato , but has been reported further east , including the Las Orquídeas National Park . Older sources sometimes report the species occurring in southern Costa Rica , but these are most likely erroneous .
= = Conservation status = =
The International Union for Conservation of Nature classifies Geoffroy 's tamarin as being of " least concern " . However , in some localities the population may be declining due to habitat loss . It is also sometimes hunted and captured for the pet trade in Panama . A 1985 study in Panama concluded that Geoffroy tamarin population densities are higher in areas where human access is limited . Human activity in Panama can have both positive and negative effects on Geoffroy 's @-@ tamarin populations . While hunting decreases the population , cutting mature forest for agriculture provides more areas of secondary growth , which is beneficial for the tamarin .
= Eustathios Daphnomeles =
Eustathios Daphnomeles ( Greek : Εὐστάθιος Δαφνομήλης , fl. early 11th century ) was a Byzantine strategos and patrician who distinguished himself in the Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria . He ranks as one of the most prominent and successful generals in the thirty @-@ year war between Emperor Basil II ( r . 976 – 1025 ) and Samuel of Bulgaria ( r . 997 – 1014 ) , helping to end the long conflict by blinding and capturing the last Bulgarian leader , Ibatzes , in 1018 .
= = Biography = =
The main source describing Daphnomeles 's life , and indeed the Bulgarian campaigns ( 986 – 1018 ) of Emperor Basil II , is the late 11th century Synopsis Historion of John Skylitzes , whose chronology is often problematic to reconstruct . Daphnomeles came from the landed aristocracy of Asia Minor , which for centuries provided the Byzantine military elite . Traditional historiography places his first appearance in circa 1005 , when the Adriatic port city of Dyrrhachium is said to have been surrendered by John Chryselios , a local magnate , to the Byzantines . Daphnomeles , at the head of a fleet , took possession of the city . Given the chronologically unclear narrative of Skylitzes , however , it is possible that this episode reflects his later appointment ( after 1018 ) as strategos ( military governor ) of the city .
Daphnomeles participated in the subsequent conflicts against Tsar Samuel , but his greatest feat was the capture of the Bulgarian leader Ibatzes in 1018 , for which he is given a prominent position in Skylitzes 's work . Following the defeat at the Battle of Kleidion in 1015 , Bulgarian resistance began to collapse . By 1018 , most Bulgarian commanders had surrendered , and only Ibatzes , who had retreated with his followers to the royal estate of Pronista , a naturally strong and defensible highland position , continued to resist . He rejected both bribes and threats from the Byzantines , and for 55 days , the Byzantine army under Emperor Basil II remained encamped at Deabolis nearby , waiting for his surrender . At that point , and as local crowds gathered to Ibatzes 's palace for the feast of the Dormition , Daphnomeles , now strategos of nearby Achrida , on his own initiative , resolved to end the impasse . With only two escorts , he climbed the way to the estate , and announced himself to Ibatzes . Ibatzes , believing that Daphnomeles would not have come alone unless he intended to forge an alliance against Basil , retreated with the strategos to a secluded wooded glade in the gardens for a private discussion . There , Daphnomeles and his two hidden associates sprang on the Bulgarian general , blinded him , and carried him to the upper story of the palace , through the assembled crowds who were too stunned to react . When the Bulgarians recovered , they gathered underneath the building crying for revenge . Daphnomeles , however , addressed them and managed to convince them of the futility of further resistance , and to lay down their arms and seek the emperor 's pardon .
Ibatzes ' capture brought to an end the long conflict between Byzantium and Bulgaria , and according to the Byzantinist Paul Stephenson , secured for Daphnomeles , along with Nikephoros Ouranos and Nikephoros Xiphias , the reputation of one of the most prominent and successful generals in the Bulgarian wars of Basil II .
Following his feat , Daphnomeles was appointed strategos of the thema of Dyrrhachium by a grateful emperor , and given all of Ibatzes 's movable wealth as a reward . In 1029 , however , he was accused of conspiring with other prominent governors of the Balkans to overthrow Emperor Romanos III Argyros ( r . 1028 – 34 ) in favour of doux Constantine Diogenes . The accused were then recalled to Constantinople , beaten , paraded through the Mese , and banished . Nothing further is known of him .
= Robert Sterling Yard =
Robert Sterling Yard ( February 1 , 1861 – May 17 , 1945 ) was an American writer , journalist , and wilderness activist . Born in Haverstraw , New York , Yard graduated from Princeton University and spent the first twenty years of his career in the editing and publishing business . In 1915 , he was recruited by his friend Stephen Mather to help publicize the need for an independent national park agency . Their numerous publications were part of a movement that resulted in legislative support for a National Park Service ( NPS ) in 1916 . Yard served as head of the National Parks Educational Committee for several years after its conception , but tension within the NPS led him to concentrate on non @-@ government initiatives . He became executive secretary of the National Parks Association in 1919 .
Yard worked to promote the national parks as well as educate Americans about their use . Creating high standards based on aesthetic ideals for park selection , he also opposed commercialism and industrialization of what he called " America 's masterpieces " . These standards subsequently caused discord with his peers . After helping to establish a relationship between the NPA and the United States Forest Service , Yard later became involved in the protection of wilderness areas . In 1935 , he became one of the eight founding members of The Wilderness Society and acted as its first president from 1937 until his death eight years later . Yard is now considered an important figure in the modern wilderness movement .
= = Early life and career = =
Robert Sterling Yard was born in 1861 in Haverstraw , New York to Robert Boyd and Sarah ( Purdue ) Yard . After attending the Freehold Institute in New Jersey , he graduated from Princeton University in 1883 . Known throughout his life as " Bob " , he became a prominent member of Princeton 's Alumni Association , and founded the Montclair Princeton Alumni Association . In 1895 , he married Mary Belle Moffat ; they had one daughter , Margaret .
During the 1880s and 1890s , Yard worked as a journalist for the New York Sun and the New York Herald . He served in the publishing business from 1900 to 1915 , variously as editor @-@ in @-@ chief of The Century Magazine and Sunday editor of the New York Herald . After serving as editor of Charles Scribner 's Sons ' the Book Buyer , Yard helped launch the publishing firm of Moffat , Yard and Company . He served as vice president and editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the firm .
= = = National Park Service = = =
In 1915 , Yard was invited to Washington , D.C. by his friend Stephen Mather , who had started working on national parks as assistant to the Secretary of Interior . Yard and Mather had met while working for the New York Sun and became friends ; Yard was the best man at Mather 's wedding in 1893 .
Mather , who wanted someone to help publicize the need for an independent agency to oversee the national parks movement , personally paid Yard 's salary from his independent income . The United States had authorized 14 parks and 22 monuments over the previous forty years ( 1872 – 1915 ) , but there was no single agency to provide unified management of the resources . In addition , some resources were managed by political appointees without professional qualifications . Together Mather and Yard ran a national parks publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior , writing numerous articles that praised the scenic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational , inspirational and recreational benefits . The unprecedented press coverage persuaded influential Americans about the importance of national parks , and encouraged Congress to create an independent parks agency .
Although Yard was not an outdoorsman like most advocates of a national park service , he felt a connection to the cause , and eventually became personally invested in its success . At the National Park Conference in March 1915 , he stated , " I , the treader of dusty city streets , boldly claim common kinship with you of the plains , the mountains , and the glaciers . " He gathered data regarding popular American tourist destinations , such as Switzerland , France , Germany , Italy , and Canada , together with reasons why people visited certain areas ; he also collected photographs and compiled lists of those who might enlist in the conservation cause . One of his most recognized and passionate articles of the time , entitled " Making a Business of Scenery " , appeared in The Nation 's Business in June 1916 :
We want our national parks developed . We want roads and trails like Switzerland 's . We want hotels of all prices from lowest to highest . We want comfortable public camps in sufficient abundance to meet all demands . We want lodges and chalets at convenient intervals commanding the scenic possibilities of all our parks . We want the best and cheapest accommodations for pedestrians and motorists . We want sufficient and convenient transportation at reasonable rates . We want adequate facilities and supplies for camping out at lowest prices . We want good fishing . We want our wild animal life conserved and developed . We want special facilities for nature study .
Yard 's most successful publicity initiative during this time was the National Parks Portfolio ( 1916 ) , a collection of nine pamphlets that — through photographs interspersed with text lauding the scenic grandeur of the nation 's major parks — connected the parks with a sense of national identity to make visitation an imperative of American citizenship . Yard and Mather distributed this publication to a carefully selected list of prominent Americans , including every member of Congress . That same year , Yard wrote and published Glimpses of Our National Parks , which was followed in 1917 by a similar volume titled The Top of the Continent . The latter volume , which was subtitled A Cheerful Journey through Our National Parks and geared toward a younger audience , became a bestseller .
Yard and Mather 's publicity and lobbying resulted in the creation of the National Park Service ; on August 25 , 1916 , President Woodrow Wilson signed a bill establishing the agency " to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and wild life therein , and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations . " Mather served as its first director beginning in 1917 , and while he appointed Horace Albright as assistant director , he put Yard in charge of the National Parks Educational Committee . Consisting only of Yard and a secretary , this division of the NPS produced informative publicity in order to draw visitors to parks and develop programs to enhance the educational value of their experience .
In January 1917 , Mather suffered a mental breakdown and had to take an extended leave . Yard believed he would be appointed interim director at the NPS . Disagreements within the organization , however , kept him from the position . Yard , who has been described as " intense , urbane and opinionated " , was disappointed when the position was given to Albright , who was then only 27 years old . After more than a year of working in the Educational Division , Yard began to look outside the NPS for support .
= = National Parks Association = =
Yard believed that while the National Park Service was effective as a government agency , it was not capable of promoting the wishes of the common American . He wrote in June 1918 that the national park movement must " be cultivated only by an organization of the people outside the government , and unhampered by politics and routine " . On May 29 , 1919 , the National Parks Association ( NPA ) was officially created to fill this role . Yard , who became a pivotal figure in the new society , was elected its executive secretary . His duties as the only full @-@ time employee of the NPA were practically the same as they had been with the NPS — to promote the national parks and to educate Americans about their use . In its early years , the NPA was Yard 's livelihood and passion : he recruited the key founding members , raised money and wrote various press releases . Yard also served as editor of the NPA 's National Parks Bulletin from 1919 to 1936 . In the first issue , Yard outlined the organization 's objectives in order to craft a broad educational program : not only would they attract students , artists and writers to the parks , but a " complete and rational system " would be created and adhered to by Congress and the Park Service .
Yard believed that eligible national parks had to be scenically stunning . He noted in his 1919 volume The Book of the National Parks that the major characteristic of almost all national parks was that their scenery had been forged by geological or biological processes . He wrote , " [ W ] e shall not really enjoy our possession of the grandest scenery in the world until we realize that scenery is the written page of the History of Creation , and until we learn to read that page . " Yard 's standards also insisted upon " complete conservation " , meaning avoidance of commercialism and industrialization . Often referring to parks as " American masterpieces " , he sought to protect them from economic activities such as timber cutting and mineral extracting . In such , Yard often advocated the preservation of " wilderness " conditions in America 's national parks .
In 1920 , Congress passed the Water Power Act , which granted licenses to develop hydroelectric projects on federal lands , including national parks . Yard and the NPA joined again with Mather and the National Park Service to oppose the intrusion on Park Service control . In 1921 , Congress passed the Jones @-@ Esch Bill , amending the Water Power Act to exclude existing national parks from hydroelectric development .
= = Conflict and the Forest Service = =
Despite agreeing on most issues regarding the protection of national parks , friction between the NPA and NPS was seemingly unavoidable . Mather and Yard disagreed on many issues ; whereas Mather was not interested in the protection of wildlife and accepted the Biological Survey 's efforts to exterminate predators within parks , Yard criticized the program as early as 1924 . Yard was also highly critical of Mather 's administration of the parks . Mather advocated plush accommodations , city comforts and various entertainments to encourage park visitation . These plans clashed with Yard 's ideals , and he considered such urbanization of the nation 's parks misguided . While visiting Yosemite National Park in 1926 , he stated that the valley was " lost " after he found crowds , automobiles , jazz music and a bear show .
In 1924 , the United States Forest Service started a program to set aside " primitive areas " in the national forests to protect wilderness while opening it to use . Yard , who preferred to give the land that did not meet his standards to the Forest Service rather than the NPS , began to work closely with the USFS . Beginning in 1925 , he served as secretary of the Joint Committee on the Recreational Survey of Federal Lands , a position he held until 1930 . Composed of members of both the NPA and the USFS , the committee sought a separate national recreation policy that would distinguish between recreational and preservation areas . The NPA and Yard were both criticized by activists who feared that the association would be eclipsed by the Forest Service 's own program goals . Yard at times felt isolated and under @-@ appreciated by his peers . He wrote in 1926 , " I wonder whether I 'm justified in forcing this work upon people who seem to care so little about it . "
By the late 1920s , Yard had come to believe preservation of wilderness was a solution to more commercially motivated park making . He continued to clash with others regarding legislation on park proposals . These included the Shenandoah National Park in Virginia , which Yard thought was too recreational and not of the caliber of a national park . He hesitated at the nomination of the Everglades National Park in Florida . When the Tropic Everglades National Park Association was founded in 1928 to promote the idea of a national park in south Florida , Yard was initially skeptical that it was necessary . Although he recognized the need for preservation , he did not accept proposals for a national park unless the area met his high scenic standards . He slowly warmed to the Everglades idea , and in 1931 supported the proposal under conditions that the area remain pristine , with limited tourist development . The Everglades National Park was authorized by Congress in 1934 .
= = The Wilderness Society = =
Yard 's preservationist goals exceeded those of the Park Service in the 1930s . Drifting away from the national parks lobby , he pushed to preserve what he called " primitive " land ; he and John C. Merriam had discussed forming a group called " Save the Primitive League " . Although that group was not formed , Yard was soon invited to become a founding member of The Wilderness Society . Seventy @-@ four @-@ years old at the time , he was known for his tireless work ethic and youthfulness ; for decades he had jokingly insisted to colleagues that he was a mere 47 .
The society was officially formed in January 1935 to lead wilderness preservation in the United States . Additional founding members included notable conservationists Bob Marshall , Benton MacKaye , Bernard Frank , Aldo Leopold , and Harvey Broome . In September , Yard published the first issue of the society 's magazine , The Living Wilderness . He wrote of the society 's genesis , " The Wilderness Society is born of an emergency in conservation which admits of no delay . The craze is to build all the highways possible everywhere while billions may yet be borrowed from the unlucky future . The fashion is to barber and manicure wild America as smartly as the modern girl . Our mission is clear . "
Although Marshall proposed that Leopold act as the society 's first president , in 1937 Yard accepted the role , as well as that of permanent secretary . He ran the society from his home in Washington , D.C. and single @-@ handedly produced The Living Wilderness during its early years , with one issue annually until 1945 . Yard did the greater share of work during the Society 's early years ; he solicited membership , corresponded with other conservation groups , and kept track of congressional activities related to wilderness areas . Although much older than some of his colleagues , Yard was described as a cautious and non @-@ confrontational leader .
= = Death and legacy = =
While ill from pneumonia at the end of his life , he ran the society 's affairs from his bed . He died on May 17 , 1945 , at the age of 84 .
The National Park Service and what is now called the National Parks Conservation Association remain successful organizations . The National Park System of the United States protects more than 400 sites covering an area exceeding 84 million acres ( 340 @,@ 000 km2 ) in all 50 states , Washington , D.C. , American Samoa , Guam , Puerto Rico , Saipan , and the Virgin Islands . His work to preserve wilderness in the United States has also endured . After his death , three members of The Wilderness Society took on his various duties ; Benton MacKaye officially replaced him as president , but executive secretary Howard Zahniser and director Olaus Murie ran the society for the next two decades . Zahniser also took over the society 's magazine , making The Living Wilderness into a successful quarterly publication .
The December 1945 issue of The Living Wilderness was dedicated to Yard 's life and work ; in one article , fellow co @-@ founder Ernest Oberholtzer wrote that " the form he [ Yard ] gave The Wilderness Society was the crowning of a lifelong vision . He undertook it with a freshness that belied his years and revealed , as nothing else could , the vitality of his inspiration . Few men in America have ever had such understanding of the spiritual quality of the American scene , and fewer still the voice to go with it . "
Yard 's effect on the Wilderness Society proved long @-@ lasting ; he was responsible for initiating cooperation with other major preservationist groups , including the National Park Association . He also established a durable alliance with the Sierra Club , founded in 1892 by noted preservationist John Muir . This alliance proved crucial during the proposal and eventual passage of the Wilderness Act . The act , which was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on September 3 , 1964 , was the first major victory for The Wilderness Society . Written by Zahniser , it enabled Congress to set aside selected areas in the national forests , national parks , national wildlife refuges and other federal lands , as units to be kept permanently unchanged by humans . Since its conception , The Wilderness Society has contributed a total of 104 million acres ( 421 @,@ 000 km ² ) to the National Wilderness Preservation System .
= = Selected list of works = =
The Publisher ( 1913 )
Glimpses of Our National Parks ( 1916 )
The Top of the Continent ( 1917 )
The Book of the National Parks ( 1919 )
The National Parks Portfolio ( 1921 )
Our Federal Lands : A Romance of American Development ( 1928 )
= Carli Lloyd =
Carli Anne Lloyd ( born July 16 , 1982 ) is an American soccer player , two @-@ time Olympic gold medalist , FIFA Women 's World Cup champion , and 2015 FIFA Player of the Year . She currently plays for the Houston Dash in the National Women 's Soccer League ( NWSL ) and the United States women 's national soccer team . Lloyd scored the gold medal @-@ winning goals in the finals of the 2008 Summer Olympics and the 2012 Summer Olympics . She has represented the United States at three FIFA Women 's World Cup tournaments : the 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup , in which she helped the U.S. win bronze ; the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup , in which the U.S. won silver ; and the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup , where Lloyd scored a hat trick in the final in captaining the U.S. to its third title .
During the United States ' 5 – 2 win over Japan in the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup Final , Lloyd became the first person ever to score three goals in a FIFA Women 's World Cup final , and the second soccer player in history to score a hat trick in any senior FIFA World Cup Final , after Sir Geoff Hurst . Lloyd scored three goals in the first 16 minutes of the final , with the first two occurring in the first five minutes of the game and within three minutes of each other . She received the Golden Ball Trophy as the best player of the tournament and earned the Silver Boot for her six goals and one assist during the tournament .
Lloyd has played in over 220 matches for the U.S. national team and scored over 80 goals . She previously played for the Chicago Red Stars , Sky Blue FC , and Atlanta Beat in Women 's Professional Soccer ( WPS ) . In 2013 , she was allocated to the Western New York Flash for the inaugural season of the NWSL and helped her team win the regular season championship . After two seasons with the Flash , she was traded to the Houston Dash prior to the 2015 season .
= = Early life = =
Born to Stephen and Pamela Lloyd , Carli was raised in Delran Township , a small community located in South New Jersey about twenty minutes northeast of Philadelphia . Lloyd began playing soccer at age five . Of her exposure to soccer at a young age , Lloyd 's mother , Pamela said , " At that age , it was coed , and Carli was hanging with the boys . She always loved it and showed a lot of ability from an early age , but she also has always worked hard . " Lloyd has one brother , Stephen , and a sister , Ashley .
Lloyd attended Delran High School from 1997 to 2000 where she played soccer under the tutelage of the late Rudy " The Red Baron " Klobach . As a high school athlete , she was known for her exceptional ball control and skill at distributing the ball from the midfield . During her senior year , she scored 26 goals and served eight assists while captaining her team to an 18 – 3 record . The Philadelphia Inquirer twice @-@ named her Girls ’ High School Player of the Year in 1999 and 2000 . She was named to the Star @-@ Ledger All @-@ State First Team twice and received 1999 and 2000 Parade All @-@ American honors . In 2000 , she was named the Courier Post Player of the Year and the South Jersey Soccer Coaches Association ( SJSCA ) Midfielder of the Year .
= = = Rutgers Scarlet Knights , 2001 – 2004 = = =
Lloyd attended Rutgers University from 2001 to 2004 and played for the Scarlet Knights women 's soccer team under head coach Glenn Crooks . She was named First @-@ Team All @-@ Big East for four straight years – the first athlete at Rutgers to do so . She ended her collegiate career as the school 's all @-@ time leader in points ( 117 ) , goals ( 50 ) , and shots .
During her freshman season , Lloyd started every match and was the team 's leading scorer with 15 goals for a total of 37 points . She was named to Soccer America 's All @-@ Freshman Team and was the first Rutgers player to earn Big East Rookie of the Year honors . As a sophomore , she was the team 's leading scorer for the second consecutive season with 12 goals and seven assists for 31 points . The same year Lloyd was a finalist for the Hermann Trophy , widely considered the highest accolade for collegiate soccer players . During her third season with the Scarlet Knights , she scored 13 goals and served 2 assists for a total of 28 points and was named a Big East Academic All @-@ Star . As a senior , she was a starter for 18 of the 20 games she played , scored 10 goals and served one assist . Lloyd was named the 2004 Big East Midfielder of the Year .
In 2013 , Lloyd was inducted into the Rutgers Hall of Distinguished Alumni .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Club = = =
= = = = W @-@ League Experience , 1999 – 2004 = = = =
While still in high school , Lloyd played for W @-@ League teams Central Jersey Splash in 1999 , New Brunswick Power in 2000 , and South Jersey Banshees in 2001 . In the summer prior to her senior year at Rutgers , Lloyd played for the New Jersey Wildcats in 2004 with teammates Kelly Smith , Manya Makoski , Tobin Heath , and Heather O 'Reilly . She made only one appearance for the club .
= = = = The WPS Years , 2009 – 2011 = = = =
With the return of a top @-@ flight women 's professional soccer league to the United States via Women 's Professional Soccer , Lloyd 's playing rights were allocated to the Chicago Red Stars in 2008 . During the league 's inaugural season , she started in 14 of her 16 appearances for Chicago playing a total of 1 @,@ 313 minutes on the pitch . She scored two goals : one in the 23rd minute of her team 's 4 – 0 win over the Boston Breakers on April 25 ; and the other during the 24th minute of a 3 – 1 defeat of the Los Angeles Sol on August 2 . The Red Stars finished sixth on the season with a 5 – 5 – 10 record .
Following the conclusion of the season , Lloyd was declared a free agent and subsequently signed with her home state club and 2009 WPS champions , Sky Blue FC , for the 2010 season . In April 2010 , during a match against her former team , Chicago Red Stars , Lloyd slipped and broke her ankle . The injury kept her off the pitch for most of the season although she did return for two games in September .
In December 2010 , Lloyd signed with expansion team Atlanta Beat for the 2011 season . Of her signing , Beat head coach James Galanis said , " She is a fantastic midfielder and someone who is fully focused on the game . I have known her from her college days , and I have had the opportunity to train her and improve her game individually . She has made a lot of sacrifices off the field to reach her dreams , and she is going to bring a lot of professionalism to the team . " Lloyd scored two goals in her ten appearances for the Beat . She scored the team 's lone goal in a 4 – 1 defeat by the Boston Breakers on April 9 . Her second goal on the season was an equalizer during the 70th minute of a 2 – 2 draw against the Western New York Flash . The Beat finished their first season in last place with a 1 – 4 – 13 record .
= = = = Western New York Flash , 2013 – 2014 = = = =
On January 11 , 2013 , Lloyd joined the Western New York Flash in the new National Women 's Soccer League as part of the NWSL Player Allocation . After recovering from a shoulder injury suffered earlier in the year , Lloyd made her debut for the Flash on May 12 , 2013 during the team 's 2 – 1 defeat of FC Kansas City . She scored her first goal in a match against her former club , Sky Blue FC , helping the Flash win 3 – 0 . During a match against the Washington Spirit on June 28 , Lloyd scored a hat trick leading the Flash to a 4 – 0 win . She was subsequently named NWSL Player of the Week for her performance .
Lloyd finished the 2013 season with 10 goals , the third most goals scored on the season . The Flash finished first during the regular season with a 10 – 8 – 4 record and advanced to the playoffs . During the Flash 's semifinal match against Sky Blue FC , Lloyd scored both of the Flash 's game @-@ winning goals : one in the 33rd minute and the second coming during stoppage time . Her two goals resulted in a 2 – 0 win that advanced the Flash to the championship final against the Portland Thorns FC . The Flash were defeated 2 – 0 during the final .
= = = = Houston Dash , 2015 – present = = = =
On October 16 , 2014 , Lloyd was traded to the Houston Dash in exchange for Becky Edwards , Whitney Engen and a third @-@ round pick in the 2016 NWSL draft .
= = = International = = =
= = = = Youth national team = = = =
Lloyd represented the United States at the under @-@ 21 level before making the jump to the senior team at the age of 23 . As a member of the under @-@ 21 team , she played at the Nordic Cup four times winning consecutive titles from 2002 to 2005 in Finland , Denmark , Iceland , and Sweden respectively . During the first round of the 2003 Nordic Cup , she served the assist in the U.S. ' 1 – 0 win against Denmark . At the 2004 Nordic Cup , she scored two goals and served one assist while starting in every match . The following year at the 2005 Nordic Cup , she scored three times including one goal during the championship match against Norway .
= = = = Senior national team = = = =
Lloyd made her first appearance for the United States women 's national soccer team on July 10 , 2005 , against Ukraine . She scored her first international goal on October 1 , 2006 against Taiwan . At the 2006 Four Nations Tournament , Lloyd won a third cap . She earned the first two starts of her career at the 2006 Algarve Cup , gaining a place in the starting 11 against Denmark and in the championship game against Germany . She played in 19 games , starting 13 , and scored one goal .
= = = = = Algarve Cup and FIFA Women 's World Cup , 2007 = = = = =
After scoring once in her first 24 matches with the national team , Lloyd scored four goals at the 2007 Algarve Cup . As the tournament 's top scorer , she was awarded Most Valuable Player tournament honors . Lloyd logged her first brace for the national team during a 6 – 1 win against New Zealand .
The same year , Lloyd played in her first FIFA Women 's World Cup tournament . Heading into the tournament , the national team had not conceded a game in regulation time in nearly three years and was considered a favorite to win the tournament in China . During their first match of the tournament , the U.S. tied North Korea 2 – 2 . The team faced Sweden in their next match on September 14 and won 2 – 0 with two goals from Abby Wambach . The U.S. finished group play with a 1 – 0 win over Nigeria women 's national football team on September 18 .
During the quarterfinal match against England on September 22 , the U.S. won 3 – 0 . All three goals were scored within 12 minutes . The U.S. faced Brazil in the semifinal in what would become a controversial and game @-@ changing match for the team . Coach Greg Ryan decided to bench starting goalkeeper , Hope Solo , and instead started Brianna Scurry , a veteran goalkeeper who had started in three World Cups and two Olympics , but who had started very few matches since the 2004 Olympics . The U.S. was defeated 4 – 0 by Brazil . The loss relegated them to a final match against Norway , which they won 4 – 1 , to secure third place standing at the tournament . Lloyd started three of the five games in which she played at the tournament .
Throughout 2007 , Lloyd started 13 of the 23 matches in which she played . She ranked third on the team in scoring with nine goals and three assists .
= = = = = 2008 Beijing Olympics = = = = =
During the championship match of the CONCACAF Women 's Olympic Qualifying Tournament , Lloyd scored the U.S. ' only goal during stoppage time on a free @-@ kick . The U.S. eventually defeated Canada 6 – 5 in penalty kicks . She scored two goals during the 2008 Olympics : the game @-@ winning goal in the team 's 1 – 0 defeat of Japan during the tournament 's group stage and another game @-@ winning goal in overtime against Brazil during the final helping the U.S. win gold .
Lloyd was named the 2008 U.S. Soccer Athlete of the Year along with Tim Howard . She was on the starting lineup in all 35 games in which she played in 2008 , tying for the team lead in matches started during the year . Her 2 @,@ 781 minutes on the pitch for the U.S. ranked third on the team in minutes played . Her nine goals and nine assists resulted in her best scoring year yet on the national team .
= = = = = From Injury Recovery to 100th Career Cap and CONCACAF Women 's World Cup Qualifying , 2009 – 10 = = = = =
In 2009 , the U.S. national team competed in eight games , of which Lloyd was on the starting lineup in five . At the 2010 Algarve Cup , Lloyd scored the game @-@ opening goal in the final helping the U.S. clinch the championship title after defeating Germany 3 – 2 .
Although she suffered a broken ankle in the fourth game of the 2010 WPS Season while playing for Sky Blue FC , she played in 15 matches for the United States in 2010 , starting 14 . Lloyd started all five games at the 2010 CONCACAF Women 's World Cup Qualifying Tournament , scoring two goals , including the United States ' lone goal during the championship match . She ended the tournament with five assists and was named the Player of the Match three times during the tournament . After the U.S. finished third at the tournament , they traveled to Italy to vie for a place at the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup in the UEFA @-@ CONCACAF play @-@ off against Italy . Playing every minute of the series , Lloyd scored three goals with five assists during the series . She earned her 100th career cap during the second leg of the series .
= = = = = Algarve Cup , Four Nations Tournament , and FIFA Women 's World Cup , 2011 = = = = =
2011 saw the U.S. team making preparations for the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup and training starting with the Four Nations Tournament . Lloyd scored the lone goal for the U.S. in the opening match loss to Sweden . In the championship match , the U.S. defeated Canada 2 – 0 with Lloyd scoring the first goal and being named Player of the Match .
At the 2011 Algarve Cup , Lloyd scored three goals including the first goal in the championship match ; subsequently named best goal for the tournament . She was named player of the match for the 2nd time in the tournament . The team won the cup , making it their eighth title win .
At the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup , Lloyd scored the final goal in a 3 – 0 win against Colombia for her first World Cup goal . Throughout the tournament , she tallied an assist , a goal , and one successful penalty kick in the shootout against Brazil to send the U.S. to the semifinals vs. France . In the World Cup final , after finishing the game tied 2 – 2 the U.S. went on to penalty kicks with Japan . Along with two teammates who failed to convert their penalty kicks , Lloyd mishit the ball over the crossbar . The U.S. won the silver medal at the tournament .
= = = = = CONCACAF Olympic Qualifying Tournament and London Olympics , 2012 = = = = =
The national team opened 2012 with the Olympic Qualifiers in Vancouver , Canada . The U.S. was placed in Group B with the Dominican Republic , Guatemala , and Mexico . In the first match , the United States routed the Dominican Republic by a score of 14 – 0 with Lloyd tallying one goal and one assist . In the second match , the U.S. again defeated Guatemala 13 – 0 with Lloyd again finding the back of the net and providing an assist .
The game to win the group and thus play the second place team from Group A occurred between the U.S. and Mexico . The U.S. was previously defeated 2 – 1 by Mexico during the 2010 CONCACAF Women 's Gold Cup . This time , the U.S. beat Mexico 4 – 0 with Lloyd netting her first career hat trick . She was subsequently named player of the match .
In the semi @-@ final , the U.S. faced Costa Rica . During the second half , the U.S. scored two goals , the second coming from Lloyd . The U.S. beat Costa Rica 3 – 0 with Lloyd named player of the match for the second game in a row . During the final match against Canada , the U.S. defeated Canada at home 4 – 0 to move on to the Olympics as the CONCACAF champions . Lloyd finished the tournament with six goals and three assists and tied for the team lead in goals scored .
At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , Lloyd scored the go @-@ ahead goal in the 56th minute of the team 's opening match against France , to boost the U.S. to a 3 – 2 lead ; the match ended with a final score of 4 – 2 . She scored her second goal of the tournament against Colombia during the group stage .
During the Olympic gold medal match against Japan , played at London 's Wembley Stadium , Lloyd scored both American goals in the team 's 2 – 1 victory . Her four goals in the tournament tied for the second highest on the U.S. squad . She is the only player ( of either gender ) in history to score the game @-@ winning goal in two separate Olympic gold medal matches ; her first occurred during the Beijing 2008 final against Brazil .
After scoring her 46th international goal in the 13th minute of a friendly against New Zealand in October 2013 , Lloyd became the highest @-@ scoring midfielder in the team 's history , passing Julie Foudy , who finished her career with 45 goals .
= = = = = 2015 FIFA World Cup = = = = =
In April 2015 , Lloyd was named by head coach Jill Ellis to the 23 @-@ player roster for the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup in Canada . Lloyd captained the team during four of the team 's matches , including the quarterfinal against China , semifinal against Germany and final against Japan and scored six goals during the tournament , finishing the tournament on a four @-@ game goalscoring streak that spanned the knockout stage and that culminated in a hat trick in the game 's opening 16 minutes during the final against Japan . The last goal was hailed by Reuters as " one of the most remarkable goals ever witnessed in a Women ’ s World Cup " , and featured Lloyd catching Japanese goalkeeper Ayumi Kaihori off her line and chipping her virtually from the halfway line .
For her efforts in leading the United States to a record third World Cup title , and first since 1999 , she won the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament . While Lloyd 's six goals were enough to match Celia Sasic as the tournament 's top scorer , Sasic won the Golden Boot for playing fewer minutes and Lloyd was awarded the Silver Boot . Lloyd also became the first woman to score a hat trick in a World Cup final and the first player , male or female , to do so since Geoff Hurst did so for England against West Germany in the 1966 final at Wembley . Furthermore , her third goal earned her a nomination for the Puskás Award , FIFA 's annual award for Goal of the Year .
= = = = International goals = = = =
= = Honors and awards = =
= = = Individual = = =
Algarve Cup Most Valuable Player : 2007
U.S. Soccer Athlete of the Year : 2008
FIFA World Player of the Year Shortlist : 2012 , 2015
FIFA Puskas Award Nominee : 2015
NWSL Player of the Week : July 2013 , July 2014
NWSL Player of the Month : July 2015
CONCACAF Women 's Player of the Year : 2015
CONCACAF Goal of the Year : 2015
FIFA Women 's World Cup Golden Ball : 2015
FIFA Women 's World Cup Silver Boot : 2015
FIFA Women 's World Cup All @-@ Star Team : 2015
FIFA Women 's World Cup Dream Team : 2015
FIFA Women 's World Cup Goal of the Tournament : 2015
Women 's Sports Foundation Sportswoman of the Year Team Sport Award : 2015
Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year Nominee : 2015
IFFHS World 's Women Best Playmaker : 2015
FIFA World Player of the Year : 2015
Nominee for 2016 ESPY Award for Best Championship Performance
= = = Team = = =
United States
Olympic Gold Medal : 2008 , 2012
FIFA Women 's World Cup Champion : 2015
Runner @-@ up : 2011
= = Style of play = =
Although she was initially criticised for being inconsistent at the beginning of career , and for losing possession too easily , Lloyd later developed into one of the best players in the world , and is highly regarded in particular for her outstanding determination , mental strength , and work @-@ ethic . A tenacious , energetic , and hard @-@ working player , she also is known for her control , technique , and passing accuracy , and is capable of aiding her team both defensively and offensively , due to her stamina , strength , and tackling , as well as her ability to get into good attacking positions , and either score goals or create chances for team @-@ mates . These abilities , coupled with her tactical versatility , enable her to be deployed in several midfield positions ; although she began her career in the centre , as a defensive midfielder , she is most comfortable when moved to a more advanced role , as an attacking midfielder behind the forwards . Lloyd has also earned a reputation as a " clutch player " , due to her tendency to score decisive goals ; a powerful striker of the ball , she is capable of scoring from any position on the pitch , and can finish well both with her head and with her feet inside the area .
= = Personal life = =
Lloyd lives with her fiancé , Brian Hollins , in Mount Laurel , New Jersey . She has done philanthropic work for Habitat for Humanity . She plans to get married to him after the 2016 Olympic Games .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Endorsements = = =
Lloyd currently has an endorsement deal with Nike . In 2011 , she was the focus of a promotional feature for the sports company entitled , Pressure Makes Us : Carli Lloyd . Following the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup , Lloyd starred in a commercial for Xfinity and signed an endorsement deal with Visa . In August 2015 , she co @-@ starred in a Nike commercial called Snow Day also featuring Rob Gronkowski and Sydney Leroux .
= = = Magazines and television = = =
Lloyd has been featured in Glamour , Shape , and Sports Illustrated magazines . She has made appearances on Good Morning America , The Daily Show with Jon Stewart , and Live with Kelly and Michael . In 2012 , she appeared in an ESPN feature called Title IX is Mine : USWNT .
= = = Video Games = = =
Lloyd was featured along with her national teammates in the EA Sports ' FIFA video game series in FIFA 16 , the first time women players were included in the game . In September 2015 , she was ranked by EA Sports as the # 1 women 's player in the game .
= = = Ticker Tape Parade and White House Honor = = =
Following the United States ' win at the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup , Lloyd and her teammates became the first women 's sports team to be honored with a Ticker Tape Parade in New York City . Each player received a key to the city from Mayor Bill de Blasio . In October of the same year , the team was honored by President Barack Obama at the White House .
= Dream Within a Dream Tour =
The Dream Within a Dream Tour was the fourth concert tour by American recording artist Britney Spears . It was launched in support of her third studio album , Britney ( 2001 ) . The tour was promoted by Concerts West , marking the first time Spears did not tour with Clear Channel Entertainment . On September 21 , 2001 , a North American tour was announced that kicked off exactly two months later after various dates were postponed . In February 2002 , Spears announced a second leg of the tour . It was directed and choreographed by Wade Robson , who explained the main theme of the show was Spears 's coming of age and newfound independence . The stage was designed by Steve Cohen and Rob Brenner and was composed of a main stage and a B @-@ stage , united by a runway . Inspired by Cleopatra 's barge , a flying device was developed so Spears could travel over the audience to the B @-@ stage . The setlist was mostly composed by songs from the supporting album , as Spears felt they were more reflective of her personality . Songs from her previous two studio albums were also included in remixed form by Robson .
The show was divided into seven segments with the last one being the encore . Spears opened the show hanging from a gyrating wheel ; it continued with Spears performing a medley of older hits , jumping in bungee cords from the flying device onto the stage and dancing in a jungle setting . Most of the performances were accompanied by extravagant special effects , including confetti , pyrotechnics , laser lights , and artificial fog and snow . In the encore , there was a water screen that pumped two tons of water into the stage ; this was considered one of the signature performances of the tour . During the 2002 leg , some changes were made ; several songs were remixed , and Spears premiered various unreleased songs which included " Mystic Man " . The show received mixed reviews by critics , who praised the show for being innovative but dismissed it for taking the attention away from the music .
The Dream Within a Dream Tour was largely sold out and grossed $ 43 @.@ 7 million . During the second show in Mexico , Spears left the stage after the sixth song due to a lightning storm ; the show was canceled and angered the audience . The tour was broadcast live on an HBO special on November 18 , 2001 , and went on to win an Emmy for Outstanding Technical Direction on the 2002 ceremony . A DVD titled Live from Las Vegas was released in January 2002 .
= = Background = =
On July 19 , 2001 , Spears 's band announced there would be a tour to support her third studio album , Britney ( 2001 ) . The following day , Spears 's label Jive Records confirmed that there was a tour planned for the fall . The Dream Within a Dream Tour was promoted by Concerts West , chosen after a much publicized battle with concert promoter Clear Channel Entertainment ( CCE ) , who had handled her previous concert tours . It marked the first time Concerts West outbid CCE , with reports claiming Spears would earn between $ 13 and $ 15 million during the tour . Spears 's manager Larry Rudolph commented on the situation , saying ,
" Clear Channel is an incredible company , and I 'm sure we 'll be doing more business with them . We went with Concerts West because they 're a strong touring company and because they have ancillary properties , in that [ parent AEG owns ] arenas and some 7 @,@ 000 movie theaters throughout the country . This decision was not made to exclude Clear Channel . It was made to include Concerts West . [ AEG ] has the ability to help us market our core products — the album and tour — and our secondary properties — the movie — in ways that tipped the scale for us . "
On September 20 , 2001 , dates were released along with the track listing of the album . The tour was slated to begin on October 26 , 2001 , but the opening of the show was pushed back until October 31 after Spears became ill and was prescribed five days of rest . The tour was postponed one more day due to production delays and finally kicked off at Nationwide Arena in Columbus , Ohio . Before the tour began , Spears announced she planned to give $ 1 of each ticket to the children of firefighters and police officers killed during the September 11 attacks . She also planned to sell merchandise and auction front row seats , hoping to raise $ 2 million . On February 26 , 2002 , more North American dates were released through her official website to kick off in Las Vegas
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) governing body , subsequently becoming an official NWA territory as NWA – TNA . On June 19 , 2002 , NWA – TNA held its first show : a weekly pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event . The main event of the telecast was a twenty – man Gauntlet for the Gold match — involving all twenty men trying to throw each other over the top rope and down to the floor in order to eliminate them , until there are two men left who wrestle a standard match — to become the first ever TNA – era NWA World Heavyweight Champion . Ken Shamrock defeated Malice to win the vacant championship with Ricky Steamboat as Special Guest Referee at the event . TNA crowned the first TNA – era NWA World Tag Team Champions at their third weekly PPV event on July 3 , 2002 , when the team of A.J. Styles and Jerry Lynn defeated The Rainbow Express ( Bruce and Lenny Lane ) in a tournament final to win the championship .
= = = Creation = = =
The NWA World Heavyweight and World Tag Team Championships were contested for in TNA until the morning of May 13 , 2007 . On that day , NWA 's Executive Director Robert Trobich announced that the NWA were ending their five – year agreement with TNA , which had allowed them full control over both titles . Trobich went on to state that effective that morning , then @-@ NWA World Heavyweight Champion Christian Cage and the Team 3D pairing of Brother Devon and Brother Ray , then @-@ NWA World Tag Team Champions , were stripped of their respective championships . The motivation behind these actions was that Cage refused to defend the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against wrestlers from NWA territories . That same day , TNA were scheduled to produce their Sacrifice 2007 PPV event , in which both Cage and Team 3D were to defend their respective championships . On the card , Cage was scheduled to defend the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against Kurt Angle and Sting in a match involving three competitors , also known as a Three @-@ Way match . Team 3D were set to defend the NWA World Tag Team Championship against the team of Scott Steiner and Tomko and the team made up of Hernandez and Homicide , who were known as The Latin American Xchange ( LAX ) , in another Three Way match .
That night before each contest , the on @-@ screen graphic used to refer to the champions and their respective championships , credited both Cage and Team 3D as still being NWA Champions . However , the ring announcers for the encounters proclaimed the matches as being strictly for the " World Heavyweight Championship " or the " World Tag Team Championship " . Team 3D defeated Steiner and Tomko and LAX in the first Three Way championship bout to retain the " World Tag Team Championship " . In the second Three Way championship encounter , Angle defeated Cage and Sting to win the " World Heavyweight Championship " .
On May 17 , 2007 , Jeremy Borash and TNA 's primary authority figure at the time , Jim Cornette , unveiled the TNA World Tag Team Championship belt on that day 's edition of TNA 's online podcast TNA Today and awarded it to Team 3D ; in the process making them the first official champions .
= = = Belt designs = = =
During the championship 's entire history , it has had one design . It begins with a leather strap that is covered with four small gold plates that has an imprint of the earth centered in the middle with TNA 's official logo at the top of each . The center golden plate of the belt also has an imprint of a globe , with TNA 's official logo engraved over it . The words " World Tag Team " are placed above the globe , while the words " Wrestling Champion " are placed below it . [ 1 ]
= = Reigns = =
The inaugural champions were Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) , who were awarded the championship on the May 17 , 2007 edition of TNA Today . At 212 days , Beer Money , Inc . ' s ( Bobby Roode and James Storm ) fourth reign is the longest in the title 's history . Eric Young / Super Eric and Kaz 's only reign holds the record for shortest reign in the title 's history at a half day .
The current champions are Decay ( Abyss and Crazzy Steve ) who are in their first reign as a team . They defeated Beer Money ( Bobby Roode and James Storm ) in a " Valley of Shadows " match on March 19 , 2016 in Orlando , Florida during the Impact Wrestling tapings ( aired April 26 ) . This is Abyss ' second individual reign , as he was previously champion with Storm in 2014 , while Crazzy Steve is in his first individual reign .
Individually , James Storm holds the record with seven reigns , while Beer Money and The Wolves ( Davey Richards and Eddie Edwards ) share the record of five reigns as a team .
Although the title is a World Tag Team Championship , three different wrestlers have held the championship by themselves — Samoa Joe , Kurt Angle , and Matt Morgan . Joe held the championship during his entire reign alone ; however , Angle held the championship alone for 15 days until Sting won a match involving three other competitors to become Angle 's partner , and Morgan held the title after turning on and ( kayfabe ) injuring his tag team championship partner Hernandez . Overall , there have been 40 reigns shared between 41 wrestlers and 28 teams .
= Now That You Got It =
" Now That You Got It " is a song by American singer and songwriter Gwen Stefani from her second solo studio album , The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) . Stefani co @-@ wrote the song with its producers Sean Garrett and Swizz Beatz . " Now That You Got It " is a reggae song featuring hip hop beats , stacatto piano sample and military snare drums . Lyrically , the song places Gwen asking her lover to give all that she wants . A remix featuring Damian Marley was produced for the song 's release as the album 's fourth single on August 27 , 2007 by Interscope Records .
The original solo version received mixed reviews from music critics , with some praising its catchiness , while others calling it repetitive . However , the remix version was more praised , being called " a laid back , summery tune " . Commercially , the single experienced very little success , reaching the top @-@ forty in six countries , while failing to gain impact in the United States and the United Kingdom . The song 's music video was directed by The Saline Project and was shot in Puerto Rico and Jamaica , featuring Stefani and the Harajuku Girls . The song was performed during The Sweet Escape Tour ( 2007 ) .
= = Background and release = =
Before going on tour with her Harajuku Lovers Tour ( 2005 ) , Stefani revealed that she was going to release a second album in 2006 , stating : " I have a bunch of leftover tracks from making ' Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ' . And two months ago , Pharrell called me up , he was like , ' Come down to Miami and write some more songs ! ' And I 'm like , ' OK ! ' I went down there and wrote four songs and played three of them tonight . They 're really fresh " . In September 2006 , during the Fashion Week , MTV News interviewed Swizz Beatz and he said to be working with Stefani as well , claiming : " She 's always taking it to the next level . I love her background for music . She likes a lot of Caribbean sounds with hard beats " . They worked on " Now That You Got It " , which was selected to be the fourth single from The Sweet Escape ( 2006 ) . For the single version , Stefani enlisted Damien Marley , son of Jamaican reggae musician Bob Marley , giving the single a " reggae " feel to it . It was released to mainstream radio in the United States , on August 26 , 2007 , while in the United Kingdom , it was released on October 15 , 2007 . Two remixes were included on the CD single , both featuring Marley . The " remix " version uses the same instrumentation as the original single , but has a more reggae @-@ infused rendition and an added verse sung by Marley ; the " hybrid " version features the song 's original beat mixed with the remix version .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Now That You Got It " was written by Gwen Stefani , Sean Garrett and Swizz Beatz , with production being done by the latter two ; Garrett also provided background vocals . The single version of the song features a " loping hip @-@ hop beat and a staccato piano sample " while Stefani " splits wailing time with a chorus of alarms , " according to Mark Pytlik of Pitchfork Media . It also presents elements of reggae music and " military snare drums " mixed with crunk militarism . Lyrically , on " Now That You Got It " , the singer tells her lover that even though he is with her , he still has to work hard to keep her and give her everything she wants . " Now that you got it , what you gon ' do about it ? " , she repeatedly asks in the chorus .
= = Critical reception = =
" Now That You Got It " received mixed reviews from music critics . A positive review came from Charles Merwin of Stylus Magazine , who referred to the original version as Stefani 's best " Beastie Boy imitation over a ' 1 Thing ' rip " , and Sal Cinquemani , while reviewing the album , of Slant Magazine called it " instantly contagious " . Norman Mayers of Prefix Magazine praised Swizz Beatz for " coming up with the most likely heir to the Hollaback crown , with the bumping chants and boasting raps " . However , Alex Miller of the NME characterized it as " a track so desperate to be a club banger , its fraying tapestry of hand @-@ claps , sirens and triumphalism has all the grace of a Pepsi Max advert " . Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters criticized the song 's songwriting , calling it " woefully thin , relying on tedious repetition . " John Murphy of musicOMH gave the single a mixed review , writing " when the self @-@ consciously wacky and kitsch side to her personality surfaces , as on the inane ' Now That You Got It ' , the temptation is to dive for the ' off ' switch " .
The single version with Damian Marley received generally favorable reviews . Fraser McAlpine of the BBC Chart Blog conveyed it as a " perfect case " of Stefani making songs which are sleek and tough on the outside , but have a middle which is pure and vulnerable , ultimately rating it four out of five stars . Similarly , CBBC 's Newsround portrayed the sound as " a very laid back , summery tune " which , it claims , will still have its readers " humming it next week " .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Now That You Got It " had moderate success on the charts . Nevertheless , in the United States , it was commercially unsuccessful , not entering any of the US Billboard charts , making it Stefani 's first song as a solo artist to not do so . Internationally , it reached the top @-@ twenty in a few European countries , having its higher chart position in Norway , where it debuted and peaked at number seventeen . However , it became her lowest @-@ charting single there . In Austria , it became her second lowest @-@ charting single , peaking at number sixty , with " Luxurious " being her lowest at number sixty @-@ six . In the United Kingdom , it reached number fifty @-@ nine , becoming Stefani 's third UK release not to reach the top @-@ twenty of the UK Singles Chart . In Australasia , the single performed very moderately . It debuted at number 39 on the ARIA Charts and reaching its peak position , number 37 , the following week . It remained for five weeks on the charts , but was her lowest @-@ peaking solo single . On the other hand , in New Zealand , " Now That You Got It " spent eight weeks on the charts , debuting at number 36 , on October 1 , 2007 , and peaking at number 21 , on October 8 , 2007 . However , it became her only solo single to miss the top @-@ twenty there .
= = Music video = =
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by The Saline Project and was shot in Puerto Rico and Jamaica . The Puerto Rico scenes were shot a day after Stefani 's concert in the city , as part of The Sweet Escape Tour , on July 19 , 2007 . Many parts of the video were shot in a studio , including scenes of Stefani riding a motorcycle in front of a green screen . The video premiered on MTV 's Total Request Live on September 4 , 2007 .
= = = Storyline = = =
The video opens up on a mountain with titles " Gwen Stefani Presents " , " Now That You Got It " and " featuring Damian Jr . Gong Marley " . Stefani is singing against a wall with Marley and later Stefani and the Harajuku Girls are riding along the road with scooters singing the first verse . As the chorus begins and Stefani , the Harajuku Girls and Marley are playing board games under a shelter near the lake side . Marley then begins to sing his part near two sheds while Stefani and Harajuku Girls are still on their scooters . During the second verse , Stefani sings against another girl and shows the Harajuku Girls singing on roof tops with the male dancers from The Sweet Escape Tour ( Flea , Legacy , Remedy , and Steelo ) . During the second chorus , the video opens at the beach where Stefani is SMSing . This leads the video to a party at night time where Stefani is on stage with people dancing . The video concludes with Harajuku Girls and the boys atop the roof , with Stefani and the girls singing on the scooters .
= = Live performances = =
Stefani 's first performance of the track was on the UK 's television show Ant & Dec on September 29 , 2007 . She performed the original version of the song , but ended with a reggae mix . The song was also added on the setlist of The Sweet Escape Tour . The concert segment received positive feedback for the overall energy of the performance .
= = Track listings = =
Australian CD single
" Now That You Got It " ( Album Version ) – 3 : 00
" Now That You Got It " ( Remix featuring Damian " Jr Gong " Marley ) – 3 : 26
" Now That You Got It " ( Single Version featuring Damian " Jr Gong " Marley ) – 3 : 09
US iTunes remix single
" Now That You Got It " ( Hybrid Mix featuring Damian " Jr Gong " Marley ) – 3 : 08 ( single version )
" Now That You Got It " ( Main Mix featuring Damian " Jr Gong " Marley ) – 3 : 26 ( remix )
US 12 " single
A1 . " Now That You Got It " ( Single Version featuring Damian " Jr Gong " Marley ) – 3 : 09
A2 . " Now That You Got It " ( Album Version ) – 3 : 00
A3 . " Now That You Got It " ( Instrumental Version ) – 2 : 55
B1 . " Now That You Got It " ( Remix featuring Damian " Jr Gong " Marley ) – 3 : 26
B2 . " Now That You Got It " ( Dub ) – 3 : 30
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Sweet Escape .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Joe Colbeck =
Philip Joseph " Joe " Colbeck ( born 29 November 1986 ) is an English footballer who plays as a right winger for Harrogate Town .
Born in Bradford , England , he joined his hometown club , Bradford City , as a youth team player in 2002 , making his debut two years later . He played more than 100 league games for Bradford during five years in the first team . Colbeck nearly left Bradford in 2007 when he was made available for transfer and played six games on loan for Darlington . However , he returned following his loan spell and went on to win Bradford City 's player of the season award during the 2007 – 08 campaign . He turned down a new deal a year later and joined Oldham Athletic on transfer deadline day in September 2009 to rejoin manager Dave Penney , for whom he played at Darlington . When Penney was sacked after less than a year in charge , Colbeck also soon left and joined Hereford United before spending several years with Grimsby Town .
= = Career = =
= = = Bradford City = = =
Colbeck was born in Bradford and attended Pudsey Tyersal School . Bradford City youth team coach Jon Pepper brought him to the club in 2002 , and having rising through the junior ranks at City , Colbeck had barely featured for the reserves when he made his senior debut in a League Cup defeat to Notts County on 25 August 2004 at Valley Parade . It was his only first @-@ team game during the season . It was another 17 months before his next appearance for City when he was a late substitute on 7 January 2006 in a 1 – 0 defeat to Chesterfield . Colbeck broke into the team on a more regular basis and made 11 appearances , including five starts , during the latter half of the 2005 – 06 season , and was one of six junior players to earn a one @-@ year contract at the League One club .
His first full season in the first team was during 2006 – 07 , although he was kept out of the team during the early part of the season by winger Jermaine Johnson . After eight straight games as substitute , Colbeck made his first start of the season in a West Yorkshire derby against Huddersfield Town on 7 October 2006 . He continued to play more games in the side but as City struggled , Colbeck was sent off during a vital game against Oldham Athletic in April 2007 . He was suspended following the red card but returned to the side after his suspension , and was involved in the 3 – 0 defeat to Chesterfield which confirmed Bradford 's relegation from League One .
Colbeck started the new season in League Two as a substitute , but won a place in the side , and scored his first senior goal against Lincoln City more than three years after his debut . However , after a mistake cost defeat to Milton Keynes Dons , he was told he could join another club on loan . On 24 October 2007 , Colbeck went on a month @-@ long loan to Darlington to take the place of injured Julian Joachim . Colbeck scored in both his second and third games before the loan was extended for a second month . The loan deal was cut short when he returned to Bradford City in December 2007 after he had made six appearances for Darlington , but Darlington manager Dave Penney was disappointed to see Colbeck leave saying , " Joe was fantastic for us . He scored a couple of goals and had a real effect on us so we 're sorry to see him go . "
He immediately went back into the Bradford side , and added his second goal for the club in a 2 – 0 win over Accrington Stanley on New Year 's Day . Darlington made a bid to sign Colbeck on a permanent basis during January 2008 , but City chairman Julian Rhodes turned down the bid , and Colbeck was a regular player for the rest of the 2007 – 08 season . The run of games included the third goal in a 3 – 1 win against former side Darlington at the Darlington Arena . On 19 April 2008 , he scored his sixth goal for the club , but first in a home game , when his last minute goal gave Bradford a 2 – 1 win over Grimsby Town . Three days later , Colbeck was announced as the club 's player of the season , even though he had started just 26 league games , 23 of which came in City 's 26 games since Colbeck returned on loan from Darlington . Colbeck was surprised to win the award , saying : " If you 'd said at the beginning of the season that I would win this award , I 'd have thought you were mad . I wasn 't even a regular in the team . " However , in the following league game , Colbeck was sent off for the second time in his career , for a foul on Dean Lewington , as City lost 2 – 1 to Milton Keynes Dons , which meant he missed the final game of the season through suspension .
Colbeck had been playing since January with a groin injury , which hampered his preparations for the 2008 – 09 season and prevented him from playing in Bradford 's first three pre @-@ season friendly matches . His suspension also kept him out of Bradford 's first two games of the season , but he returned for a 2 – 0 victory against Macclesfield Town . He provided a cross for Peter Thorne to open the scoring after ten minutes . Colbeck helped City to go top of the league six matches into the season , and although he scored his first goal of the season in the seventh game , City lost 3 – 1 to Bournemouth . He added a second in a 2 – 2 home draw with Gillingham , before he broke a bone in his foot the following week against Grimsby Town . Colbeck was unable to play for nearly three months . He returned from injury in January by playing in two reserve games , leading up to his first @-@ team return on 24 January as a late second @-@ half substitute for Omar Daley in a 3 – 3 draw with Luton Town . Colbeck broke back into the starting eleven the following month , once again for Daley , who was ruled out for the season with his own knee injury . He was a regular in the team for the rest of the season , playing a further 16 games but he struggled for form and was unable to add to his two goals .
City missed out on promotion and as a result had to cut their wage budget . However , Colbeck , whose contract had expired , was offered a new three @-@ year deal on improved terms . He turned down the offer and stayed at the club on a week @-@ to @-@ week basis on his previous terms . He was watched in a pre @-@ season friendly playing for City against Bradford Park Avenue by his former Darlington boss Dave Penney , who had since been appointed Oldham Athletic manager . Colbeck started the season with Bradford and played another five games , bringing his total to the club to 109 , of which 41 were as substitute .
= = = Oldham Athletic = = =
Colbeck left Bradford in September 2009 , on the final day of the summer transfer window to join Penney at League One side Oldham Athletic . The transfer fee was undisclosed , with Bradford entitled to a sum because of Colbeck 's age – the Yorkshire Post newspaper reported the fee to be around £ 60 @,@ 000 . Penney described Colbeck as being in " the Stanley Matthews mould " and hoped his new signing would give his team some width . Colbeck 's Oldham debut at the end of the same week finished in a 3 – 0 defeat for his new team to Hartlepool United . Although described as a " tireless worker " , some of his performances angered Oldham 's fans , with Colbeck unable to " stamp his authority on games " and his " lack of quality " to deliver a final cross . In what was his first game for more than a month , Colbeck scored his first Oldham goal in a 4 – 2 defeat to Swindon Town on 9 February 2010 . Colbeck also missed part of Oldham 's run @-@ in to the end of the season because of an ankle injury and ended up playing 28 games during his first season with Oldham , but was one of three summer signings which the Oldham Advertiser said had not impressed the Latics fans . When Penney was sacked at the end of the campaign and replaced by Paul Dickov , Colbeck was almost immediately made available for transfer ahead of the 2010 – 11 season .
= = = Hereford United = = =
Colbeck almost immediately left Oldham and dropped back into League Two to sign for Hereford United on a two @-@ year contract . His new manager Simon Davey described Colbeck as " just the ideal attacking winger we 've been looking for throughout pre @-@ season and I think he is the final piece in the jigsaw " . Two days later , Colbeck scored two goals in a pre @-@ season friendly victory against Neath before being named as one of six Hereford debutants on the opening day of the 2010 – 11 League Two season as his new side won 1 – 0 at Crewe Alexandra . Colbeck scored his first goal with Hereford on 2 November 2010 in a 2 – 2 draw with Aldershot Town . Hereford , however , recorded just one win from their first ten league games , and were bottom of the league by October when Davey was sacked . Davey was replaced by Jamie Pitman , who helped to improve Hereford 's form . Colbeck received the first red card of his Hereford career for a professional foul during a 4 – 0 defeat to Southend United on 18 March 2011 . His ensuing suspension was one of only two games he missed all season helping him to 50 games in a single season for the first time in his career .
However , early in the following season , he missed three months because of a knee injury . He returned from injury on 17 December 2011 .
= = = Grimsby Town = = =
On 20 June 2012 , Colbeck signed a two @-@ year deal with Grimsby Town . Colbeck scored his first goal for Grimsby on 27 August 2012 against Mansfield Town , scoring the third goal of the game on 61 minutes , after good link up play between Greg Pearson who crossed into the box , the ball bouncing off strike partner Andy Cook for Colbeck to side @-@ foot it into the top corner , the game finishing a 4 – 1 to the Grimsby . On Boxing Day 2012 , Colbeck provided 3 assists and scored directly from a corner in the 4 – 1 Lincolnshire derby win over Lincoln City at Sincil Bank . On 8 January 2013 Colbeck was fined by The Football Association over comments he made on his Twitter account .
Colbeck was released by Grimsby on 9 May 2014 .
= = = Bradford Park Avenue = = =
On 8 July 2014 , Colbeck signed a one @-@ year contract with Bradford Park Avenue .
= = Playing style = =
Colbeck is a pacy midfielder who normally plays on the right wing . Talking about his game , Colbeck says : " I love taking players on , I think that 's my best attribute . " At Bradford , his manager Stuart McCall praised his hard work and commitment , but said he became frustrated about his lack of end product . McCall also said Colbeck 's crossing needed to be improved . Another of his managers Dave Penney described Colbeck as being in " the Stanley Matthews mould " , in reference to the former Blackpool winger . However , Colbeck 's performances at Oldham also earned mixed reviews akin to McCall 's comments , with fans and journalists describing him as a " tireless worker " but his crossing had a " lack of quality " . Going into the 2007 – 08 season , Colbeck had yet to score a goal . Before the season , he admitted he needed to score more goals and went on to score six goals during the campaign , although it remains a career high .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played on 25 April 2015 .
= = Honours = =
Grimsby Town
Lincolnshire Senior Cup ( 1 ) : 2012 – 13
FA Trophy : Runners @-@ up , 2012 – 13
Individual
Bradford City player of the season : 2007 – 08
= SS Empire Endurance =
Empire Endurance was a 8 @,@ 514 GRT cargo liner that was built in 1928 as Alster by Deschimag Werk Vulkan , Hamburg , Germany for the shipping company Norddeutscher Lloyd . In the years leading up to the Second World War Alster carried cargo and passengers between Germany and Australia . After the outbreak of war she was requisitioned by the Kriegsmarine for use as a supply ship .
Alster was captured off Norway on 10 April 1940 by the British destroyer HMS Icarus . Initially serving under the original name as a repair , supply and cargo ship in Norway , she was later passed to the Ministry of War Transport ( MoWT ) and renamed Empire Endurance . She served until 20 April 1941 when she was torpedoed and sunk by the German submarine U @-@ 73 south @-@ east of the islet of Rockall in the North Atlantic Ocean .
= = Description = =
The ship was a 8 @,@ 514 GRT cargo liner . She was built in 1928 by Deschimag Werk Vulkan , Hamburg as Alster , with yard number 211 .
Alster was 509 @.@ 9 feet ( 155 @.@ 42 m ) long , with a beam of 63 @.@ 6 feet ( 19 @.@ 39 m ) . She had a depth of 30 @.@ 9 feet ( 9 @.@ 42 m ) . She was assessed at 8 @,@ 514 GRT , 5 @,@ 328 NRT , 12 @,@ 000 DWT . She had four masts , a single funnel , a round stern and a slanted stem .
The ship was propelled by a 1 @,@ 000 nhp triple expansion steam engine , which had cylinders of 31 1 ⁄ 4 inches ( 79 cm ) , 52 3 ⁄ 4 inches ( 134 cm ) and 86 5 ⁄ 6 inches ( 221 cm ) diameter by 57 1 ⁄ 16 inches ( 145 cm ) stroke . The engine was also made by the shipbuilder . A low pressure steam turbine drove the ship 's single screw propeller through double reduction gearing and a hydraulic coupling . She had a total of 6 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower , which gave her a top speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ) .
= = History = =
Alster was launched on 5 January 1928 , and completed on 25 February 1928 . She was built for Norddeutscher Lloyd . The Code Letters QMHG were allocated and her port of registry was Bremen . She served on routes between Germany and Australia and East Asia . Lloyds Register entries show that she held a passenger certificate from 1934 – 40 . With the change in Code Letters in 1934 , Alster was allocated DOEO as her callsign . She had a crew of 69 and could initially take 14 passengers . In 1930 the passenger capacity was increased to 16 .
= = = Norwegian Campaign and capture = = =
On 18 March 1940 , Alster was requisitioned by the Kriegsmarine . She was used as a supply ship in Operation Weserübung - the German invasion of Norway , forming part of the invasion 's Ausfuhr @-@ Staffel , transporting heavy equipment . Alster departed Brunsbüttel at 02 : 00 on 3 April , destined for the North Norwegian port of Narvik . She was one of four supply ships sailing from the Schleswig @-@ Holstein port in support of German forces landing at Narvik on 9 April , under cover of sailing to Murmansk in the Soviet Union . None of these ships made it to their destination . The lack of supplies and artillery would leave the German forces fighting at Narvik vulnerable . Upon reaching Norwegian waters , Alster and the tanker Kattegat , also bound for Narvik , was escorted by the Norwegian torpedo boat HNoMS Trygg as far as Kopervik , where they arrived on 5 April . At Kopervik the German plans suffered a delay because of a lack of pilots to guide the ship northwards , Alster continuing later that day , while Kattegat departed Kopervik only on 6 April . Many of the other supply ships sent out in advance of the invasion also suffered delays , putting the supply part of the invasion plans out of schedule . While at Kopervik , Alster and Kattegat were inspected by the torpedo boat HNoMS Stegg , the Norwegians finding nothing irregular . By 8 April , Alster had reached Vestfjorden , where she was hailed by the Norwegian patrol boat HNoMS Syrian , which warned her of the British naval minefield laid in the area earlier that day . Alster steamed to Bodø , to await developments . Two days later , on 10 April , following the outbreak of war between Norway and Germany the previous day , Syrian was despatched to seize Alster off Bodø . When Syrian found Alster , the commander of the small Norwegian patrol boat chose not to board the German vessel as he suspected she was armed and possibly carrying troops . As Alster attempted to escape , Syrian sent out messages to the British warships in the area .
On 10 April , Alster was captured by the British destroyer HMS Icarus in Vestfjorden , north of Bodø . When intercepted the German crew made an unsuccessful attempt at scuttling the vessel , setting off one explosive charge . The light cruiser HMS Penelope had also been sent after Alster , but had run aground near Bodø and suffered serious damage . With the British capture of Alster , no more German supply ships were heading for Narvik and the forces there , leaving General Eduard Dietl 's troops with the supplies on board the tanker Jan Wellem and the large stockpiles of weapons , ammunition , uniforms and food captured at the Norwegian Army base Elvegårdsmoen . At the time of her capture , Alster was under the command of Kapitän Oskar Scharf , who had previously commanded the Blue Riband @-@ holding ocean liner Europa . Initially Alster was brought to the improvised British naval base at Skjelfjord in Lofoten . On arrival at Skjelfjord on 11 April , a prize crew from Penelope took over responsibility for the ship . At Skjelfjord , the captured German crew made an unsuccessful attempt at scuttling Alster by opening the ship 's sea valves . While at Skjelfjord Alster , being equipped with derricks , was used to help repair damaged Allied warships . One of the vessels on which emergency repairs were carried out from Alster , was the destroyer HMS Eskimo , which had lost her bow during the naval battles off Narvik . Alster was also used as an accommodation ship for the crews of the damaged vessels at Skjelfjord . On 24 April Alster departed Skjelfjord for the Northern Norwegian port of Tromsø , manned by a British prize crew . The eight German officers captured on Alster were transferred to the United Kingdom on the British destroyers HMS Cossack and HMS Punjabi . In all , 80 Germans were captured on board Alster , and all were eventually sent to the United Kingdom .
Her cargo of 88 lorries , anti @-@ aircraft guns , spare parts for aircraft , ammunition , communications equipment , coke and 400 – 500 tons of hay , was unloaded in Tromsø on 27 April , as part of the Allied support of the Norwegian forces fighting the German invasion of their country . The cargo was put to use in the supply and defence of the Tromsø area , except for the hay , which was quarantined by the Norwegian authorities at Ringvassøy for fear of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease . The coke on board Alster had been placed by the Germans in a 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) layer covering the deck . The supplies on Alster were transferred to the Norwegians by the Allied naval commander Lord Cork after the Norwegian authorities had made repeated request for weapons and other war matériel , and was intended to be a first effort before the arrival of larger quantities of arms and ammunition promised to the Norwegians . The lorries and weapons from Alster were received , assessed and distributed by Norwegian military personnel under the command of Major Karl Arnulf , who had arrived in Tromsø on 7 May 1940 , having made his way from German @-@ occupied South Norway . The communications equipment included both a mobile radio transmitter , which was used as a spare for Tromsø radio broadcasting station , as well as large quantities of field telephone equipment which was sent to the units of the Norwegian 6th Division on the Narvik front . The field equipment from Alster replaced the old and worn field telephone systems in use up to that point . Training on the German equipment was provided by Swedish volunteers . While docked in Tromsø in May 1940 , Alster had 70 captive Germans on board . At Tromsø , Alster was manned by Norwegian sailors , replacing the British prize crew .
On 16 May a request was made to the Admiralty for a call sign for Alster , the ship departing Tromsø the next day for Kirkenes in Finnmark , escorted by the anti @-@ submarine whaler HMS Ullswater . She was despatched to the northern port to retrieve a cargo of iron ore . Arriving on 19 May 1940 , Alster loaded some 10 @,@ 000 tons of iron ore over four days , sailing south to the port of Harstad on 22 May , still escorted by HMS Ullswater , as well as the Norwegian patrol boat HNoMS Nordhav II . On 23 May , the British submarine HMS Truant made an unsuccessful attack with two torpedoes on Alster off Havøya , despite efforts having been made to both keep the cargo ship away from the submarine 's patrol area , and to warn Truant of the ship 's identity . The torpedoes missed , exploding when they hit land . Alster and HMS Ullswater arrived at Harstad on 26 May , with the escort vessel sailing northwards to Hammerfest with mail and provisions for the heavy cruiser HMS Devonshire . While Alster was at Harstad shipping in the town 's harbour was repeatedly subjected to attacks by Luftwaffe Heinkel He 111 bombers , the ships being defended by Gloster Gladiator fighters of the No. 263 Squadron RAF operating from Bardufoss Air Station and anti @-@ aircraft artillery . During one of the attacks on 26 May the ship 's Norwegian fireman was mortally wounded by bomb fragments , dying in Harstad Hospital later the same day .
On 27 May Alster sailed for the United Kingdom in a five @-@ ship convoy which included the crippled HMS Eskimo . In addition to her cargo of iron ore , the ship carried 209 British military personnel , 46 Norwegian military personnel and 72 German prisoners of war . She also transported the " B " gun turret from Eskimo , which had been removed from the destroyer during makeshift repairs . Alster arrived at Scapa Flow on 31 May , unloading her passengers there . Sailing on 3 June , in the company of the passenger steamer St. Magnus and escorted by the destroyers HMS Ashanti and HMS Bedouin , she arrived at Rosyth in Scotland on 4 June 1940 .
= = = As Empire Endurance = = =
Alster was passed to the MoWT and renamed Empire Endurance . The United Kingdom Official Number 164841 and Code Letters GMJJ were allocated . Her port of registry was Middlesbrough . She was placed under the management of the Booth Steamship Co Ltd . Empire Endurance was a member of Convoy FN 255 , which departed from Southend , Essex on 17 August and arrived at Methil , Fife two days later . She then joined Convoy OA 202 , which departed on 21 August and dispersed at sea on 25 August . Her destination was Montreal , Quebec , Canada , where she arrived on 3 September . Empire Endurance sailed on 12 September for Sydney , Cape Breton , Nova Scotia , arriving three days later . She then joined Convoy HX 74 , which departed from Halifax , Nova Scotia on 17 September and arrived at Liverpool , Lancashire , United Kingdom on 2 October . She was carrying general cargo stated to be bound for Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne , Northumberland . She left the convoy at the Clyde on 2 October .
Empire Endurance departed on 25 October to join Convoy OB 234 , which had departed from Liverpool the previous day and dispersed at sea on 30 October . Her destination was Montreal , where she arrived on 6 November . She departed on 18 November for the Clyde , arriving on 27 November . The ship was declared a prize of war on 10 December 1940 , valued at £ 144 @,@ 000 . She departed on 5 January 1941 to join Convoy OB 270 , which had departed from Liverpool that day and dispersed at sea on 8 January . She sailed to Saint John , New Brunswick , Canada , arriving on 17 January . Empire Endurance sailed on 3 February for Halifax , arriving two days
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īn Tsū ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . Released in 2011 in Japan and 2012 in North America and PAL regions , it is a direct sequel to the 2010 role @-@ playing game , Final Fantasy XIII , and is part of the Fabula Nova Crystallis subseries . A port to Microsoft Windows was released on Steam in December 2014 followed by iOS & Android in September 2015 . XIII @-@ 2 includes modified features from the previous game , including fast @-@ paced combat and a customizable " Paradigm " system to control which abilities are used by the characters , and adds a new system that allows monsters to be captured and used in battle . It features a heavy time travel element , allowing the player to jump between different times at the same location or different places at the same time . Lightning , the protagonist of the original game , has disappeared into an unknown world . Her younger sister Serah Farron , a returning character , and a young man named Noel Kreiss , journey through time in an attempt to find Lightning .
Development of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 began around March and April 2010 and lasted about one and a half years . The game was unveiled at the Square Enix 1st Production Department Premier in January 2011 . Many of the key designers remained in their roles from the previous game , and developer tri @-@ Ace was hired to help with the game 's design , art , and programming . The development team wanted to exceed Final Fantasy XIII in every aspect while making the story 's tone mysterious and darker than the previous game . The game builds upon the Paradigm Shift battle system used in Final Fantasy XIII and includes a less linear overall design .
Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 received highly positive reviews from Japanese critics and generally positive reviews from Western video game journalists . Though praised for its gameplay , lack of linearity , and graphics , the game 's story was criticized as weak and confusing . During the first week of sales in Japan , the game sold 524 @,@ 000 units , becoming the fifth @-@ best selling game of 2011 in Japan , and sold 3 @.@ 1 million copies worldwide by January 2013 . It was released digitally for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in June 2013 along with a Japan @-@ only re @-@ release including all DLC . The Windows PC version has sold over 300 @,@ 000 copies according to SteamSpy . A sequel , Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , was released in November 2013 in Japan and February 2014 in North America and Europe .
Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 has been released on iOS devices , Android devices and the Amazon Appstore in Japan . It has also been released on PlayStation Now .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = General navigation = = =
The player directly controls the on @-@ screen character through a third @-@ person perspective to interact with people , objects , and enemies throughout the game , just as in Final Fantasy XIII . The player can also turn the camera around the characters , providing a 360 ° view . Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , which includes normal and easy modes , has a world rendered to scale relative to the characters ; instead of a caricature of the character roaming around miniature terrain , as found in the earlier Final Fantasy games , every area is represented proportionally . The player navigates the world on foot or by chocobo , large flightless birds that appear regularly in the Final Fantasy series . The game world is divided into multiple regions and time periods ; the player can visit a region in multiple time periods and multiple regions at the same time period . For example , the region of Oerba can be reached in the years 200 and 400 AF , while the Sunleth Waterscape and Augusta Tower regions can be visited in the year 300 AF . Some regions , because of plot points within the game , have alternate versions of themselves ; for example , two versions of the Academia region in the same year can be accessed once the plot has made the second version available . Connecting these regions is the Historia Crux , which the player can access at will . The game 's regions are represented as a branching path instead of being accessed linearly . New regions can be unlocked via plot points or by acquiring optional special items and the player may transfer between unlocked regions at any point .
When accessing a previously visited region , the player appears in the location of their last visit . Upon acquiring items called seals , the player can revert regions to their previous statuses to play through them again ; regions can be unsealed again at any time . Unlike in the predecessor , the game is automatically saved when players enter the Historia Crux , as well as at key moments in the plot . The player may also manually save at any time . Instead of accessing stores at save points like in XIII , the player can purchase items from a character named Chocolina , who is found throughout the game . An in @-@ game data log provides a bestiary and incidental information about the world of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 . When talking to characters , the game sometimes begins the Live Trigger system , in which the player chooses their response from several options ; these dialogue options are generally not repeatable . The game also occasionally features temporal rifts , in which the player must complete a puzzle to close the rift and continue the game .
= = = Combat system = = =
Combat is almost identical to the previous game 's version of the series ' Active Time Battle ( ATB ) system , called the Command Synergy Battle system . Under this system , the player selects an action from the menus , such as Attack , Abilities , or Item . Each action requires a specific number of slots on the ATB bar , which continually refills at a constant rate to a set maximum number of slots . The kinds of attack actions available are close @-@ range melee attacks or ranged magical attacks , but there are also other magical actions that evoke healing or shielding abilities . The ATB bar can be increased in size throughout the game from three slots to six . The player may select less than the maximum number of possible actions or may stop the filling of the ATB bar and perform as many actions as can be done with the current ATB amount . The player may select an autobattle command , which fills the ATB slots with actions chosen automatically . Actions cannot be performed outside of combat , and the characters ' health is fully restored after each fight . Players have the option of restarting a battle while in the middle of a fight . During some skirmishes , players are put through quick time events called Cinematic Actions that allows them to deal higher damage to foes and end certain battles .
Monsters do not freely roam the map like in Final Fantasy XI to XIII , but instead , they randomly appear as in the earlier Final Fantasy games . For a limited time after monsters appear , the player may attack them to gain a combat bonus ; after this window expires , the monsters attack the player to begin a regular battle , and if too much time passes before combat begins , the player cannot restart the fight during combat . When the battle begins , the screen transitions from the regular map to a separate battle screen as in XIII . Three characters are used in combat — the two main characters and a monster . Monsters must be captured from battles before they can be used , and there are around 150 different monster types available to be collected . Captured monsters act just like the main characters , but can also perform a " feral link " attack that increases the chance of capturing another monster . Either of the two main characters can be selected as the one that the player has direct control over at any point ; the other character and the monster are then controlled by the game 's artificial intelligence ( AI ) .
Each enemy has a meter , called a Chain Gauge , consisting of a percentage that increases from a base level of 100 when the enemy is struck by attacks or spells . Different attacks have different effects ; some raise the chain by a larger amount while others give the player longer before the Chain Gauge resets to 100 percent . The amount of damage performed by an attack is multiplied by the chain percentage before it is applied to the enemy . When the chain counter reaches a preset amount , different for each enemy , the enemy becomes Staggered . In this mode , the enemy has lowered defense and is easily interrupted , and some may even be launched into the air , preventing them from attacking and stopping their ATB gauges from replenishing .
The Paradigm system allows the player to program six different roles , which the characters can assume to perform certain formations in battle in response to specific conditions . The roles consist of Commando , which uses non @-@ elemental attacks to stabilize the Chain Gauge ; Ravager , which uses elemental attacks to fill the Chain Gauge ; Medic , a White Mage @-@ type role which can heal the party ; Saboteur , which can weaken enemies ; Synergist , which can strengthen allies ; and Sentinel , which has protective abilities . The two main characters can initially assume three roles , but they can learn others at the player 's choosing as the game progresses . The player can select which roles the controlled character and the AI characters use while outside or during battle , which is the only way that the player can control the AI characters during a fight . The player can only choose from specific sets of paradigms that the player has set up before the battle . Monsters only have one role ; different ones are used when the player switches paradigms . The player selects up to three monsters they wish to use in paradigms outside of battle . Unlike in Final Fantasy XIII , the player cannot summon the Eidolons , as the giant creatures were only available to the protagonists of that game .
= = = Crystarium = = =
The Crystarium is a leveling and growth system , making a return from Final Fantasy XIII in an altered form . The system consists of constellation @-@ style representations of the character 's weapons and tamed monsters , made up of small and large crystal nodes , which can be accessed from the start of the game . There is one Crystarium system available for each monster and Paradigm role . Crystogen points gained in battle can be used to expand the Crystarium , unlocking bonuses to health , magic , or strength , or provide the characters with new abilities and slots for battle accessories . For the monsters , the bonuses are unlocked with items dropped by defeated enemies .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
The story of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 follows on from that of Final Fantasy XIII , but as is typical for the series , it is unrelated to all other previous Final Fantasy games . In XIII , one of the fal 'Cie — a god @-@ like race — transformed a team of six people , the primary characters of the game , into l 'Cie ( servants of the fal 'Cie with magical powers and a ' Focus ' — an assigned task to be completed within a time limit ) , in the hope that they would initiate the end of the world . The six were intended to cause the large , inhabited floating sphere named Cocoon to fall into the world below , named Gran Pulse , killing all of the humans of Cocoon . At the finale of the game , two of the l 'Cie transformed into a crystal pillar to support Cocoon , preventing the catastrophe .
XIII @-@ 2 begins three years after the end of XIII . Owing to the fall of Cocoon at the end of XIII and the collapse of its government ( the Sanctum ) , at the start of XIII @-@ 2 , most of Cocoon 's inhabitants have moved down onto Gran Pulse , and some have learned magical abilities . Over the course of the game , a scientific body called the Academy becomes a new technocratic government . While the game starts off in the year 3 AF ( ' AF ' being a new timescale set up after the fall of Cocoon ) , the story of XIII @-@ 2 jumps around several different time periods , and even parallel versions of different places , accessed via the Historia Crux . While most of the game takes place on Gran Pulse and inside Cocoon , there are two other major locations . One is the Void Beyond , a limbo between time periods . The other location is Valhalla , the capital of the goddess Etro . This place is a realm at the end of time where the goddess keeps a dark energy called Chaos from escaping and destroying the timeline .
= = = Characters = = =
As opposed to the previous game , Lightning , the main character of XIII , only appears as a supporting character and the game 's primary narrator . The two main playable characters are Serah Farron , Lightning 's sister and the second narrator , and Noel Kreiss , a young man originally from the distant future . Other characters from the previous game who appear in important roles are Hope Estheim , who becomes leader of the Academy , and Snow Villiers , Serah 's fiancé , who set off to find Lightning for Serah . The three other main characters from the previous game , Oerba Dia Vanille , Oerba Yun Fang and Sazh Katzroy , appear in cameo roles . Three new characters are introduced : Caius Ballad , the game 's primary antagonist ; Paddra Nsu @-@ Yeul , a seeress possessing the all @-@ seeing Eyes of Etro ; and Alyssa Zaidelle , a young girl who works as an assistant to Hope . A minor supporting character is Mog , a Moogle sent with Noel by Lightning as Serah 's " good luck charm " .
= = = Plot = = =
The game opens in 3 AF , as the Pulse town Serah lives in is attacked by monsters . A stranger named Noel appears to help fight the monsters and claims to be a time traveler from 700 AF . He arrived in her time via Valhalla , where he claims to have met Lightning as she guarded the throne of the weakened Etro . As part of Lightning 's transfer to Valhalla , she was erased from the fall of Cocoon onwards ( making everyone except Serah forget her being with them on Gran Pulse ) , and paradoxes have erupted throughout time , warping the timeline . Serah joins Noel in a journey to resolve these paradoxes by removing items and monsters , which are out of their original time and correct the timeline ; she in hopes of finding her sister and he in hopes of changing the bleak future he comes from . While journeying to 5 AF to resolve a paradox on Cocoon , they meet and help Alyssa , an Academy member and survivor of the Purge , a massacre by the Sanctum at the beginning of Final Fantasy XIII .
Traveling to the ruined city of Paddra in 10 AF , they find Hope , who has become the leader of the Academy , with Alyssa as his assistant . They also find a recording of prophecies made by one of the seeresses of Paddra , who are believed to have died out centuries prior : one fragmented prophecy shows Lightning in Valhalla . Paddra is shrouded by an eclipse , which Noel says is not supposed to happen for several centuries . While Serah and Noel resolve the paradox causing the eclipse , they encounter Caius Ballad , a man Noel knows from 700 AF who opposes their mission , and Yeul , who looks identical to a girl of the same name Noel knew in the future . After resolving the paradox , an alternative timeline appears in which there was never an eclipse . The repaired prophecy shows Caius in Valhalla fighting Lightning and the pillar supporting Cocoon collapsing . Noel claims that this takes place around 400 AF , devastating the human population as well as the world , creating a future where he is the last human in existence . Serah and Noel move on , while Hope and Alyssa work on finding a way to prevent the pillar 's collapse .
Moving on to 300 AF Cocoon , the pair find Snow fighting a giant paradox @-@ fueled monster that is dissolving the crystal pillar . After resolving the paradox , which delays the fall of Cocoon until 500 AF , Snow disappears again as an anomaly from another time . The pair then go to the city of Academia on Gran Pulse in 400 AF where they are attacked by the city 's AI , which claims they were killed in 200 AF . Traveling to 200 AF , they discover a paradox whereby a man @-@ made fal 'Cie meant to re @-@ levitate Cocoon was able to turn on its creators using the AI that designed it and take over the government . Resolving the paradox , Noel and Serah travel to an alternative 400 AF Academia . In this world , the pair find Hope and Alyssa again , who had put themselves in stasis . They explain their new plan to mechanically float a new Cocoon to hold humanity , which Serah and Noel help with before heading to 500 AF Academia . They are betrayed by Alyssa ( revealed to be a living paradox doomed to disappear in the corrected timeline ) and trapped by Caius in dream @-@ worlds . Before being trapped , Serah meets the spirit of Yeul , who explains that she is the seeress of Paddra , continually reincarnated throughout history , while Caius is her immortal guardian , gifted with Etro 's own heart .
Yeul explains that every time the timeline is changed , the resulting shock kills her ; Caius has been driven mad by watching her die repeatedly and seeks to end the process by unleashing the Chaos trapped in Valhalla to destroy all time . Serah , it is revealed , has the same power , and risks death every time she changes the future . Resolving to go on , Serah breaks free of her dream @-@ world and frees Noel from his , in which he is the last living human after his Yeul dies and Caius leaves for Valhalla . After briefly encountering Lightning , the pair fight Caius , first in 500 AF Academia and then in Valhalla . As they defeat him , he claims to have killed Lightning , then impales himself through the heart on Noel 's blade , killing the weakened Etro . When the pair return to Academia in 500 AF , where Vanille and Fang have been rescued from the collapsing pillar and the new Cocoon , named " Bhunivelze " , has risen , Serah dies in front of Noel and Hope from the shock of the future changing . Just then , a black cloud erupts from the sky as the Chaos that Etro was keeping trapped breaks free . Lightning is then shown in crystal stasis on the throne of Etro 's temple . If the player completes all optional parts of the game , they are shown an additional scene in which Caius is on the throne , declaring that the goddess is gone for good , and that Yeul and he can begin a new life freed from their ' curses ' .
= = Development = =
= = = Production = = =
Development of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 began around March and April 2010 and lasted about one and a half years . It was carried out by Square Enix 's 1st Production Department , a collective name for the teams in charge of the Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy , Dissidia Final Fantasy and Kingdom Hearts series . Many of the key personnel from Final Fantasy XIII remained in their roles : Motomu Toriyama was director , Yoshinori Kitase producer , Tetsuya Nomura character designer and Isamu Kamikokuryo art director .
The troubled development of Final Fantasy XIII that had been caused by the simultaneous creation of the company @-@ wide engine Crystal Tools gave reason to rethink the production process for high @-@ budget games at Square Enix . For Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , the team consulted the European subsidiary Eidos to more closely adapt a Western approach to game development . As a consequence , monthly schedules and project milestones were introduced to better monitor the staff members ' progress . Furthermore , unlike its predecessor , Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 was not entirely developed in @-@ house ; Japanese studio tri @-@ Ace was contracted to help out with aspects of the game design , art and programming . This was done to keep the number of internal staff members on the game lower . The contributions of external developers were planned and clearly divided beforehand to achieve a more structured team organization . Concept videos and frequent test playing during production helped constantly engage the staff and keep to the original vision of the game .
Despite its strong sales , Final Fantasy XIII had been criticized on several fronts . Complaints included that the game had been too linear , had not allowed enough interaction with non @-@ player characters , and had not featured enough minigames and puzzles . The developers intended to address these criticisms with the sequel by adding the Historia Crux system , numerous sidequests from non @-@ player characters , and the casino minigame area . Environments were made more explorable and the artists were given more freedom to include their own ideas in the game 's locations , in order to rectify the shortcomings of the more artificial seeming settings in Final Fantasy XIII . Although the developers were explicitly responding to the criticism , they saw the changes and additions as making the sequel in line with what players had hoped Final Fantasy XIII would be , rather than backing away from the changes that game had brought to the series . For the structure of side quests and some other aspects such as the abundance of chocobos and the more open environment , the team drew inspiration from Rockstar San Diego 's Red Dead Redemption . The game also included multiple endings , which Toriyama referred to as a first for the series .
= = = Writing = = =
Toriyama originally envisioned the plot not as a direct sequel to Final Fantasy XIII but instead as taking place 900 years after . However , while creating the backstory for the events in between both eras , it was decided to have the game revolve around time traveling . Toriyama expressed his wish to " create a story where [ Lightning ] ends up [ truly ] happy one day " as he considered her emotional state at the end of Final Fantasy XIII doubtful . He also wanted to " see [ Serah ] take an active part " because her crystal stasis over the course of the predecessor 's story did not allow for such a role . Scenario writer Daisuke Watanabe thought about how the narrative could be continued in a sequel . Emi Nagashima , also known by her pen name Jun Eishima , had written novellas for Final Fantasy XIII and was consulted early on in development to help come up with the plot for Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 .
The narrative was divided into smaller " pieces of drama " similar to a television series rather than one overarching story piece . This was reflected by the game 's working title Final Fantasy XIII : Season 2 when the project was first proposed within the company . Unlike Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , which had a more cheerful and humorous feel than Final Fantasy X , the staff members wanted the overall tone of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 to be serious as well as darker and more mysterious than its predecessor . The original scenario had called for Serah to travel alone with Mog . However , Kitase felt that their dialogue was " quite girly , almost camp and a bit over the top " and resulted in a tonal shift that was too similar to the one from X to X @-@ 2 . Noel was added to the story to counter this . Watanabe considered scriptwriting for the game 's two @-@ character party difficult . With the lack of varied personality traits provided by an ensemble cast , he had to ensure that conversations between Serah and Noel would not be repetitive or unrealistic . Unfamiliar concepts and terms in Final Fantasy XIII , such as " l 'Cie " and " fal 'Cie " , were deemed too difficult to understand and hence avoided in the sequel . A story link to Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 via the location Valhalla was planned but later discarded .
= = = Art design = = =
Based on the much darker tone of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 compared to its predecessor , Kamikokuryo decided on surrealism as the main theme for the graphics . The works of Salvador Dalí and Giorgio de Chirico were used as visual references and helped Kamikokuryo strike a balance between photorealism and fantasy @-@ like surrealism . Unlike Final Fantasy XIII , the game had a much tighter schedule allowing for little pre @-@ production . Kamikokuryo hence used photographs instead of self @-@ drawn pictures to explain his setting ideas to the other staff members . For example , a photograph of ruined buildings in the Cuban capital Havana inspired the look of Valhalla . Character design duties were split up : Nomura designed the faces of the new and returning main characters while their clothing was done by other artists . Kamikokuryo drew the final version of Lightning based on a silhouette sketch and suggestions by Nomura . Yusuke Naora took charge of Serah 's , Noel 's and Caius ' costumes , while Hideo Minaba worked on Yeul , Alyssa and the adult version of Hope in the same capacity . Mog was designed by Toshitaka Matsuda after he had received a request for a cute and mascot @-@ like Moogle character .
= = = Music = = =
The music of Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 was composed by Masashi Hamauzu , Naoshi Mizuta , and Mitsuto Suzuki . Keiji Kawamori coordinated the three artists to ensure their styles meshed well . Hamauzu , who was the sole composer for the music of Final Fantasy XIII , wrote roughly a quarter of the game 's tracks , as did Suzuki , while Mizuta wrote nearly half . Prior to this game , Mizuta had worked on the music of Final Fantasy XI , and Suzuki had been a sound director for several Square Enix games and served as an arranger for XIII . The game 's director , Motomu Toriyama , wanted the game 's soundtrack to have more variety than that of the music in Final Fantasy XIII , as well as feature more styles . As a result , the game had three composers rather than just Hamauzu . Toriyama also wished for the music to have " a more edgy sound " and more vocal pieces , so that it would sound " unlike the typical Final Fantasy title " . The music incorporates a wide variety of styles , from orchestral and electronic to rap , hip @-@ hop , jazz funk , and metal .
Since the release of the game , Square Enix has published the 2011 four @-@ disc soundtrack album , Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack , as well as an album of arrangements and alternate versions of tracks from the game , Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack PLUS , in 2012 . The theme song for the game , " Yakusoku no Basho " ( 約束の場所 , The Promised Place ) , was released by singer Mai Fukui as a single in 2011 , and the English version of the song , sung by Charice Pempengco and included in the non @-@ Japanese versions of the game , was included on her 2012 album Infinity . Reviews of the soundtrack album were positive , with critics praising both the variety of styles and quality of the pieces . Several critics noted Mizuta 's work as possibly his finest to date . Reviewers were mixed in their opinions of the arranged album , feeling that several of the pieces were simply inferior versions of the original tracks . Both of the albums and the single sold well enough to place on the Japanese Oricon charts , with the original soundtrack album reaching a peak of # 13 and remaining on the charts for eight weeks .
= = Marketing = =
Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 was first hinted at three months after the January 2010 release of Final Fantasy XIII . Kitase said in an interview " If we could do a XIII @-@ 2 , we could direct all our attention to the story and refine what we have already built . " Toriyama stated in the October 2010 Ultimania Omega companion book that he hoped to continue the story . Two months later , Nomura released a drawing of Lightning along with the words " She must not be forgotten " . On January 11 , 2011 , Square Enix registered the domain name FinalFantasy13 @-@ 2game.com via a proxy company that it had used to register websites for several other unannounced games . Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 was officially announced at the Square Enix 1st Production Department Premier in Tokyo on January 18 , 2011 . The teaser trailer showed Lightning , outfitted in armor , drawing her weapon and engaging Caius , who was not yet named . To promote the game 's release in Japan , Japanese singer Yuko Oshima was appointed the leader of a group of thirteen official test players .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
The game features downloadable content ( DLC ) in the form of downloadable outfits , weapons , accessories , scenarios , recruitable monsters and minigames . Although there had been initial plans to release DLC for Final Fantasy XIII , these ideas did not come to fruition . For Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , the team designed and planned for content , including DLC , that would expand on the game since the beginning of its development . Players who own Final Fantasy XIII save data can unlock an additional wallpaper ( PS3 ) or gamer picture ( Xbox 360 ) for the save file . DLC released after the game contained additional weapons , costumes , and monsters . Post @-@ release downloads also included " Final Fantasy XIII Lost Report " , which offers a look back at Final Fantasy XIII 's story through the perspective of non @-@ playable characters from the game , and three downloadable scenarios for other characters : " Perpetual Battlefield " , which reveals Snow 's fate ; " Heads or Tails " , which shows how Sazh came to 500 AF Academia ; and " Requiem of the Goddess " , which shows Lightning 's struggle against Caius and explains how she became crystallized in the main story 's ending .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales = = =
During its first week of release in Japan , Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 sold 524 @,@ 000 copies , and the PlayStation 3 version was the highest @-@ selling game for the system . The Xbox 360 version only reached 48th . Although high , initial sales were notably lower than what they were for the game 's predecessor , which sold 1 @.@ 5 million units in its first week . By the end of the year , the game had sold over 697 @,@ 000 units , and was the fifth @-@ best selling game of 2011 in Japan . It was just below four handheld video games , making it the highest @-@ selling home console game in Japan that year . It finished 2012 with over 840 @,@ 000 copies sold in Japan . In the United States , the game placed as the second @-@ best selling game of February 2012 , just below Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 3 . In the United Kingdom , Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 was the best @-@ selling game of February 2012 . By January 2013 , Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 had sold 3 @.@ 1 million copies worldwide , almost half of the 6 @.@ 6 million copies its predecessor sold by the same date . It would ship an additional 200 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 copies according to Square Enix press releases . Its Steam release sold over 330 @,@ 000 copies by early 2016 .
= = = Reviews = = =
Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 received very favorable reviews by Japanese reviewers , getting perfect scores from the Japanese magazines Famitsu and Dengeki PlayStation . Famitsu editor Ranbu Yoshida said that " it feels like a very different game from its predecessor " and that " it 's easy to lose yourself in changing and redoing areas you 've previously finished . " Assistant editor Norihiro Fujiwara added that " the setting and presentation is fantastic , and the issues people brought up with the first game — its linearity , its lack of meaty gameplay — are a thing of the past . You 're sucked into the game right from the beginning , and the story 's very easy to get into . " The game won the " Future Division " award at the 2011 Japan Game Awards and later won an " Award of Excellence " at the 2012 Japan Game Awards .
Outside Japan , the game received mostly positive reviews , which primarily focused on the changes in the game from its predecessor . Reviewers generally praised the graphics . The Edge review described the environments as " entirely captivating " and said that the " visual and audio design is marvellous " , and Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot praised the graphics as beautiful and visually diverse . Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com disagreed , however , saying that the art " represents a step back from the splendor of Final Fantasy XIII " . The music received mixed reviews ; Parish said that the music was great , applauding the unique styles , but Simon Parkin of Eurogamer felt that the music " suffers from a lack of coherent direction " , and tracks often failed to match their scenes . Dale North of Destructoid felt that the soundtrack was " wonderfully varied and lots of fun " and predicted that " traditionalist " fans of Final Fantasy music would not like it as much because of the varied new styles .
The gameplay was generally praised as well , with many reviewers noting the improvements in areas they saw as problems in the previous game . Parkin praised the game 's " smart , engaging mechanics " and the " novel structure " of the gameplay . Joe Juba of Game Informer said that the changes to Final Fantasy XIII 's battle system made it his favorite Final Fantasy battle system , and that the gameplay was " phenomenal " . Ryan Clements of IGN felt that the gameplay was an improvement over XIII 's , fixing many of its problems . Parish stated that XIII @-@ 2 was an inversion of XIII in that the gameplay took precedence over the story . He described the battle system as " a joy " and said that the game was " never not fun " . VanOrd agreed that the combat was fun , though he found it to be too easy . The Edge review , which was harsher on the game than most others , also found it to be too easy , which combined with what they saw as poor subquests and a lack of effort put in some regions made the gameplay uninteresting .
The story of the game received poor to mixed reviews . Parish felt that it was confusing and inessential to the game , while Juba said that it was " a disaster " which " screws up at almost every turn " , overshadowing the game 's good points . Parkin felt that the characters were weak and the story was not engaging , and Clements said that the story was insubstantial , which he found particularly disappointing as most Final Fantasy games focused heavily on their story . VanOrd was less negative towards the characters and story than most others , but still described the characters as good , but not great . He felt the game focused too much on the less interesting characters of Noel and Serah over Lightning and Caius , and said that the story was " semi @-@ coherent " and missed several emotional notes , particularly in the first half of the game .
= = Sequel = =
Hints and rumors began circulating about a sequel to Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 as early as December 2011 , when Square Enix registered the Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 3 web domain . At the time , the company stated that it was simply a precaution and did not mean there was such a game . After the game was released with a " To be continued " ending , Square Enix said that the ending was chosen to prompt players to explore the alternative endings and remain ready for the coming DLC levels . However , after the release of what was stated to be the final piece of DLC , officials at Square Enix announced that they would be releasing future Final Fantasy XIII @-@ related content . In late August 2012 , a teaser site was unveiled in preparation for the Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Event , titled " A Storm Gathers " , promising a " new direction for the saga of key character Lightning " . At the event , it was announced that the title for this game would be Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , that it would be released in 2013 , and that it would serve as the ending to the story of the main Final Fantasy XIII character , Lightning .
= Titanic ( 1997 film ) =
Titanic is a 1997 American epic romance @-@ disaster film directed , written , co @-@ produced , and co @-@ edited by James Cameron . A fictionalized account of the sinking of the RMS Titanic , it stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet as members of different social classes who fall in love aboard the ship during its ill @-@ fated maiden voyage .
Cameron 's inspiration for the film came from his fascination with shipwrecks ; he felt a love story interspersed with the human loss would be essential to convey the emotional impact of the disaster . Production began in 1995 , when Cameron shot footage of the actual Titanic wreck . The modern scenes on the research vessel were shot on board the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh , which Cameron had used as a base when filming the wreck . Scale models , computer @-@ generated imagery , and a reconstruction of the Titanic built at Playas de Rosarito in Baja California were used to re @-@ create the sinking . The film was partially funded by DreamWorks Pictures and 20th Century Fox . It was the most expensive film made at that time , with an estimated budget of $ 200 million .
Upon its release on December 19 , 1997 , Titanic achieved critical and commercial success . Nominated for fourteen Academy Awards , it tied All About Eve ( 1950 ) for the most Oscar nominations , and won eleven , including the awards for Best Picture and Best Director , tying Ben Hur ( 1959 ) for the most Oscars won by a single film . With an initial worldwide gross of over $ 1 @.@ 84 billion , Titanic was the first film to reach the billion @-@ dollar mark . It remained the highest @-@ grossing film of all time until Cameron 's 2009 film Avatar surpassed it in 2010 . A 3D version of Titanic , released on April 4 , 2012 to commemorate the centennial of the sinking , earned it an additional $ 343 @.@ 6 million worldwide , pushing the film 's worldwide total to $ 2 @.@ 18 billion . It became the second film to gross more than $ 2 billion worldwide ( after Avatar ) .
= = Plot = =
In 1996 , treasure hunter Brock Lovett and his team aboard the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh search the wreck of RMS Titanic for a necklace with a rare diamond , the Heart of the Ocean . They recover a safe containing a drawing of a young woman wearing only the necklace dated April 14 , 1912 , the day the ship struck the iceberg . Rose Dawson Calvert , the woman in the drawing , is brought aboard Keldysh and tells Lovett of her experiences aboard Titanic .
In 1912 Southampton , 17 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ class passenger Rose DeWitt Bukater , her fiancé Cal Hockley , and her mother Ruth board the luxurious Titanic . Ruth emphasizes that Rose 's marriage will resolve their family 's financial problems . Distraught over the engagement , Rose considers suicide by jumping from the stern ; Jack Dawson , a penniless artist , intervenes and discourages her . Discovered with Jack , Rose tells a concerned Cal that she was peering over the edge and Jack saved her from falling . When Cal becomes indifferent , she suggests to him that Jack deserves a reward . He invites Jack to dine with them in first class the following night . Jack and Rose develop a tentative friendship , despite Cal and Ruth being wary of him . Following dinner , Rose secretly joins Jack at a party in third class .
Aware of Cal and Ruth 's disapproval , Rose rebuffs Jack 's advances , but realizes she prefers him over Cal . After rendezvousing on the bow at sunset , Rose takes Jack to her state room ; at her request , Jack sketches Rose posing nude wearing Cal 's engagement present , the Heart of the Ocean necklace . They evade Cal 's bodyguard and have sex in an automobile inside the cargo hold . On the forward deck , they witness a collision with an iceberg and overhear the officers and designer discussing its seriousness .
Cal discovers Jack 's sketch of Rose and an insulting note from her in his safe along with the necklace . When Jack and Rose attempt to inform Cal of the collision , he has his bodyguard slip the necklace into Jack 's pocket and accuses him of theft . Jack is arrested , taken to the master @-@ at @-@ arms ' office , and handcuffed to a pipe . Cal puts the necklace in his own coat pocket .
With the ship sinking , Rose flees Cal and her mother , who has boarded a lifeboat , and frees Jack . On the boat deck , Cal and Jack encourage her to board a lifeboat ; Cal claims he can get himself and Jack off safely . After Rose boards one , Cal tells Jack the arrangement is only for himself . As her boat lowers , Rose decides that she cannot leave Jack and jumps back on board . Cal takes his bodyguard 's pistol and chases Rose and Jack into the flooding first @-@ class dining saloon . After using up his ammunition , Cal realizes he gave his coat and consequently the necklace to Rose . He later boards a collapsible lifeboat by carrying a lost child .
After braving several obstacles , Jack and Rose return to the boat deck . The lifeboats have departed and passengers are falling to their deaths as the stern rises out of the water . The ship breaks in half , lifting the stern into the air . Jack and Rose ride it into the ocean and he helps her onto a wooden panel only buoyant enough for one person . He assures her that she will die an old woman , warm in her bed . Jack dies of hypothermia but Rose is saved .
With Rose hiding from Cal en route , the RMS Carpathia takes the survivors to New York City where Rose gives her name as Rose Dawson . She later finds out Cal committed suicide after losing all his money in the 1929 Wall Street crash .
Back in the present , Lovett decides to abandon his search after hearing Rose 's story . Alone on the stern of Keldysh , Rose takes out the Heart of the Ocean — in her possession all along — and drops it into the sea over the wreck site . While she is seemingly asleep or has died in her bed , photos on her dresser depict a life of freedom and adventure inspired by the life she wanted to live with Jack . A young Rose reunites with Jack at the Titanic 's Grand Staircase , applauded by those who died .
= = Cast = =
= = = Fictional characters = = =
Leonardo DiCaprio as Jack Dawson : Cameron said he needed the cast to feel as though they were really on the Titanic , relive its liveliness , and " to take that energy and give it to Jack , [ ... ] an artist who is able to have his heart soar " . Jack is portrayed as a homeless , poor man from Chippewa Falls , Wisconsin who has toured numerous places in the world , primarily Paris . He wins two tickets onto the RMS Titanic in a poker game and travels as a third @-@ class passenger with his friend Fabrizio . He is attracted to Rose at first sight and meets her when she attempts to throw herself off the stern of the ship . This enables him to mix with the first @-@ class passengers for a night . When casting the role , various established actors , including Matthew McConaughey , Chris O 'Donnell , Billy Crudup and Stephen Dorff , were considered , but Cameron felt that a few of the actors were too old for the part of a 20 @-@ year @-@ old . Tom Cruise was interested in portraying the character , but the asking price was too much for the studio to consider . Cameron considered Jared Leto for the role but he refused to audition . DiCaprio , 22 years old at the time , was brought to Cameron 's attention by casting director Mali Finn . Initially , he did not want to portray the character , and refused to read his first romantic scene on the set ( see below ) . Cameron said , " He read it once , then started goofing around , and I could never get him to focus on it again . But for one split second , a shaft of light came down from the heavens and lit up the forest . " Cameron strongly believed in DiCaprio 's acting ability , and told him , " Look , I 'm not going to make this guy brooding and neurotic . I 'm not going to give him a tic and a limp and all the things you want . " Cameron rather envisioned the character as a James Stewart type . Although Jack Dawson was a fictional character , there is a grave labeled " J. Dawson " in Fairview Cemetery in Halifax , Nova Scotia where 121 victims are buried . The real J. Dawson was Joseph Dawson , who shoveled coal in the bowels of the ship . " It wasn 't until after the movie came out that we found out that there was a J. Dawson gravestone , " said the film 's producer , Jon Landau , in an interview .
Kate Winslet as Rose DeWitt Bukater : Cameron said Winslet " had the thing that you look for " and that there was " a quality in her face , in her eyes , " that he " just knew people would be ready to go the distance with her " . Rose is a 17 @-@ year @-@ old girl , originally from Philadelphia , who is forced into an engagement to 30 @-@ year @-@ old Cal Hockley so she and her mother , Ruth , can maintain their high @-@ class status after her father 's death had left the family debt @-@ ridden . Rose boards the RMS Titanic with Cal and Ruth , as a first @-@ class passenger , and meets Jack . Winslet said of her character , " She has got a lot to give , and she 's got a very open heart . And she wants to explore and adventure the world , but she [ feels ] that 's not going to happen . " Gwyneth Paltrow , Winona Ryder , Claire Danes , and Gabrielle Anwar had been considered for the role . When they turned it down , 22 @-@ year @-@ old Winslet campaigned heavily for the role . She sent Cameron daily notes from England , which led Cameron to invite her to Hollywood for auditions . As with DiCaprio , casting director Mali Finn originally brought her to Cameron 's attention . When looking for a Rose , Cameron described the character as " an Audrey Hepburn type " and was initially uncertain about casting Winslet even after her screen test impressed him . After she screen tested with DiCaprio , Winslet was so thoroughly impressed with him , that she whispered to Cameron , " He 's great . Even if you don 't pick me , pick him . " Winslet sent Cameron a single rose with a card signed " From Your Rose " and lobbied him by phone . " You don 't understand ! " she pleaded one day when she reached him by mobile phone in his Humvee . " I am Rose ! I don 't know why you 're even seeing anyone else ! " Her persistence , as well as her talent , eventually convinced him to cast her in the role .
Billy Zane as Caledon Nathan " Cal " Hockley : Cal is Rose 's 30 @-@ year @-@ old fiancé . He is arrogant and snobbish , and the heir to a Pittsburgh steel fortune . He becomes increasingly embarrassed , jealous , and cruel about Rose 's relationship with Jack . The part was originally offered to Matthew McConaughey .
Frances Fisher as Ruth DeWitt Bukater : Rose 's widowed mother , who arranges her daughter 's engagement to Cal to maintain her family 's high @-@ society status . She loves her daughter , but believes that social position is more important than having a loving marriage . She scorns Jack , even though he saved her daughter 's life .
Gloria Stuart as Rose Dawson Calvert : Rose narrates the film in a modern @-@ day framing device . Cameron stated , " In order to see the present and the past , I decided to create a fictional survivor who is [ close to ] 101 years , and she connects us in a way through history . " The 100 @-@ year @-@ old Rose gives Lovett information regarding the " Heart of the Ocean " after he discovers a nude drawing of her in the wreck . She tells the story of her time aboard the ship , mentioning Jack for the first time since the sinking . At 87 , Stuart had to be made up to look older for the role . Of casting Stuart , Cameron stated , " My casting director found her . She was sent out on a mission to find retired actresses from the Golden Age of the thirties and forties . " Cameron said that he did not know who Stuart was , and Fay Wray was also considered for the role . " But [ Stuart ] was just so into it , and so lucid , and had such a great spirit . And I saw the connection between her spirit and [ Winslet 's ] spirit , " stated Cameron . " I saw this joie de vivre in both of them , that I thought the audience would be able to make that cognitive leap that it 's the same person . " Stuart died on September 26 , 2010 , at age 100 , approximately the same age elder Rose was in the film .
Bill Paxton as Brock Lovett : A treasure hunter looking for the " Heart of the Ocean " in the wreck of the Titanic in the present . Time and funding for his expedition are running out . He later reflects at the film 's conclusion that , despite thinking about Titanic for three years , he has never understood it until he hears Rose 's story .
Suzy Amis as Lizzy Calvert : Rose 's granddaughter , who accompanies her when she visits Lovett on the ship and learns her grandmother 's true identity and romantic past with Jack Dawson .
Danny Nucci as Fabrizio De Rossi : Jack 's Italian best friend , who boards the RMS Titanic with him after Jack wins two tickets in a poker game . Fabrizio does not board a lifeboat when the Titanic sinks and is killed when one of the ship 's funnels breaks and crashes into the water .
David Warner as Spicer Lovejoy : An ex @-@ Pinkerton constable , Lovejoy is Cal 's English valet and bodyguard , who keeps an eye on Rose and is suspicious about the circumstances surrounding Jack 's rescue of her . He dies when the Titanic splits in half , causing him to fall into a massive opening .
Jason Barry as Thomas " Tommy " Ryan : An Irish third @-@ class passenger who befriends Jack and Fabrizio . Tommy is killed when he is accidentally pushed forward and shot by a panicked First Officer Murdoch .
= = = Historical characters = = =
Although not — and not intended to be — an entirely historically accurate depiction of events , the film includes portrayals of several historical figures :
Kathy Bates as Margaret " Molly " Brown : Brown is looked down upon by other first @-@ class women , including Ruth , as " vulgar " and " new money " due to her sudden wealth . She is friendly to Jack and lends him a dinner jacket ( bought for her son ) when he is invited to dinner in the first @-@ class dining saloon . Although Brown was a real person , Cameron chose not to portray her real @-@ life actions . Molly Brown was dubbed " The Unsinkable Molly Brown " by historians because she , with the support of other women , commandeered Lifeboat 6 from Quartermaster Robert Hichens . Some aspects of this altercation are portrayed in Cameron 's film .
Victor Garber as Thomas Andrews : The ship 's builder , Andrews is portrayed as a very kind and pleasant man who is modest about his grand achievement . After the collision , he tries to convince the others , particularly Ismay , that it is a " mathematical certainty " that the ship will sink . He is depicted during the sinking of the ship as standing next to the clock in the first @-@ class smoking room , lamenting his failure to build a strong and safe ship . Although this has become one of the most famous legends of the sinking of the Titanic , this story , which was published in a 1912 book ( Thomas Andrews : Shipbuilder ) and therefore perpetuated , came from John Stewart , a steward on the ship who in fact left the ship in boat n . 15 at approximately 1 : 40 a.m. There were testimonies of sightings of Andrews after that moment . It appears that Andrews stayed in the smoking room for some time to gather his thoughts , then he continued assisting with the evacuation . Another reported sighting was of Andrews frantically throwing deck chairs into the ocean for passengers to use as floating devices . Andrews was last seen leaving the ship at the last moment .
Bernard Hill as Captain Edward John Smith : Smith planned to make the Titanic his final voyage before retiring . He retreats into the wheelhouse on the bridge as the ship sinks , dying when the windows implode from the water whilst he clings to the ship 's wheel . There are conflicting accounts as to whether he died in this manner or later froze to death in the water near the capsized collapsible lifeboat " B " .
Jonathan Hyde as J. Bruce Ismay : Ismay is portrayed as a rich , ignorant upper @-@ class man . In the film , he uses his position as White Star Line managing director to influence Captain Smith to go faster with the prospect of an earlier arrival in New York and favorable press attention ; while this action appears in popular portrayals of the disaster , it is unsupported by evidence . After the collision , he struggles to comprehend that his " unsinkable " ship is doomed . Ismay later boards Collapsible C ( one of the last lifeboats to leave the ship ) just before it is lowered . He was branded a coward by the press and public for surviving the disaster while many women and children had drowned .
Eric Braeden as John Jacob Astor IV : A first @-@ class passenger whom Rose ( correctly ) calls the richest man on the ship . The film depicts Astor and his 18 @-@ year @-@ old wife Madeleine ( Charlotte Chatton ) as being introduced to Jack by Rose in the first @-@ class dining saloon . During the introduction , Astor asks if Jack is connected to the " Boston Dawsons " , a question Jack neatly deflects by saying that he is instead affiliated with the Chippewa Falls Dawsons . Astor is last
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was officially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet until she had to return to Britain in 1939 for an overhaul . By this time , advances in naval gunnery had reduced Hood 's usefulness . She was scheduled to undergo a major rebuild in 1941 to correct these issues , but the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 forced the ship into service without the upgrades .
When war with Germany was declared , Hood was operating in the area around Iceland , and she spent the next several months hunting between Iceland and the Norwegian Sea for German commerce raiders and blockade runners . After a brief overhaul of her propulsion system , she sailed as the flagship of Force H , and participated in the destruction of the French Fleet at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kebir . Relieved as flagship of Force H , Hood was dispatched to Scapa Flow , and operated in the area as a convoy escort and later as a defence against a potential German invasion fleet .
In May 1941 , she and the battleship Prince of Wales were ordered to intercept the German battleship Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen , which were en route to the Atlantic where they were to attack convoys . On 24 May 1941 , early in the Battle of the Denmark Strait , Hood was struck by several German shells , exploded and sank . Due to her perceived invincibility , the loss had a profound effect on the British people .
The Royal Navy conducted two inquiries into the reasons for the ship 's quick demise . The first , held very quickly after the ship 's loss , concluded that Hood 's aft magazine had exploded after one of Bismarck 's shells penetrated the ship 's armour . A second inquiry was held after complaints that the first board had failed to consider alternative explanations , such as an explosion of the ship 's torpedoes . It was more thorough than the first board and concurred with the first board 's conclusion .
Despite the official explanation , some historians continued to believe that the torpedoes caused the ship 's loss , while others proposed an accidental explosion inside one of the ship 's gun turrets that reached down into the magazine . Other historians have concentrated on the cause of the magazine explosion . The discovery of the ship 's wreck in 2001 confirmed the conclusion of both boards , although the exact reason the magazines detonated will always be a mystery since that area of the ship was entirely destroyed in the explosion .
= = Design and description = =
The Admiral @-@ class battlecruisers were designed in response to the German Mackensen @-@ class battlecruisers , which were reported to be more heavily armed and armoured than the latest British battlecruisers of the Renown and the Courageous classes . The design was revised after the Battle of Jutland to incorporate heavier armour and all four ships were laid down . Only Hood was completed , because the ships were very expensive and required labour and material that could be put to better use building merchant ships needed to replace those lost to the German U @-@ boat campaign .
Hood was significantly larger than her predecessors of the Renown class . As completed , she had an overall length of 860 feet 7 inches ( 262 @.@ 3 m ) , a maximum beam of 104 feet 2 inches ( 31 @.@ 8 m ) , and a draught of 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) at deep load . This was 110 feet ( 33 @.@ 5 m ) longer and 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wider than the older ships . She displaced 42 @,@ 670 long tons ( 43 @,@ 350 t ) at load and 46 @,@ 680 long tons ( 47 @,@ 430 t ) at deep load , over 13 @,@ 000 long tons ( 13 @,@ 210 t ) more than the older ships . The ship had a complete double bottom . Hood had a metacentric height of 4 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) at deep load , which minimised her roll and made her a steady gun platform .
The additional armour added during construction increased her draught by about 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) at deep load , which reduced her freeboard and made her very wet . At full speed , or in heavy seas , water would flow over the ship 's quarterdeck and often entered the messdecks and living quarters through ventilation shafts . This characteristic earned her the nickname of " the largest submarine in the Navy " . The persistent dampness , coupled with the ship 's poor ventilation , was blamed for the high incidence of tuberculosis aboard . The ship 's complement varied widely over her career ; in 1919 , she was authorised 1433 men as a squadron flagship ; in 1934 , she had 81 officers and 1244 men aboard .
The propulsion system consisted of 24 Yarrow boilers , connected to Brown @-@ Curtis geared steam turbines driving four propellers . The battlecruiser 's turbines were designed to produce 144 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 107 @,@ 000 kW ) , which would propel the ship at 31 knots ( 57 km / h ; 36 mph ) , but during sea trials in 1920 , Hood 's turbines provided 151 @,@ 280 shp ( 112 @,@ 810 kW ) , which allowed her to reach 32 @.@ 07 knots ( 59 @.@ 39 km / h ; 36 @.@ 91 mph ) . She carried approximately 3 @,@ 895 long tons ( 3 @,@ 958 t ) of fuel oil , which gave an estimated range of 7 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 900 km ; 8 @,@ 600 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Hood carried eight 42 @-@ calibre BL 15 @-@ inch Mk I guns in hydraulically powered twin gun turrets . The guns could depress to − 5 ° and elevate to + 30 ° . At maximum elevation , they fired a 1 @,@ 920 @-@ pound ( 870 kg ) shell to a maximum range of 30 @,@ 180 yards ( 27 @,@ 600 m ) . The turrets were designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' and ' Y ' from front to rear . 120 shells were carried for each gun .
Hood 's secondary armament was a dozen 50 @-@ calibre BL 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk I guns , each with 200 rounds . They were shipped on shielded single pivot mounts fitted along the upper deck and the forward shelter deck . This high position allowed them to be worked during heavy weather as they were less affected by waves and spray compared with the casemate mounts of earlier British capital ships . Two of these guns on the shelter deck were temporarily replaced by QF 4 @-@ inch Mk V anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns between 1938 and 1939 . All the 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns were removed during another refit in 1940 . The gun fired a 82 @-@ pound ( 37 kg ) shell to a maximum range of 17 @,@ 770 yards ( 16 @,@ 250 m ) .
The original anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four QF 4 @-@ inch Mk V guns on single mounts . These were joined in early 1939 by four twin mounts for the 45 @-@ calibre QF 4 @-@ inch Mark XVI dual purpose gun . The single guns were removed in mid @-@ 1939 and a further three twin Mark XIX mounts were added in early 1940 . This mounting could elevate from − 10 to + 80 ° . The Mk XVI gun fired about twelve 35 @-@ pound ( 16 kg ) high @-@ explosive shells per minute at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 660 ft / s ( 810 m / s ) . Against surface targets , it had a range of 19 @,@ 850 yards ( 18 @,@ 150 m ) and a maximum ceiling of 39 @,@ 000 ft ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) , but an effective anti @-@ aircraft range of much less .
In 1931 , a pair of octuple mountings for the 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk VIII gun were added on the shelter deck , abreast the funnels , and a third mount was added in 1937 . These gun mounts could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of + 80 ° . The Mk VIII 2 @-@ pounder gun fired a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) 0 @.@ 91 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 41 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 920 ft / s ( 590 m / s ) to a distance of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) . The gun 's rate of fire was approximately 96 – 98 rounds per minute .
Two quadruple mountings for the 0 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Vickers Mk III machine gun were added in 1933 with two more mountings added in 1937 . These mounts could depress to − 10 ° and elevate to a maximum of + 70 ° . The machine guns fired a 1 @.@ 326 @-@ ounce ( 37 @.@ 6 g ) bullet at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 520 ft / s ( 770 m / s ) . This gave the gun a maximum range of about 5 @,@ 000 yd ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) , although its effective range was only 800 yd ( 730 m ) . To these were added five Unrotated Projectile ( UP ) launchers in 1940 , each launcher carrying twenty 7 @-@ inch ( 180 mm ) rockets . When they detonated , the rockets shot out lengths of cable that were kept aloft by parachutes ; the cable was intended to snag aircraft and draw up the small aerial mine which would destroy the aircraft .
Six fixed 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes were mounted on Hood , three on each broadside . Two of these were submerged forward of ' A ' turret 's magazine and the other four were above water , abaft the rear funnel . The Mk IV torpedoes had a warhead of 515 pounds ( 234 kg ) of TNT . They had two speed and range settings : 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) with a maximum range of 13 @,@ 500 yards ( 12 @,@ 300 m ) or 40 knots ( 74 km / h ; 46 mph ) to 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . Approximately 28 torpedoes were carried .
= = = Fire control = = =
Hood was completed with two fire @-@ control directors . One was mounted above the conning tower , protected by an armoured hood , and was fitted with a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinder . The other was fitted in the spotting top above the tripod foremast and equipped with a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) rangefinder . Each turret was also fitted with a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinder .
The secondary armament was primarily controlled by directors mounted on each side of the bridge . They were supplemented by two additional control positions in the fore @-@ top , which were provided with 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinders , fitted in 1924 – 25 . The anti @-@ aircraft guns were controlled by a simple high @-@ angle 2 @-@ metre ( 6 ft 7 in ) rangefinder mounted on the aft control position , fitted in 1926 – 27 . Three torpedo @-@ control towers were fitted , each with a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) rangefinder . One was on each side of the amidships control tower and the third was on the centreline abaft the aft control position .
During the 1929 – 31 refit , a High @-@ Angle Control System ( HACS ) Mark I director was added on the rear searchlight platform and two positions for 2 @-@ pounder " pom @-@ pom " anti @-@ aircraft directors were added at the rear of the spotting top , although only one director was initially fitted . The 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch control positions and their rangefinders on the spotting top were removed during the 1932 refit . In 1934 , the " pom @-@ pom " directors were moved to the former locations of the 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch control positions on the spotting top and the 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinders for the 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch control positions were reinstalled on the signal platform . Two years later , the " pom @-@ pom " directors were moved to the rear corners of the bridge to get them out of the funnel gases . Another " pom @-@ pom " director was added on the rear superstructure , abaft the HACS director in 1938 . Two HACS Mark III directors were added to the aft end of the signal platform the following year , and the Mark I director aft was replaced by a Mark III . During Hood 's last refit in 1941 , a Type 279 air warning radar and a Type 284 gunnery radar were installed , although the Type 279 radar lacked its receiving aerial and was inoperable .
= = = Protection = = =
Hood 's armour scheme was originally based on that of the battlecruiser Tiger with an 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) waterline belt . Unlike on Tiger , the armour was angled outwards 12 ° from the waterline to increase its relative thickness in relation to flat @-@ trajectory shells . This change increased the ship 's vulnerability to plunging ( high @-@ trajectory ) shells as it exposed more of the vulnerable deck armour . 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) of armour was added to the design in late 1916 , based on British experiences at the Battle of Jutland , at the cost of deeper draught and slightly decreased speed . To save construction time , this was accomplished by thickening the existing armour , rather than redesigning the entire ship . Hood 's protection accounted for 33 % of her displacement , a high proportion by British standards , but less than was usual in contemporary German designs ( for example , 36 % for the battlecruiser SMS Hindenburg ) .
The armoured belt consisted of face @-@ hardened Krupp cemented armour ( KC ) , arranged in three strakes . The main waterline belt was 12 inches ( 305 mm ) thick between ' A ' and ' Y ' barbettes and thinned to 5 to 6 inches ( 127 to 152 mm ) towards the ship 's ends , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . The middle armour belt had a maximum thickness of 7 inches ( 178 mm ) over the same length as the thickest part of the waterline armour and thinned to five inches abreast ' A ' barbette . The upper belt was 5 inches thick amidships and extended forward to ' A ' barbette , with a short 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) extension aft .
The gun turrets and barbettes were protected by 11 to 15 inches ( 279 to 381 mm ) of KC armour , except for the turret roofs which were five inches thick . The decks were made of high @-@ tensile steel . The forecastle deck ranged from 1 @.@ 75 to 2 inches ( 44 to 51 mm ) in thickness while the upper deck was 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick over the magazines and 0 @.@ 75 inches ( 19 mm ) elsewhere . The main deck was 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick over the magazines and 1 inch ( 25 mm ) elsewhere , except for the 2 @-@ inch @-@ thick slope that met the bottom of the main belt . The lower deck was 3 inches thick over the propeller shafts , 2 inches thick over the magazines and 1 inch elsewhere .
The 3 @-@ inch plating on the main deck was added at a very late stage of construction and the four aftermost 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns and their ammunition hoists were removed in partial compensation . Live firing trials with the new 15 @-@ inch APC ( armour @-@ piercing , capped ) shell against a mock @-@ up of Hood showed that this shell could penetrate the ship 's vitals via the 7 @-@ inch middle belt and the 2 @-@ inch slope of the main deck . A proposal was made to increase the armour over the forward magazines to 5 inches and 6 inches over the rear magazines in July 1919 in response to these trials . To compensate for the additional weight , the two submerged torpedo tubes and the armour for the rear torpedo warheads were removed , and the armour for the aft torpedo @-@ control tower was reduced in thickness from 6 to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) . However , the additional armour was never fitted pending further trials . As completed , Hood remained susceptible to plunging shells and bombs . The torpedo warhead armour was reinstated during the ship 's 1929 – 31 refit .
For protection against torpedoes , she was given a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) deep anti @-@ torpedo bulge that ran the length of the ship between the fore and aft barbettes . It was divided into an empty outer compartment and an inner compartment filled with five rows of water @-@ tight " crushing tubes " intended to absorb and distribute the force of an explosion . The bulge was backed by a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch @-@ thick torpedo bulkhead .
= = = Aircraft = = =
Hood was initially fitted with flying @-@ off platforms mounted on top of ' B ' and ' X ' turrets , from which Fairey Flycatchers could launch . During her 1929 – 31 refit , the platform was removed from ' X ' turret and a trainable , folding catapult was installed on her quarterdeck , along with a crane to recover a seaplane . She embarked a Fairey IIIF from No. 444 Flight of the Royal Air Force . During the 1932 West Indies cruise , the catapult proved to be difficult to operate in anything but a calm sea , as it was frequently awash in bad weather . The catapult and crane were removed in 1932 , along with the flying @-@ off platform on ' B ' turret .
= = = Battlecruiser or fast battleship = = =
Although the Royal Navy always designated Hood as a battlecruiser , some modern writers such as Anthony Preston have classified her as a fast battleship , since Hood appeared to have improvements over the fast Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships . On paper , Hood retained the same armament and level of protection , while being significantly faster . Around 1918 , American commanders , including Vice @-@ Admiral William Sims , commander of US naval forces in Europe , and Admiral Henry T. Mayo , commander of the Atlantic Fleet , became extremely impressed by Hood which they described as a " fast battleship " , and they advocated that the US Navy develop a fast battleship of its own . However , the US continued with their established design direction , the slower but well @-@ protected South Dakota @-@ class battleship and the fast and lightly armoured Lexington @-@ class battlecruiser , both of which were later cancelled in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 .
Influences from Hood showed on subsequent Lexington designs , with the reduction of the main armour belt , the change to " sloped armour " , and the addition of four above @-@ water torpedo tubes to the four underwater tubes of the original design . To add to the confusion , Royal Navy documents of the period often describe any battleship with a maximum speed over 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) as a battlecruiser , regardless of the amount of protective armour . For instance , the never @-@ built G3 battlecruiser was classified as such , although it would have been more of a fast battleship than Hood .
The scale of Hood 's protection , though adequate for the Jutland era , was at best marginal against the new generation of 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) gunned capital ships that emerged soon after her completion in 1920 , typified by the American Colorado @-@ class and the Japanese Nagato @-@ class battleships . The Royal Navy were fully aware that the ship 's protection flaws still remained , even in her revised design , so Hood was intended for the duties of a battlecruiser and she served in the battlecruiser squadrons through most of her career . Late in her career , Hood was outclassed by the armour and protective arrangement of World War II @-@ era fast battleships , but few available " big gun " vessels could match Bismarck 's speed , and in 1941 the Admiralty included Hood among the ships sent to engage the German battleship .
= = Construction = =
Construction of Hood began at the John Brown & Company shipyards in Clydebank , Scotland , on 1 September 1916 . Following the loss of three British battlecruisers at the Battle of Jutland , 5 @,@ 000 tons of extra armour and bracing were added to Hood 's design . Most seriously , the deck protection was flawed — spread over three decks , it was designed to detonate an incoming shell on impact with the top deck , with much of the energy being absorbed as the exploding shell had to penetrate the armour of the next two decks . The development of effective time @-@ delay shells at the end of World War I made this scheme much less effective , as the intact shell would penetrate layers of weak armour and explode deep inside the ship . In addition , she was grossly overweight compared to her original design , making her a wet ship with a highly stressed structure .
She was launched on 22 August 1918 by the widow of Rear Admiral Sir Horace Hood , a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Admiral Samuel Hood , for whom the ship was named . Sir Horace Hood had been killed while commanding the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron and flying his flag in Invincible — one of the three battlecruisers which blew up at the Battle of Jutland . In order to make room in John Brown 's shipyard for merchant construction , Hood sailed for Rosyth to complete her fitting @-@ out on 9 January 1920 . After sea trials , she was commissioned on 15 May 1920 , under Captain Wilfred Tompkinson . She had cost £ 6 @,@ 025 @,@ 000 to build ( roughly equivalent to £ 217 million today ) . With her conspicuous twin funnels and lean profile , Hood was widely regarded one of the finest @-@ looking warships ever built . She was also the largest warship afloat when she was commissioned and retained that distinction for the next 20 years . Her size and powerful armament earned her the nickname of " Mighty Hood " and she came to symbolise the might of the British Empire itself .
= = Inter @-@ war service = =
Shortly after commissioning on 15 May 1920 , Hood became the flagship of the Battlecruiser Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Sir Roger Keyes . After a cruise to Scandinavian waters that year , Captain Geoffrey Mackworth assumed command . Hood visited the Mediterranean in 1921 and 1922 to show the flag and to train with the Mediterranean Fleet , before sailing on a cruise to Brazil and the West Indies in company with the Battlecruiser Squadron .
Captain John im Thurn was in command when Hood , accompanied by the battlecruiser Repulse and Danae @-@ class cruisers of the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron , set out on a world cruise from west to east via the Panama Canal in November 1923 . The objective of the cruise was to remind the Dominions of their dependence on British sea power and encourage them to support it with money , ships and facilities . They returned home ten months later in September 1924 having visited South Africa , India , Australia , New Zealand , Canada and the United States and some smaller colonies and dependencies en route .
While in Australia in April 1924 , the squadron escorted the battlecruiser HMAS Australia out to sea where she was scuttled in compliance with the Washington Naval Treaty . The Battlecruiser Squadron visited Lisbon in January 1925 to participate in the Vasco da Gama celebrations before continuing on to the Mediterranean for exercises . Hood continued this pattern of a winter training visit to the Mediterranean for the rest of the decade . Captain Harold Reinold relieved Captain im Thurn on 30 April 1925 and was relieved in turn by Captain Wilfred French on 21 May 1927 .
Hood was given a major refit from 1 May 1929 to 10 March 1931 , and afterwards resumed her role as flagship of the Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of Captain Julian Patterson . Later that year , her crew participated in the Invergordon Mutiny over pay cuts for the sailors . It ended peacefully and Hood returned to her home port afterwards . The Battlecruiser Squadron made a Caribbean cruise in early 1932 , and Hood was given another brief refit between 31 March and 10 May at Portsmouth . Captain Thomas Binney assumed command on 15 August 1932 and the ship resumed her previous practice of a winter cruise in the Mediterranean the next year . Captain Thomas Tower replaced Captain Binney on 30 August 1933 . Her secondary and anti @-@ aircraft fire @-@ control directors were rearranged during another quick refit between 1 August and 5 September 1934 .
While en route to Gibraltar for a Mediterranean cruise , Hood was rammed in the port side quarterdeck by the battlecruiser Renown on 23 January 1935 . The damage to Hood was limited to her left outer propeller and an 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) dent , although some hull plates were knocked loose from the impact . Temporary repairs were made at Gibraltar before the ship sailed to Portsmouth for permanent repairs between February and May 1935 . The captains of both ships were court @-@ martialled , as was the squadron commander , Rear Admiral Sidney Bailey . Tower and Bailey were acquitted , but Renown 's Captain Sawbridge was relieved of command . The Admiralty dissented from the verdict , reinstated Sawbridge , and criticised Bailey for ambiguous signals during the manoeuvre .
The ship participated in King George V 's Silver Jubilee Fleet Review at Spithead the following August . She was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet shortly afterwards and stationed at Gibraltar at the outbreak of the Second Italo @-@ Abyssinian War in October . Captain Arthur Pridham assumed command on 1 February 1936 and Hood returned to Portsmouth for a brief refit between 26 June and 10 October 1936 . She formally transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet on 20 October , shortly after the beginning of the Spanish Civil War . On 23 April 1937 , the ship escorted three British merchantmen into Bilbao harbour despite the presence of the Nationalist cruiser Almirante Cervera that attempted to blockade the port . Hood was refitted at Malta in November and December 1937 and had her submerged torpedo tubes removed . Captain Pridham was relieved by Captain Harold Walker on 20 May 1938 and he in turn was relieved when the ship returned to Portsmouth in January 1939 for an overhaul that lasted until 12 August .
Hood was due to be modernised in 1941 to bring her up to a standard similar to that of other modernised World War I @-@ era capital ships . She would have received new , lighter turbines and boilers , a secondary armament of eight twin 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch gun turrets and six octuple 2 @-@ pounder pom @-@ poms . Her 5 @-@ inch upper armour strake would have been removed and her deck armour reinforced . A catapult would have been fitted across the deck and the remaining torpedo tubes removed . In addition the conning tower would have been removed and her bridge rebuilt . The ship 's near @-@ constant active service , resulting from her status as the Royal Navy 's most battle @-@ worthy fast capital ship , meant that her material condition gradually deteriorated , and by the mid @-@ 1930s she was in need of a lengthy overhaul .
The outbreak of World War II made it impossible to remove her from service , and as a consequence she never received the scheduled modernisation afforded to other capital ships such as the battlecruiser Renown and several of the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships . The ship 's condensers were in such bad condition by this time that much of the output from the fresh @-@ water evaporators was required to replenish the boiler feed water and could not be used by the crew to wash and bathe or even to heat the mess decks during cold weather as the steam pipes were too leaky . These problems also reduced her steam output so that she was unable to attain her designed speed .
= = World War II = =
Captain Irvine Glennie assumed command in May 1939 and Hood was assigned to the Home Fleet 's Battlecruiser Squadron while still refitting ; when war broke out later that year , she was employed principally in patrolling the vicinity of Iceland and the Faroe Islands to protect convoys and intercept German merchant raiders and blockade runners attempting to break out into the Atlantic . On 25 September 1939 , the Home Fleet sortied into the central North Sea to cover the return of the damaged submarine Spearfish . The fleet was spotted by the Germans and attacked by aircraft from the KG 26 and KG 30 bomber wings . Hood was hit by a 250 kg ( 550 lb ) bomb from a Junkers Ju 88 bomber that damaged her port torpedo bulge and her condensers . By early 1940 , Hood 's machinery was in dire shape and limited her best speed to 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) ; she was refitted between 4 April and 12 June .
= = = Operation Catapult = = =
Hood and the aircraft carrier Ark Royal were ordered to Gibraltar to join Force H on 18 June where Hood became the flagship . Force H took part in the destruction of the French fleet at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir in July 1940 . Just eight days after the French surrender , the British Admiralty issued an ultimatum that the French fleet at Oran intern its ships in a British or neutral port to ensure they would not fall into Axis hands . The terms were rejected and the Royal Navy opened fire on the French ships berthed there . The results of Hood 's fire are not known exactly , but she damaged the French battleship Dunkerque , which was hit by four fifteen @-@ inch shells and was forced to beach herself . Hood was straddled during the engagement by Dunkerque ; shell splinters wounded two men . Dunkerque 's sister ship , Strasbourg , managed to escape from the harbour . Hood and several light cruisers gave chase , but gave up after two hours : Hood had dodged a salvo of torpedoes from a French sloop and had stripped a turbine reaching 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) .
= = = Return to home waters = = =
Hood was relieved as flagship of Force H by Renown on 10 August , after returning to Scapa Flow . On 13 September , after a short refit , she was sent to Rosyth along with the battleships Nelson and Rodney and other ships , to be in a better position to intercept a German invasion fleet . When the threat of an invasion diminished , the ship resumed her previous roles in convoy escort and patrolling against German commerce raiders . Twice , Hood was dispatched against enemy warships . On 28 October she sailed to intercept the " pocket battleship " Admiral Scheer , and again on 24 December to locate the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper , but Hood failed to find either ship .
In January 1941 , the ship began a refit that lasted until March ; even after the refit she was still in poor condition , but the threat from the German capital ships was such that she could not be taken into dock for a major overhaul until more of the King George V @-@ class battleships came into service . Captain Ralph Kerr assumed command during the refit , and Hood was ordered to sea in an attempt to intercept the German battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst upon the refit 's completion in mid @-@ March . Unsuccessful , she was ordered to patrol the Bay of Biscay against any breakout attempt by the German ships from Brest . Hood was ordered to the Norwegian Sea on 19 April when the Admiralty received a false report that the German battleship Bismarck had sailed from Germany . Afterwards , she patrolled the North Atlantic before putting into Scapa Flow on 6 May .
= = = Battle of the Denmark Strait = = =
When Bismarck sailed for the Atlantic in May 1941 , Hood , together with the newly commissioned battleship Prince of Wales , was sent out in pursuit along with several other groups of British capital ships to intercept the German ships before they could break into the Atlantic and attack Allied convoys . Hood was commanded by Captain Ralph Kerr and was flying the flag of Vice @-@ Admiral Lancelot Holland . The German ships were spotted by two British heavy cruisers ( Norfolk & Suffolk ) on 23 May , and Holland 's ships intercepted Bismarck and her consort , the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen , in the Denmark Strait between Greenland and Iceland on 24 May .
The British squadron spotted the Germans at 05 : 37 ( ship 's clocks were set four hours ahead of local time – the engagement commenced shortly after dawn ) , but the Germans were already aware of their presence , Prinz Eugen 's hydrophones having previously detected the sounds of high @-@ speed propellers to their south @-@ east . The British opened fire at 05 : 52 with Hood engaging Prinz Eugen , the lead ship in the German formation , and the Germans returned fire at 05 : 55 , both ships concentrating on Hood . Prinz Eugen was probably the first ship to score when a shell hit Hood 's boat deck , between her funnels , and started a large fire among the ready @-@ use ammunition for the anti @-@ aircraft guns and rockets of the UP mounts .
Just before 06 : 00 , while Hood was turning 20 ° to port to unmask her rear turrets , she was hit again on the boat deck by one or more shells from Bismarck 's fifth salvo , fired from a range of approximately 16 @,@ 650 metres ( 18 @,@ 210 yd ) . A shell from this salvo appears to have hit the spotting top , as the boat deck was showered with body parts and debris . A huge jet of flame burst out of Hood from the vicinity of the mainmast , followed by a devastating magazine explosion that destroyed the aft part of the ship . This explosion broke the back of Hood , and the last sight of the ship , which sank in only three minutes , was her bow , nearly vertical in the water . A note on a survivor 's sketch in the British RN Historical Branch Archives gives 63 ° 20 ′ N 31 ° 50 ′ W as the position of the sinking .
Hood sank with 1418 men aboard . Only three survived : Ordinary Signalman Ted Briggs , Able Seaman Robert Tilburn , and Midshipman William John Dundas . The three were rescued about two hours after the sinking by the destroyer Electra , which spotted substantial debris but no bodies .
= = = Aftermath of the sinking = = =
Prince of Wales was forced to disengage by a combination of damage from German hits and mechanical failures in her guns and turrets after Hood was sunk . Despite these problems , she had hit Bismarck three times . One of these hits contaminated a good portion of the ship 's fuel supply and subsequently caused her to steer for safety in occupied France where she could be repaired . Bismarck was temporarily able to evade detection , but was later spotted and sunk by the British on 27 May .
The official Admiralty communiqué on the loss , broadcast on the day of the sinking , reported that : " during the ... action , HMS Hood ... received an unlucky hit in a magazine and blew up . " The first formal board of enquiry into the loss , presided over by Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Geoffrey Blake , reported on 2 June , less than a fortnight after the loss . It endorsed this opinion , stating that :
( c ) ( The ) probable cause of the loss of HMS Hood was direct penetration of the protection by one or more 15 @-@ inch shells at a range of 16 @,@ 500 yards [ 15 @,@ 100 m ] , resulting in the explosion of one or more of the aft magazines .
The conduct of the inquiry became subject to criticism , largely because no verbatim record of witnesses ' testimony had been kept . Moreover , Sir Stanley V. Goodall , Director of Naval Construction came forward with an alternative theory , that the Hood had been destroyed by the explosion of her own torpedoes . As a result , a second Board was convened under Rear Admiral Sir Harold Walker and reported in September 1941 . This investigation was " much more thorough than was the first , taking evidence from a total of 176 eyewitnesses to the disaster " , and examined both Goodall 's theory and others ( see below ) . The Board came to a conclusion almost identical to that of the first board , expressed as follows :
That the sinking of Hood was due to a hit from Bismarck 's 15 @-@ inch shell in or adjacent to Hood 's 4 @-@ inch or 15 @-@ inch magazines , causing them all to explode and wreck the after part of the ship . The probability is that the 4 @-@ inch magazines exploded first .
Both boards of enquiry exonerated Vice @-@ Admiral Holland from any blame regarding the loss of Hood .
Memorials to those who died are spread widely around the UK , and some of the crew are commemorated in different locations . One casualty , George David Spinner , is remembered on the Portsmouth Naval memorial , the Hood Chapel at the Church of St John the Baptist , in Boldre , Hampshire , and also on the gravestone of his brother , who died while serving in the Royal Air Force in 1942 , in the Hamilton Road Cemetery , Deal , Kent .
= = Modern theories on the sinking = =
The exact cause of the loss of Hood remains a subject of debate . The principal theories include the following causes :
A direct hit from a shell penetrated to a magazine aft . Such a shell could only have come from Bismarck , since Prinz Eugen was no longer firing at Hood at the time of the explosion . As noted above , this version of events was almost taken for granted at the time of the sinking . Doubt first arose as a result of eyewitness testimony that the explosion that destroyed Hood originated near the mainmast , well forward of the aft magazines ( for example , the sketch shown prepared for the second board of enquiry by Captain Leach of Prince of Wales ) . At the second board , expert witnesses suggested that what was observed was the venting , through the engine @-@ room ventilators , of a violent — but not instantaneous — explosion or deflagration in the 4 @-@ inch magazines . The same deflagration would have collapsed the bulkhead separating the 4 @-@ inch and 15 @-@ inch magazines , resulting very quickly in a catastrophic explosion similar to those previously witnessed at Jutland . This theory was ultimately adopted by the board .
A shell , falling short and travelling underwater , struck below the armoured belt and penetrated to a magazine . During the same action , Prince of Wales received a hit of this type from a 15 @-@ inch shell , which travelled underwater for about 80 feet ( 25 m ) , struck about 28 feet ( 8 m ) below the waterline , penetrated several light bulkheads and fetched up , without exploding , against the torpedo bulkhead . The second board considered this theory improbable , arguing that the fuse , had it worked at all , would have detonated the shell before it reached the ship . According to Jurens 's calculations , one of Bismarck 's shells that fell approximately 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) short of Hood could have penetrated the side of the ship beneath the armour belt and would have detonated in the vicinity of the ship 's magazines if the fuse worked .
The ship was destroyed by the explosion of her own torpedoes . According to Goodall 's theory , the ship 's torpedoes could have been detonated either by the fire raging on the boat deck or , more probably , by a direct hit from Bismarck . This would have blown out the side of the ship , destroying the girder strength of the hull ; the force of water entering the hole , at a speed of nearly 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) , would then shear the stern section from the rest of the hull .
The fire on the boat deck penetrated to a magazine . Evidence given to the second board indicated that the doors for the 4 @-@ inch ammunition supply trunks were closed throughout the action . It remains possible that a door or trunk could have been opened up by an enemy shell , admitting flames to the magazine . Alternative routes for admission of flame could have been the ventilation or venting arrangements of the magazines or , as Ted Briggs suggested , through the floor of a 15 @-@ inch gunhouse .
The explosion was initiated by 4 @-@ inch ammunition stored outside the magazines . Writing in 1979 , the naval historian Antony Preston claimed that the aft magazines of Hood were " surrounded by additional 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft shells outside the armoured barbettes . Such unprotected stowage could have been detonated either by the boat @-@ deck fire or by a shell from Bismarck . "
The ship was blown up by her own guns . At the second board , eyewitnesses reported unusual types of discharge from the 15 @-@ inch guns of Hood , suggesting that a shell could have detonated within the gun , causing an explosion within the gunhouse . It is possible that , under the stress of combat , the safety measures , introduced after the disasters at Jutland to prevent such an explosion reaching the magazines , could have failed .
An extensive review of these theories ( excepting that of Preston ) is given in Jurens 's 1987 article . Its main conclusion is that the loss was almost certainly precipitated by the explosion of a 4 @-@ inch magazine , but that there are several ways this could have been initiated , although he rules out the boat deck fire or the detonation of her torpedoes as probable causes . In Jurens 's opinion , the popular image of plunging shells penetrating Hood 's deck armour is inaccurate , as by his estimation the angle of fall of Bismarck 's 15 @-@ inch shells at the moment of the loss would not have exceeded about 14 ° , an angle so unfavourable to penetration of horizontal armour that it is actually off the scale of contemporaneous German penetration charts . Moreover , computer @-@ generated profiles of Hood show that a shell falling at this angle could not have reached an aft magazine without first passing through some part of the belt armour . On the other hand , the 12 @-@ inch belt could have been penetrated , if Hood had progressed sufficiently far into her final turn .
A more recent development is the discovery of Hood 's wreck . Inspection of the wreck has confirmed that the aft magazines did indeed explode . The stern of the Hood was located , with the rudder still in place , and it was found that this was set to port at the time of the explosion . Furthermore , a section of the bow immediately forward of ' A ' turret is missing , which has led historian and former Dartmouth lecturer Eric J. Grove and expedition leader David Mearns to believe that " either just before or just after leaving the surface , the bow suffered massive internal damage from an internal explosion " , possibly a partial detonation of the forward 15 @-@ inch magazines . It has been suggested that the fatal fire spread from the aft end of the ship through the starboard fuel tanks , since the starboard side of Hood " appears to be missing most , if not all of its torpedo bulge plating " .
The evidence of the wreck refutes Goodall 's theory of a torpedo explosion , while the eyewitness evidence of venting from the 4 @-@ inch magazine prior to the main explosion conflicts with the theory that the Hood was blown up by her own guns . The other theories listed above remain valid possibilities .
= = Wreck = =
In 2001 , British broadcaster Channel 4 commissioned shipwreck hunter David Mearns and his company , Blue Water Recoveries , to locate the wreck of Hood , and if possible , produce underwater footage of both the battlecruiser and her attacker , Bismarck . This was to be used for a major event documentary to be aired on the 60th anniversary of the ships ' battle . This was the first time anyone had attempted to locate Hood 's resting place . Mearns had spent the previous six years privately researching the fate of Hood with the goal of finding the battlecruiser , and had acquired the support of the Royal Navy , the HMS Hood Association and other veterans groups , and the last living survivor , Ted Briggs .
The search team and equipment had to be organised within four months , to take advantage of a narrow window of calm conditions in the North Atlantic . Organisation of the search was complicated by the presence on board of a documentary team and their film equipment , along with a television journalist who made live news reports via satellite during the search . The search team also planned to stream video from the remotely operated underwater vehicle ( ROV ) directly to Channel 4 's website .
After footage of Bismarck was collected , Mearns and the search team began scanning a 600 @-@ square @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 100 km2 ) search box for Hood ; completely covering the area was estimated to take six days . Areas that Mearns felt were more likely to hold the wreck were prioritised , and the side @-@ scan sonar located the battlecruiser in the 39th hour of the search .
Hood 's wreck lies on the seabed in pieces among two debris fields at a depth of about 2 @,@ 800 metres ( 9 @,@ 200 ft ) . The eastern field includes the small piece of the stern that survived the magazine explosion , as well as the surviving section of the bow and some smaller remains such as the propellers . The 4 @-@ inch fire @-@ control director lies in the western debris field . The heavily armoured conning tower is located by itself a distance from the main wreck . The amidships section , the biggest part of the wreck to survive the explosions , lies inverted south of the eastern debris field in a large impact crater . The starboard side of the amidships section is missing down to the inner wall of the fuel tanks and the plates of the hull are curling outward ; this has been interpreted as indicating the path of the explosion through the starboard fuel tanks . It is further supposed that the small debris fields are the fragments from the aft hull where the magazines and turrets were located , since that section of the hull was totally destroyed in the explosion . The fact that the bow section separated just forward of ' A ' turret is suggestive that a secondary explosion might have occurred in this area . Other researchers have claimed that the final salvo fired by Hood was not a salvo at all , but flame from the forward magazine explosion , which gave the illusion of Hood firing for the last time . This damage , ahead of the armoured bulkhead , could have been implosion damage suffered while Hood sank , as a torpedo room that had been removed during one of her last refits approximates the site of the break . It was the opinion of Mearns and White who investigated the wreck that this was unlikely as the damage was far too limited in scale , nor could it account for the outwardly splayed plates also observed in that area . Bill Jurens points out that there was no magazine of any kind at the location of the break and that the location of the break just forward of the forward transverse armoured bulkhead suggests that the ship 's structure failed there as a result of stresses inflicted when the bow was lifted into the vertical position by the sinking stern section . Furthermore , the current position of the plates at the edge of the break only reflects their last position , not the direction that they first moved .
The forward section lies on its port side , with the amidships section keel up . The stern section rises from the seabed at an angle . This position shows the rudder locked into a 20 ° port turn , confirming that orders had been given ( just prior to the aft magazines detonating ) to change the ship 's heading and bring the aft turrets ' X ' and ' Y ' to bear on the German ships .
In 2002 , the site was officially designated a war grave by the British government . As such , it remains a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act of 1986 .
= = = Expeditions to retrieve ship 's bell = = =
In 2012 , the British Government gave permission for Mearns to return to the site of Hood 's final resting place to retrieve one of her two ship 's bells which were lying in a small open debris field some way from the wreck herself . With the backing of the HMS Hood Association , Mearns planned to return the bell to Portsmouth where it would form part of the first official and permanent memorial to the sacrifice of her last crew at the newly refitted National Museum of the Royal Navy . The expedition also took the opportunity to re @-@ film the wreck and survey her using techniques unavailable in 2001 . As before , with the exception of the attempted retrieval of the ship 's bell , a strict look @-@ but @-@ don 't @-@ touch policy was adhered to .
The original attempt , sponsored by Paul Allen and using his yacht Octopus , was abandoned after ten days in September 2012 due to unfavourable weather conditions . In 2015 , the same team attempted a second recovery operation and the Hood 's bell was finally retrieved on 7 August 2015 . It is expected to undergo conservation work before being put on display .
= = = Surviving relics = = =
Some relics from the time of Hood 's sinking still exist . A large fragment of the wooden transom from one of Hood 's boats was washed up in Norway after her loss and is preserved in the National Maritime Museum in London . A metal container holding administrative papers was discovered washed ashore on the Norwegian island of Senja in April 1942 , almost a year after the Battle of the Denmark Strait . The container and its contents were subsequently lost , but its lid survived and was eventually presented to the Royal Navy shore establishment HMS Centurion in 1981 .
Other surviving relics are items that were removed from the ship prior to her sinking :
= = = = 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns = = = =
Two of Hood 's 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns were removed and replaced during a refit in 1935 , and subsequently shipped to Ascension Island , where they were installed as a shore battery in 1941 , sited on a hill above the port and main settlement , Georgetown , where they remain . The guns were restored by the Royal Air Force in 1984 .
The Ascension Island guns saw action only once , on 9 December 1941 , when they fired on the German U @-@ boat U @-@ 124 , as it approached Georgetown on the surface to shell the cable station or sink any ships at anchor . No hits were scored , but the submarine crash @-@ dived .
= = = = Fragments of propeller from a collision with HMS Renown = = = =
As a result of a collision off the coast of Spain on 23 January 1935 , one of Hood 's propellers struck the bow of Renown . While dry @-@ docked for repairs , Renown had fragments of this propeller removed from her bilge section . The pieces of the propeller were kept by dockyard workers : " Hood " v " Renown " Jan. 23rd . 1935 was stamped on one surviving example , and " Hood V Renown off Arosa 23 – 1 – 35 " on another . Of the known surviving pieces , one is privately held and another was given by the Hood family to the Hood Association in 2006 . Recently a third piece has come to light in Glasgow , where the Hood was built . It is held by a private collector and stamped HMS HOOD v HMS RENOWN 23 1 35 .
= Surb Karapet Monastery =
Surb Karapet Monastery ( Armenian : Մշո Սուրբ Կարապետ վանք , Mšo Surb Karapet vank ' , also known by other names ) was an Armenian monastery in the historic province of Taron , about 30 km ( 19 mi ) northwest of Mush ( Muş ) , in present @-@ day eastern Turkey .
Surb Karapet translates to " Holy Precursor " and refers to John the Baptist , whose remains are believed to have been stored at the site by Gregory the Illuminator in the early fourth century . The monastery subsequently served as a stronghold of the Mamikonians — the princely house of Taron , who claimed to be the holy warriors of John the Baptist , their patron saint . It was expanded and renovated many times in later centuries . By the 20th century it was a large fort @-@ like enclosure with four chapels .
Historically , the monastery was the religious center of Taron and was a prominent pilgrimage site . It was considered the most important monastery in Turkish ( Western ) Armenia and the second most important of all Armenian monasteries after Etchmiadzin . From the 12th century the monastery was the seat of the diocese of Taron , which had an Armenian population of 90 @,@ 000 in the early 20th century . It attracted pilgrims on several occasions annually and host large celebrations . The monastery was burned and robbed during the Armenian Genocide of 1915 and later abandoned . Its stones have since been used by the local Kurds for building purposes .
= = Names = =
Throughout history the monastery has been known by several names . One of the common names was Glakavank ( Գլակավանք ) , meaning " Monastery of Glak " after its first father superior , Zenob Glak . It is also spelled Glaka vank ( classical spelling : Գլակայ վանք ; reformed spelling : Գլակա վանք ) or Klaga vank ( from Western Armenian ) . Due to its location it was also called Innaknian vank ( Իննակնեան վանք in classical spelling , and Իննակնյան վանք in reformed ) , translating to " Monastery of the Nine Springs " .
Turkish sources refer to it as Çanlı Kilise ( Turkish : " Church with Bell Towers " ) , or Çengelli Kilise ( meaning " Church with Bells " in Kurdish , also the name of the village in which it is located ) . They sometimes provide a version of its Armenian name : Surpgarabet Manastırı . Turkish sources and travel guides generally omit the fact that it was an Armenian monastery .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation to the Middle Ages = = =
According to tradition , the site was founded in the early fourth century by Gregory the Illuminator , who went to Taron to spread Christianity , following the conversion of King Tiridates III of Armenia . At the time , there were two Hindu temples and brass statues established by two Indian princes dedicated to the gods Gisané and Demeter on the site of the cloister . They were razed to the ground by Gregory the Illuminator , who erected a martyrion to house the remains of Saints Athenogenes and John the Baptist which he had brought from Caesarea . According to other sources the pagan temples were dedicated to Vahagn and Astghik . James R. Russell suggests that in Armenia some of the qualities of the pagan god Vahagn were passed down to John the Baptist . Folk belief held that devs ( demons ) were kept underneath the monastery ; they would be released during the Second Coming by John the Baptist ( Surb Karapet ) . Christina Maranci suggested that the foundation of the monastery is " most probably connected with the rise of the monastic movement " in Bagratuni Armenia in the 940s .
Zenob Glak , a Syriac archbishop , became its first father superior . He is sometimes mentioned as the author of History of Taron ( Patmutiun Tarono , Պատմութիւն Տարօնոյ ) , although the work is generally attributed to the otherwise unknown John Mamikonean and " scholars are convinced that the work is an original composition of a later period ( post @-@ eighth century ) , written as a deliberate forgery . " Its main purpose seems to be asserting the monastery 's preeminence . A relatively short " historical " romance , it tells the story of the five members of the Mamikonians , Taron 's princely house : Mushegh , Vahan , Smbat , his son Vahan Kamsarakan , and the latter 's son Tiran , who were known as the Holy Warriors of John the Baptist , their patron saint . They defended the monastery and other churches in the district .
The sixth century chronicler Atanas Taronatsi ( Athanas of Taron ) served as its father superior . He is best remembered for collocation of the Armenian calendar . The monastery 's possessions were expanded in the seventh century , but the building was reduced to ruins by an earthquake in the same century . It was subsequently rebuilt and the chapel of Surb Stepanos ( St. Stephen ) was founded .
In the late ninth century , following the establishment of Bagratid Armenia , a school was founded at the monastery . In the 11th century Grigor Magistros built a palace within the monastery , but it was destroyed by fire in 1058 along with St. Gregory ( Grigor ) Church which had a wooden roof . Following the death of the Sökmen II Shah Armen in 1185 the monastery was attacked by Muslims . Archbishop Stepanos was killed and the monks abandoned the monastery for a year .
= = = Modern period = = =
In the mid @-@ 16th century the Surb Karapet chapel was built . According to the 17th @-@ century traveler Evliya Çelebi the leadership of the monastery made large gifts to Turkish pashas in order to secure the monastic properties . From the 16th to the 18th centuries the monastery often sheltered Armenians fleeing the Ottoman – Persian Wars . In the 1750s , the Surb Karapet church was destroyed by Persian troops . In the 18th century , several earthquakes hit the monastery . The one in 1784 being especially devastating ; destroyed the main church , the refectory , part of the bell tower and the southern wall . In 1788 the monastic complex underwent complete reconstruction — its gavit ( a square or quadrangular chamber placed in front of the church and on the same axis , destined for both civil and religious use ) was enlarged , and renovation was carried out in its belfry , the monks ' cells , scriptorium , ramparts and other sections .
= = = = 19th century = = = =
In 1827 Kurdish gangs seized and robbed the monastery , destroying the furniture and manuscripts . However , the monastery prospered at the beginning in 1862 when Mkrtich Khrimian became its father superior and , simultaneously , prelate of Taron . Khrimian sought to reform the way donations were handled by establishing a council which would finance community projects . Before him , most of the money went to the monks and affluent Armenians of the region who offered fierce opposition to him , including two attempts on his life . In his first year he founded a largely secular school at the monastery , called Zharangavorats . Among others , the fedayi Kevork Chavush and Hrayr Dzhoghk , the singer Armenak Shahmuradyan , and the writer Gegham Ter @-@ Karapetian ( Msho Gegham ) studied there . From April 1 , 1863 until June 1 , 1865 Khrimian published the journal The Eaglet of Taron ( Artzvik Tarono , « Արծւիկ Տարօնոյ » ) at the monastery . It was written in modern Armenian , rendered to be easily readable for the ordinary people . The journal sought to raise the national consciousness of the Armenians . Edited by Garegin Srvandztiants , a total of 43 issues were published . Khrimian left the monastery in 1868 when he became the Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople .
The monastery , according to two French travelers in 1890 , possessed large areas of land and it took several hours to get from one end to another . The estate was covered by forests , arable fields and had three farms with around a thousand goats and sheep , a hundred oxen and cattle , sixty horses , twenty donkeys and four mules , which were taken care of by 156 servants . In 1896 an orphanage was founded next to the monastery . It housed a school for 45 children and a library .
According to British traveler H. F. B. Lynch , who visited the monastery in 1893 , with the presence of the Kurdish threat and the suspicions of the Turkish government " this once flourishing monastery has been stripped of much of its glamour ; indeed the monks are little better than prisoners of State . " The monastery was robbed in 1895 during the Hamidian massacres . By the early 20th century the monastery 's structure was deteriorating . The decline continued until the start of World War I.
= = = Destruction and current state = = =
During the Armenian Genocide of 1915 the monastery housed a large number of Armenians escaping the deportations and massacres . Turkish forces and Kurdish irregulars sieged it , but the Armenians within resisted for more than two months . According to contemporary reports , around five thousand Armenians were massacred " near the wall of the monastery " , while the monastery itself was " sacked and robbed " . According to the American missionaries Clarence Ussher and Grace Knapp , the Turks slaughtered " three thousand men , women , and children " gathered at the courtyard of the monastery on command of a German officer .
In 1916 the Russian troops and Armenian volunteers temporarily took control of the area and transferred around 1 @,@ 750 manuscripts to Etchmiadzin . Among them is an 18th @-@ century reliquary of the right hand of John the Baptist made of silver repoussé . The area was recaptured by the Turks in 1918 and , subsequently , ceased to exist not only as a spiritual center , but also as an architectural monument . It remained abandoned until the 1960s when Kurdish families settled on the site .
Many buildings in the village include stones from the monastery and khachkars ( cross stones ) , which are embedded in the walls . The remaining stones are " being systematically carried off by the local Kurds for their own building purposes . " According to historian Robert H. Hewsen , as of 2001 , only traces of two chambers of the chapel of Surb Stepanos remain , while the rest of the monastery 's remains consist of " foundations and ruined walls " , which are used as barns .
Reconstruction efforts
In May 2015 Aziz Dagcı , the President of the NGO " Union of Social Solidarity and Culture for Bitlis , Batman , Van , Mush and Sasun Armenians " , made a formal appeal to the Turkish Ministries of Culture and Interior requesting the reconstruction of the monastery and the removal of all 48 houses and 6 barns on its former location . Dagcı stated that according to the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne the Turkish government obliged to preserve the religious institutions and structures of ethno @-@ religious minorities , including those of the Armenian community . He added that he first forwarded a letter to government agencies in 2012 who promised to clean the site within six months .
= = Architecture = =
The monastery was surrounded by strong walls and was similar to a fortress . Historian Dickran Kouymjian called it " a vast walled hermitage " . Lynch , who visited it in 1893 , described the monastery as follows : " A walled enclosure , like that of a fortress , a massive door on grating hinges — such is your first impression of this lonely fane . [ ... ] You enter a spacious court , and face a handsome belfry and porch , the façade inlaid with slabs of white marble with bas @-@ reliefs . " A decade earlier , English traveler Henry Fanshawe Tozer wrote of the monastery : " The buildings ... are of stone , very massive and very irregular , rising one above another at various angles . There was hardly any pretence of architecture , and none of the picturesque appearance which is so characteristic of Greek monasteries . "
= = = Structure = = =
The monastery complex was composed of the main church , dedicated to the Holy Cross ( Surb Khach ) and four chapels to the east : Surb Astvatsatsin ( Holy Mother of God ) , Surb Stepanos ( Saint Stephen ) , Surb Karapet ( Holy Precursor ) and Surb Gevorg ( Saint George ) . The main church was not a typical Armenian church but was a large hall and is believed to have originally functioned as a zhamatun ( chamber ) . It was built of mostly gray stones and was supported by 16 columns . The chapels of Surb Karapet and Surb Stepanos had domes , with " high cylindrical drums and conical roofs " . The chapel of Surb Astvatsatsin was provided to Syriac ( Assyrian ) monks on the feast of St. John .
The three @-@ storey bell tower was built in the 18th century . There were also monk cells , a refectory , accommodations for pilgrims , the 19th @-@ century prelacy building and a monastic school .
= = Cultural significance = =
The monastery was historically the religious center of Taron . From the 12th century the monastery was the seat of the diocese of Taron , which had an Armenian population of 90 @,@ 000 ( circa 1911 ) . It was considered the largest and most eminent shrine in Western ( Turkish ) Armenia . It was the second most important Armenian monastery after Etchmiadzin . It remained a prominent pilgrimage site until the First World War . People from every corner of Armenia made pilgrimages to the monastery . They usually held festivities at the monastery 's yard . It was considered by believers to be " almighty " and was renowned for its perceived ability to heal the physically and mentally ill .
The monastery was popularly known as Մշո սուլթան Սուրբ Կարապետ Msho sultan Surb Karapet , literally translating to " Sultan Surb Karapet of Mush " . The epithet " Sultan " was bestowed as a reference to its high status as the " lord and master " of Taron .
The monastery housed tombs of several Mamikonian princes , " for whom the shrine served as a sepulchral abbey . " According to Lynch , the tombs of Mushegh , Vahan the Wolf , Smbat and Vahan Kamsarakan could have been found near the southern wall of the monastery .
= = = Annual events = = =
The monastery was a center of large annual celebrations . Various secular events took place in the surroundings , such as horse races , tightrope walking and gusan competitions during the festivals of Vardavar and Assumption of Mary . Horse racing competitions were held on Vardavar and involved a large number of people . Tightrope walking , widely practiced by the Armenians of Taron , was historically related to the worship of the monastery .
= = = Ashugh tradition = = =
The monastery was a traditional pilgrimage site for Armenian ashughs ( folk musicians ) . It has been compared to Mount Parnassus in Greece , which was the home of the Muses . The prominent 18th @-@ century ashugh Sayat @-@ Nova is recorded to have made a trip to the monastery to seek divine grace .
= = Cultural references = =
Numerous songs were dedicated to the monastery .
In the 1866 novel Salbi ( Սալբի ) Raffi mentions the monastery and describes its perceived almightiness .
Hovhannes Tumanyan describes the monastery in the 1890 poem "
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8 Brazilian Grand Prix =
The 2008 Brazilian Grand Prix ( formally the XXXVII Grande Prêmio do Brasil ) was a Formula One motor race held on 2 November 2008 at the Autódromo José Carlos Pace , Interlagos , in São Paulo , Brazil . It was the 18th and final race of the 2008 Formula One season . The 71 @-@ lap race was won by Ferrari driver Felipe Massa after starting from pole position . Fernando Alonso finished second in a Renault , and Kimi Räikkönen third in a Ferrari .
Massa started the race alongside Toyota driver Jarno Trulli . Massa 's teammate Räikkönen began from third next to McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton . Rain fell minutes before the race , delaying the start , and as the track dried Massa established a lead of several seconds . More rain late in the race made the last few laps treacherous for the drivers , but could not prevent Massa from winning the Grand Prix . Sebastian Vettel of Toro Rosso finished in fourth place behind Alonso and Räikkönen . Hamilton passed Toyota 's Timo Glock in the final corners of the race to finish fifth , securing him the points needed to take the Drivers ' Championship .
Hamilton received praise from many in the Formula One community , including former Champions Damon Hill and Michael Schumacher . The McLaren driver also received official congratulations from Queen Elizabeth II and British Prime Minister Gordon Brown . Massa 's win and Räikkönen 's third place helped Ferrari win the Constructors ' Championship . The Grand Prix was David Coulthard 's final race ; the Scot retired after 246 race starts .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Heading into the final race of the season , McLaren driver Lewis Hamilton was leading the Drivers ' Championship with 94 points ; Ferrari driver Felipe Massa was second on 87 points , seven points behind Hamilton . A maximum of ten points were available for the final race , which meant that Massa could still win the title if Hamilton finished in sixth place or lower . Otherwise , Hamilton would be Champion . In the event of a points tie , Massa would win the Championship on a count @-@ back , having more wins . Behind Hamilton and Massa in the Drivers ' Championship , Robert Kubica was third on 75 points in a BMW , and Massa 's Ferrari teammate Kimi Räikkönen was fourth on 69 points . In the Constructors ' Championship , Ferrari were leading on 156 points and McLaren – Mercedes were second on 145 points , 11 points behind , with a maximum of 18 points available . If the two Ferraris finished in the top six , the team would secure the Constructors ' Championship , even if the McLaren drivers were to finish as the top two . Prior to this race , Hamilton was criticised by many pundits for not keeping a cool head at the 2008 Japanese Grand Prix . The Times columnist Edward Gorman said that Hamilton should win the Championship , but :
Alternatively Hamilton may suffer another one of his rushes of blood to the head and do something utterly unnecessary at Interlagos , just as he did in Japan eight days ago and in Brazil last year , and throw it all away ... Suddenly defending even a seven @-@ point lead sounds a tall order .
Former Formula One team owner Eddie Jordan created controversy when he said that " if Massa tries to take him out as he did in Japan in order to steal the title then Lewis has to be ready for it , " adding " If he tries that on then Lewis has to turn his wheel into Massa to ensure he does not finish the race either – he has to take his wheel off . " Both Hamilton and Massa rejected the comments ; Massa said " Playing dirty has never been part of my game . I don 't want anything to do with it . The only thing on my mind is winning the race . "
The weekend marked David Coulthard 's final race . Coulthard 's Red Bull RB4 was decorated in the colours of " Wings for Life " , a charity dedicated to raising awareness of spinal cord injuries . Coulthard said " I 'm dedicating my last race to the vision of making paraplegia curable " . Red Bull Racing received approval from the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile , Formula One 's governing body , to run Coulthard 's car in different colours than his teammate Mark Webber . This was also the last Formula One race broadcast by ITV in the United Kingdom and Telecinco in Spain ; the rights went to the BBC and La Sexta , respectively , for 2009 . Also , this was the last race for the Honda team before they announced that they would pull out of F1 due to the global economic crisis .
= = = Practice and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the race ; the first on Friday morning and the second on Friday afternoon . Both sessions lasted 90 minutes . The third session was held on Saturday morning and lasted an hour . The two sessions on Friday were affected by occasionally damp conditions , which made the track moderately slippery . Massa was quickest with a time of 1 : 12 @.@ 305 in the first session , less than two @-@ tenths of a second faster than Hamilton . Räikkönen was just off Hamilton 's pace , followed by Kubica , Heikki Kovalainen , and Fernando Alonso . Webber was seventh , still within a second of Massa 's time . In the second practice session , Alonso was fastest with a time of 1 : 12 @.@ 296 , less than six @-@ hundredths of a second quicker than second @-@ placed Massa . Jarno Trulli took third place , ahead of Räikkönen , Webber and Sebastian Vettel . Hamilton only managed ninth place , locking his McLaren 's wheels and struggling for grip . Kovalainen was only quick enough for fifteenth position . The Saturday morning session was held on a much warmer track , which reached temperatures as high as 36 ° C ( 97 ° F ) . Alonso was again quickest , posting a time of 1 : 12 @.@ 141 , narrowly faster than both McLaren drivers . Massa , Vettel , and Nick Heidfeld rounded out the top six positions . Räikkönen only managed twelfth , failing to improve on his times set early in the session .
The qualifying session on Saturday afternoon was split into three parts . The first part ran for 20 minutes and eliminated the cars from qualifying that finished the session 16th or lower . The second part of qualifying lasted 15 minutes and eliminated cars that finished in positions 11 to 15 . The final part of qualifying determined the positions from first to tenth , and decided pole position . Cars which competed in the final session of qualifying were not allowed to refuel before the race , and as such carried more fuel than in the previous sessions .
Massa clinched his sixth pole position for the season , and his third consecutive pole at Interlagos , with a time of 1 : 12 @.@ 368 . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Trulli , in his best qualifying performance of the season . Räikkönen qualified third , though he was happy with beginning the race on the racing line behind his teammate . Hamilton qualified fourth , half a second behind Massa , having battled both Ferrari drivers for time during the first two qualifying sessions . Hamilton 's slow pace in the final qualifying session compared to the first two suggested he was carrying more fuel than his title challengers . Hamilton 's teammate Kovalainen qualified fifth . Alonso , Vettel , Heidfeld , Sébastien Bourdais and Timo Glock rounded out the top ten . Kubica only managed 13th , having struggled with overall grip for much of the day . Coulthard , in his final Formula One race , qualified 14th ; Rubens Barrichello , in 15th , was quicker than Honda teammate Jenson Button in 17th . The Williams and Force India drivers qualified at the back of the grid , covering positions 16 to 20 with Button .
= = = Race = = =
The conditions on the grid were damp before the race , the air temperature at 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) ; rain or thunderstorms were expected . The race was due to begin at 15 : 00 local time ( UTC @-@ 2 ) , but was delayed by ten minutes when heavy rain hit the track at 14 : 56 . Every team but one changed the tyres on both their cars from dry @-@ weather tyres to intermediate tyres . Kubica 's car was the exception , remaining on the dry set @-@ up . Following the formation lap , Kubica returned to the pits , his team changing the car 's tyres to intermediates . This meant the Polish driver would start the race from the pit @-@ lane .
Massa retained his pole position lead into the first corner , followed by Trulli , Räikkönen , Hamilton and Kovalainen . Coulthard was hit from behind by Nico Rosberg into turn two , spinning him around . The Red Bull car then collided with Rosberg 's Williams teammate Kazuki Nakajima . This damaged the suspension and forced Coulthard to retire in his final race . Piquet spun off at the next corner , his car hitting the barriers . Kovalainen was passed by Alonso and Vettel mid @-@ lap , dropping him to seventh . The accidents of Coulthard and Piquet prompted the deployment of the safety car at the end of the first lap . The track conditions began to dry early on ; Force India 's Giancarlo Fisichella was the first driver to stop for dry @-@ weather tyres , pitting at the end of lap two . He remained in 18th position . Racing resumed on lap five when the safety car pulled into the pit @-@ lane . Rosberg and Button both pitted on lap seven , each changing to dry @-@ weather tyres . Bourdais , Glock , Adrian Sutil and Nakajima followed a lap later . By lap 11 , the rest of the field had changed to dry @-@ weather tyres . Fisichella benefited from pitting the earliest for dry tyres , moving up the order to a high of fifth position .
Nakajima spun on lap 13 , losing five seconds on the lap . On lap 15 , Massa set a new fastest lap of 1 : 16 @.@ 888 , and extended his lead over Vettel . Hamilton remained behind Fisichella , and though his McLaren car appeared quicker , he was unable to pass the Force India driver until lap 18 . Glock passed Fisichella two laps later . Trulli and Bourdais collided on lap 20 into turn one , sending the Toro Rosso driver across the grass . Bourdais lost six places and rejoined in 13th place . Trulli 's Toyota teammate , Timo Glock , passed Fisichella later on in the same lap for sixth . Massa and Sebastian Vettel traded fastest lap times ; Vettel 's 1 : 14 @.@ 214 on lap 25 was surpassed by Massa 's 1 : 14 @.@ 161 a lap later . However , Vettel pitted soon after , having been lighter @-@ fuelled than his Ferrari opponent . He rejoined in sixth position , behind Glock . Kovalainen passed Trulli and Fisichella in separate manoeuvres , gaining seventh position . On lap 36 Massa set the fastest lap of the race , a 1 : 13 @.@ 736 .
Timo Glock was fuelled so he could complete the race without stopping again , when he pitted on lap 36 . Massa was the first of the Championship frontrunners to pit , on lap 38 ; Alonso and Hamilton pitted two laps after . When Räikkönen pitted on lap 43 , Massa had regained the lead , ahead of Alonso . Räikkönen rejoined ahead of Hamilton in third place . Fisichella 's stop was marred by transmission problems , dropping him to 18th position when he resumed . Vettel pitted again on lap 51 , his team fuelling him to the finish . He rejoined in fifth . By lap 54 , Massa had extended his already comfortable lead over Alonso to 9 @.@ 6 seconds . Vettel was closing in quickly on Hamilton , the McLaren driver needing to finish no lower than fifth to win the Championship .
Light rain began to fall on lap 63 . Heidfeld pitted and his BMW pit crew changed his tyres to intermediates , echoing their strategy at the Belgian Grand Prix which had granted the German a podium position . Kovalainen pitted on lap 65 ; Alonso and Räikkönen pitted a lap later . Hamilton and Vettel halted their battle for fourth position when they came into the pits to change onto intermediate tyres on lap 66 . Glock chose to remain on his dry @-@ weather tyres and rose from seventh to fourth place as those ahead of him pitted . Massa pitted on lap 67 , meaning that all of the frontrunners , with the exception of Glock , were now on intermediate tyres . The rain began to fall heavily on lap 69 , as Hamilton ran wide , which allowed Vettel to take fifth position . As Massa crossed the finish line to win the race , Hamilton battled Vettel for the crucial point needed to win the Championship . However , Vettel and Hamilton passed Glock in the final corners , the Toyota driver struggling for grip as his dry @-@ weather tyres slid on the wet track . Premature joy in the Ferrari garage soon turned to disappointment as Hamilton finished the race in fifth position , clinching the Championship by a single point and becoming Formula One 's youngest Championship winner until Vettel in 2010 . Räikkönen 's third @-@ place finish behind Alonso was enough to secure Ferrari the constructors ' title . After the race , one of the Hondas caught fire .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three finishers appeared on the podium and in the subsequent press conference . Massa said that he had " almost done everything perfectly " , and expressed his disappointment that despite winning the race he had not won the Championship . However , he gave his congratulations to Hamilton for his title win :
We need to congratulate Lewis because he did a great championship and he scored more points than us , so he deserves to be champion . I know how to lose and I know how to win and as I said before it is another day of my life from which I am going to learn a lot .
Massa 's Ferrari teammate Kimi Räikkönen expressed disappointment in the outcome of the Drivers ' Championship , but acknowledged the support of his team , saying " we won at least the team championship " . Ferrari president Luca di Montezemolo was reportedly so angry with the result , however , that he destroyed the television he was viewing the race on . McLaren boss Ron Dennis praised Hamilton , saying " He just keeps delivering and , at the end of the day , he 's just two years into his career . So there 's a long way to go . "
Hamilton received official congratulations from Queen Elizabeth II , following similar plaudits from British Prime Minister Gordon Brown and Opposition Leader David Cameron . Former Formula One Champions also congratulated Hamilton ; 1996 Formula One Champion Damon Hill called the McLaren driver " one of the greatest drivers we have had in this country " . Multiple Champion Michael Schumacher praised both Hamilton and Massa , saying the Ferrari driver 's performance indicated his winning abilities . Massa was praised for his sportsmanship after the race ; Joe Saward of GrandPrix.com said " He took defeat with a grace and a style that one rarely sees in modern sport . "
However , Eddie Jordan said that Hamilton " didn 't really give himself the best chance of winning the championship – and was very lucky " . The former team boss called McLaren 's strategy " a disaster " . GrandPrix.com expressed disbelief in the outcome : " It was a showdown so improbable that even Hollywood would not have made a film of it . The scriptwriters would have been laughed out of the studios . " Autosport magazine writer Adam Cooper called the race " epic " . After considering other Formula One title finales , Cooper concluded " nothing has ever matched what we saw [ in Brazil ] " .
Timo Glock remained certain the decision to stay on dry @-@ weather tyres , when other teams were pitting for wet @-@ weather tyres , was a correct one : " We were running seventh before the rain came and we would have probably finished there if it had been totally dry . Instead we finished sixth so that shows the strategy was the right one . " Glock added that the conditions were so poor " I didn 't even know that Lewis had overtaken me until after the race " .
Kubica 's finish in 11th position meant that he lost third place in the Championship to Räikkönen . After the race , Kubica said " We made too many mistakes during the weekend and this is the result . " His team said that they had received the wrong information about track conditions at the start of the race , which led them to keep the Polish driver 's car on dry @-@ weather tyres when the rest of the field had changed to intermediates .
David Coulthard expressed his disappointment in his early exit from his final Formula One race , saying that " I 'm pretty gutted , it 's not how I wanted to end my career . " The Scottish driver said that he had planned to perform doughnuts for the crowd , a celebration discouraged in Formula One . Coulthard left Formula One after 15 years with 246 race starts and 13 wins . Red Bull team principal Christian Horner said " It 's a great shame for David to be eliminated from his last Grand Prix at the first corner , but he can look back on a long and illustrious career where he 's achieved a great deal . " Coulthard continued to work for Red Bull Racing in 2009 as a testing and development consultant .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Bold text indicates the World Champions .
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Ethan Hawke =
Ethan Green Hawke ( born November 6 , 1970 ) is an American actor , writer and director . He has been nominated for four Academy Awards and a Tony Award . Hawke has directed two feature films , three Off @-@ Broadway plays , and a documentary , and wrote the novels The Hottest State ( 1996 ) and Ash Wednesday ( 2002 ) .
He made his film debut in 1985 with the science fiction feature Explorers , before making a breakthrough appearance in the 1989 drama Dead Poets Society . He then appeared in numerous films before taking a role in the 1994 Generation X drama Reality Bites , for which he received critical praise . In 1995 he starred in the romantic drama Before Sunrise , and later in its sequels Before Sunset ( 2004 ) and Before Midnight ( 2013 ) .
Hawke has been twice nominated for both the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor ; his writing contributions to Before Sunset and Before Midnight were recognized , as were his performances in Training Day ( 2001 ) and Boyhood ( 2014 ) . Hawke was further honored with SAG Award nominations for both films , along with BAFTA Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for the latter .
His other films include the science fiction drama Gattaca ( 1997 ) , the contemporary adaptation of Hamlet ( 2000 ) , the action thriller Assault on Precinct 13 ( 2005 ) , the crime drama Before the Devil Knows You 're Dead ( 2007 ) , and the horror film Sinister ( 2012 ) .
= = Early life = =
Hawke was born in Austin , Texas , to Leslie ( née Green ) , a charity worker , and James Hawke , an insurance actuary . Hawke 's parents were high school sweethearts in Fort Worth , Texas , and married young , when Hawke 's mother was 17 . Hawke was born a year later . Hawke 's parents were students at the University of Texas at Austin at the time of his birth , and separated and later divorced in 1974 .
After the separation , Hawke was then raised by his mother . The two relocated several times , before settling in New York City , where Hawke attended the Packer Collegiate Institute in Brooklyn Heights . Hawke 's mother remarried when he was 10 and the family moved to West Windsor Township , New Jersey , where Hawke attended West Windsor Plainsboro High School ( renamed to West Windsor @-@ Plainsboro High School South in 1997 ) . He later transferred to the Hun School of Princeton , a secondary boarding school , from which he graduated in 1988 .
In high school , Hawke aspired to be a writer , but developed an interest in acting . He made his stage debut at age 13 , in a school production of George Bernard Shaw 's Saint Joan , and appearances in West Windsor @-@ Plainsboro High School productions of Meet Me in St. Louis and You Can 't Take It with You followed . At the Hun School he took acting classes at the McCarter Theatre on the Princeton campus , and after high school graduation he studied acting at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh , eventually dropping out after he was cast in Dead Poets Society ( 1989 ) . He twice enrolled in New York University 's English program , but dropped out both times to pursue acting roles .
= = Career = =
= = = 1985 – 1993 : Early years and Dead Poets Society = = =
Hawke obtained his mother 's permission to attend his first casting call at age 14 . He secured his first film role in 1985 's Explorers , in which he played an alien @-@ obsessed schoolboy alongside River Phoenix . The film received favorable reviews but had poor box office revenues , a failure which Hawke has admitted caused him to quit acting for a brief period after the film 's release . Hawke later described the disappointment as difficult to bear at such a young age , adding " I would never recommend that a kid act . " His next film appearance was not until 1989 's comedy drama Dad , where he played Ted Danson 's son and Jack Lemmon 's grandson .
In 1989 , Hawke made his breakthrough appearance , playing a shy student opposite Robin Williams 's inspirational English teacher in Dead Poets Society . The film was critically well @-@ received ; the Variety reviewer noted " Hawke ... gives a haunting performance . " With revenue of US $ 235 million worldwide , the film remains Hawke 's most commercially successful picture to date . Hawke later described the opportunities he was offered as a result of the film 's success as critical to his decision to continue acting : " I didn 't want to be an actor and I went back to college . But then the [ film 's ] success was so monumental that I was getting offers to be in such interesting movies and be in such interesting places , and it seemed silly to pursue anything else . "
Hawke 's next film , 1991 's White Fang , brought his first leading role . The film , an adaptation of Jack London 's novel of the same name , featured Hawke as Jack Conroy , a Yukon gold hunter who befriends a wolfdog ( played by Jed ) . According to The Oregonian , " Hawke does a good job as young Jack ... He makes Jack 's passion for White Fang real and keeps it from being ridiculous or overly sentimental . " Hawke then appeared in A Midnight Clear ( 1992 ) , a well @-@ received war film by Keith Gordon , and survival drama Alive ( 1993 ) , a film adaptation of Piers Paul Read 's 1974 book . Hawke portrayed Nando Parrado , one of the survivors of the crash .
= = = 1994 – 2000 : Critical success , Reality Bites and Before Sunrise = = =
Hawke 's next role was in the Generation X drama Reality Bites ( 1994 ) , in which he played Troy , a slacker who mocks the ambitions of his love interest ( played by Winona Ryder ) . Film critic Roger Ebert called Hawke 's performance convincing and noteworthy : " Hawke captures all the right notes as the boorish Troy . " The New York Times noted , " Mr. Hawke 's subtle and strong performance makes it clear that Troy feels things too deeply to risk failure and admit he 's feeling anything at all . " Nonetheless , the film was a box office disappointment . Hawke also appeared in the 1994 film Quiz Show . Although he was originally considered for the lead role of Charles Van Doren , he took on a supporting role and had his screen time cut considerably during production .
The following year Hawke again received critical acclaim , this time for his performance in Richard Linklater 's 1995 drama Before Sunrise . The film follows a young American ( Hawke ) and a young French woman ( Julie Delpy ) , who meet on a train and disembark in Vienna , spending the night exploring the city and getting to know one another . The San Francisco Chronicle praised Hawke and Delpy 's performances : " [ they ] interact so gently and simply that you feel certain that they helped write the dialogue . Each of them seems to have something personal at stake in their performances . "
Away from acting , Hawke directed the music video for the 1994 song " Stay ( I Missed You ) , " by singer @-@ songwriter Lisa Loeb , who was a member of Hawke 's theater company at the time the song was included in Reality Bites . In a 2012 interview , Hawke said that the song is the only number @-@ one popular song by an unsigned artist in the history of music . He published his first novel in 1996 , The Hottest State , about a love affair between a young actor and a singer . Hawke said of the novel , " Writing the book had to do with dropping out of college , and with being an actor . I didn 't want my whole life to go by and not do anything but recite lines . I wanted to try making something else . It was definitely the scariest thing I ever did . And it was just one of the best things I ever did . " The book met with a mixed reception . Entertainment Weekly said that Hawke " opens himself to rough literary scrutiny in The Hottest State . If Hawke is serious ... he 'd do well to work awhile in less exposed venues . " The New York Times thought Hawke did " a fine job of showing what it 's like to be young and full of confusion " , concluding that The Hottest State was ultimately " a sweet love story " .
In Andrew Niccol 's science fiction film Gattaca ( 1997 ) , " one of the more interesting scripts " Hawke said he had read in " a number of years " , he played the role of a man who infiltrates a society of genetically perfect humans by assuming another man 's identity . Although Gattaca was not a success at the box office it drew generally favorable reviews from critics ; The Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram reviewer wrote that " Hawke , building on the sympathetic @-@ but @-@ edgy presence that has served him well since his kid @-@ actor days , is most impressive " .
Hawke appeared in the 1998 film Great Expectations , a contemporary film adaptation of the Charles Dickens novel of the same name . During the same year , Hawke 's second collaboration with Linklater , The Newton Boys , based on the true story of the Newton Gang , was released . In 1999 , Hawke starred in Snow Falling on Cedars , based on David Guterson 's novel of the same title . The film received ambivalent reviews and Entertainment Weekly wrote , " Hawke scrunches himself into such a dark knot that we have no idea who Ishmael is or why he acts as he does . "
Hawke 's next film role was in Michael Almereyda 's 2000 film Hamlet , in which he played the title character . The film transposed the famous William Shakespeare play to contemporary New York City , a technique Hawke felt made the play more " accessible and vital " . Salon reviewer wrote : " Hawke certainly isn 't the greatest Hamlet of living memory ... but his performance reinforces Hamlet 's place as Shakespeare 's greatest character . And in that sense , he more than holds his own in the long line of actors who 've played the part . "
In 2001 , Hawke appeared in two more Linklater movies : Waking Life and Tape , both critically acclaimed . In the animated Waking Life , he shared a single scene with former co @-@ star Delpy continuing conversations begun in Before Sunrise . The real @-@ time drama Tape , based on a play by Stephen Belber , took place entirely in a single motel room with three characters played by Hawke , Robert Sean Leonard and Uma Thurman . Hawke regarded Tape as his " first adult performance " , a performance noted by Roger Ebert for its " physical and verbal acting mastery " .
= = = 2001 – 2006 : Training Day , Oscar nominations and Directorial debut = = =
Hawke 's next role , and one for which he received substantial critical acclaim , came in Training Day ( 2001 ) . Hawke played rookie cop Jake Hoyt , alongside Denzel Washington , as one of a pair of narcotics detectives from the Los Angeles Police Department spending 24 hours in the gang neighborhoods of South Los Angeles . The film was a box office hit , taking $ 104 million worldwide , and garnered generally favorable reviews . Variety wrote that " Hawke adds feisty and cunning flourishes to his role that allow him to respectably hold his own under formidable circumstances . " Paul Clinton of CNN reported that Hawke 's performance was " totally believable as a doe @-@ eyed rookie going toe @-@ to @-@ toe with a legend [ Washington ] " . Hawke himself described Training Day as his " best experience in Hollywood " . His performance earned him Screen Actors Guild and Academy Award nominations for Best Supporting Actor .
Hawke pursued a number of projects away from acting throughout the early 2000s . He made his directorial debut with Chelsea Walls ( 2002 ) , an independent drama about five struggling artists living in the famed Chelsea Hotel in New York City . The film was critically and financially unsuccessful . A second novel , 2002 's Ash Wednesday , was better received and made the New York Times Best Seller list . The tale of an AWOL soldier and his pregnant girlfriend , the novel attracted critical praise . The Guardian called it " sharply and poignantly written ... makes for an intense one @-@ sitting read " . The New York Times noted that in the book Hawke displayed " a novelist 's innate gifts ... a sharp eye , a fluid storytelling voice and the imagination to create complicated individuals " , but was " weaker at narrative tricks that can be taught " . In 2003 Hawke made a television appearance , guest starring in the second season of the television series Alias , where he portrayed a mysterious CIA agent .
In 2004 Hawke returned to film , starring in two features , Taking Lives and Before Sunset . Upon release , Taking Lives received broadly negative reviews , but Hawke 's performance was favored by critics , with the Star Tribune noting that he " plays a complex character persuasively " . Before Sunset , the sequel to Before Sunrise ( 1995 ) co @-@ written by Hawke , Linklater , and Delpy , was much more successful . The Hartford Courant wrote that the three collaborators " keep Jesse and Celine iridescent and fresh , one of the most delightful and moving of all romantic movie couples . " Hawke called it one of his favorite movies , a " romance for realists " . Before Sunset was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay , Hawke 's first screenwriting Oscar nomination .
Hawke starred in the 2005 action thriller Assault on Precinct 13 , a loose remake of John Carpenter 's 1976 film of the same title , with an updated plot . The film received reasonable reviews ; some critics praised the dark swift feel of the film , while others compared it unfavorably to John Carpenter 's original . Hawke also appeared that year in the political crime thriller Lord of War , playing an Interpol agent chasing an arms dealer played by Nicolas Cage . In 2006 , Hawke was cast in a supporting role in Fast Food Nation , directed by Richard Linklater based on Eric Schlosser 's best @-@ selling 2001 book . The same year Hawke directed his second feature , The Hottest State , based on his eponymous 1996 novel . The film was released in August 2007 to a tepid reception .
= = = 2007 – 2012 : Before the Devil Knows You 're Dead and Brooklyn 's Finest = = =
In 2007 , Hawke starred alongside Philip Seymour Hoffman , Marisa Tomei , and Albert Finney in the crime drama Before the Devil Knows You 're Dead . The final work of Sidney Lumet , the film received critical acclaim . USA Today called it " highly entertaining " , describing Hawke and Hoffman 's performances as excellent . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone praised Hawke 's performance , noting that he " digs deep to create a haunting portrayal of loss " .
The following year , Hawke starred with Mark Ruffalo in the crime drama What Doesn 't Kill You . Despite the favorable reception , the film was not given a proper theatrical release due to the bankruptcy of its distributor . In 2009 , Hawke appeared in two features : New York , I Love You , a romance movie comprising 12 short films , and Staten Island , a crime drama co @-@ starring Vincent D 'Onofrio and Seymour Cassel .
In 2010 , Hawke starred as a vampire hematologist in the science fiction horror film Daybreakers . Filmed in Australia with the Spierig brothers , the feature received reasonable reviews , and earned US $ 51 million worldwide . His next role was in Antoine Fuqua 's Brooklyn 's Finest as a corrupt narcotics officer . The film opened in March to a mediocre reception , yet his performance was well @-@ received , with the New York Daily News concluding , " Hawke — continuing an evolution toward stronger , more intense acting than anyone might 've predicted from him 20 years ago — drives the movie . "
In a 2011 television adaptation of Herman Melville 's Moby @-@ Dick , Hawke played the role of Starbuck , the first officer to William Hurt 's Captain Ahab . He then starred opposite Kristin Scott Thomas in Paweł Pawlikowski 's The Woman in the Fifth , a " lush puzzler " about an American novelist struggling to rebuild his life in Paris .
In 2012 , Hawke entered the horror genre for the first time , by playing a true crime writer in Scott Derrickson 's Sinister , which grossed US $ 87 million at the worldwide box office — the film was the first in a series of highly profitable films for Hawke after the start of the new decade . In the week prior to the US opening of Sinister , Hawke explained that he was previously turned off by horror because good acting is not always required for success ; however , the producer of Sinister , Jason Blum , formerly ran a theater company with Hawke , and made the offer to the actor based on the character and director :
... when I was younger , I ran a theater company with this guy , Jason Blum . And he loved horror movies and he went on to create his own little subgenre with " Paranormal Activity . " And he kept trying to talk to me about how I should love this whole genre . And I told him : I 've never had a script with a really great character and a real filmmaker attached to it that I 'd be interested in . So , he brought me into it .
= = = 2013 – present : Before Midnight and Boyhood = = =
During 2013 , Hawke starred in three films of different genres . Before Midnight , the third installment of the Before series , reunited Hawke with Delpy and Linklater . Like its predecessors , the film garnered a considerable degree of critical acclaim ; Variety wrote that " one of the great movie romances of the modern era achieves its richest and fullest expression in Before Midnight , " and called the scene in the hotel room " one for the actors ' handbook . " The film earned co @-@ writers Hawke , Linklater , and Delpy another Academy Award nomination , for Best Adapted Screenplay .
Hawke then starred in the horror @-@ thriller The Purge , about an American future where crime is legal for one night of the year . Despite mixed reviews , the film topped the weekend box office with a US $ 34 million debut , the biggest opening of Hawke 's career . Hawke 's third film of 2013 was the action film Getaway , which was both critically and commercially unsuccessful .
The release of Linklater 's Boyhood , a film shot over the course of 12 years , occurred in mid @-@ 2014 . It follows the life of an American boy from age 6 to 18 , with Hawke playing the protagonist 's father . The film became the best @-@ reviewed film of 2014 , and was named " Best Film " of the year by numerous critics associations . Hawke said in an interview that the attention was a surprise to him . When he first became involved with Linklater 's project , it did not feel like a " proper movie , " and was like a " radical ' 60s film experiment or something " . At the following awards season , the film was nominated for Academy Award for Best Picture , while winning Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama and BAFTA Award for Best Film . It also earned Hawke multiple awards nominations , including the Academy , BAFTA , Golden Globe , and SAG Award for Best Supporting Actor .
Hawke next worked with the Spierig brothers again on the science fiction thriller Predestination , in which Hawke plays a time @-@ traveling agent on his final assignment . Following its premiere at the 2014 SXSW Film Festival , the film was released in Australia in August 2014 and in the US in January 2015 . The film received largely positive reviews and was nominated for the AACTA Award for Best Film .
In September 2014 , Hawke 's documentary debut , Seymour : An Introduction , screened at the Toronto International Film Festival ( TIFF ) , winning second runner @-@ up for TIFF 's People 's Choice Award for Best Documentary . Conceived after a dinner party at which both Hawke and Bernstein were present , the film is a profile of classical musician Seymour Bernstein , who explained that , even though he is typically a very private person , he was unable to decline Hawke 's directorial request because he is " so endearing " . Bernstein and Hawke developed a friendship through the filming process , and the classical pianist performed for one of Hawke 's theater groups . The film was well @-@ received among critics and enjoyed a limited release in March 2015 .
At the time of a November 2014 interview , Hawke was in the process of filming a new narrative film project about the life of jazz musician Chet Baker . Titled Born to Be Blue , the film is set in 1969 and focuses on Baker 's relationship with girlfriend Diane Vavra . In a December 2014 " Actors on Actors " feature for Variety Media , Hawke said in a filmed discussion with Keira Knightley that actors need " thin skin and a lot of perseverance " . Other upcoming projects for Hawke include the modern @-@ day adaptation of Shakespeare 's play Cymbeline ; the coming @-@ of @-@ age drama Ten Thousand Saints ; Andrew Niccol 's Good Kill ; and Alejandro Amenábar 's thriller film Regression .
= = = Stage career = = =
Hawke has described theater as his " first love " , a place where he is " free to be more creative " . Hawke made his Broadway debut in 1992 , portraying the playwright Konstantin Treplev in Anton Chekhov 's The Seagull at the Lyceum Theater in Manhattan . The following year Hawke was a co @-@ founder and the artistic director of Malaparte , a Manhattan theater company , which survived until 2000 . Outside the New York stage , Hawke made an appearance in a 1995 production of Sam Shepard 's Buried Child , directed by Gary Sinise at the Steppenwolf Theater in Chicago . In 1999 , he starred as Kilroy in the Tennessee Williams play Camino Real at the Williamstown Theater Festival in Massachusetts .
Hawke returned to Broadway in Jack O 'Brien 's 2003 production of Henry IV , playing Henry Percy ( Hotspur ) . New York magazine wrote : " Ethan Hawke 's Hotspur ... is a compelling , ardent creation . " Ben Brantley of the New York Times reported that Hawke 's interpretation of Hotspur might be " too contemporary for some tastes , " but allowed " great fun to watch as he fumes and fulminates . " In 2005 Hawke starred in the Off @-@ Broadway revival of David Rabe 's dark comedy Hurlyburly . New York Times critic Brantley praised Hawke 's performance as the central character Eddie , reporting that " he captures with merciless precision the sense of a sharp mind turning flaccid " . The performance earned Hawke a Lucille Lortel Award nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor .
From November 2006 to May 2007 , Hawke starred as Mikhail Bakunin in Tom Stoppard 's trilogy play The Coast of Utopia , an eight @-@ hour @-@ long production at the Lincoln Center Theater in New York . The Los Angeles Times complimented Hawke 's take on Bakunin , writing : " Ethan Hawke buzzes in and out as Bakunin , a strangely appealing enthusiast on his way to becoming a famous anarchist . " The performance earned Hawke his first Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actor in a Play . In November 2007 he directed Things We Want , a two @-@ act play by Jonathan Marc Sherman , for the artist @-@ driven Off @-@ Broadway company The New Group . The play has four characters played by Paul Dano , Peter Dinklage , Josh Hamilton , and Zoe Kazan . New York magazine praised Hawke 's " understated direction " , particularly his ability to " steer a gifted cast away from the histrionics " .
The following year Hawke received the Michael Mendelson Award for Outstanding Commitment to the Theater . In his acceptance speech Hawke said " I don 't know
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's famous June 18th Speech , he was given the option of being discharged from his duties , or to join the Free French forces . He chose the latter . He was assigned as a sentry guarding Charles de Gaulle 's headquarters . While at that post , he wrote a letter to de Gaulle suggesting techniques to improve the morale of Free French troops . De Gaulle took immediate notice , making him assistant to the chief press attachè . Within a few months , de Gaulle moved Laguerre into the chief position himself , making him his primary press liaison . He followed de Gaulle on his travels to North Africa in 1943 to inspect Free French forces there , and to Washington , D.C. to visit with American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1944 . He stayed on de Gaulle 's staff for a while after the war , but after interviewing with Henry Luce , the head of Time , Inc . , he left de Gaulle 's service to accept a job writing for Time magazine .
= = Time = =
Laguerre began his Time career in 1946 as one of the magazine 's European correspondents . Working mainly out of the Time Paris bureau , he hobnobbed with Paris 's top citizens ; he was a frequent dinner guest of Albert Camus . He also maintained his connection to sports , first acquired in his youth in San Francisco , by moonlighting as a sports reporter for the Paris @-@ based English @-@ language International Herald Tribune , writing a horse racing column under the pseudonym " Eddie Snow " .
Meanwhile , Laguerre was attracting the attention of Time , Inc . ' s top brass . In 1948 , he was promoted to Paris bureau chief and , in December 1950 , he was brought to New York by Time founder Henry Luce for a special one @-@ year assignment to work out of the main Time offices . He returned to Europe in 1951 to serve as London bureau chief . In 1955 , after the sudden death of the Paris bureau chief , he was given that position back , and for a time he held both posts simultaneously . While Time bureau chief of London and Paris , he also spent some time writing about his favorite subject , sports , for the magazine , for which he covered the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz , Switzerland , and the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki , Finland . In early 1956 , he accepted a temporary assignment to head a contingent of writers to cover the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d 'Ampezzo , Italy for Time , Inc . ' s fledgling Sports Illustrated , started two years earlier by Luce . His first article for the magazine was a piece on the dominance of the Soviet Union in their first Winter Olympics . Three months later , Luce installed him as assistant managing editor of Sports Illustrated .
On June 7 , 1955 , Laguerre married Princess Nathalie Alexandria Kotchoubey de Beauharnais , a Russian princess and descendant of both Catherine the Great and Joséphine de Beauharnais . The couple had met in 1943 while André was working for General de Gaulle , and Nathalie was a reporter for Time . They had two daughters , Michèle Anne Laguerre and Claudine Hélène Laguerre .
= = Sports Illustrated = =
As assistant managing editor , his first major assignment was to head the team of reporters and photographers covering the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne , Australia . Among those traveling with Laguerre were Roger Bannister , the former British track and field star and first man in history to run a competition mile in under four minutes , and Roy Terrell , who would eventually succeed Laguerre as managing editor of Sports Illustrated .
= = = Managing editor = = =
Laguerre was promoted to managing editor of Sports Illustrated in May 1960 , after four years as assistant managing editor . His time at the magazine was instrumental in saving what was , when he took over , a financially insolvent publication . He would serve as managing editor for fourteen years , leading the magazine for a total of 704 issues , then a record among Time , Inc. managing editors . During his tenure , the circulation grew from 900 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 issues , and the advertising budget grew from $ 11 @.@ 9 million to $ 72 @.@ 2 million . He altered the look and feel of the magazine , changing its focus from a lifestyle magazine that focused on leisure sports , to one that covered the major American team sports , at a time when television vastly altered the way in which such sports were covered . As such , he kept Sports Illustrated at the head of the growth of interest in these sports . He also placed a heavy emphasis on the use of color photography and late deadline , to keep the magazine up to date and visually appealing . He hired and encouraged writers who were masters at prose , emphasizing writing over sportswriting , and the crop of writers he brought to the magazine , including Frank Deford , Dan Jenkins , Budd Schulberg , and Gil Rogin , helped change the way people wrote about sports .
Laguerre had been very guarded about his personal life among his coworkers . Deford , who worked closely with him for many years , and who looked up to him as a mentor , said of him , " Laguerre was a fascinating paradox : He was almost constitutionally withdrawn , but among the friends he chose , he was magnetic . " One publisher called him " A powerful personality " while another called him " A close @-@ mouthed , self @-@ contained man who seemed forbidding to some ... despite his reserve , [ his ] personality was pervading , dominating ; he exuded strength and leadership . "
Among his more curious and enduring innovations was the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue . The winter months , between the college bowl season and the start of Major League Baseball 's spring training , was a slow time for sports journalism . At the time , winter team sports like basketball and ice hockey were regional niche sports , and there was little to write about . Laguerre had instituted an annual February issue titled " Fun in the Sun " , where he sent his staff to an exotic locale to write about and photograph it for his readers . In 1964 , he asked Jule Campbell , then a fashion reporter for Sports Illustrated , to " go to some beautiful place and put a pretty girl on the cover " of that year 's " Fun in the Sun " issue . That year 's issue featured only five pages of girls in swimsuits , and still predominantly featured travel writing , including articles about snorkeling and fish @-@ watching . With the help of that year 's " Fun in the Sun " issue , 1964 became the first year that Sports Illustrated would turn a profit . Though originally only planned as a one @-@ off event , Laguerre was convinced by Sports Illustrated art director Dick Gangel to bring back the swimsuits in 1965 , only " a lot sexier " . Laguerre once again assigned Jule Campbell to scout models and locations . The 1965 issue contained an article entitled " The Nudity Cult " and de @-@ emphasized the travelogue @-@ like writing of previous " Fun in the Sun " issues from which it evolved . Since then , the Swimsuit Issue has become the biggest selling issue of the magazine , and a major cross @-@ over publication for the fashion and modeling worlds as well .
Laguerre 's tenure as managing editor had a profound effect on the other 51 issues of the year as well . During the magazine 's first several years , prior to Laguerre 's arrival , the magazine did not place major American team sports at the forefront . As an example , during 1955 and 1956 , the magazine 's first two years , it featured as many articles on fishing as on professional football , 23 articles . By 1965 – 1966 , five years into Laguerre 's term , the magazine published only eight articles on fishing , while it published over 60 articles on pro football .
Besides changing the types of sports being covered , the manner in which they were covered changed as well . Under earlier managing editors , the magazine 's writing and editorial staff was organized by department . Thus , there was a fashion department , a travel department , and a sports department , which covered all sports . Laguerre reorganized the magazine , giving each sport its own separate department , so there would be a dedicated staff of writers in the baseball department , and a different boxing department , and another for pro football , and so on . Laguerre also encouraged serious investigative journalism , and did not shy away from controversial issues . In 1961 , writer Ray Cave broke a story on point shaving in college basketball . In 1968 , under Laguerre 's direction , and under secrecy from his superiors , the magazine ran a five @-@ part series on the experience of black athletes in America .
Laguerre 's later years showed less success as the magazine became an industry leader . In 1968 , its coverage of the Mexico City Olympics was heavily criticized , having been " scooped " on most stories by both Time and Life magazines . A 1969 book by Jack Olsen , titled The Girls in the Office , embarrassed Time Inc. over its treatment of its female employees , including those at Sports Illustrated . In 1970 , 23 women on staff at Sports Illustrated signed a petition demanding equal treatment . Laguerre relented , promoting Pat Ryan to senior editor , and paying her the same as the men in her same position . By 1973 , Laguerre 's leadership was under a direct challenge from within his staff and from his superiors . A January 1973 story in New York Magazine was highly critical of the degrading quality of the writing and of the stagnating corporate culture at Sports Illustrated . By September of that year , Laguerre was asked to step down as managing editor.He was offered an executive position in corporate offices which he refused and his resignation was complete by February 1 , 1974 .
= = Later career and death = =
After retiring as managing editor , he remained with Sports Illustrated in order to head a group looking into publishing international editions of the magazine . He was offered the job as managing editor of Playboy , and , insulted by the low $ 45 @,@ 000 salary Hugh Hefner offered him , he turned the job down . In 1975 , he founded a bi @-@ monthly horse @-@ racing magazine , Classic , which he headed until shortly before his death of a heart attack in New York on January 18 , 1979 at the age of sixty @-@ three .
= Windows 10 =
Windows 10 is a personal computer operating system developed and released by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of operating systems . It was officially unveiled in September 2014 following a brief demo at Build 2014 . The first version of the operating system entered a public beta testing process in October 2014 , leading up to its consumer release on July 29 , 2015 .
= = Description and features = =
Windows 10 introduces what Microsoft described as " universal apps " ; expanding on Metro @-@ style apps , these apps can be designed to run across multiple Microsoft product families with nearly identical code — including PCs , tablets , smartphones , embedded systems , Xbox One , Surface Hub and Windows Holographic . The Windows user interface was revised to handle transitions between a mouse @-@ oriented interface and a touchscreen @-@ optimized interface based on available input devices — particularly on 2 @-@ in @-@ 1 PCs ; both interfaces include an updated Start menu which incorporates elements of Windows 7 's traditional Start menu with the tiles of Windows 8 . The first release of Windows 10 also introduces a virtual desktop system , a window and desktop management feature called Task View , the Microsoft Edge web browser , support for fingerprint and face recognition login , new security features for enterprise environments , and DirectX 12 and WDDM 2 @.@ 0 to improve the operating system 's graphics capabilities for games .
Microsoft described Windows 10 as an " operating system as a service " that would receive ongoing updates to its features and functionality , augmented with the ability for enterprise environments to receive non @-@ critical updates at a slower pace , or use long @-@ term support milestones that will only receive critical updates , such as security patches , over their five @-@ year lifespan of mainstream support . Terry Myerson , executive vice president of Microsoft 's Windows and Devices Group , argued that the goal of this model was to reduce fragmentation across the Windows platform , as Microsoft aimed to have Windows 10 installed on at least one billion devices in the two to three years following its release .
Windows 10 received mostly positive reviews upon its original release in July 2015 ; critics praised Microsoft 's decision to downplay user @-@ interface mechanics introduced by Windows 8 ( including the full screen apps and Start screen ) in non @-@ touch environments to provide a desktop @-@ oriented interface in line with previous versions of Windows , although Windows 10 's touch @-@ oriented user interface mode was panned for containing regressions upon the touch @-@ oriented interface of Windows 8 . Critics also praised the improvements to Windows 10 's bundled software over 8 @.@ 1 , Xbox Live integration , as well as the functionality and capabilities of Cortana personal assistant and the replacement of Internet Explorer with Microsoft Edge .
Critics characterized the initial release of Windows 10 in July 2015 as being rushed , citing the incomplete state of some of the operating system 's bundled software ( such as the Edge web browser ) , as well as the stability of the operating system itself on launch . Windows 10 was also criticized for limiting how users can control its operation , including limited controls over the installation of updates on the main consumer @-@ oriented edition in comparison to previous versions . Privacy concerns were also voiced by critics and advocates , as the operating system 's default settings and certain features require the transmission of user data to Microsoft or its partners . Microsoft has also received criticism for how it has distributed Windows 10 to users of existing versions of Windows , which has included the automatic downloads of installation files to computers , the recurring display of pop @-@ ups advertising the upgrade , and allegations of the installation process being scheduled or initiated automatically without expressed user consent .
As of June 2016 , Windows 10 use is on the rise , with previous versions of Windows declining in their share of total usage as measured by web traffic . The operating system is running on 350 million active devices and has an estimated usage share of 22 % on personal computers and 12 % across all platforms ( PC , mobile , tablet , and console ) .
= = Development = =
At the Microsoft Worldwide Partner Conference in 2011 , Andrew Lees , the chief of Microsoft 's mobile technologies , stated that the company intended to have a single software ecosystem for PCs , phones , tablets , and other devices . " We won ’ t have an ecosystem for PCs , and one for phones , and one for tablets — they 'll all come together . "
In December 2013 , technology writer Mary Jo Foley reported that Microsoft was working on an update to Windows 8 codenamed " Threshold " , after a planet in Microsoft 's Halo video game franchise . Similarly to " Blue " ( which became Windows 8 @.@ 1 ) , Foley called Threshold a " wave of operating systems " across multiple Microsoft platforms and services , scheduled for the second quarter of 2015 . Foley reported that among the goals for Threshold was to create a unified application platform and development toolkit for Windows , Windows Phone and Xbox One ( which all use a similar Windows NT kernel ) .
In April 2014 , at the Build Conference , Microsoft 's Terry Myerson unveiled an updated version of Windows 8 @.@ 1 that added the ability to run Windows Store apps inside desktop windows and a more traditional Start menu in place of the Start screen seen in Windows 8 . The new Start menu takes after Windows 7 's design by using only a portion of the screen and including a Windows 7 @-@ style application listing in the first column . The second column displays Windows 8 @-@ style app tiles . Myerson stated that these changes would occur in a future update , but did not elaborate . Microsoft also unveiled the concept of a " universal Windows app " , allowing Windows Store apps created for Windows 8 @.@ 1 to be ported to Windows Phone 8 @.@ 1 and Xbox One while sharing a common codebase , with an interface designed for different device form factors , and allowing user data and licenses for an app to be shared between multiple platforms . Windows Phone 8 @.@ 1 would share nearly 90 % of the common Windows Runtime APIs with Windows 8 @.@ 1 on PCs .
Screenshots of a Windows build which purported to be Threshold were leaked in July 2014 , showing the previously presented Start menu and windowed Windows Store apps followed by a further screenshot in September 2014 of a build identifying itself as " Windows Technical Preview " , numbered 9834 , showing a new virtual desktop system , a notification center , and a new File Explorer icon .
= = = Announcement = = =
Threshold was officially unveiled during a media event on September 30 , 2014 , under the name Windows 10 ; Myerson said that Windows 10 would be Microsoft 's " most comprehensive platform ever " , providing a single , unified platform for desktop computers , laptops , tablets , smartphones , and all @-@ in @-@ one devices . He emphasized that Windows 10 would take steps towards restoring user interface mechanics from Windows 7 to improve the experience for users on non @-@ touch devices , noting criticism of Windows 8 's touch @-@ oriented interface by keyboard and mouse users . Despite these concessions , Myerson noted that the touch @-@ oriented interface would evolve as well on 10 . In describing the changes , Joe Belfiore likened the two operating systems to electric cars , comparing Windows 7 to a first @-@ generation Toyota Prius hybrid , and Windows 10 to an all @-@ electric Tesla — considering the latter to be an extension of the technology first introduced in the former .
In regards to Microsoft naming the new operating system Windows 10 instead of Windows 9 , Terry Myerson stated that " based on the product that 's coming , and just how different our approach will be overall , it wouldn 't be right to call it Windows 9 . " He also joked that they could not call it " Windows One " ( alluding to several recent Microsoft products with a similar brand , such as OneDrive , OneNote , and Xbox One ) because Windows 1 @.@ 0 already existed . Tony Prophet , Microsoft Vice President of Windows Marketing , stated at a San Francisco conference in October 2014 that Windows 9 " came and went " , and that Windows 10 is not " an incremental step from Windows 8 @.@ 1 , " but " a material step . We 're trying to create one platform , one eco @-@ system that unites as many of the devices [ sic ] from the small embedded Internet of Things , through tablets , through phones , through PCs and , ultimately , into the Xbox . "
Further details surrounding Windows 10 's consumer @-@ oriented features were presented during another media event held on January 21 , 2015 , entitled " Windows 10 : The Next Chapter " . The keynote featured the unveiling of Cortana integration within the operating system , new Xbox @-@ oriented features , Windows 10 Mobile , an updated Office Mobile suite , Surface Hub — a large @-@ screened Windows 10 device for enterprise collaboration based upon Perceptive Pixel technology , along with HoloLens ‑ augmented reality eyewear and an associated platform for building apps that can render holograms through HoloLens .
Additional developer @-@ oriented details surrounding the " Universal Windows Platform " concept were revealed and discussed during Microsoft 's developers ' conference Build . Among them were the unveiling of " Islandwood " , which provides a middleware toolchain for compiling Objective @-@ C based software ( particularly , iOS software ) to run as universal apps on Windows 10 and Windows 10 Mobile . A port of Candy Crush Saga made using the toolkit , which shared much of its code with the iOS version , was demonstrated , alongside the announcement that the King @-@ developed game would be bundled with Windows 10 at launch .
= = = Release = = =
On June 1 , 2015 , Microsoft first announced that Windows 10 would be released on July 29 , 2015 . Microsoft began an advertising campaign centering on Windows 10 , " Upgrade Your World " , on July 20 , 2015 with the premiere of television commercials in Australia , Canada , France , Germany , Japan , the United Kingdom , and the United States . The commercials focused on the tagline " A more human way to do " , emphasizing new features and technologies supported by Windows 10 that sought to provide a more " personal " experience to users . The campaign culminated with launch events in thirteen cities on July 29 , which celebrated " the unprecedented role our biggest fans played in the development of Windows 10 " .
= = Features = =
Windows 10 harmonizes the user experience and functionality between different classes of device , and addresses shortcomings in the user interface that were introduced in Windows 8 . Windows 10 Mobile , the successor to Windows Phone 8 @.@ 1 , shares some user interface elements and apps with its PC counterpart .
The Windows Runtime app ecosystem was revised into the Universal Windows Platform ( UWP ) . These universal apps are made to run across multiple platforms and device classes , including smartphones , tablets , Xbox One consoles , and other compatible Windows 10 devices . Windows apps share code across platforms , have responsive designs that adapt to the needs of the device and available inputs , can synchronize data between Windows 10 devices ( including notifications , credentials , and allowing cross @-@ platform multiplayer for games ) , and are distributed through a unified Windows Store . Developers can allow " cross @-@ buys " , where purchased licenses for an app apply to all of the user 's compatible devices , rather than only the one they purchased on ( e.g. , a user purchasing an app on PC is also entitled to use the smartphone version at no extra cost ) .
On Windows 10 , Windows Store serves as a unified storefront for apps , Groove Music ( formerly Xbox Music ) , and Movies & TV ( formerly Xbox Video ) . Windows 10 also allows web apps and desktop software ( using either Win32 or .NET Framework ) to be packaged for distribution on the Windows Store . Desktop software distributed through Windows Store is packaged using the App @-@ V system to allow sandboxing .
= = = User interface and desktop = = =
A new iteration of the Start menu is used on the Windows 10 desktop , with a list of places and other options on the left side , and tiles representing applications on the right . The menu can be resized , and expanded into a full @-@ screen display , which is the default option in Tablet mode . A new virtual desktop system was added . A feature known as Task View displays all open windows and allows users to switch between them , or switch between multiple workspaces . Windows Store apps , which previously could be used only in full screen mode , can now be used in self @-@ contained windows similarly to other programs . Program windows can now be snapped to quadrants of the screen by dragging them to the corner . When a window is snapped to one side of the screen , Task View appears and the user is prompted to choose a second window to fill the unused side of the screen ( called " Snap Assist " ) . Windows ' system icons were also changed .
Charms have been removed ; their functionality in Windows Store apps is accessed from an App commands menu on their titlebar . In its place is Action Center , which displays notifications and settings toggles . It is accessed by clicking an icon in the system tray , or dragging from the right of the screen . Notifications can be synced between multiple devices . The Settings app ( formerly PC Settings ) was refreshed and now includes more options that were previously exclusive to the desktop Control Panel .
Windows 10 is designed to adapt its user interface based on the type of device being used and available input methods . It offers two separate user interface modes : a user interface optimized for mouse and keyboard , and a " Tablet mode " designed for touchscreens . Users can toggle between these two modes at any time , and Windows can prompt or automatically switch when certain events occur , such as disabling Tablet mode on a tablet if a keyboard or mouse is plugged in , or when a 2 @-@ in @-@ 1 PC is switched to its laptop state . In Tablet mode , programs default to a maximized view , and the taskbar contains a back button and hides buttons for opened or pinned programs ; Task View is used instead to switch between programs . The full screen Start menu is used in this mode , similarly to Windows 8 , but scrolls vertically instead of horizontally .
= = = System security = = =
Windows 10 incorporates multi @-@ factor authentication technology based upon standards developed by the FIDO Alliance . The operating system includes improved support for biometric authentication through the Windows Hello and Passport platforms ; devices with supported cameras ( requiring infrared illumination , such as Intel RealSense ) allow users to log in with face- or iris @-@ recognition , similarly to Kinect . Devices with supported readers support fingerprint @-@ recognition login . Credentials are stored locally and protected using asymmetric encryption . The Passport platform allows networks , software and websites to authenticate users using either a PIN or biometric login to verify their identity , without sending a password .
The enterprise version of Windows 10 offers additional security features ; administrators can set up policies for the automatic encryption of sensitive data , selectively block applications from accessing encrypted data , and enable Device Guard — a system which allows administrators to enforce a high security environment by blocking the execution of software that is not digitally signed by a trusted vendor or Microsoft . Device Guard is designed to protect against zero @-@ day exploits , and runs inside a hypervisor so that its operation remains separated from the operating system itself .
= = = Command line = = =
Win32 console windows can now be resized without any restrictions , can be made to cover the full screen by pressing Alt + ↵ Enter , and can use standard keyboard shortcuts , such as those for cut , copy , and paste . Other features such as word wrap and transparency were also added . These functions can be disabled to revert to the legacy console , if needed .
" Redstone " adds Windows Subsystem for Linux , a version of the Ubuntu user space that can run natively on Windows . The subsystem translates Linux system calls that Ubuntu uses to those of the Windows NT kernel . This allows the Bash and other 64 @-@ bit Ubuntu command line apps to run within the Windows console ; however , Bash cannot run Windows software and Windows cannot run Linux software .
= = = Storage requirements = = =
To reduce the storage footprint of the operating system , Windows 10 automatically compresses system files . The system can reduce the storage footprint of Windows by approximately 1 @.@ 5 GB for 32 @-@ bit systems and 2 @.@ 6 GB for 64 @-@ bit systems . The level of compression used is dependent on a performance assessment performed during installations or by OEMs , which tests how much compression can be used without harming operating system performance . Furthermore , the Refresh and Reset functions use runtime system files instead , making a separate recovery partition redundant , allowing patches and updates to remain installed following the operation , and further reducing the amount of space required for Windows 10 by up to 12 GB . These functions replace the WIMBoot mode introduced on Windows 8 @.@ 1 Update , which allowed OEMs to configure low @-@ capacity devices with flash @-@ based storage to use Windows system files out of the compressed WIM image typically used for installation and recovery . Windows 10 also includes a function in its Settings app that allows users to view a breakdown of how their device 's storage capacity is being used by different types of files , and determine whether certain types of files are saved to internal storage or an SD card by default .
= = = Online services and functionality = = =
Windows 10 introduces a new default web browser , Microsoft Edge . It features a new standards @-@ compliant rendering engine forked from Trident , annotation tools , and offers integration with other Microsoft platforms present within Windows 10 . Internet Explorer 11 is maintained on Windows 10 for compatibility purposes , but is deprecated in favor of Edge and will no longer be actively developed .
Windows 10 incorporates Microsoft 's intelligent personal assistant , Cortana , which was first introduced with Windows Phone 8 @.@ 1 in 2014 . Cortana replaced Windows ' embedded search feature , supporting both text and voice input . Many of its features are a direct carryover from Windows Phone , including integration with Bing , setting reminders , a Notebook feature for managing personal information , as well as searching for files , playing music , launching applications and setting reminders or sending emails . Cortana is implemented as a universal search box located alongside the Start and Task View buttons , which can be hidden or condensed to a single button .
Microsoft Family Safety is replaced by Microsoft Family , a parental controls system that applies across Windows platforms and Microsoft online services . Users can create a designated family , and monitor and restrict the actions of users designated as children , such as access to websites , enforcing age ratings on Windows Store purchases , and other restrictions . The service can also send weekly e @-@ mail reports to parents detailing a child 's computer usage . Unlike previous versions of Windows , Child accounts in a family must be associated with a Microsoft account — which allows these settings to apply across all Windows 10 devices that a particular child is using .
Windows 10 also offers the Wi @-@ Fi Sense feature originating from Windows Phone 8 @.@ 1 ; users can optionally have their device automatically connect to suggested open hotspots , and share their home network 's password with contacts ( either via Skype , People , or Facebook ) so they may automatically connect to the network on a Windows 10 device without needing to manually enter its password . Credentials are stored in an encrypted form on Microsoft servers , and sent to the devices of the selected contacts . Passwords are not viewable by the guest user , and the guest user is not allowed to access other computers or devices on the network . Wi @-@ Fi Sense is not usable on 802.1X @-@ encrypted networks . Adding " _ optout " at the end of the SSID will also block the corresponding network from being used for this feature .
Universal calling and messaging apps for Windows 10 are built in as of the November 2015 update : Messaging , Skype Video , and Phone . These offer built @-@ in alternatives to the Skype download and sync with Windows 10 Mobile .
= = = Multimedia and gaming = = =
Windows 10 provides heavier integration with the Xbox ecosystem . Xbox SmartGlass is succeeded by the Xbox app , which allows users to browse their game library ( including both PC and Xbox console games ) , and Game DVR is also available using a keyboard shortcut , allowing users to save the last 30 seconds of gameplay as a video that can be shared to Xbox Live , OneDrive , or elsewhere . Windows 10 also allows users to control and play games from an Xbox One console over a local network . The Xbox Live SDK allows application developers to incorporate Xbox Live functionality into their apps , and future wireless Xbox One accessories , such as controllers , are supported on Windows with an adapter . Microsoft also intends to allow cross @-@ buys and save synchronization between Xbox One and Windows 10 versions of games ; Microsoft Studios games such as ReCore and Quantum Break are intended as being exclusive to Windows 10 and Xbox One .
Candy Crush Saga and Microsoft Solitaire Collection are also automatically installed upon installation of Windows 10 .
Windows 10 adds native game recording and screenshot capture ability using the newly introduced game bar . Users can also have the OS continuously record gameplay in the background , which , then , allows the user to save the last few , user configurable , moments of gameplay to the hard disk .
Windows 10 adds FLAC and HEVC codecs and support for the Matroska media container , allowing these formats to be opened in Windows Media Player and other applications .
= = = = DirectX 12 = = = =
Windows 10 includes DirectX 12 , alongside WDDM 2 @.@ 0 . Unveiled March 2014 at GDC , DirectX 12 aims to provide " console @-@ level efficiency " with " closer to the metal " access to hardware resources , and reduced CPU and graphics driver overhead . Most of the performance improvements are achieved through low @-@ level programming , which allow developers to use resources more efficiently and reduce single @-@ threaded CPU bottlenecking caused by abstraction through higher level APIs . DirectX 12 will also feature support for vendor agnostic multi @-@ GPU setups . WDDM 2 @.@ 0 introduces a new virtual memory management and allocation system to reduce workload on the kernel @-@ mode driver .
= = Removed features = =
Windows Media Center was discontinued , and is uninstalled when upgrading from a previous version of Windows . Upgraded Windows installations with Media Center will receive the paid app Windows DVD Player free of charge for a limited , but unspecified , time . Microsoft had previously relegated Media Center and integrated DVD playback support to a paid add @-@ on beginning on Windows 8 due to the cost of licensing the required DVD decoders , and the increasing number of PC devices that do not have optical drives at all .
The OneDrive built @-@ in sync client , which was introduced in Windows 8 @.@ 1 , no longer supports offline placeholders for online @-@ only files in Windows 10 . Functionality to view offline files is expected to be added in the future by a new Windows app .
Users are no longer able to synchronize Start menu layouts across all devices associated with a Microsoft account . A Microsoft developer justified the change by explaining that a user may have different applications they want to emphasize on each device that they use , rather than use the same configuration across each device . The ability to automatically install a Windows Store app across all devices associated with an account was also removed .
Web browsers can no longer set themselves as a user 's default without further intervention ; changing the default web browser must be performed manually by the user from Settings ' " Default apps " page , ostensibly to prevent browser hijacking .
Parental controls no longer support browsers other than Internet Explorer and Edge , and the ability to control browsing by a whitelist was removed . Also removed were the ability to control local accounts , the ability to scan a machine for applications to allow and block , and the " Curfew " feature where a parent could specify allowed times .
The Food & Drink , Health & Fitness , and Travel apps have been discontinued .
While all Windows 10 editions include fonts that provide broad language support , some fonts for Middle Eastern and East Asian languages ( Arabic , Chinese , Hindi , Japanese , Korean , etc . ) are no longer included with the standard installation to reduce storage space used , but are available without charge as optional font packages . When software invokes text in languages other than those for which the system is configured and does not use the Windows font fallback mechanisms designed always to display legible glyphs , Windows displays unsupported characters as a default " not defined " glyph , a square or rectangular box , or a box with a dot , question mark or " x " inside .
Windows Defender could be integrated into File Explorer 's context menu in Windows 8.x , but Microsoft initially removed integration from Windows 10 , restoring it in Windows 10 build 10571 in response to user feedback .
User control over Windows Updates was removed . In earlier versions users could opt for updates to be installed automatically , or to be notified so they could update as and when they wished , or not to be notified ; and they could choose which updates to install , using information about the updates . Windows 10 Pro and Enterprise users may be configured by an administrator to defer updates , but only for a limited time . For example , in its Canadian licensing agreement , users of Windows 10 " may stop receiving updates on your device by turning off Internet access . If and when you re @-@ connect to the Internet , the software will resume checking for and installing updates . " Under the Windows end @-@ user license agreement , users consent to the automatic installation of all updates , features and drivers provided by the service , and to the automatic removal or changes to features being modified or no longer provided .
Build 14328 removes Windows Journal .
Build 14342 modifies the Wi @-@ Fi Sense feature to remove its ability to share Wi @-@ Fi credentials with other contacts ; Wi @-@ Fi passwords can still be synced between devices tied to the same Microsoft account .
= = Editions and pricing = =
Windows 10 is available in four main editions for personal computer devices , of which the Home and Pro versions are sold at retail in most countries , and as pre @-@ loaded software on new computers . Home is aimed at home users , while Pro is aimed at small businesses and enthusiasts . Each edition of Windows 10 includes all of the capabilities and features of the edition below it , and add additional features oriented towards their market segments ; for example , Pro adds additional networking and security features such as BitLocker , Device Guard , Windows Update for Business , and the ability to join a domain . The remaining editions , Enterprise and Education , contain additional features aimed towards business environments , and are only available through volume licensing .
As part of Microsoft 's unification strategies , Windows products that are based on Windows 10 's common platform but meant for specialized platforms are marketed as editions of the operating system , rather than as separate product lines . An updated version of Microsoft 's Windows Phone operating system for smartphones , and also tablets , was branded as Windows 10 Mobile . Editions of Enterprise and Mobile will also be produced for embedded systems , along with Windows 10 IoT Core , which is designed specifically for use in small footprint , low @-@ cost devices and Internet of Things ( IoT ) scenarios and is similar to Windows Embedded .
= = = Preview releases = = =
A public beta program for Windows 10 known as the Windows Insider Program ( previously Windows Technical Preview ) began with the first publicly available preview release on October 1 , 2014 . Insider preview builds are aimed towards enthusiasts and enterprise users for the testing and evaluation of updates and new features . Users of the Windows Insider program receive occasional updates to newer preview builds of the operating system and will continue to be able to evaluate preview releases after general availability ( GA ) in July 2015 — this is in contrast to previous Windows beta programs , where public preview builds were released less frequently and only during the months preceding GA . Windows Insider builds continued being released after the release to manufacturing ( RTM ) of Windows 10 .
= = = Public release = = =
Microsoft promoted that Windows 10 would become generally available ( GA ) on July 29 , 2015 . In comparison to previous Windows releases , which had a longer turnover between the release to manufacturing ( RTM ) and general release to allow for testing by vendors ( and in some cases , the development of " upgrade kits " to prepare systems for installation of the new version ) , an HP Inc. executive explained that because it knew Microsoft targeted the operating system for a release in 2015 , the company was able to optimize its then @-@ current and upcoming products for Windows 10 in advance of its release , negating the need for such a milestone .
The general availability build of Windows 10 , numbered 10240 , was first released on July 15 , 2015 to Windows Insider channels for pre @-@ launch testing prior to its formal release . Although a Microsoft official stated that there would be no specific RTM build of Windows 10 , 10240 was described as an RTM build by media outlets because it was released to all Windows Insider members at once ( rather than to users on the " Fast ring " first ) , it no longer carried pre @-@ release branding and desktop watermark text , and because its build number had mathematical connections to the number 10 in reference to the operating system 's naming . The Enterprise edition was released to volume licensing on August 1 , 2015 .
Users are able to in @-@ place upgrade through the " Get Windows 10 " application ( GWX ) and Windows Update , or the " Media Creation Tool " , which is functionally identical to the Windows 8 online installer , and can also be used to generate an ISO image or USB install media . In @-@ place upgrades are supported from most editions of Windows 7 with Service Pack 1 and Windows 8 @.@ 1 with Update 1 , while users with Windows 8 must first upgrade to Windows 8 @.@ 1 . Changing between architectures ( e.g. upgrading from 32 @-@ bit edition to a 64 @-@ bit editions ) via in @-@ place upgrades is not supported ; a clean install is required . In @-@ place upgrades may be rolled back to the device 's previous version of Windows , provided that 30 days have not passed since installation , and backup files were not removed using Disk Cleanup .
Windows 10 was available in 190 countries and 111 languages upon its launch , and as part of efforts to " re @-@ engage " with users in China , Microsoft also announced that it would partner with Qihoo and Tencent to help promote and distribute Windows 10 in China , and that Chinese PC maker Lenovo would provide assistance at its service centers and retail outlets for helping users upgrade to Windows 10 . At retail , Windows 10 is priced similarly to editions of Windows 8 @.@ 1 , with U.S. prices set at $ 119 and $ 199 for Windows 10 Home and Pro respectively . A Windows 10 Pro Pack license allows upgrades from Windows 10 Home to Windows 10 Pro . Retail copies ship on USB flash drive media or DVD @-@ ROM media . New devices shipping with Windows 10 were also released during the operating system 's launch window .
Windows RT devices cannot be upgraded to Windows 10 .
= = = = Free upgrade offer = = = =
For the first year of availability ( until July 29 , 2016 ) , upgrade licenses for Windows 10 are available at no charge to users who own a genuine license for an eligible edition of Windows 7 or Windows 8 , and have installed the latest service pack for their currently installed version ( SP1 and Windows 8 @.@ 1 respectively ) . Enterprise customers under an active Software Assurance ( SA ) contract with Microsoft are entitled to obtain Windows 10 Enterprise under their existing terms , as with previous versions of Windows . Enterprise customers whose SA agreement is expired or are under a volume license that does not have upgrade rights , all users running non @-@ genuine copies of Windows , and those without an existing Windows 7 or 8 license , are not entitled to freely upgrade to Windows 10 ; upgrading from a non @-@ genuine version is possible , but will result in a non @-@ genuine copy of 10 .
On the RTM build of Windows 10 , to activate and generate the " digital entitlement " for Windows 10 , the operating system must first be installed as an in @-@ place upgrade . Once installed , the operating system can be reinstalled on that particular system via normal means without a product key , and the system 's license will automatically be detected via online activation . As of the November 2015 build , an existing Windows 7 or Windows 8 @.@ 1 product key can be entered during installation to activate the free license , without the need to upgrade first to " activate " the hardware with Microsoft 's activation servers .
The Windows Insider Preview version of Windows 10 automatically updated itself to the generally released version as part of the version progression , and continues to be updated to new beta builds , as it had throughout the testing process . Microsoft has explicitly stated that Windows Insider is not a valid upgrade path for those running a version of Windows that is ineligible for the upgrade offer ; although , if it was not installed with a license carried over from an in @-@ place upgrade to 10 Insider Preview from Windows 7 or 8 , the Insider Preview does remain activated as long as the user does not exit the Windows Insider program .
On June 1 , 2015 , the " Get Windows 10 " application ( " GWX " ) was activated on Windows devices running versions eligible to upgrade to , and compatible with , Windows 10 . Via a system tray icon , users can access an application that advertises Windows 10 and the free upgrade offer , checks for device compatibility , and allows users to " reserve " an automatic download of the operating system upon its release . On July 28 , a pre @-@ download process began in which Windows 10 installation files were downloaded to some computers that had reserved it . Microsoft stated that those who reserved Windows 10 would be able to install it through GWX in a phased rollout process , although the operating system can alternatively be downloaded at any time using a separate " Media Creation Tool " setup program ( similar to Windows 8 's setup program ) , that allows for the creation of DVD or USB installation media .
= = = = Licensing = = = =
During upgrades , Windows 10 licenses are not tied directly to a product key . Instead , the license status of the system 's current installation of Windows is migrated , and a " Digital entitlement " is generated during the activation process , which is bound to the hardware information collected during the process . If Windows 10 is reinstalled cleanly and there have not been any significant hardware changes since installation ( such as a motherboard change ) , the online activation process will automatically recognize the system 's digital entitlement if no product key is entered during installations . However , unique product keys are still distributed within retail copies of Windows 10 . As with previous non @-@ volume @-@ licensed versions of Windows , significant hardware changes will invalidate the digital entitlement , and require Windows to be re @-@ activated .
= = Updates and support = =
Windows 10 is serviced in a significantly different manner from previous releases of Windows . Its delivery is often described by Microsoft as a " service " , due to its ongoing updates , with Terry Myerson explaining that Microsoft 's aim is that " the question ' what version of Windows are you running ' will cease to make sense . "
Unlike previous versions of Windows , Windows Update does not allow the selective installation of updates , and all updates ( including patches , feature updates , and driver software ) are downloaded and installed automatically . Users can only choose whether their system will reboot automatically to install updates when the system is inactive , or be notified to schedule a reboot . It is possible , however , to defer the download of updates if they are received over a WiFi ( not Ethernet ) network by marking the WiFi connection as metered ( this will also slow program updates , file synchronisation , and live tile updating ) . Updates can cause compatibility or other problems ; a Microsoft troubleshooter program allows bad updates to be uninstalled .
Windows Update can also use a peer to peer system for distributing updates ; by default , users ' bandwidth is used to distribute previously downloaded updates to other users , in combination with Microsoft servers . Users can instead choose to only use peer @-@ to @-@ peer updates within their local area network .
The original RTM release of Windows 10 ( " Windows 10 , released in July 2015 " ) receives mainstream support for five years after its original release , followed by five years of extended support , but this is subject to conditions . Microsoft 's support lifecycle policy for the operating system notes that " Updates are cumulative , with each update built upon all of the updates that preceded it " , that " a device needs to install the latest update to remain supported " , and that a device 's ability to receive future updates will depend on hardware compatibility , driver availability , and whether the device is within the OEM 's " support period " — a new aspect not accounted for in lifecycle policies for previous versions . Microsoft initially stated that Windows 10 would freely receive updates for the " supported lifetime of the device . " To comply with U.S. accounting laws , revenue for Windows 10 is deferred " on a straight @-@ line basis over the estimated period the software upgrades are expected to be provided by estimated device life " , defined as two to four years depending on " customer type . "
= = = Upgraded builds = = =
Upgraded builds of Windows 10 will occasionally be released , containing new features and other major improvements . The pace at which upgrades are received is dependent on which release channel is used ; the default branch for all users of Windows 10 Home and Pro is " Current Branch " , ( CB ) which receives stable builds as they are publicly released by Microsoft . Windows Insider branches receive unstable builds as they are released , at either a " Fast " pace ( immediately after release ) or " Slow " pace ( slightly delayed from their " Fast " release ) . The Pro and Enterprise editions may optionally use the " Current Branch for Business " release channel ( CBB , referred to in Windows Update settings as " Defer upgrades " ) , which receives the stable builds on a roughly four @-@ month delay from their CB release . CBB may defer build upgrades for up to eight months , after which the new build must be installed in order to maintain support and access to security updates . Administrators can also use the " Windows Update for Business " service to organize structured deployments of updates and build upgrades across their networks . By installing Windows 10 upgrades , installed programs may be subject to automatic removal if declared " incompatible " .
Windows 10 Enterprise can also use the " Long @-@ term support branch " ( LTSB ) . LTSB milestones of Windows 10 are periodic snapshots of Windows 10 's CBB branch , and will receive only critical patches over their 10 @-@ year support lifecycle . Systems can also be placed one or two versions behind the most recent LTSB build to allow for structured deployments and internal lifecycles . Microsoft director Stella Chernyak explained that " we have businesses [ that ] may have mission @-@ critical environments where we respect the fact they want to test and stabilize the environment for a long time . "
= = = = Threshold 2 = = = =
The second stable build of Windows 10 , build 10586 ( also known as the " November Update " , " Version 1511 " , and " Threshold 2 " ( TH2 ) ) , began to be distributed via Windows Update on November 12 , 2015 . It contains various improvements to the operating system , its user interface , bundled services , as well as the introduction of Skype @-@ based universal messaging apps , and the Windows Store for Business and Windows Update for Business features .
On November 21 , 2015 , 10586 was temporarily pulled from public distribution . The upgrade was re @-@ instated on November 24 , 2015 , with Microsoft stating that the removal was due to a bug that caused privacy and data collection settings to be reset to defaults when installing the upgrade .
= = = = Redstone = = = =
The third stable build of Windows 10 ( officially known as the " Anniversary Update " , and codenamed " Redstone " ( RS1 ) ) , is scheduled to be released on August 2 , 2016 , marking nearly one year since the original RTM release of Windows 10 . The " Redstone " branch is expected to comprise two major stable builds . While both were originally to be released during 2016 , it was later reported that the second had been delayed into 2017 so that it would be released in concert with that year 's wave of Microsoft first @-@ party devices .
The Redstone branch introduces new features such as the Windows Ink platform , which will ease the ability to add stylus input support to applications and provide an " Ink Workspace " area , enhancements to Cortana 's proactive functionality. a dark user interface theme mode , and improvements to Universal Windows Platform intended for video games . Redstone will also support Windows Subsystem for Linux , a new component that provides an environment for running Linux @-@ compatible binary software in an Ubuntu @-@ based user mode environment .
= = System requirements = =
The basic hardware requirements to install Windows 10 are the same as for Windows 8 @.@ 1 and Windows 8 , and only slightly higher than Windows 7 . The 64 @-@ bit versions require a CPU that supports certain instructions . Devices with low storage capacity must provide a USB flash drive or SD card with sufficient storage for temporary files during upgrades .
Some pre @-@ built devices may be described as " certified " by Microsoft . Certified tablets must include Power , Volume up , and Volume down keys ; ⊞ Win and Rotation lock keys are no longer required .
As with Windows 8 , all certified devices must
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ship with UEFI Secure Boot enabled by default . Unlike Windows 8 , OEMs are no longer required to make Secure Boot settings user @-@ configurable , meaning that devices may optionally be locked to run only Microsoft @-@ signed operating systems . A supported infrared @-@ illuminated camera is required for Windows Hello face authentication . Device Guard requires a UEFI system with no third @-@ party certificates loaded , and CPU virtualization extensions ( including SLAT and IOMMU ) enabled in firmware .
In January 2016 , Microsoft announced that Windows 10 will be the only Windows platform that it will officially support on known future CPU microarchitectures ; Windows 7 and Windows 8 @.@ 1 support for systems using Intel 's Skylake processors will be phased out ; and beginning with the upcoming generations of Intel ( Kaby Lake ) and AMD ( Bristol Ridge ) architectures , Windows 10 will be the only Windows platform supported . Further in the future , using the latest generation processors will always require the latest generation operating system . Terry Myerson said that Microsoft did not want to make further investments in optimizing older versions of Windows and associated software for newer generations of processors .
= = Reception = =
TechRadar felt that Windows 10 would be " the new Windows 7 " , citing the operating system 's more familiar user interface , improvements to bundled apps , performance improvements , a " rock solid " search system , and the Settings app being more full @-@ featured than its equivalents on 8 and 8 @.@ 1 . The Microsoft Edge web browser was praised for its performance , albeit not being in a feature @-@ complete state on @-@ launch . Whilst considering them a " great idea in principle " , concerns were shown for Microsoft 's focus on the universal app ecosystem , noting that " It 's by no means certain that developers are going to flock to Windows 10 from iOS and Android simply because they can convert their apps easily . It may well become a no @-@ brainer for them , but at the moment a conscious decision is still required . "
Engadget was similarly positive , noting that the upgrade process was painless , and that Windows 10 's user interface had balanced aspects of Windows 8 with those of previous versions with a more mature aesthetic . Cortana 's always @-@ on voice detection was considered to be its " true strength " , also citing its query capabilities and personalization features , but noting that it was not as pre @-@ emptive as Google Now . Windows 10 's stock applications were praised for being improved over their Windows 8 counterparts , and for supporting windowed modes . The Xbox app was also praised for its Xbox One streaming functionality , although recommending its use over a wired network due to inconsistent quality over Wi @-@ Fi . In conclusion , it was argued that " Windows 10 delivers the most refined desktop experience ever from Microsoft , and yet it 's so much more than that . It 's also a decent tablet OS , and it 's ready for a world filled with hybrid devices . And , barring another baffling screwup , it looks like a significant step forward for mobile . Heck , it makes the Xbox One a more useful machine . "
Ars Technica noted that Windows 10 's new Start menu system had an artificial cap of 500 entries , and that any apps beyond this cap would not appear in the Start menu 's " All apps " view , nor search results . The new Tablet mode interface was panned for removing the charms and app switching , making the Start button harder to use by requiring users to reach for the button on the bottom @-@ left rather than at the center of the screen when swiping with a thumb , and for making application switching less instantaneous through the use of Task View . Microsoft Edge was praised for being " tremendously promising " , and " a much better browser than Internet Explorer ever was " , but criticized it for its lack of functionality on @-@ launch . In conclusion , contrasting Windows 8 as being a " reliable " platform albeit consisting of unfinished concepts , Windows 10 was considered " the best Windows yet " and was praised for having a better overall concept in its ability to be " comfortable and effective " across a wide array of form factors , but that it was buggier than previous versions of Windows were on @-@ launch .
ExtremeTech considered that Windows 10 restricted the choices of users , citing its more opaque setting menus , forcing users to give up bandwidth for the peer @-@ to @-@ peer distribution of updates , and for taking away user control of specific functions , such as updates , explaining that " it feels , once again , as if Microsoft has taken the seed of a good idea , like providing users with security updates automatically , and shoved the throttle to maximum . " Especially in combination with the free upgrade offer , some outlets also noted that Windows 10 heavily emphasized freemium services , such as media storefronts , Office 365 , and paid functionality in bundled games such as Microsoft Solitaire Collection — which requires purchase of a subscription to remove in @-@ game advertising and unlock additional features , even though said features were added to the app 's Windows 8 version in March 2013 .
= = = Market share and sales = = =
Twenty @-@ four hours after it was released , Microsoft announced that more than 14 million devices were running Windows 10 . On August 26 , Microsoft said more than 75 million devices were running Windows 10 , in 192 countries , and on more than 90 @,@ 000 unique PC or tablet models . According to Terry Myerson , there were more than 110 million devices running Windows 10 as of October 6 , 2015 . On January 4 , 2016 , Microsoft reported that Windows 10 had been activated on more than 200 million devices since the operating system 's launch in July 2015 .
In the monthly hardware survey conducted by the video game distribution platform Steam , approximately 34 @.@ 05 % of all devices surveyed ran a version of Windows 10 ( either 32 @-@ bit or 64 @-@ bit architecture ) as of January 2016 , in comparison to 42 @.@ 08 % using Windows 7 . On 64 @-@ bit architecture only , Windows 10 was used by 32 @.@ 77 % , behind 34 @.@ 31 % on Windows 7 64 @-@ bit .
According to StatCounter , Windows 10 overtook Windows 8 @.@ 1 in December 2015 .
According to StatCounter market share statistics ( based on web use proxy ) , Iceland was the first country where Windows 10 was ranked first , ( not only on the desktop ) , it also holds across all platforms ( British Crown dependency Isle of Man got there earlier , late in 2015 ) with several bigger European countries following .
At the end of June 2016 , Windows 10 had been installed on nearly 350 million devices .
= = = Update system changes = = =
Windows 10 Home is permanently set to download all updates automatically , including cumulative updates , security patches , and drivers , and users cannot individually select updates to install or not . Microsoft offers a diagnostic tool that can be used to hide updates and prevent them from being reinstalled , but only after they had been already installed , then uninstalled without rebooting the system . Tom Warren of The Verge felt that , given web browsers such as Google Chrome had already adopted such an automatic update system , such a requirement would help to keep all Windows 10 devices secure , and felt that " if you 're used to family members calling you for technical support because they 've failed to upgrade to the latest Windows service pack or some malware disabled Windows Update then those days will hopefully be over . "
Concerns were raised that due to these changes , users would be unable to skip the automatic installation of updates that are faulty or cause issues with certain system configurations — although build upgrades will also be subject to public beta testing via Windows Insider program . There were also concerns that the forced installation of driver updates through Windows Update , where they were previously designated as " optional " , could cause conflicts with drivers that were installed independently of Windows Update . An example of such a situation occurred just prior to the general release of the operating system , when an Nvidia graphics card driver that was automatically pushed to Windows 10 users via Windows Update caused issues that prevented the use of certain functions , or prevented their system from booting at all .
Criticism was also directed towards Microsoft 's decision to no longer provide specific details on the contents of cumulative updates for Windows 10 . On February 9 , 2016 , Microsoft retracted this decision and began to provide release notes for cumulative updates on the Windows website .
Some users reported that during the installation of the November upgrade , some applications ( particularly utility programs such as CPU @-@ Z and Speccy ) were automatically uninstalled during the upgrade process , and some default programs were reset to Microsoft @-@ specified defaults ( such as Photos app , and Microsoft Edge for PDF viewing ) , both without warning .
= = = Distribution practices = = =
Microsoft has received mixed reception for its methods of promoting the free upgrade . The main subject of criticism is the " Get Windows 10 " ( GWX ) program used to advertise and initiate the download , which was first downloaded and installed via patch KB3035583 in March 2015 for Windows 8 @.@ 1 ; a Computerworld writer felt the program constituted a " nag " . Microsoft has also received criticism for using deceptive user interfaces to coax users into installing the operating system , downloading installation files without user consent , and making it difficult for users to suppress the advertising and notifications if they do not wish to upgrade to 10 . Registry keys and group policies can be used to partially disable the GWX mechanism , but the installation of patches to the GWX software via Windows Update may reset these keys back to defaults , and thus reactivate the software . Third @-@ party programs have also been created to assist users in applying measures to mitigate the GWX mechanism .
In September 2015 , it was reported that Microsoft was triggering automatic downloads of the Windows 10 installation files on all compatible Windows 7 or 8 @.@ 1 computers with Windows Update configured to automatically download and install updates , regardless of whether or not they had specifically requested the upgrade . Microsoft officially confirmed the change , claiming it was " an industry practice that reduces time for installation and ensures device readiness . " This move has been criticized by users who have data caps or devices with low storage capacity , as resources were consumed by the automatic downloads of up to 6 GB of data . Other critics argued that Microsoft should not have triggered any downloading of Windows 10 installation files without user consent .
In October 2015 , Windows 10 began to appear as an " Optional " update in the Windows Update interface , but checked off for installation on some systems . A Microsoft spokesperson stated that this was a mistake , and that the download would no longer be checked off by default . However , on October 29 , 2015 , Microsoft announced that it planned to consider Windows 10 as a " recommended " update in the Windows Update interface some time in 2016 , which will cause an automatic download of installation files and a one @-@ time prompt with a choice to install to appear . In December 2015 , it was reported that a new advertising dialog had begun to appear , only containing " Upgrade now " and " Upgrade tonight " buttons , and no obvious method to decline installation besides the close button .
In March 2016 , some users also alleged that their Windows 7 and 8 @.@ 1 devices had automatically begun upgrading to 10 without their consent . In June 2016 , the GWX dialog 's behavior changed to make closing the window imply a consent to a scheduled upgrade . Despite this , an Infoworld editor disputed the claims that upgrades had begun without any consent at all ; testing showed that the upgrade to Windows 10 would only begin once the user accepts the end @-@ user license agreement ( EULA ) presented by its installer , and that not doing so would eventually cause the upgrade process to time out and produce a Windows Update error . It was concluded that these users may have unknowingly clicked the " Accept " prompt without full knowledge that this would begin the upgrade .
On January 21 , 2016 , Microsoft was sued in small claims court by a user whose computer , shortly after the release of the OS , had attempted to upgrade to Windows 10 without her consent . The upgrade failed , and her computer was left in an unstable state thereafter , which disrupted the ability to run her travel agency . The court ruled in favor of the user and awarded her $ 10 @,@ 000 in damages , but Microsoft appealed . However , in May 2016 , Microsoft dropped the appeal and chose to pay the damages . Shortly after the suit was reported on by the Seattle Times , Microsoft confirmed that it was updating the GWX software once again to add more explicit options for opting out of a free Windows 10 upgrade ; the new notification is a full @-@ screen pop @-@ up window notifying users of the impending end of the free upgrade offer , and contains " Remind me later " , " Do not notify me again " and " Notify me three more times " options .
= = = Privacy and data collection = = =
Privacy advocates and other critics have expressed concern regarding Windows 10 's privacy policies and its collection and use of customer data . Under the default " Express " settings , Windows 10 is configured to send various information to Microsoft and other parties , including the collection of user contacts , calendar data , and " associated input data " to personalize " speech , typing , and inking input " , typing and inking data to improve recognition , allowing apps to use a unique " advertising ID " for analytics and advertising personalization ( functionality introduced by Windows 8 @.@ 1 ) and allow apps to request the user 's location data and send this data to Microsoft and " trusted partners " to improve location detection ( Windows 8 had similar settings , except that location data collection did not include " trusted partners " ) . Users can opt out from most of this data collection , but telemetry data for error reporting and usage is also sent to Microsoft , and this cannot be disabled on non @-@ Enterprise versions of Windows 10 . Microsoft 's privacy policy states , however , that " Basic " -level telemetry data is anonymized and cannot be used to identify an individual user or device . The use of Cortana also requires the collection of data " such as your device location , data from your calendar , the apps you use , data from your emails and text messages , who you call , your contacts and how often you interact with them on your device ” to personalize its functionality .
Rock Paper Shotgun writer Alec Meer argued that Microsoft 's intent for this data collection lacked transparency , stating that " there is no world in which 45 pages of policy documents and opt @-@ out settings split across 13 different settings screens and an external website constitutes ' real transparency ' . " ExtremeTech pointed out that , whilst previously scroogling against Google for similar data collection strategies , " [ Microsoft ] now hoovers up your data in ways that would make Google jealous . " However , it was also pointed out that the requirement for such vast usage of customer data had become a norm , citing the increased reliance on cloud computing and other forms of external processing , as well as similar data collection requirements for services on mobile devices such as Google Now and Siri . In August 2015 , Russian politician Nikolai Levichev called for Windows 10 to be banned from use within the Russian government , as it sends user data to servers in the United States . The country had passed a federal law requiring all online services to store the data of Russian users on servers within the country by September 2016 , or be blocked . Writing for ZDNet , Ed Bott said that the lack of complaints by businesses about privacy in Windows 10 indicated " how utterly normal those privacy terms are in 2015 . " In a Computerworld editorial , Preston Gralla said , " The kind of information Windows 10 gathers is no different from what other operating systems gather . But Microsoft is held to a different standard than other companies . "
Microsoft Services Agreement reads that the company 's online services may automatically " download software updates or configuration changes , including those that prevent you from accessing the Services , playing counterfeit games , or using unauthorized hardware peripheral devices . " Critics interpreted this statement as implying that Microsoft would scan for and delete unlicensed software installed on devices running Windows 10 . However , others pointed out that this agreement was specifically for Microsoft online services such as Microsoft account , Office 365 , Skype , as well as Xbox Live , and that the offending passage most likely referred to digital rights management on Xbox consoles and first @-@ party games , and not plans to police pirated video games installed on Windows 10 PCs . Despite this , some torrent trackers announced plans to block Windows 10 users , also arguing that the operating system could send information to anti @-@ piracy groups that are affiliated with Microsoft . Writing about these allegations , Ed Bott of ZDNet compared Microsoft 's privacy policy to Apple 's and Google 's and concluded that " after carefully reading the Microsoft Services Agreement , the Windows license agreement ... and the Microsoft Privacy Statement carefully , I don 't see anything that looks remotely like Big Brother . " Columnist Kim Komando argued that " Microsoft might in the future run scans and disable software or hardware it sees as a security threat , " consistent with the Windows 10 update policy .
= Sugar Ray Robinson =
Sugar Ray Robinson ( born Walker Smith Jr . ; May 3 , 1921 – April 12 , 1989 ) was an American professional boxer . Frequently cited as the greatest boxer of all time , Robinson 's performances in the welterweight and middleweight divisions prompted sportswriters to create " pound for pound " rankings , where they compared fighters regardless of weight . He was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1990 .
Robinson was 85 – 0 as an amateur with 69 of those victories coming by way of knockout , 40 in the first round . He turned professional in 1940 at the age of 19 and by 1951 had a professional record of 128 – 1 – 2 with 84 knockouts . From 1943 to 1951 Robinson went on a 91 fight unbeaten streak , the third longest in professional boxing history . Robinson held the world welterweight title from 1946 to 1951 , and won the world middleweight title in the latter year . He retired in 1952 , only to come back two and a half years later and regain the middleweight title in 1955 . He then became the first boxer in history to win a divisional world championship five times , a feat he accomplished by defeating Carmen Basilio in 1958 to regain the middleweight championship . Robinson was named " fighter of the year " twice : first for his performances in 1942 , then nine years and over 90 fights later , for his efforts in 1951 .
Renowned for his flamboyant lifestyle outside the ring , Robinson is credited with being the originator of the modern sports " entourage " . After his boxing career ended , Robinson attempted a career as an entertainer , but it was not successful . He struggled financially until his death in 1989 . In 2006 , he was featured on a commemorative stamp by the United States Postal Service .
= = Early life = =
Robinson was born Walker Smith Jr. in Ailey , Georgia , to Walker Smith Sr. and Leila Hurst . Robinson was the youngest of three children ; his older sister Marie was born in 1917 and his older sister Evelyn was born in 1919 . His father was a cotton , peanut , and corn farmer in Georgia , who moved the family to Detroit where he initially found work in construction . According to Robinson , Smith Sr. later worked two jobs to support his family — cement mixer and sewer worker . " He had to get up at six in the morning and he 'd get home close to midnight . Six days a week . The only day I really saw him was Sunday ... I always wanted to be with him more . "
His parents separated and he moved with his mother to the New York City neighborhood of Harlem at the age of twelve . Robinson originally aspired to be a doctor , but after dropping out of De Witt Clinton High school in ninth grade he switched his goal to boxing . When he was 15 , he attempted to enter his first boxing tournament but was told he needed to first obtain an AAU membership card . However , he could not procure one until he was eighteen years old . He received his name when he circumvented the AAU 's age restriction by borrowing a birth certificate from his friend Ray Robinson . Subsequently told that he was " sweet as sugar " by a lady in the audience at a fight in Watertown , New York , Smith Jr. became known as " Sugar " Ray Robinson .
Robinson idolized Henry Armstrong and Joe Louis as a youth , and actually lived on the same block as Louis in Detroit when Robinson was 11 and Louis was 17 . Outside the ring , Robinson got into trouble frequently as a youth , and was involved with a violent street gang . He married at 16 . The couple had one son , Ronnie , and divorced when Robinson was 19 . He finished his amateur career with an 85 – 0 record with 69 knockouts — 40 coming in the first round . He won the Golden Gloves featherweight championship in 1939 , and the organization 's lightweight championship in 1940 .
= = Boxing career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Robinson made his professional debut on October 4 , 1940 , winning via second @-@ round knockout over Joe Echevarria . Robinson fought five more times in 1940 , winning each time , with four wins coming by way of knockout . In 1941 , he defeated world champion Sammy Angott , future champion Marty Servo and former champion Fritzie Zivic . The Robinson @-@ Angott fight was held above the lightweight limit , since Angott did not want to risk losing his lightweight title . Robinson defeated Zivic in front of 20 @,@ 551 at Madison Square Garden — one of the largest crowds in the arena to that date . Robinson won the first five rounds according to The New York Times Joseph C. Nichols , before Zivic came back to land several punches to Robinson 's head in the sixth and seventh rounds . Robinson controlled the next two rounds , and had Zivic wobbly in the ninth . After a close tenth round , Robinson was announced as the winner on all three scorecards .
In 1942 , Robinson knocked out Zivic in the tenth round in a January rematch . The knockout loss was only the second of Zivic 's career in more than 150 fights . Robinson knocked him down in the ninth and tenth rounds before the referee stopped the fight . Zivic and his corner protested the stoppage ; James P. Dawson of The New York Times stated " [ t ] hey were criticizing a humane act . The battle had been a slaughter , for want of a more delicate word . " Robinson then won four consecutive bouts by knockout , before defeating Servo in a controversial split decision in their May rematch . After winning three more fights , Robinson faced Jake LaMotta , who would become one of his more prominent rivals , for the first time in October . He defeated LaMotta via unanimous decision , although he failed to get Jake down . Robinson weighed 145 lb ( 66 kg ) compared to 157 @.@ 5 for LaMotta , but he was able to control the fight from the outside for the entire bout , and actually landed the harder punches during the fight . Robinson then won four more fights , including two against Izzy Jannazzo , from October 19 to December 14 . For his performances , Robinson was named " Fighter of the Year " . He finished 1942 with a total of 14 wins and no losses .
Robinson built a record of 40 – 0 before losing for the first time to LaMotta in a 10 @-@ round re @-@ match . LaMotta , who had a 16 lb ( 7 @.@ 3 kg ) weight advantage over Robinson , knocked Robinson out of the ring in the eighth round , and won the fight by decision . The fight took place in Robinson 's former home town of Detroit , and attracted a record crowd . After being controlled by Robinson in the early portions of the fight , LaMotta came back to take control in the later rounds . After winning the third LaMotta fight less than three weeks later , Robinson then defeated his childhood idol : former champion Henry Armstrong . Robinson fought Armstrong only because Armstrong was in need of money . By now Armstrong was an old fighter , and Robinson later stated that he carried Armstrong .
On February 27 , 1943 , Robinson was inducted into the United States Army , where he was again referred to as Walker Smith . Robinson had a 15 @-@ month military career . Robinson served with Joe Louis , and the pair went on tours where they performed exhibition bouts in front of US troops . Robinson got into trouble several times while in the military . He argued with superiors who he felt were discriminatory against him , and refused to fight exhibitions when he was told African American soldiers were not allowed to watch them . In late March , 1944 , Robinson was stationed at Fort Hamilton in Brooklyn , waiting to ship out to Europe , where he was scheduled to perform more exhibition matches . But on March 29 , Robinson disappeared from his barracks . When he woke up on April 5 in Fort Jay Hospital on Governor 's Island , he had missed his sailing for Europe and was under suspicion of deserting . He himself reported falling down the stairs in his barracks on the 29th , but said that he had complete amnesia , and he could not remember any events from that moment until the 5th . According to his file , a stranger had found him in the street on 1 April and helped him to a hospital . In his examination report , a doctor at Fort Jay concluded that Robinson 's version of events was sincere . He was examined by military authorities , who claimed he suffered from a mental deficiency . Robinson was granted an honorable discharge on June 3 , 1944 . He later wrote that unfair press coverage of the incident had " branded " him as a " deserter " . Robinson maintained his close friendship with Louis from their time in military service , and the two went into business together after the war . They planned to start a liquor distribution business in New York City , but were denied a license due to their race .
Besides the loss in the LaMotta rematch , the only other mark on Robinson 's record during this period was a 10 @-@ round draw against José Basora in 1945 .
= = = Welterweight champion = = =
By 1946 , Robinson had fought 75 fights to a 73 – 1 – 1 record , and beaten every top contender in the welterweight division . However , he refused to cooperate with the Mafia , which controlled much of boxing at the time , and was denied a chance to fight for the welterweight championship . Robinson was finally given a chance to win a title against Tommy Bell on December 20 , 1946 . Robinson had already beaten Bell once via decision in 1945 . The two fought for the title vacated by Servo , who had himself lost twice to Robinson in non @-@ title bouts . In the fight , Robinson , who only a month before had been involved in a 10 @-@ round brawl with Artie Levine , was knocked down by Bell . The fight was called a " war , " but Robinson was able to pull out a close 15 round decision , winning the vacant welterweight title .
In June 1947 , after four non @-@ title bouts , Robinson was scheduled to defend his title for the first time in a bout against Jimmy Doyle . Robinson initially backed out of the fight because he had a dream that he was going to kill Doyle . A priest and a minister convinced him to fight . Sadly , his dream proved true . On June 25 , 1947 Robinson dominated Doyle and scored a decisive knockout in the eighth round that knocked Doyle unconscious and resulted in Doyle 's death later that night . Robinson said that the impact of Doyle 's death was " very trying " .
After his death , criminal charges were threatened against Robinson in Cleveland , up to and including manslaughter , though none actually materialized . After learning of Doyle 's intentions of using the bout 's money to buy his mother a house , Robinson gave Doyle 's mother the money from his next four bouts so she could purchase herself a home , fulfilling her son 's intention .
In 1948 , Robinson fought five times , but only one bout was a title defense . Among the fighters he defeated in those non @-@ title bouts was future world champion Kid Gavilán in a close , controversial 10 @-@ round fight . Gavilán hurt Robinson several times in the fight , but Robinson controlled the final rounds with a series of jabs and left hooks . In 1949 , he boxed 16 times , but again only defended his title once . In that title fight , a rematch with Gavilán , Robinson again won via decision . The first half of the bout was very close , but Robinson took control in the second half . Gavilán would have to wait two more years to begin his own historic reign as welterweight champion . The only boxer to match Robinson that year was Henry Brimm , who fought him to a 10 @-@ round draw in Buffalo .
Robinson fought 19 times in 1950 . He successfully defended his welterweight title for the last time against Charley Fusari . Robinson won a lopsided 15 round decision , knocking Fusari down once . Robinson donated all but $ 1 of his purse for the Fusari fight to cancer research . In 1950 , Robinson fought George Costner , who had also taken to calling himself " Sugar " and stated in the weeks leading up to the fight that he was the rightful deserver of the name . " We better touch gloves , because this is the only round , " Robinson said as the fighters were introduced at the center of the ring . " Your name ain 't Sugar , mine is . " Robinson then knocked Costner out in 2 minutes and 49 seconds .
= = = Middleweight champion = = =
Robinson stated in his autobiography that one of the main considerations for his move up to middleweight was the increasing difficulty he was having in making the 147 lb ( 67 kg ) welterweight weight limit . However , the move up would also prove beneficial financially , as the division then contained some of the biggest names in boxing . Vying for the Pennsylvania state middleweight title in 1950 , Robinson defeated Robert Villemain . Later that year , in defense of that crown , he defeated Jose Basora , with whom he had previously drawn . Robinson 's 50 @-@ second first round knockout of Basora set a record that would stand for 38 years . In October 1950 , Robinson knocked out Bobo Olson a future middleweight title holder .
On February 14 , 1951 , Robinson and LaMotta met for the sixth time . The fight would become known as The St. Valentine 's Day Massacre . Robinson won the undisputed world middleweight title with a 13th round technical knockout . Robinson outboxed LaMotta for the first 10 rounds , then unleashed a series of savage combinations on LaMotta for three rounds , finally stopping the champion for the first time in their legendary six @-@ bout series — and dealing LaMotta his first legitimate knockout loss in 95 professional bouts . LaMotta had lost by knockout to Billy Fox earlier in his career . However , that fight was later ruled to have been fixed and LaMotta was sanctioned for letting Fox win . That bout , and some of the other bouts in the six @-@ fight Robinson @-@ LaMotta rivalry , was depicted in the Martin Scorsese film Raging Bull . " I fought Sugar Ray so often , I almost got diabetes , " LaMotta later said . Robinson won five of his six bouts with LaMotta .
After winning his second world title , he embarked on a European tour which took him all over the Continent . Robinson traveled with his flamingo @-@ pink Cadillac , which caused quite a stir in Paris , and an entourage of 13 people , some included " just for laughs " . He was a hero in France due to his recent defeat of LaMotta — the French hated LaMotta for defeating Marcel Cerdan in 1949 and taking his championship belt ( Cerdan died in a plane crash en route to a rematch with LaMotta ) . Robinson met President of France Vincent Auriol at a ceremony attended by France 's social upper crust . During his fight in Berlin against Gerhard Hecht , Robinson was disqualified when he knocked his opponent with a punch to the kidney : a punch legal in the US , but not Europe . The fight was later declared a no @-@ contest . In London , Robinson lost the world middleweight title to British boxer Randolph Turpin in a sensational bout . Three months later in a rematch in front of 60 @,@ 000 fans at the Polo Grounds , he knocked Turpin out in ten rounds to recover the title . In that bout Robinson was leading on the cards but was cut by Turpin . With the fight in jeopardy , Robinson let loose on Turpin , knocking him down , then getting him to the ropes and unleashing a series of punches that caused the referee to stop the bout . Following Robinson 's victory , residents of Harlem danced in the streets . In 1951 , Robinson was named Ring Magazine 's " Fighter of the Year " for the second time .
In 1952 , he fought a rematch with Olson , winning by a decision . He next defeated former champion Rocky Graziano by a third @-@ round knockout , then challenged world light heavyweight champion Joey Maxim . In the Yankee Stadium bout with Maxim , Robinson built a lead on all three judges ' scorecards , but the 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) temperature in the ring took its toll . The referee , Ruby Goldstein , was the first victim of the heat , and had to be replaced by referee Ray Miller . The fast @-@ moving Robinson was the heat 's next victim – at the end of round 13 , he collapsed and failed to answer the bell for the next round , suffering the only knockout of his career .
On June 25 , 1952 after the Maxim bout , Robinson gave up his title and retired with a record of 131 – 3 – 1 – 1 . He began a career in show business , singing and tap dancing . After about three years , the decline of his businesses and the lack of success in his performing career made him decide to return to boxing . He resumed training in 1954 .
= = = Comeback = = =
In 1955 , Robinson returned to the ring . Although he had been inactive for two and a half years , his work as a dancer kept him in peak physical condition : in his autobiography , Robinson states that in the weeks leading up to his debut for a dancing engagement in France , he ran five miles every morning , and then danced for five hours each night . Robinson even stated that the training he did in his attempts to establish a career as a dancer were harder than any he undertook during his boxing career . He won five fights in 1955 , before losing a decision to Ralph ' Tiger ' Jones . He bounced back , however , and defeated Rocky Castellani by a split decision , then challenged Bobo Olson for the world middleweight title . He won the middleweight championship for the third time via a second round knockout — his third victory over Olson . After his comeback performance in 1955 , Robinson expected to be named fighter of the year . However , the title went to welterweight Carmen Basilio . Basilio 's handlers had lobbied heavily for it on the basis that he had never won the award , and Robinson later described this as the biggest disappointment of his professional career . " I haven 't forgotten it to this day , and I never will " , Robinson wrote in his autobiography . They fought for the last time in 1956 , and Robinson closed the four fight series with a fourth round knockout .
In 1957 , Robinson lost his title to Gene Fullmer . Fullmer used his aggressive , forward moving style to control Robinson , and knocked him down in the fight . Robinson , however , noticed that Fullmer was vulnerable to the left hook . Fullmer headed into their May rematch as a 3 – 1 favorite . In the first two rounds Robinson followed Fullmer around the ring , however in the third round he changed tactics and made Fullmer come to him . At the start of the fourth round Robinson came out on the attack and stunned Fullmer , and when Fullmer returned with his own punches , Robinson traded with him , as opposed to clinching as he had done in their earlier fight . The fight was fairly even after four rounds . But in the fifth , Robinson was able to win the title back for a fourth time by knocking out Fullmer with a lightning fast , powerful left hook . Boxing critics have referred to the left @-@ hook which knocked out Fullmer as " the perfect punch " . It marked the first time in 44 career fights that Fullmer had been knocked out , and when someone asked Robinson after the fight how far the left hook had travelled , Robinson replied : " I can 't say . But he got the message . "
Later that year , he lost his title to Basilio in a rugged 15 round fight in front of 38 @,@ 000 at Yankee Stadium , but regained it for a record fifth time when he beat Basilio in the rematch . Robinson struggled to make weight , and had to go without food for nearly 20 hours leading up to the bout . He badly damaged Basilio 's eye early the fight , and by the seventh round it was swollen shut . The two judges gave the fight to Robinson by wide margins : 72 – 64 and 71 – 64 . The referee scored the fight for Basilio 69 – 64 , and was booed loudly by the crowd of 19 @,@ 000 when his decision was announced . The first fight won the " Fight of the Year " award from The Ring magazine for 1957 and the second fight won the " Fight of the Year " award for 1958 .
= = = Decline = = =
Robinson knocked out Bob Young in the second round in Boston in his only fight in 1959 . A year later , he defended his title against Paul Pender . Robinson entered the fight as a 5 – 1 favorite , but lost a split decision in front of 10 @,@ 608 at Boston Garden . The day before the fight Pender commented that he planned to start slowly , before coming on late . He did just that and outlasted the aging Robinson , who , despite opening a cut over Pender 's eye in the eighth round , was largely ineffective in the later rounds . An attempt to regain the crown for an unheard of sixth time proved beyond Robinson . Despite Robinson 's efforts , Pender won by decision in that rematch . On December 3 of that year , Robinson and Fullmer fought a 15 @-@ round draw for the WBA middleweight title , which Fullmer retained . In 1961 , Robinson and Fullmer fought for a fourth time , with Fullmer retaining the WBA middleweight title by a unanimous decision . The fight would be Robinson 's last title bout .
Robinson spent the rest of the 1960s fighting 10 @-@ round contests . In October 1961 , Robinson defeated future world champion Denny Moyer via unanimous decision . A 12 – 5 favorite , the 41 @-@ year @-@ old Robinson defeated the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Moyer by staying on the outside , rather than engaging him . In their rematch four months later , Moyer defeated Robinson on points , as he pressed the action and made Robinson back up throughout the fight . Moyer won 7 – 3 on all three judges scorecards . Robinson lost twice more in 1962 , before winning six consecutive fights against mostly lesser opposition . In February 1963 , Robinson lost via unanimous decision to former world champion and fellow Hall of Famer Joey Giardello . Giardello knocked Robinson down in the fourth round , and the 43 @-@ year @-@ old took until the count of nine to rise to his feet . Robinson was also nearly knocked down in the sixth round , but was saved by the bell . He rallied in the seventh and eight rounds , before struggling in the final two . Robinson then embarked on an 18 @-@ month boxing tour of Europe .
Robinson 's second no @-@ contest bout came in September , 1965 in Norfolk , Virginia in a match with an opponent who turned out to be an impostor . Boxer Neil Morrison , at the time a fugitive and accused robber , signed up for the fight as Bill Henderson , a capable club fighter . The fight was a fiasco , with Morrison being knocked down twice in the first round and once in the second before the disgusted referee , who said " Henderson put up no fight " , walked out of the ring . Robinson was initially given a TKO in 1 : 20 of the second round after the " obviously frightened " Morrison laid himself down on the canvas . Robinson fought for the final time in 1965 . He lost via unanimous decision to Joey Archer . Famed sports author Pete Hamill mentioned that one of the saddest experiences of his life was watching Robinson lose to Archer . He was even knocked down and Hamill pointed out that Archer had no knockout punch at all ; Archer admitted afterward that it was only the second time he had knocked an opponent down in his career . The crowd of 9 @,@ 023 at the Civic Arena in Pittsburgh gave Robinson several standing ovations , even while he was being thoroughly outperformed by Archer .
On November 11 , 1965 , Robinson announced his retirement from boxing , saying : " I hate to go too long campaigning for another chance . " Robinson retired from boxing with a record of 173 – 19 – 6 ( 2 no contests ) with 108 knockouts in 200 professional bouts , ranking him among the all @-@ time leaders in knockouts .
= = After retiring as a boxer = =
In his autobiography , Robinson states that by 1965 he was broke , having spent all of the $ 4 million in earnings he made inside and out of the ring in his career . A month after his last fight , Robinson was honored with a Sugar Ray Robinson Night on December 10 , 1965 in New York 's Madison Square Garden . During the ceremony , he was honored with a massive trophy . However , there was not a piece of furniture in his small Manhattan apartment with legs strong enough to support it . Robinson was elected to the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1967 , two years after he retired . In the late 1960s he acted in some television shows , like Mission : Impossible . An episode of Land of the Giants called " Giants and All That Jazz " had Sugar as a washed up boxer opening a nightclub . He also appeared in a few films including the Frank Sinatra cop movie The Detective ( 1968 ) , the cult classic Candy ( 1968 ) , and the thriller The Todd Killings ( 1971 ) as a police officer . In 1969 , he founded the Sugar Ray Robinson Youth Foundation for the inner @-@ city Los Angeles area . The foundation does not sponsor a boxing program . He was diagnosed with diabetes mellitus that was treated with insulin . In Robinson 's last years , he was diagnosed with Alzheimer 's disease . He died in Los Angeles at the age of 67 and was interred in the Inglewood Park Cemetery , Inglewood , California .
= = Personal life = =
Robinson married Marjorie Joseph in 1938 ; the marriage was annulled the same year . Their son , Ronnie Smith , was born in 1939 . Robinson met his second wife Edna Mae Holly , a noted dancer who performed at the Cotton Club and toured Europe with Duke Ellington and Cab Calloway , in 1940 . According to Robinson , he met her at a local pool he frequented after his boxing workouts . In an attempt to get her attention he pushed her into the pool one day , and claimed it was an accident . After this attempt was met with disdain , he appeared at the nightclub she danced at and introduced himself . Soon the couple were dating and they married in 1943 . They had one son , Ray Robinson Jr . ( born 1949 ) and divorced in 1960 . She appeared on the first cover of Jet magazine in 1951 . In April 1959 , Robinson 's eldest sister Marie died of cancer at the age of 41 .
In 1965 , Robinson married Millie Wiggins Bruce and the couple settled in Los Angeles . When Robinson was sick with his various ailments , his son accused Robinson 's wife of keeping him under the influence of medication to manipulate him . According to Ray Robinson Jr . , when Sugar Ray 's mother died , Sugar Ray could not attend his mother 's funeral because Millie was drugging and controlling him . However , Robinson had been hospitalized the day before his mother 's death due to agitation which caused his blood pressure to rise . Robinson Jr. and Edna Mae also claimed that they were kept away from Robinson by Millie during the last years of his life .
He was a Freemason , a membership shared with a number of other athletes , including fellow boxer Jack Dempsey .
Robinson was a Christian .
= = Boxing style = =
Rhythm is everything in boxing . Every move you make starts with your heart , and that 's in rhythm or you 're in trouble .
Robinson was the modern definition of a boxer puncher . He was able to fight almost any style : he could come out one round brawling , the next counter punching , and the next fighting on the outside . Robinson also possessed great speed and knockout power . He fought a very conventional way with a firm jab , but threw hooks and uppercuts in flurries in an unconventional way . He possessed tremendous versatility — according to boxing analyst Bert Sugar , " Robinson could deliver a knockout blow going backward . " Robinson was efficient with both hands , and he displayed a variety of effective punches — according to a TIME magazine article in 1951 , " Robinson 's repertoire , thrown with equal speed and power by either hand , includes every standard punch from a bolo to a hook — and a few he makes up on the spur of the moment . " Robinson commented that once a fighter has trained to a certain level , their techniques and responses become almost reflexive . " You don 't think . It 's all instinct . If you stop to think , you 're gone . "
= = Legacy = =
Robinson has been ranked as the greatest boxer of all time by sportswriters , fellow boxers , and trainers . The phrase " pound for pound " , was created by sportswriters for him during his career as a way to compare boxers irrespective of weight . Hall of Fame fighters such as Muhammad Ali , Joe Louis , Roberto Durán and Sugar Ray Leonard have ranked Robinson as the greatest pound for pound boxer in history . In 1997 , The Ring ranked him as the best pound for pound fighter in history , and in 1999 , he was named " welterweight of the century , " " middleweight of the century , " and overall " fighter of the century " by the Associated Press . In 2007 , ESPN.com featured the piece " 50 Greatest Boxers of All Time " , in which it named Robinson the top boxer in history . In 2003 , The Ring magazine ranked him number 11 in the list of all @-@ time greatest punchers . Robinson was also ranked as the # 1 welterweight and the # 1 pound for pound boxer of all @-@ time by the International Boxing Research Organization .
Robinson was one of the first African Americans to establish himself as a star outside sports . He was an integral part of the New York social scene in the 1940s and 1950s . His glamorous restaurant , Sugar Ray 's , hosted stars such as Frank Sinatra , Jackie Gleason , Nat " King " Cole , Joe Louis , and Lena Horne among others . Robinson was known as a flamboyant personality outside the ring . He combined striking good looks , with charisma , and a flair for the dramatic : He drove a flamingo @-@ pink Cadillac , and was an accomplished singer and dancer , who once pursued a career in the entertainment industry . According to ESPN.com 's Ron Flatter : " He was the pioneer of boxing 's bigger @-@ than @-@ life entourages , including a secretary , barber , masseur , voice coach , a coterie of trainers , beautiful women , a dwarf mascot and lifelong manager George Gainford . " When Robinson first traveled to Paris , a steward referred to his companions as his " entourage " . Although Robinson said he did not like the word 's literal definition of " attendants " , since he felt they were his friends , he liked the word itself and began to use it in regular conversation when referring to them . In 1962 , in an effort to persuade Robinson to return to Paris — where he was still a national hero — the French promised to bring over his masseur , his hairdresser , a man who would whistle while he trained , and his trademark Cadillac . This larger than life persona made him the idol of millions of African American youths in the 1950s . Robinson inspired several other fighters who took the nickname " Sugar " in homage to him such as Sugar Ray Leonard , Sugar Shane Mosley , and MMA fighter " Suga " Rashad Evans .
= = Professional boxing record = =
= Lillehammer Olympiapark =
Lillehammer Olympiapark AS , trading as Olympiaparken , is a company established following the 1994 Winter Olympics to operate the Olympic venues in Lillehammer , Norway . Owned by Lillehammer Municipality , it operates five sports venues : Birkebeineren Ski Stadium , Håkons Hall , Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track , Kanthaugen Freestyle Arena and the ski jumping hill of Lysgårdsbakken . In addition to serving sports events , the company provides tourist and group activities at the venues as well as catering to larger events .
In the Lillehammer bid for the 1994 Winter Olympics , the agreement between Lillehammer Municipality and the state specified that the municipality was responsible for financing all necessary sports venues . However , after the games were awarded the responsibility was taken over by Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee ( LOOC ) and the town 's five venues were ultimately funded through state grants . To allow for post @-@ Olympic use , a fund was created by the state , of which Lillehammer Olympiapark received 146 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . Unlike the Hamar venues , which survive on their fund 's yield , the Lillehammer venues have used up their capital . From 2014 the post @-@ Olympic use fund will be depleted and alternative organization and funding is being looked into . A leading proposal is that the bobsleigh and luge track be taken over by the state , while the remaining venues be retained by the company and jointly funded by the municipality and Oppland County Municipality .
= = History = =
As part of the 1985 and 1987 agreements with the Parliament of Norway ahead of the 1994 Winter Olympics bid , Lillehammer Municipality was responsible for financing and building all Olympic venues and associated facilities . To fulfill their obligation , the municipality established Lillehammer Olympiske Anlegg ( LOA ) in 1989 . Mr. Haavind was hired as the company 's first managing director . At the same time the Post @-@ Olympics Use Committee was established to ensure activity at the venues after the Olympics . LOA 's first task was , in cooperation with local and national authorities and LOOC , to decide on locations and budgets .
By 1989 , political discussions had started regarding the creation of a fund to finance post @-@ Olympic use . The sledding track , especially , would incur high operating costs , estimated at between NOK 5 and 6 million per year . Total deficits for the five Lillehammer venues were in 1990 estimated at ca . NOK 15 million per year . Initially the government offered to grant NOK 55 million for the fund , but the Post @-@ Olympic Use Committee estimated that NOK 215 million would be necessary . They further proposed that the capital could be used as share capital in the proposed company Olympia Vekst , which would be jointly privately and publicly owned and operate the venues .
The budgets were reviewed by Parliament on 23 April 1990 . They also decided to re @-@ organize the Olympics into a concern model , which saw both LOA and the Post @-@ Olympics Use Committees becoming subsidiaries of LOOC , and the Post @-@ Olympics Use Committees changing its name to Lillehammer Olympiavekst ( LOV ) . Separate companies were established to construct the venues in Hamar and Gjøvik , owned by the respective municipalities . The municipal governments of Øyer and Ringebu each received a 24 @.@ 5 @-@ percent stake in LOV . Lillehammer Municipality gained a 24 @.@ 5 @-@ percent stake in the new holding company , Lillehammer ' 94 AS . Gerhard Heiberg , President of LOOC , was appointed chair of both LOV and LOA . LOV was given the responsibility for operating the venues after the Olympics .
LOOC and the Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development started negotiations concerning the fund in October 1990 . The government increased the fund size to NOK 130 million in January 1991 , as well as allocating NOK 70 of the reserve funding to post @-@ Olympic use . Lillehammer Municipality stated that they wanted a disproportionate share of the funding , but this was rejected by Minister Kjell Borgen . The fund would be insufficient , which caused a conflict between the five municipalities . Gjøvik and Hamar chose not to take an ownership stake in LOV as they did not want a Lillehammer @-@ based company to manage the towns ' main venues . At the same time , Lillehammer Municipality did not want the two other towns to own part of LOV , as they hoped the entire fund would be used to finance the five venues in Lillehammer . Gjøvik and Hamar took steps to create their own joint venture to operate their three arenas , while Borgen stated that all the venues should be allocated to one company . Ringebu Mayor Erik Winther stated that he felt that his municipality had been tricked into joining LOV and that they were not allowed to participate as an equal partner .
Haavind was replaced by Bjørn Sund in 1991 . The post @-@ use funds were distributed such that LOA received NOK 76 million . It also acquired a thirty @-@ percent stake in Hamar Olympiske Anlegg , which operates Vikingskipet and Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre in Hamar , and Gjøvik Olympiske Anlegg , which operates Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall in Gjøvik . Lillehammer was the only of the five host municipalities to not use municipal grants to build their venues . By late 1991 , LOOC desired a closer cooperation , resulting in a merger between LOA and Lillehammer ' 94 which took the latter 's name . By 1 January 1993 also LOV and LOOC had also been merged to a single entity . Planning of post @-@ Olympic use and demobilization started in early 1993 .
LOOC transferred the ownership of the Olympic venues in Lillehammer to the municipality for NOK 1 million on 7 September 1993 . By then the government had increased the post @-@ Olympic fund to NOK 200 million . Ownership of the Hamar and Gjøvik venues had previously been transferred to the respective municipal governments . The fund was established in September and is managed by a separate foundation , Stiftelsen Lillehammer Etterbruksfond . Additional capital for the fund was secured through LOOC 's financial buffers not being used and the surplus transferred to the funds . In June 1994 the fund was set to NOK 401 @.@ 3 million .
Minister of Local Government and Regional Development , Gunnar Berge , stated in January 1995 that he was concerned that the post @-@ Olympic use funds were being used up too quickly and that money was being used for unsuitable projects . However , he rejected that the state should take control over the venues or the money . After one year , Lillehammer Olympiapark had used NOK 32 of 146 million , while the company Olympia Utvikling / Troll Park had used NOK 14 of 95 million . For the Lillehammer companies , this meant that the fund was estimated to run out after ten instead of twenty years . In contrast , Hamar Olympiske Anlegg had only used the fund 's yield . LOOC criticized the post @-@ Olympic use companies , stating that they were too bureaucratic , that their combined 100 employees were too many , and that one or two companies would be sufficient .
By 1999 , Lillehammer Olympiapark had an annual revenue of NOK 20 million , of which a third came from the fund . Commercial activities contributed half the revenue , while the remaining fraction came from sports activities . Between 80 and 90 percent of the rental time went to sports activities . A report published by Lillehammer University College in 2007 concluded that all the 260 permanent jobs created in the Lillehammer area as a result of the Olympics were directly dependent on subsidies from the post @-@ Olympic use funds . In the late 2000s , Lillehammer Olympiapark was using between NOK 8 and 12 million per year . There was NOK 25 million left in the fund in 2012 , which is scheduled to be closed in 2014 , after it has served for 20 years . Lillehammer Olympiapark started planning the organization of the venues in 2010 . The company recommended that the subsidies be equally funded between Lillehammer Municipality , Oppland County Municipality and the Ministry of Culture . Specifically it recommended that the state take over ownership of the bobsleigh and luge track , while the county took partial ownership of Lillehammer Olympiapark . The state would thus continue to finance the track , which is the only such venue in Northern Europe , while the municipality and county finance the other four venues . The venues are recommended held to such a standard that they can host world cup and world championships in relevant sports .
= = Operations = =
As of 2010 , the company had a revenue of NOK 56 million , up NOK 10 million from 2009 , yielding a profit of NOK 2 million . The company employed between 51 and 55 people , it is based at Håkons Hall and is entirely owned by Lillehammer Municipality . The company 's revenue comes from a series of sources , the most important being events and tourists . At Lysgårdsbakken , the company operates a chairlift and viewing platform at the top of the tower , as well as a downhill and bobsleigh simulator . The company tailors events to companies with various activities at the hill , including a ceremony to light to Olympic Flame . Kanthaugen and its lift is rented out for tobogganing . The sledding track serves groups and tourists with activities such as wheelbob and for @-@ man bobsleigh with an authorized pilot , bobrafting , skeleton and skeleton rafting . Next to the track is an activity park with activities such as snowmobile and all @-@ terrain vehicle tracks .
= = Venues = =
= = = Birkebeineren Ski Stadium = = =
The arena covers an area of 200 hectares ( 490 acres ) , and is 3 kilometers ( 2 mi ) from the town center . For the Olympics , 27 kilometers ( 17 mi ) of cross @-@ country tracks and 9 kilometers ( 6 mi ) of biathlon tracks were built . There are two stadiums , one for cross @-@ country skiing and one for biathlon . The former has a spectator capacity for 31 @,@ 000 , while the latter has a capacity for 13 @,@ 500 . Permanent buildings include a finishing house for biathlon , a finishing house for cross @-@ country and a plant room . The cross @-@ country stadium is 200 meters ( 660 ft ) long , while the biathlon stadium is 150 meters ( 490 ft ) long ; the biathlon stadium has 30 shooting stations . As a recreational venue , Birkebeineren connects to 450 kilometers ( 280 mi ) of skiing tracks , including a public 5 @-@ kilometer ( 3 mi ) lighted track which is lit until 22 : 00 every day during winter . During the summer , the tracks are available for jogging , running , roller skiing and similar activities . The FIS Cross @-@ Country World Cup has been hosted three times , in 1993 , 2000 and 2002 , all in February or March . The FIS Nordic Combined World Cup has been hosted seven times at the stadium , and the Biathlon World Cup four times , between 1993 and 1997 .
= = = Håkons Hall = = =
Håkons Hall is an arena which was used for ice hockey at the 1994 Winter Olympics . In the 1994 Winter Paralympics , Håkons Hall was used for the opening and closing ceremonies . The venue has a capacity for 11 @,@ 500 seated spectators and is the largest handball and ice hockey venue in the country . The stands are flexible and telescopic , allowing for flexibility in hall use and seating capacity . The arena can be configured with a 330 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 3 @,@ 600 sq ft ) stage . The hall can be set up to serve 2 @,@ 000 people at a banquet , or divided up to serve smaller groups . The venue has among other events hosted the finals of the 1999 IIHF World Championship in ice hockey , the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2004 , 2008 European Men 's Handball Championship , the 2010 European Women 's Handball Championship and the World Women 's Handball Championship in 1993 and 1999 .
= = = Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track = = =
Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track is 1 @,@ 710 meters ( 5 @,@ 610 ft ) long , with the competitive length for bobsleigh and men 's singles in luge being 1 @,@ 365 meters ( 4 @,@ 478 ft ) and for men 's doubles and women 's singles being 1 @,@ 065 meters ( 3 @,@ 494 ft ) . The track has 16 turns and contains 24 photocells for timekeeping . The track has a vertical drop of 112 meters ( 367 ft ) for the entire course , with an average eight percent and maximum fifteen percent grade . The start is located at 384 meters ( 1 @,@ 260 ft ) above mean sea level . It allows for a maximum speed of 130 kilometres per hour ( 81 mph ) and has a spectator capacity is 10 @,@ 000 . After the Olympics , the track has been used for the FIBT World Championships 1995 in skeleton and the FIL World Luge Championships 1995 .
= = = Kanthaugen Freestyle Arena = = =
Kanthaugen is located next to Lysgårsbakken , slightly uphill from Stampesletta , one kilometer ( half a mile ) east of Lillehammer 's town center . It consists of three hills , each tailor @-@ made for aerials , moguls and ski ballet , respectively . Above the Olympic hills is a 1 @-@ kilometer ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) long tobogganing hill which uses the competitive area as a finish . At the base of the hill is the spectator area , which featured temporary bleachers during the Olympics . The spectator capacity for aerials and ski ballet is 15 @,@ 000 , while it is 12 @,@ 000 for moguls . Also at the foot of the hill is a jury tower overlooking the aerials hill . The venue is equipped with snowmaking equipment , a T @-@ bar lift and floodlights . In addition to freestyle skiing at the 1994 Winter Olympics , it has hosted FIS Freestyle Skiing World Cup events twice , on 26 to 28 March 1993 and on 3 to 5 March 1995 .
= = = Lysgårdsbakken = = =
The twin ski jumping hill consists of a large hill with a construction point ( K @-@ point ) of 123 and a hill size ( HS ) of 138 , and a normal hill has a K @-@ point of 90 and a hill size of 100 . The hill has a capacity for 35 @,@ 000 spectators , of which 7 @,@ 500 can be seated . In addition , up to 25 @,@ 000 people can followed the games from free areas around the venue . Auxiliary structures include a start house , a judges tower — which includes office space for organizers and judges — a media building , and a technical room below the stands , as well as a first aid room and restrooms . It also features a high @-@ pressure snow production facility with outtakes all along the approach and outrun . Transport to the large hill tower is accessible via a chair lift . Lysgårdsbakken is a regular site for FIS Ski Jumping World Cup and FIS Nordic Combined World Cup tournaments . FIS Ski Jumping World Cup has been hosted nearly every year since 1993 . Since 2004 , with the exception of 2007 and 2010 , Lysgårdsbakken is a co @-@ host of the Nordic Tournament . In 2005 , the hills were the eleventh @-@ most visited tourist attraction in Norway .
= EVA Air =
EVA Air Corporation ( pronounced " E @-@ V @-@ A Air " ; Chinese : 長榮航空 ; pinyin : Chángróng Hángkōng ; Pe ̍ h @-@ ōe @-@ jī : Tióng @-@ êng Hâng @-@ khong ) ( TWSE : 2618 ) is a Taiwanese international airline based at Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport near Taipei , Taiwan , operating passenger and dedicated cargo services to over 40 international destinations in Asia , Australia , Europe , and North America . EVA Air is largely privately owned and flies a fully international route network . It is a 5 star airline , rated by Skytrax . It is the second largest Taiwanese airline . EVA Air is headquartered in Luzhu , Taoyuan City , Taiwan .
Since its founding in 1989 as an affiliate of shipping conglomerate Evergreen Group , EVA Air has expanded to include air cargo , airline catering , ground handling , and aviation engineering services . Its cargo arm , EVA Air Cargo , links with the Evergreen worldwide shipping network on sea and land . Its domestic and regional subsidiary , UNI Air , operates a medium and short @-@ haul network to destinations in Taiwan , Macau and China with its main hub in Kaohsiung , Taiwan . As of January 2015 , EVA Air is the 3rd safest airline in the world , with no hull losses , accidents , or fatalities since its establishment .
EVA Air operates a mixed fleet of Airbus and Boeing aircraft , with Airbus A330 , Boeing 747 , Airbus A321 , and Boeing 777 airliners primarily used on passenger routes , along with Boeing 747 freighters used on cargo routes . The airline was one of the first carriers to introduce the Premium Economy class ( called Elite class in EVA Air ) , which it debuted in 1991 . Elite class is onboard Boeing 777 and selected Boeing 747 aircraft .
= = History = =
= = = Launch = = =
In September 1988 , during the 20th anniversary celebration of Evergreen Marine Corporation ’ s founding , company chairman Chang Yung @-@ fa announced his company ’ s intentions to establish Taiwan ’ s first private international airline . The opportunity to create a major Taiwanese airline had just arisen following a decision by the Taiwanese government to liberalise the country ’ s air transportation system . Government requirements still mandated global experience and financial capital requirements for any company seeking permission to initiate international airline service from Taiwan .
Upon recipient of regulatory approval , EVA Airways Corporation was formally established in March 1989 . The airline was originally to be called Evergreen Airways , however this was deemed too similar to the unrelated Evergreen International cargo airline . In October 1989 , the newly formed EVA Airways Corporation placed a US $ 3 @.@ 6 billion order for 26 aircraft from Boeing and McDonnell Douglas , including Boeing 747 @-@ 400 and MD @-@ 11 airliners .
Operations began on 1 July 1991 with a small fleet of EVA Air Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER aircraft featuring business and economy class seating . Initial destinations from Taipei were Bangkok , Seoul , Jakarta , Singapore , and Kuala Lumpur . By the end of the year , the EVA Air network had expanded to include additional cities in East Asia and its first European destination , Vienna . First year revenues reached US $ 40 million .
= = = Expansion in the 1990s = = =
In 1992 , EVA Air received the first of its Boeing 747 @-@ 400 aircraft on order , and launched its premium economy class , " Economy Deluxe " , on its 747 transpacific flights to Los Angeles , beginning in December of that year . EVA Air 's premium economy cabin , one of the first in the airline industry , featured a wider 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 abreast configuration , legrests , individual seatback video , and enhanced meal services . EVA Air 's Economy Deluxe cabin ( later renamed " Evergreen Deluxe " and " Elite Class " ) proved popular with the traveling public . For international services , EVA Air 's 747s were configured with 104 premium economy seats as part of a 370 @-@ seat , four @-@ class cabin , in addition to first , business and economy classes . In 1993 , EVA Air added flights to Seattle , New York , Bangkok and Vienna with the Boeing 747 @-@ 400 .
By 1994 , EVA Air was providing regular service to 22 destinations worldwide , and carrying over 3 million passengers annually . In 1995 , the airline posted its first profit on revenues of US $ 1 @.@ 05 billion , one year ahead of schedule . Internationally , EVA Air 's rapid expansion and increased passenger volume was boosted by its safety record , in contrast to its primary competitor , China Airlines . In addition to receiving IOSA ( IATA Operational Safety Audit ) certification , EVA Air in 1997 achieved simultaneous official ISO 9002 certification in the areas of Passenger , Cargo , and Maintenance Services .
Dedicated EVA Air Cargo operations began in April 1995 , with the first weekly McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 11 freighter flights to Taipei , Singapore , Penang , San Francisco , New York , and Los Angeles . EVA Air Cargo 's fleet was expanded to five freighters by the end of the year . Previously , EVA Air Cargo operations mainly relied on passenger aircraft cargo space .
In the mid – 1990s , EVA Air expanded into the domestic Taiwan market by acquiring shares in Makung International Airlines , followed by Great China Airlines and Taiwan Airways . On 1 July 1998 , all three carriers , as well as EVA 's existing domestic operations , merged under the UNI Air title . UNI Air became EVA Air 's domestic intra @-@ Taiwanese subsidiary , operating shorthaul flights out of its base in Kaohsiung , Taiwan 's southern port and second @-@ largest city .
= = = Maturation in the early 2000s = = =
In 2000 , EVA Air embarked on its first major long @-@ haul fleet renewal . The airline became one of the launch customers for the Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER , ordering four aircraft plus eight options . At the same time , the airline placed three orders for the Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR . In January 2001 , EVA Air ordered its first Airbus aircraft , the A330 @-@ 200 . The Boeing 777 aircraft were intended for United States and European services , while the Airbus A330 aircraft were intended for regional Asian routes .
In 2001 , EVA Air began listing public stock offerings on the Taiwan Stock Exchange . Initially , one percent of the company 's shares was offered over @-@ the @-@ counter , with one @-@ quarter held by parent company Evergreen Marine Corporation and EVA Air employees , respectively . In 2002 , EVA Air underwent internal corporate reforms , with staff reductions and streamlined management . This culminated a process which had begun in 1997 , when the Asian financial crisis began affecting profitability . The 2002 – 2003 SARS contagion also affected passenger traffic for medium @-@ haul flights in Southeast Asia , while long @-@ haul flights to North America , Japan , and Europe were less affected .
In 2004 , EVA Air converted its remaining eight options for Boeing 777 @-@
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300ERs into firm orders . The first Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER entered service as EVA Air 's new flagship aircraft in July 2005 . With the arrival of its new Boeing 777s , EVA Air launched a comprehensive revamp of its cabins , introducing lie @-@ flat seats in its new Premium Laurel business class cabin , and upgrading its premium economy product to the new Elite Class cabin . The airline 's A330s were introduced with two @-@ class Premium Laurel and Economy cabins . In December 2005 , EVA Air and its associated divisions had 5 @,@ 098 employees , and the airline 's network spanned 40 passenger destinations worldwide , with additional cargo destinations .
= = = Repositioning in the late 2000s = = =
In 2007 , EVA Air announced a nonstop Taipei to New York ( John F. Kennedy International Airport ) service , to be operated with its new long @-@ range Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs . At the same time , the airline withdrew passenger service from Taipei to Paris . On 31 October 2008 , EVA Air announced a resumption of Taipei to Paris service with thrice @-@ weekly passenger flights beginning 21 January 2009 . In 2008 , the airline also announced the suspension of services to Auckland . The carrier also prepared to increase direct flights to China , after initiating weekly charter flights in July 2008 following changes to the Three Links travel agreements .
For the 2007 – 2008 period , EVA Air coped with a 34 % surge in fuel prices , which contributed to a US $ 61 @.@ 2 million 2007 loss . In August 2008 , EVA Air reported a second quarterly loss due to increased fuel costs . In response , the airline implemented cost @-@ saving measures , including flight schedule reductions and fee increases . In early 2008 , EVA Air 's business office in El Segundo , California , announced a major staff reduction , with over half the staff advised that they would no longer be employed by May 2008 . Functions performed by those local staff were shifted to Taiwan by half , such as the reservation center .
EVA Air carried 6 @.@ 2 million passengers in 2007 , and employed 4 @,@ 800 staff members as of April 2008 . The carrier returned to profitability in the first quarter of 2009 , with a US $ 5 @.@ 9 million net gain . In August 2010 , EVA Air was named one of the top 10 international airlines in Travel + Leisure 's World 's Best Awards .
= = = Further Expansion in the early 2010s = = =
In 2010 , EVA Air released a newsflash about their service to Toronto , which began on 29 March 2010 . In November 2010 , EVA Air began nonstop flights connecting the inner @-@ city Taipei Songshan and Tokyo Haneda airports . In 2010 , Chang Kuo @-@ wei , son of Chang Yung @-@ fa , returned to serve as EVA Air 's president , and the carrier recorded increased sales and yearly profits . In early 2011 , the carrier announced that it had applied for airline alliance membership with Star Alliance , and later that year clarified that it was in talks to join either Oneworld or Star Alliance by 2013 . In June 2011 , the carrier began nonstop flights from Taipei to Guam , and in October 2011 the carrier announced nonstop service from New York ( JFK ) to Taipei .
On 27 March 2012 , EVA Air announced that it would join Star Alliance in 2013 . On 24 September 2012 EVA Air signed a partnership with Amadeus IT Group Altéa suite for its Altéa Revenue Management system .
On 18 June 2013 , EVA Air became a full member of Star Alliance .
In October 2014 , EVA AIR announced to expand its North American network by adding new routes to Houston in 2015 and Chicago in 2016 , alone with expanding 55 flights per week to 63 flights per week to North America . The Houston route launch will be complimented by the introduction of the seventh and last Hello Kitty jet , Kikilala @-@ themed " Shining Star " Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER .
In October 2015 , EVA AIR announced its intent to purchase up to 24 Boeing 787 Dreamliners and two additional 777 @-@ 300ER ( Extended Range ) jetliners from Boeing . EVA Airways will join the 787 @-@ 10 launch customer team .
= = = Recent developments = = =
In November 2015 , Eva Air unveiled a new livery on their 22nd 777 along with new boarding music and improved service on board .
In January 2016 , Evergreen Group chairman Chang Yung @-@ fa died , leaving the company to his son from the second marriage , Chang Kuo @-@ Wei .
In March 2016 , a coup by the three children of Chang Yung @-@ fa in the first marriage removed Chang Kuo @-@ Wei as chairman and replaced him with Lin Pang @-@ Shui ( Steven Lin ) .
In June 2016 , EVA Air is given a Skytrax 5 @-@ star rating , along with ANA , Asiana Airlines , Cathay Pacific , Garuda Indonesia , Hainan Airlines , Qatar Airways and Singapore Airlines .
= = Corporate affairs and identity = =
= = = Management = = =
As of 2011 , EVA Air 's corporate leadership is headed by Chairman Lin Bou @-@ shiu and President Cheng Chuan @-@ yi . EVA Air 's president plays a primary role in managing EVA 's business operations . Other members of EVA Air 's board manage support and service services of the company , including its catering and maintenance divisions . Related areas outside EVA Air 's direct management include UNI Holidays , Evergreen 's Evasión travel service and Evergreen Laurel Hotels . EVA Air has its headquarters , known as the EVA Air Building , in Luzhu , Taoyuan City .
EVA Air is largely privately owned . Primary shareholders are Evergreen Marine Corporation ( 20 % ) , Evergreen founder Chang Yung @-@ fa ( 15 % ) , and Evergreen International Corporation ( 11 % ) . Foreign investors and individual stockholders combined hold 28 % of EVA Air shares .
= = = Cultural details = = =
EVA Air has differentiated its onboard service by using Taiwanese ( Hokkien ) , Mandarin , Hakka , English , and other languages for its in @-@ flight cabin announcements . The order of Hokkien and Mandarin has varied since the carrier 's launch . EVA Air has also used Taiwanese folk songs in its boarding music , including an orchestral form of " Longing for Spring Wind " performed by the Evergreen Group 's Evergreen Symphony Orchestra . The carrier 's aircraft and employee color scheme has at times been interpreted by observers as support for the Pan @-@ Green Coalition of Taiwanese politics , mainly due to Evergreen founder Chang Yung @-@ fa 's political views in the 2000 presidential election , but this association changed following Chang 's support of the Pan @-@ Blue Coalition in the 2004 presidential election . The carrier has further abstained from displaying official markings of Taiwan on its aircraft , and received expedited approval of international landing rights as a result .
= = = Branding = = =
= = = = Name and logo = = = =
The name " EVA " was taken from two letters of " Evergreen " and the first letter of " Airways . " The name " EVA " is always spelled in capital letters . The airline uses the logo of its parent company , using green with an orange trim .
= = = = Livery and uniforms = = = =
The standard EVA Air livery utilizes dark green , signifying durability , and orange , representing technological innovation . The tail globe logo is intended to represent stability and reliability , and its positioning on the tail , with one corner off the edge , represents service innovation . The EVA Air livery was updated in 2002 , adding a larger typeface and the use of green covering the aircraft below the window line . The tail design and logo remained unchanged .
Since 2003 , EVA Air has adopted its current uniform , featuring dark green dresses with cropped jackets . Chief pursers are distinguished by orange highlights , gold bands , and orange stripes ; flight attendants feature green trim and white stripes . The current uniform replaced the former green @-@ and @-@ orange necktie ensembles used in EVA Air 's first twelve years .
= = = = Marketing slogans = = = =
EVA Air has used different slogans throughout its operational history . The first slogan appeared on English advertising in the United States , while the 1996 and 2003 versions were introduced internationally in both English and Mandarin . In 2005 , a second " Sharing the world " slogan was introduced to complement the arrival of the airline 's Boeing 777s . EVA Air slogans have been as follows :
Flying into the Future ( 2016 – present )
= = = Divisions = = =
= = = = EVA Air Cargo = = = =
Founded concurrently with the passenger operations of EVA Air , EVA Air Cargo operates facilities in Europe , Asia , and North America . Its cargo operations have diversified to include transportation of high @-@ tech equipment and special care items such as museum artwork and live zoological specimens . EVA Air has stated its goal of achieving a 50 / 50 split in revenues between its passenger and cargo operations . The airline 's cargo operations are mainly operated via a fleet of Boeing 747 @-@ 400 , MD @-@ 11 dedicated freighters , Boeing 747 @-@ 400 Combi aircraft , and additional belly cargo space on passenger aircraft .
Following the establishment of its A330 fleet and the introduction of Boeing 777 long @-@ haul aircraft , the airline converted some of its older Boeing 747 @-@ 400 passenger aircraft to freighters to meet cargo market demands . EVA Air Cargo established its European Cargo Center in Brussels in 2003 and opened its Southern China Cargo Center in Hong Kong in 2006 .
As of 2007 , EVA Air Cargo has 43 weekly cargo flights to London , Vienna , Brussels and US destinations including Los Angeles , Dallas / Ft . Worth , Chicago , Atlanta and New York . The carrier also has code @-@ shares with international airlines including Air Nippon ( a subsidiary of All Nippon Airways ) , British Airways World Cargo , Austrian Airlines and Lufthansa Cargo .
In recent years , the airline has focused its North American cargo operations solely on point @-@ to @-@ point routes . By 2004 , EVA Air Cargo ranked among the world 's top 10 largest air freight companies . Industry publication Air Cargo World ranked EVA Air Cargo 6th out of 50 in its 2008 Air Cargo Excellence Survey , a measure of cargo service customer service and performance . In 2008 , EVA Air handled the transport of two Chinese pandas , donated as a gift to the Taipei Zoo .
= = = = Maintenance and support = = = =
EVA Air service divisions further include pilot and cabin attendant training facilities , along with its Evergreen Sky Catering and Evergreen Airline Services ground support divisions . EVA Air has partnered with General Electric since 1998 to operate the Evergreen Aviation Technologies Corporation ( EGAT ) , a heavy maintenance and aircraft overhaul service . Evergreen Aviation Technologies Corporation provides safety , repair , and refit services for EVA Air , other airlines ' aircraft , and has handled the modification of four Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter aircraft for Boeing 's 787 Dreamliner program .
= = = Financial report = = =
Eva Air 's financial results are shown below :
= = Destinations = =
Most EVA Air flights originate out of Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport , its main hub near Taipei , Taiwan . At Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport , EVA Air 's flight operations are concentrated in Terminal 2 . Additionally , EVA Air and its domestic subsidiary UNI Air operate numerous flights out of Kaohsiung International Airport . A focus city for EVA Air outside Taiwan is Bangkok 's Suvarnabhumi Airport , with westerly connections to all its European destinations except for Paris , which is flown non @-@ stop .
Through the mid @-@ 2000s , EVA Air 's route network was affected by the political status of Taiwan , which has historically limited access for Taiwanese airlines to Europe and certain Asian countries . Because Taiwanese carriers did not have direct access to China , EVA Air has used Hong Kong and Macau as interline destinations . EVA Air operated regular charter flights to China in 2008 . The airline began regularly scheduled , direct cross @-@ strait operations in December 2008 , following the restoration of direct travel links .
EVA air currently plans to expand its North America network . Houston route was open in June 2015 , while Chicago route will be open around 2016 . EVA currently plans to increase North American flights from 58 flights to 77 flights a week .
EVA also plans to launch service to Delhi and Washington DC around late 2016 or early 2017 .
EVA Air launched service to Istanbul on 5 March 2016 , operating a 777 @-@ 300ER reg . B @-@ 16726 . This flight is operated 4 times a week . EVA Air also launched service to Cebu , Philippines on 27 March 2016 using its A321 @-@ 200 aircraft . This flight operates daily .
EVA Air has announced that it will launch Taipei @-@ Chicago O 'Hare on November 2 , using a 777 @-@ 300ER .
= = = Codeshare agreements = = =
EVA Air has existing codeshare agreements with over a dozen carriers , which include the following :
= = Fleet = =
The EVA Air fleet consists of the following aircraft ( as of July 2016 ) :
= = = Fleet gallery = = =
Hover over each photo to view label detail
= = = Former fleet = = =
= = = Special liveries = = =
In October 2005 , EVA Air launched a campaign with Japanese company Sanrio to create the " Hello Kitty Jet , " featuring the popular Japanese character . Using the airline 's A330 @-@ 200 , the exterior adopted a livery of Hello Kitty characters . A year later , the airline launched a second Hello Kitty Jet . The aircraft featured a Hello Kitty motif on exterior and interior fittings and features . Both planes were used to serve Japanese destinations , and from mid – July 2007 , also Taipei @-@ Hong Kong routes . The original Hello Kitty livery was retired in 2009 , but in 2011 EVA Air announced its return in redesigned form to mark the carrier 's 20th anniversary and renew interest in Japanese tourism . For this occasion , EVA Air had ordered brand @-@ new Airbus A330 @-@ 300s to be painted in an all @-@ new Hello Kitty livery .
After the introduction of the " refreshed " Hello Kitty Livery on three EVA Air A330 's , EVA Air decided to introduce two additional Hello Kitty A330 jets , launched in May and June 2012 . The fourth and fifth Hello Kitty jets are known as " Hello Kitty Speed Puff " and " Hello Kitty Happy Music " respectively . In 2013 , the carrier rolled out its sixth Hello Kitty jet " Hand in Hand " , this time on a Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER . The plane featured all the main characters from the Sanrio family . In 2015 , the seventh and final Hello Kitty jet , Kikilala @-@ themed " Shining Star " Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER , rolled out .
In July 2006 , EVA Air 's third new Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER was Boeing 's center stage at the 2006 Farnborough Airshow in a static display . The aircraft , with its special 777 @-@ 300ER " Rainbow " livery , was leased by Boeing for a week to be presented at the show . The first three EVA Air Boeing 777 aircraft featured this livery , which were repainted in 2013 ( B @-@ 16701 in Star Alliance livery , B @-@ 16702 in regular livery , B @-@ 16703 in Hello Kitty " Hand in Hand " livery ) .
For the 2010 Taipei International Flora Exposition , EVA Air debuted a floral @-@ inspired design for its A330 @-@ 200 aircraft , highlighting the carrier 's official sponsorship of the event ; the " Flora Expo cabin concept " introduced interior products such as in @-@ flight meals with a flower motif .
= = = Fleet plans = = =
EVA Air 's long @-@ haul fleet is based on the Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER , with the carrier 's initial order for 15 all delivered by 2011 . In 2006 , the airline decided against its existing three Boeing 777 @-@ 200LR orders ( stating that with the 777 @-@ 300ERs it has sufficient passenger capacity ) , and the 777 @-@ 200LR orders were converted into 777 @-@ 300ER orders . In late 2010 , EVA Air indicated it planned to lease three A330 @-@ 300 aircraft for Asian routes in 2011 . In mid @-@ 2011 , EVA Air announced plans to acquire further 777 @-@ 300ERs to complete the replacement of its 747 @-@ 400 aircraft on Europe and U.S. routes , along with A321 series narrow @-@ body jets to replace its MD @-@ 90 fleet . On 8 May 2012 , EVA Air signed orders with Boeing for 3 additional 777 @-@ 300ERs , and also announced its lease of 4 more 777 @-@ 300ERs from GECAS . Due to falling of freight demands , the airline restructured its cargo fleet by retiring the MD @-@ 11s . The last 747 combi flight was conducted on January 5 , 2015 as BR868 from Hong Kong to Taipei , ending its 22 @-@ year service . After the release of Airbus A330neo , Eva air puts its A330 renewal plans on hold . Eva air also considers ordering more A321 ( either the CEO variant or the NEO variant ) , and possibly order the 777Fs to replace the existing fleet of 747 @-@ 400Fs and the already phased out MD @-@ 11Fs . The carrier plans to operate up to 100 aircraft .
At the Paris Airshow 2015 , Eva Air announced its Intention to purchase 5 777F and 4 A330 @-@ 300 . EVA Air confirmed the order of up to 24 Boeing 787 @-@ 10 and two additional Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER.They also announced the additional lease of 787 aircraft from ALC .
EVA announced in late 2015 that it will be retiring all their A330 @-@ 200 aircraft by the end of 2016 , replacing them with the newly ordered A330 @-@ 300 .
= = = 747 retirements = = =
As the 777s continue to phase in , the 747s are being progressively retired . On January 5 , 2015 , EVA Air had retired their first 747 variant , the combi variant . In 2016 , EVA announced that the last 747 @-@ 400 passenger service will be mid @-@ May 2017 . Last planned 747 @-@ 400 long range service will be 26 March 2017 . The aircraft will continue to operate the two daily 747 @-@ 400 to Shanghai until mid @-@ may . The airline also plans to retire the 747 freighters when the 777 freighters are delivered .
= = Services = =
= = = Check @-@ in = = =
At Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport , EVA Air has introduced the EVA Air Check @-@ in Kiosks at T2 , counters 6A , allowing passengers to check in and print their boarding passes electronically , since December 2009 . The kiosks are currently available at Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport and Taipei Songshan Airport . Over time , EVA will install these counters in airports in China and other international EVA Air destinations . Outside of Taiwan , it is only currently available in Los Angeles . Previously , if passengers were to check in for an EVA Air flight , they would have to go to an airline representative at the counters .
= = = Onboard = = =
EVA Air offers three classes of service on its long @-@ haul flights : " Royal Laurel " / " Premium Laurel " ( business ) , " Elite Class " ( premium economy ) and Economy Class . All cabins feature satellite phones , audio video on demand ( AVOD ) entertainment , SMS service , and in a number of Boeing 777 cabins , mood lighting ( B @-@ 16718 @-@ B @-@ 16727 ) . Domestic and short @-@ haul international services flown by EVA Air and UNI Air MD @-@ 90 aircraft also feature a short @-@ haul business class .
In the latter half of 2007 , EVA Air 's Boeing 747 @-@ 400 fleet was upgraded to feature the airline 's latest seating classes ; the addition of Premium Laurel class on the Boeing 747 @-@ 400 succeeded the previous " Super First " and " Super Business " cabins . In early 2012 , EVA Air officials unveiled a redesigned " Royal Laurel " business class , including 180 @-@ degree , fully flat seats in reverse herringbone layout , which was first introduced on Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER services in June 2012 between Taipei and New York .
= = = = Cabin classes = = = =
EVA Air currently has five classes , which are listed below .
In May 2012 , EVA Air announced to introduce a new business class product on select , redesigned Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER aircraft : Royal Laurel class . The cabin features 38 180 ° lie @-@ flat bed seats in a reverse herringbone configuration pitched at 2 @,@ 000 and 650 mm ( 79 and 26 in ) wide . Laptop power and multi @-@ port connectors ( USB / iPod ) are available at each seat . The Royal Laurel class seating arrangement is in a 1 – 2 – 1 abreast arrangement . The airline is offering the service with these redesigned B777s on the TPE @-@ JFK route , and gradually offering the service for LAX , SFO , YYZ , CDG , AMS and LHR ( the latter two routes fly via BKK ) routes by 2013 . Cabin upgrades are projected to be completed August 2013 .
Premium Laurel , EVA Air 's existing business class cabin , was introduced in 2003 with the A330 @-@ 200 , and expanded to more destinations with the Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER in 2005 and refitted Boeing 747 @-@ 400 ( replacing " Super First " ) in 2007 . Seats are pitched at 1 @,@ 549 mm ( 61 @.@ 0 in ) in Premium Laurel in a pod @-@ style layout , and can convert to an angled lie @-@ flat bed . Laptop power is available . Premium Laurel class seating is in a 2 – 2 – 2 abreast arrangement on the Boeing 777 , Boeing 747 ( 2 – 2 in the forward nose section ) , and A330.In 2016 , Premium Laurel was upgraded to the new B / E Aerospace seats in a 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 2 configuration .
Elite Class , EVA Air 's premium economy product , is offered in a dedicated cabin on the Boeing 777 and 747 @-@ 400 . Elite Class has wider seating and legroom ( in a 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 layout ) , and a seat similar to short @-@ haul business class with an extendable legrest , 970 to 1 @,@ 020 mm ( 38 to 40 in ) pitch , adjustable winged headrests , and laptop power . Service levels in Elite Class are similar to Economy Class , but food and amenities are improved , along with the seating . Elite passengers further receive an amenity kit on most flights .
Economy Class is available on all EVA Air aircraft , featuring 840 mm ( 33 in ) pitch , touchscreen personal entertainment screens , sliding seat cushions , and adjustable winged headrests . Each seat is also equipped with a personal handset satellite telephone which can be used with a credit card . Economy seating is in 3 – 3 – 3 arrangement on the Boeing 777 , 3 – 4 – 3 on the Boeing 747 ( main deck ) , 3 @-@ 2 on the MD90 , 3 – 3 on the A321 & Boeing 747 ( upper deck ) , and 2 – 4 – 2 on all A330s . In Economy Class of A321 and MD 90 , there is no personal entertainment , with only overhead sceens .
A new Economy and Elite cabin is available on select 777 @-@ 300ER aircraft . Those new seats have improved entertainment systems and USB and 110V AC ports in each seat . It includes a seat @-@ back screen that is 11 @.@ 1 inches , compared to the previous 9 inches . Those new seats are only available on selected flights to North America . Wi @-@ fi is available for purchase .
EVA Air has finished refurnishing most of their 777 @-@ 300ER aircraft with the newest premium economy and economy product , along with the installation of Wifi .
EVA Air has begun the process of repainting their fleet with the new livery that was debuted on B @-@ 16725 in November 2015 .
= = = = In @-@ flight entertainment = = = =
EVA Air 's audio video on demand ( AVOD ) entertainment system , Star Gallery , is available in all classes , except Airbus A321 Economy class . This system has 40 movies and short features , interactive games , and over 100 music albums . Programs are mainly in Mandarin and English , with some selections in Japanese , German and French .
Sky Gallery entertainment categories include such areas as Sky Hollywood ( films ) , Sky Concert Hall ( music and playlist creator ) , Kids ' World ( entertainment geared toward younger travelers ) , among others . The Panasonic Avionics 3000i system can display Mandarin , English , or Japanese text . On certain aircraft , Panasonic EX3 system is installed . Since 2005 , customers can also send SMS text messages and emails to the ground using their personal handsets and seatback screens . Seatback video is not available in Economy Class on A321 aircraft .
enVoyage is EVA 's inflight magazine and features articles in English , Mandarin and Japanese . EVA Air 's duty @-@ free shopping brochure , EVA Air Sky Shop , is included at each seat in either paper or video form , with sales occurring in @-@ flight , typically after meal services . EVA Air also stocks a supply of newspapers and magazine publications on international flights , selection depending on route .
= = = = Catering = = = =
EVA Air offers a variety of meals on intercontinental routes , depending on seat class , destination and flight length . Western and Eastern menu selections are typically offered , including seasonal menu selections varied by destination . Special meal offerings can be requested in each class during booking , including children 's , religious , vegetarian , and other meals .
In Royal Laurel and Premium Laurel Class , passengers can pre @-@ order gourmet entreés , depending on destination , including specialties produced by Din Tai Fung , the award @-@ winning Taiwanese restaurant . Royal Laurel cabins on the Boeing 777 also feature an in @-@ flight refreshment bar , and European wine selections are served .
= = = EVA Air Lounges = = =
EVA Air operates airline lounges , under the brand name EVA Air Lounge , in major destination airports . Passengers eligible to enter these facilities include first and business class passengers , Infinity MileageLands Diamond , Gold , and Silver card holders , Star Alliance Gold members , and airlines who have contracted the lounge facilities .
EVA Air 's four flagship lounges , located at Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport are :
The Garden ( Infinity MileageLands Diamond , American Express Centurion / EVA Air Cobrand Platinum Cardholders , and Citibank EVA Air Cobrand World Card )
The Infinity ( Infinity MileageLands Diamond , Royal Laurel / Premium Laurel Class passengers , Star Alliance First / Business Class Passengers , American Express Centurion / EVA Air Cobrand Platinum Cardholders , and Citibank EVA Air Cobrand World Cardholders )
The Star ( Infinity MileageLands Diamond / Gold , Royal Laurel / Premium Laurel Class Passengers , Star Alliance First / Business Class Passengers , Star Alliance Gold members , American Express Centurion / EVA Air Cobrand Platinum Cardholders , Citibank EVA Air Cobrand World Cardholders , Business customers , elite status members of codeshare partners , and star alliance airlines which contracts EVA services )
The Club by EVA Air ( Infinity MileageLands Silver , Citibank Diamond Cardholders , Diners Club cardholders , and Citibank EVA Air Cobrand Titanium / Platinum Cardholders , Non Star Alliance member airlines contracted with EGAT ) .
EVA Air lounge services typically include refreshments , business facilities , and television and reading entertainment . The lounge at Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport , Terminal 2 , has separate eating facilities at different levels .
EVA Air also operates EVA Air Lounges at Bangkok International Airport , Hong Kong Chep Lap Kok Airport , San Francisco International Airport , and Kaohsiung International Airport .
= = = Infinity MileageLands = = =
EVA Air 's frequent flyer program , Infinity MileageLands , awards members points based on miles traveled and class of service . Infinity MileageLands points are redeemable for upgrades and free tickets , and can also be accumulated through credit card use , rental car agencies , Evergreen Laurel Hotels , and other participating services . Membership benefits include a dedicated reservation line , dedicated customer service hotlines , dedicated check in services , holiday gifts ( Diamond Card Holders ) , Evergreen Lounge access , additional baggage allowance with priority handling , and discounts on car rentals and hotels .
Membership into the program is free . The program is divided into four tiers : Green , Silver , Gold , and Diamond . Infinity MileageLands privileges are additive by membership tier , with higher tiers including all benefits listed for prior tiers . The program accepts miles flown on partner airlines and Star Alliance partners such as All Nippon Airways and United Airlines , provided that the flights are booked and logged according to EVA Air frequent flier rules . Co @-@ branded American Express , Citibank , and Diners Club cards can also earn miles . Qualification levels and general benefits are listed on the EVA Air website .
= = Safety Ranking , Incidents and Accidents = =
To date , EVA Air has not had any aircraft losses or passenger fatalities in its operational history . As of 21 January 2014 , EVA Air is ranked number 3 in safety after Qantas and Cathay Pacific out of more than 800 individual airlines by Aero International , a German monthly devoted to civil aviation .
At JACDEC Airline Safety Ranking 2015 , EVA Air was ranked 3rd place , behind Cathay Pacific and Emirates . ( out of 60 major airlines ) .
On May 30 , 2012 , EVA Air Cargo Flight BR661 ( Boeing 747 @-@ 400F ) clipped the tail of American Eagle Flight 4265 . The regional jet had arrived from Springfield , Mo . , and was taxiing toward a gate at Terminal 3 . The accident occurred around 1 p.m. CT . The incident occurred as the American Eagle jet was pulling into Gate G20 . Damage to the two aircraft appeared to be minor and both returned to service after repair .
On May 26 , 2015 , EVA Air flight BR12 ( Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER B @-@ 16718 , Delivered May 2014 ) from Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport to Los Angeles landed safely at Los Angeles International Airport at 15 : 40 ( 3 : 40 pm ) . It departed from Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport at 18 : 57 ( 6 : 57 pm ) Taiwan time with 305 passengers , 3 pilots and 15 flight attendants on board . Approximately 20 minutes before the flight landed , the FAA received a telephone call that the flight was the target of a security threat . As soon as the aircraft landed , authorities took it to a secure area in a cargo bay . FBI agents , the Los Angeles Police Bomb Squad and other officials continued their investigation . After a thorough investigation , the FBI , Los Angeles Police Department Bomb Squad and airport officials have confirmed that the security threat against EVA Air BR12 flight from Taipei to Los Angeles was a false alarm . Passengers began getting off of the aircraft for security screenings at 17 : 15 ( 5 : 15 pm PDT ) and , now , authorities have released the Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER back to EVA Air to resume operations . The aircraft was initially scheduled to operate as EVA flight BR11 scheduled to depart from Los Angeles to Taipei at 17 : 15 ( 5 : 15 pm PDT ) . EVA used another from a later flight to use on flight BR11 due to the time needed for though security checks . EVA BR11 was delayed by 2 hours 15 minutes and took off at 19 : 30 ( 7 : 30 pm PDT ) with 298 passengers on board .
= Vintage amateur radio =
Vintage amateur radio is a subset of amateur radio activity , considered a form of nostalgia or hobby much like antique car collecting , where enthusiasts collect , restore , preserve , build , and operate amateur radio equipment from bygone years , most notably those using vacuum tube technology .
Popular modes of operation include voice communication using amplitude modulation ( AM ) , and Morse code using continuous wave ( CW ) radiotelegraphy . Among enthusiasts , there is considerable interest in owning , restoring and operating vintage military and commercial radio equipment , much of it more than 40 years old . Some undertake to construct their own gear , known in ham slang as homebrewing , using vintage parts and designs . A number of amateur radio clubs and organizations sponsor contests , events , and swap meets that cater to this specialized aspect of the hobby .
= = Appeal = =
Many amateurs prefer the relatively precise digital frequency displays and stability of modern , state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art , microprocessor based amateur radios . Vintage radio enthusiasts contend that modern amateur equipment lacks the aesthetic appeal and " soul " of amateur electronic gear from the vacuum tube era . Additionally , many find satisfaction in taking commercially @-@ made amateur equipment from the 1930s @-@ 1970s ( affectionately called boat anchors by US amateurs because of their large size and weight ) and carefully restoring it .
Enthusiasts feel that the spacious electrical and mechanical designs of boat anchor radios are more easily worked on than the miniaturized layouts of modern Japanese gear . Fixing a modern transceiver often involves nothing more than a VLSI chip replacement . Vintage amateur radio devotees enjoy the more primitive experience that boat anchor radios offer , calling it " real radio " . Enthusiasts claim that boat anchors sound better than modern equipment , saying that the tube audio from vintage gear is " warmer " and more aesthetically pleasing . Some hobbyists see vintage radio operation as a valuable asset to help preserve the history and heritage of radio for future generations , and may assist in the restoration and operation of vintage radio equipment for historical exhibits , museums and museum ships .
= = AM activity = =
Amplitude modulation ( AM ) was once the main voice mode in amateur radio before being superseded by Single @-@ sideband modulation ( SSB ) . But AM has recently become a nostalgic specialty interest on the shortwave ham bands . Vintage radio operation has drawn a wide range of amateur radio enthusiasts from rock star Joe Walsh , WB6ACU , to former Federal Communications Commission attorney Riley Hollingsworth , K4ZDH . A majority of " AM 'ers " stations consist of vintage transmitters and receivers housed in separate cabinets . Some operators have even obtained old AM broadcast transmitters from radio stations that have upgraded their equipment . Others build their equipment from scratch ( called homebrewing ) using both modern and vintage @-@ era components .
In the United States , shortwave HF frequencies ( in MHz ) on which amateur radio AM activity can be found include 1 @.@ 885 , 1 @.@ 930 , 1 @.@ 985 , 3 @.@ 870 @-@ 3 @.@ 885 , 7 @.@ 290 @-@ 7 @.@ 295 , 7 @.@ 160 , 14 @.@ 286 , 14 @.@ 330 , 21 @.@ 425 , and 29 @.@ 000 @-@ 29 @.@ 200 , and sometimes feature " special event " stations using unique call signs . In the United Kingdom , AM activity can be found almost every day on frequencies between 3 @.@ 615 and 3 @.@ 625 MHz . The French AM activity can be found almost every day the morning between 6h30 and 8h00 the frequency 3 @.@ 550 MHz . Conversations ( QSO 's in ham slang ) are typically configured as " roundtables " consisting of several participants . Interested newcomers are usually encouraged to switch their modern transceivers to AM mode , introduce themselves , and join the conversation .
= = Classic gear = =
Vintage operating activity is not limited to the AM mode . Many devotees use their " classic " amateur gear from vintage @-@ era American manufacturers like Eico , EF Johnson , National , Heathkit , Hammarlund , Drake , Collins , WRL , Swan , Signal / One , Lafayette and Hallicrafters , to make
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radiotelegraphy ( CW ) , SSB , FM and RTTY two @-@ way contacts . Although 1930s through 1970s gear is considered " vintage " , collectors may differ on the cutoff dates .
Some even sub @-@ specialize in military radio collecting and undertake to restore and operate surplus communications equipment , much of it dating back to World War II , from the ubiquitous US Signal Corps SCR @-@ 300 and SCR @-@ 536 walkie talkies to exotic gear like the British Paraset , a small espionage transceiver supplied to Resistance forces in France , Belgium and the Netherlands .
There is considerable interest in vintage military and commercial radio equipment among EU amateur radio operators , especially gear from British manufacturers such as Marconi , Racal , Eddystone , Pye , and a variety of Russian , German , Canadian , British RAF and British Army equipment , such as the well known Wireless Set No. 19 .
= = = Glowbugs = = =
" Glowbugs " are a related aspect of vintage radio and harken back to the early days of amateur radio , when the majority of hams hand @-@ crafted their own equipment . Smaller in size than " boat anchors " , " glowbug " is a term used by US amateurs to describe a simple home @-@ made tube @-@ type radio set , reminiscent of the shortwave radio @-@ building craze of the 1920s and 1930s . " Glow " refers to the glow of the vacuum tubes and " bug " to the gear 's relatively diminutive size . The Doerle regenerative receiver and Hartley transmitter circuits are considered " classic " glowbug designs . Generally , any small , home @-@ built tube @-@ type transmitter or receiver may be referred to as a glowbug . The majority of glowbug transmitters are designed to be used in the CW radiotelegraphy mode .
As late as the 1960s , glowbugs were part of many beginner ham stations , and the ARRL Radio Amateur Handbook for those years exhibited a number of such simple , tube @-@ based designs . Today , glowbug operators are enjoying a resurgence of interest among QRP enthusiasts and others with a penchant for constructing their own equipment . Many hams are assembling " glowbug rigs " on improvised chassis such as tin cakepans and wooden boards , and putting them on the air between 7040 – 7050 kHz and 7114 – 7125 kHz . Amateur radio Glowbug enthusiasts can often be heard communicating on the shortwave bands via CW using Morse code . Popular frequencies to hear glowbug contacts are around 3560 kHz and also 3579 @.@ 5 kHz , chosen because crystals for this frequency can be salvaged from discarded color TV sets , along with other transmitter components .
= = Clubs , events , and publications = =
Many vintage radio clubs sponsor special events and contests , such as the " AM QSO Party " sponsored by the Antique Wireless Association , the " Heavy Metal Rally " sponsored by Electric Radio Magazine , and the " Classic Radio Exchange " . Such operating events are not traditional ham radio contests inasmuch as they are a night of friendly QSO ’ s using home @-@ built , restored commercial ham , broadcast or military equipment .
The Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society and The AM Radio Network 's " Expedition to Thomas Point Shoal Lighthouse " in Chesapeake Bay , MD commemorated the history of lighthouses with a vintage special event station using the call sign K3L .
Britain 's Vintage and Military Amateur Radio Society ( affiliated with the Radio Society of Great Britain ) coordinates regular on @-@ air " nets " where enthusiasts gather as well as massive technical files for the benefit of members . The Surplus Radio Society , a Dutch society of collectors of old ex @-@ military radio equipment and other nostalgic receivers and transmitters holds weekly radio activity nets every Sunday on 3 @.@ 575 MHz CW / 3 @.@ 705 MHz AM and sponsors several flea markets and exchange fairs each year .
The Canada @-@ based The Wireless Set No. 19 Group , with members virtually world @-@ wide , caters to those who collect , restore and / or operate vintage military communications equipment , with emphasis on the World War II Wireless Set No. 19 radio . Many members are Amateur Radio operators who use the equipment for on @-@ air contacts with others .
The ARRL publishes " Vintage Radio " , a collection of articles from QST magazine describing vintage equipment and restoration , and CQ Amateur Radio magazine releases a yearly " Classic Radio Calendar " featuring full @-@ color vintage radio images .
= = Safety = =
Those accustomed to making repairs on solid state equipment are cautioned that vacuum tube gear contain potentially lethal voltages . The practice of discharging power @-@ supply capacitors and keeping one hand in your pocket when working on powered @-@ up gear are essential safety measures . Some older equipment directly connects the metal chassis to one side of the incoming AC line , a practice which results in the entire unit becoming electrified if the wall plug is inserted backwards . Many older radios , such as vintage receivers , are not safety @-@ fused . Restorers generally replace the AC line cord with a more modern 3 wire plug and install an in @-@ line or chassis mount fuseholder . The use of a common station ground connection to all equipment is encouraged . Those who collect , restore or otherwise use vintage radio equipment should also be aware of possible radioactive substances .
= Galerina marginata =
Galerina marginata is a species of poisonous fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae of the order Agaricales . Prior to 2001 , the species G. autumnalis , G. oregonensis , G. unicolor , and G. venenata were thought to be separate due to differences in habitat and the viscidity of their caps , but phylogenetic analysis showed that they are all the same species .
The fruit bodies of this fungus have brown to yellow @-@ brown caps that fade in color when drying . The gills are brownish and give a rusty spore print . A well @-@ defined membranous ring is typically seen on the stems of young specimens but often disappears with age . In older fruit bodies , the caps are flatter and the gills and stems browner . The species is a classic " little brown mushroom " — a catchall category that includes all small to medium @-@ sized , hard @-@ to @-@ identify brownish mushrooms , and may be easily confused with several edible species .
Galerina marginata is widespread in the Northern Hemisphere , including Europe , North America , and Asia , and has also been found in Australia . It is a wood @-@ rotting fungus that grows predominantly on decaying conifer wood . An extremely poisonous species , it contains the same deadly amatoxins found in the death cap ( Amanita phalloides ) . Ingestion in toxic amounts causes severe liver damage with vomiting , diarrhea , hypothermia , and eventual death if not treated rapidly . About ten poisonings have been attributed to the species now grouped as G. marginata over the last century .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
What is now recognized as a single morphologically variable taxon named Galerina marginata was once split into five distinct species . Norwegian mycologist Gro Gulden and colleagues concluded that all five represented the same species after comparing the DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region of ribosomal DNA for various North American and European specimens in Galerina section Naucoriopsis . The results showed no genetic differences between G. marginata and G. autumnalis , G. oregonensis , G. unicolor , and G. venenata , thus reducing all these names to synonymy . The oldest of these names are Agaricus marginatus , described by August Batsch in 1789 , and Agaricus unicolor , described by Martin Vahl in 1792 . Agaricus autumnalis was described by Charles Horton Peck in 1873 , and later moved to Galerina by A. H. Smith and Rolf Singer in their 1962 worldwide monograph on that genus . In the same publication they also introduced the G. autumnalis varieties robusta and angusticystis . Another of the synonymous species , G. oregonensis , was first described in that monograph . Galerina venenata was first identified as a species by Smith in 1953 . Since Agaricus marginatus is the oldest validly published name , it has priority according to the rules of botanical nomenclature .
Another species analysed in Gulden 's 2001 study , Galerina pseudomycenopsis , also could not be distinguished from G. marginata based on ribosomal DNA sequences and restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses . Because of differences in ecology , fruit body color and spore size combined with inadequate sampling , the authors preferred to maintain G. pseudomycenopsis as a distinct species . A 2005 study again failed to separate the two species using molecular methods , but reported that the incompatibility demonstrated in mating experiments suggests that the species are distinct .
In the fourth edition ( 1986 ) of Singer 's comprehensive classification of the Agaricales , G. marginata is the type species of Galerina section Naucoriopsis , a subdivision first defined by French mycologist Robert Kühner in 1935 . It includes small brown @-@ spored mushrooms characterized by cap edges initially curved inwards , fruit bodies resembling Pholiota or Naucoria and thin @-@ walled , obtuse or acute @-@ ended pleurocystidia that are not rounded at the top . Within this section , G. autumnalis and G. oregonensis are in stirps Autumnalis , while G. unicolor , G. marginata , and G. venenata are in stirps Marginata . Autumnalis species are characterized by having a viscid to lubricous cap surface while Marginata species lack a gelatinous cap — the surface is moist , " fatty @-@ shining " , or matte when wet . However , as Gulden explains , this characteristic is highly variable : " Viscidity is a notoriously difficult character to assess because it varies with the age of the fruitbody and the weather conditions during its development . Varying degrees of viscidity tend to be described differently and applied inconsistently by different persons applying terms such as lubricous , fatty , fatty @-@ shiny , sticky , viscid , glutinous , or ( somewhat ) slimy . "
The specific epithet marginata is derived from the Latin word for " margin " or " edge " , while autumnalis means " of the autumn " . Common names of the species include the " marginate Pholiota " ( resulting from its synonymy with Pholiota marginata ) , " funeral bell " , " deadly skullcap " , and " deadly Galerina " . G. autumnalis was known as the " fall Galerina " or the " autumnal Galerina " , while G. venenata was the " deadly lawn Galerina " .
= = Description = =
The cap reaches 1 @.@ 7 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 67 to 1 @.@ 57 in ) in diameter . It starts convex , sometimes broadly conical , and has edges ( margins ) that are curved in against the gills . As the cap grows and expands , it becomes broadly convex and then flattened , sometimes developing a central elevation , or umbo , which may project prominently from the cap surface .
Based on the collective descriptions of the five taxa now considered to be G. marginata , the texture of the surface shows significant variation . Smith and Singer give the following descriptions of surface texture : from " viscid " ( G. autumnalis ) , to " shining and viscid to lubricous when moist " ( G. oregonensis ) , to " shining , lubricous to subviscid ( particles of dirt adhere to surface ) or merely moist , with a fatty appearance although not distinctly viscid " , to " moist but not viscid " ( G. marginata ) . The cap surface remains smooth and changes colors with humidity ( hygrophanous ) , pale to dark ochraceous tawny over the disc and yellow @-@ ochraceous on the margin ( at least when young ) , but fading to dull tan or darker when dry . When moist , the cap is somewhat transparent so that the outlines of the gills may be seen as striations . The flesh is pale brownish ochraceous to nearly white , thin and pliant , with an odor and taste varying from very slightly to strongly like flour ( farinaceous ) .
The gills are typically narrow and crowded together , with a broadly adnate to nearly decurrent attachment to the stem and convex edges . They are a pallid brown when young , becoming tawny at maturity . Some short gills , called lamellulae , do not extend entirely from the cap edge to the stem , and are intercalated among the longer gills . The stem ranges from 3 to 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) long , 3 to 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 to 0 @.@ 35 in ) thick at the apex , and stays equal in width throughout or is slightly enlarged downward . Initially solid , it becomes hollow from the bottom up as it matures . The membranous ring is located on the upper half of the stem near the cap , but may be sloughed off and missing in older specimens . Its color is initially whitish or light brown , but usually appears a darker rusty @-@ brown in mature specimens that have dropped spores on it . Above the level of the ring , the stem surface has a very fine whitish powder and is paler than the cap ; below the ring it is brown down to the reddish @-@ brown to bistre base . The lower portion of the stem has a thin coating of pallid fibrils which eventually disappear and do not leave any scales . The spore print is rusty @-@ brown .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores measure 8 – 10 by 5 – 6 µm , and are slightly inequilateral in profile view , and egg @-@ shaped in face view . Like all Galerina species , the spores have a plage , which has been described as resembling " a slightly wrinkled plastic shrink @-@ wrap covering over the distal end of the spore " . The spore surface is warty and full of wrinkles , with a smooth depression where the spore was once attached via the sterigmatum to the basidium ( the spore @-@ bearing cell ) . When in potassium hydroxide ( KOH ) solution , the spores appear tawny or darker rusty @-@ brown , with an apical callus . The basidia are four @-@ spored ( rarely with a very few two @-@ spored ones ) , roughly cylindrical when producing spores , but with a slightly tapered base , and measure 21 – 29 by 5 – 8 @.@ 4 µm .
Cystidia are cells of the fertile hymenium that do not produce spores . These sterile cells , which are structurally distinct from the basidia , are further classified according to their position . In G. marginata , the pleurocystidia ( cystidia from the gill sides ) are 46 – 60 by 9 – 12 µm , thin @-@ walled , and hyaline in KOH , fusoid to ventricose in shape with wavy necks and blunt to subacute apices ( 3 – 6 µm diameter near apex ) . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edges ) are similar in shape but often smaller than the pleurocystidia , abundant , with no club @-@ shaped or abruptly tapering ( mucronate ) cells present . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae .
= = = Similar species = = =
Galerina marginata may be mistaken for a few edible mushroom species . Pholiota mutabilis produces fruit bodies roughly similar in appearance and also grows on wood , but may be distinguished from G. marginata by its stems bearing scales up to the level of the ring , and from growing in large clusters ( which is not usual of G. marginata ) . However , the possibility of confusion is such that this good edible species is " not recommended to those lacking considerable experience in the identification of higher fungi . " Furthermore , microscopic examination shows smooth spores in Pholiota . G. marginata may be easily confused with other edibles such as Armillaria mellea and Kuehneromyces mutabilis . Regarding the latter species , one source notes " Often , G. marginata bears an astonishing resemblance to this fungus , and it requires careful and acute powers of observation to distinguish the poisonous one from the edible one . " K. mutabilis may be distinguished by the presence of scales on the stem below the ring , the larger cap , which may reach a diameter of 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) , and spicy or aromatic odor of the flesh . The related K. vernalis is a rare species and even more similar in appearance to G. marginata . Examination of microscopic characteristics is typically required to reliably distinguish between the two , revealing smooth spores with a germ pore .
Another potential edible lookalike is the " velvet foot " , Flammulina velutipes . This species has gills that are white to pale yellow , a white spore print , and spores that are elliptical , smooth , and measure 6 @.@ 5 – 9 by 2 @.@ 5 – 4 µm . A rough resemblance has also been noted with the edible Hypholoma capnoides , as well as Conocybe filaris , another poisonous amatoxin @-@ containing species .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Galerina marginata is a saprobic fungus , obtaining nutrients by breaking down organic matter . It is known to have most of the major classes of secreted enzymes that dissolve plant cell wall polysaccharides , and has been used as a model saprobe in recent studies of ectomycorrhizal fungi . Because of its variety of enzymes capable of breaking down wood and other lignocellulosic materials , the Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute ( JGI ) is currently sequencing its genome . The fungus is typically reported to grow on or near the wood of conifers , although it has been observed to grow on hardwoods as well . Fruit bodies may grow solitarily , but more typically in groups or small clusters , and appear in the summer to autumn . Sometimes , they may grow on buried wood and thus appear to be growing on soil .
Galerina marginata is widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere , found in North America , Europe , Japan , Iran , continental Asia , and the Caucasus . In North America , it has been collected as far north as the boreal forest of Canada and subarctic and arctic habitats in Labrador , and south to Jalisco , Mexico . It is also found in Australia .
= = Toxicity = =
The toxins found in Galerina marginata are known as amatoxins . Amatoxins belong to a family of bicyclic octapeptide derivatives composed of an amino acid ring bridged by a sulfur atom and characterized by differences in their side groups ; these compounds are responsible for more than 90 % of fatal mushroom poisonings in humans . The amatoxins inhibit the enzyme RNA polymerase II , which copies the genetic code of DNA into messenger RNA molecules . The toxin naturally accumulates in liver cells , and the ensuing disruption of metabolism accounts for the severe liver dysfunction cause by amatoxins . Amatoxins also lead to kidney failure because , as the kidneys attempt to filter out poison , it damages the convoluted tubules and reenters the blood to recirculate and cause more damage . Initial symptoms after ingestion include severe abdominal pain , vomiting , and diarrhea which may last for six to nine hours . Beyond these symptoms , toxins severely affect the liver which results in gastrointestinal bleeding , a coma , kidney failure , or even death , usually within seven days of consumption .
Galerina marginata was shown in various studies to contain the amatoxins α @-@ amanitin and γ @-@ amanitin , first as G. venenata , then as G. marginata and G. autumnalis . The ability of the fungus to produce these toxins was confirmed by growing the mycelium as a liquid culture ( only trace amounts of β @-@ amanitin were found ) . G. marginata is thought to be the only species of the amatoxin @-@ producing genera that will produce the toxins while growing in culture . Both amanitins were quantified in G. autumnalis ( 1 @.@ 5 mg / g dry weight ) and G. marginata ( 1 @.@ 1 mg / g dry weight ) . Later experiments confirmed the occurrence of γ @-@ amanitin and β @-@ amanitin in German specimens of G. autumnalis and G. marginata and revealed the presence of the three amanitins in the fruit bodies of G. unicolor . Although some mushroom field guides claim that the species ( as G. autumnalis ) also contains phallotoxins ( however phallotoxins cannot be absorbed by humans ) , scientific evidence does not support this contention . A 2004 study determined that the amatoxin content of G. marginata varied from 78 @.@ 17 to 243 @.@ 61 µg / g of fresh weight . In this study , the amanitin amounts from certain Galerina specimens were higher than those from some Amanita phalloides , a European fungus generally considered as the richest in amanitins . The authors suggest that " other parameters such as extrinsic factors ( environmental conditions ) and intrinsic factors ( genetic properties ) could contribute to the significant variance in amatoxin contents from different specimens . " The lethal dose of amatoxins has been estimated to be about 0 @.@ 1 mg / kg human body weight , or even lower . Based on this value , the ingestion of 10 G. marginata fruit bodies containing about 250 µg of amanitins per gram of fresh tissue could poison a child weighing approximately 20 kilograms ( 44 lb ) . However , a 20 @-@ year retrospective study of more than 2100 cases of amatoxin poisonings from North American and Europe showed that few cases were due to ingestion of Galerina species . This low frequency may be attributed to the mushroom 's nondescript appearance as a " little brown mushroom " leading to it being overlooked by collectors , and by the fact that 21 % of amatoxin poisonings were caused by unidentified species .
The toxicity of certain Galerina species has been known for a century . In 1912 , Charles Horton Peck reported a human poisoning case due to G. autumnalis . In 1954 , a poisoning was caused by G. venenata . Between 1978 and 1995 , ten cases caused by amatoxin @-@ containing Galerinas were reported in the literature . Three European cases , two from Finland and one from France were attributed to G. marginata and G. unicolor , respectively . Seven North American exposures included two fatalities from Washington due to G. venenata , with five cases reacting positively to treatment ; four poisonings were caused by G. autumnalis from Michigan and Kansas , in addition to poisoning caused by an unidentified Galerina species from Ohio . Several poisonings have been attributed to collectors consuming the mushrooms after mistaking them for the hallucinogenic Psilocybe stuntzii .
= = = Cited books = = =
Evenson VS . ( 1997 ) . Mushrooms of Colorado and the Southern Rocky Mountains . Westcliffe Publishers. pp. 25 – 6 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56579 @-@ 192 @-@ 3 .
Smith AH , Singer R. ( 1964 ) . A Monograph of the Genus Galerina . New York , New York : Hafner Publishing Co .
= American robin =
The American robin ( Turdus migratorius ) is a migratory songbird of the thrush family . It is named after the European robin because of its reddish @-@ orange breast , though the two species are not closely related , with the European robin belonging to the Old World flycatcher family . The American robin is widely distributed throughout North America , wintering from southern Canada to central Mexico and along the Pacific Coast . It is the state bird of Connecticut , Michigan , and Wisconsin . According to some sources , the American robin ranks behind only the red @-@ winged blackbird ( and just ahead of the introduced European starling and the not @-@ always @-@ naturally @-@ occurring house finch ) as the most abundant extant land bird in North America . It has seven subspecies , but only T. m. confinis of Baja California Sur is particularly distinctive , with pale gray @-@ brown underparts .
The American robin is active mostly during the day and assembles in large flocks at night . Its diet consists of invertebrates ( such as beetle grubs , earthworms , and caterpillars ) , fruits , and berries . It is one of the earliest bird species to lay eggs , beginning to breed shortly after returning to its summer range from its winter range . Its nest consists of long coarse grass , twigs , paper , and feathers , and is smeared with mud and often cushioned with grass or other soft materials . It is among the first birds to sing at dawn , and its song consists of several discrete units that are repeated .
The adult robin is preyed upon by hawks , cats , and larger snakes , but when feeding in flocks , it can be vigilant and watch other birds for reactions to predators . Brown @-@ headed cowbirds lay eggs in robin nests ( see brood parasite ) , but robins usually reject the cowbird eggs .
= = Taxonomy = =
This species was first described in 1766 by Carl Linnaeus in the twelfth edition of his Systema Naturae as Turdus migratorius . The binomial name derives from two Latin words : turdus , " thrush " , and migratorius from migrare " to go " . The term robin for this species has been recorded since at least 1703 . There are about 65 species of medium to large thrushes in the genus Turdus , characterized by rounded heads , longish pointed wings , and usually melodious songs . A study of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene indicates that the American robin is not part of the Central / South American clade of Turdus thrushes ; instead it shows genetic similarities to the Kurrichane thrush , T. libonyanus , and the olive thrush , T. olivaceus , both African species . This conflicts with a 2007 DNA study of 60 of 65 Turdus species which places the American robin 's closest relative as the rufous @-@ collared robin ( T. rufitorques ) of Central America . Though having distinct plumage , the two species are similar in vocalization and behavior . Beyond this , it lies in a small group of four species of otherwise Central American distribution , suggesting it recently spread northwards into North America .
Seven subspecies of American robin are recognized . These subspecies intergrade and are only weakly defined .
T. m. migratorius , the nominate subspecies , breeds in the US and Canada , other than down the west coast , to the edge of the tundra from Alaska and northern Canada east to New England and then south to Maryland , northwest Virginia , and North Carolina . It winters in southern coastal Alaska , southern Canada , most of the US , Bermuda , the Bahamas and eastern Mexico .
T. m. nigrideus breeds from coastal northern Quebec to Labrador and Newfoundland and winters from southern Newfoundland south through most of the eastern US states to southern Louisiana , southern Mississippi and northern Georgia . It is uniformly darker or blackish on the head , with a dark gray back . The underparts are slightly more red than those of the nominate subspecies .
T. m. achrusterus breeds from southern Oklahoma east to Maryland and western Virginia and south to northern Florida and the Gulf states . It winters through much of the southern part of the breeding range . It is smaller than the nominate subspecies . The black feathers of the forehead and crown have pale gray tips . The underparts are paler than those of the nominate subspecies .
T. m. caurinus breeds in southeast Alaska through coastal British Columbia to Washington and northwest Oregon . It winters from southwest British Columbia south to central and southern California and east to northern Idaho . It is very slightly smaller than the nominate subspecies and very dark @-@ headed . The white on the tips of the outer two tail feathers is restricted .
T. m. propinquus breeds from southeast British Columbia , southern Alberta , southwest Saskatchewan south to southern California and northern Baja California . It winters throughout much of the southern breeding range and south to Baja California . It is the same size as or slightly larger than nominate T. m. migratorius , but paler and tinged more heavily brownish @-@ gray . It has very little white on the tip of the outermost tail feather . Some birds , probably females , lack almost any red below . Males are usually darker and may show pale or whitish sides to the head .
T. m. confinis breeds above 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) in the highlands of southern Baja California . This form is particularly distinctive , with pale gray @-@ brown underparts . It is relatively small , and the palest subspecies , with uniform pale gray @-@ brown on the head , face and upperparts . It usually lacks any white spots to the tips of the outer tail feathers , which have white edges . It is sometimes classed as a separate species , the San Lucas robin , but the American Ornithologists ' Union regards it as only a subspecies , albeit in a different group from the other races .
T. m. phillipsi is resident in Mexico south to central Oaxaca . It is slightly smaller than propinquus but has a larger bill ; the male 's underparts are less brick @-@ red than the nominate subspecies , and have a rustier tone .
= = Description = =
The nominate subspecies of the American robin is 23 to 28 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 to 11 @.@ 0 in ) long with a wingspan ranging from 31 to 41 cm ( 12 to 16 in ) , with similar size ranges across all races . The species averages about 77 g ( 2 @.@ 7 oz ) in weight , with males ranging from 72 to 94 g ( 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 3 oz ) and females ranging from 59 to 91 g ( 2 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 2 oz ) . Among standard measurements , the wing chord is 11 @.@ 5 to 14 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 7 in ) , the culmen is 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 71 to 0 @.@ 87 in ) and the tarsus is 2 @.@ 9 to 3 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) . The head varies from jet black to gray , with white eye arcs and white supercilia . The throat is white with black streaks , and the belly and undertail coverts are white . The robin has a brown back and a reddish @-@ orange breast , varying from a rich red maroon to peachy orange . The bill is mainly yellow with a variably dark tip , the dusky area becoming more extensive in winter , and the legs and feet are brown .
The sexes are similar , but the female tends to be duller than the male , with a brown tint to the head , brown upperparts and less bright underparts . However , some birds cannot be safely sexed on plumage alone . The juvenile is paler in color than the adult male and has dark spots on its breast , and whitish wing coverts . First @-@ year birds are not easily distinguishable from adults , but they tend to be duller , and a small percentage retains a few juvenile wing coverts or other feathers .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
This bird breeds throughout most of North America , from Alaska and Canada southward to northern Florida and Mexico . While robins occasionally overwinter in the northern part of the United States and southern Canada , most migrate to winter south of Canada from Florida and the Gulf Coast to central Mexico , as well as along the Pacific Coast . Most depart south by the end of August and begin to return north in February and March ( exact dates vary with latitude and climate ) . Despite being depicted in the film Mary Poppins " feathering its nest " in London , this species is actually a rare vagrant to western Europe , where the majority of records , more than 20 , have been in Britain . In autumn 2003 , migration was displaced eastwards leading to massive movements through the eastern U.S. , and presumably this is what led to no fewer than three American robins being found in Britain , with two attempting to overwinter in 2003 – 2004 , although one was taken by a sparrowhawk . The most recent sighting in Britain occurred in January 2007 .
This species has also occurred as a vagrant to Greenland , Jamaica , Hispaniola , Puerto Rico and Belize . Vagrants to Europe , where identified to subspecies , are nominate T. m. migratorius , but the Greenland birds also included T. m. nigrideus , and some of the southern overshots may have been T. m. achrusterus .
The American robin 's breeding habitat is woodland and more open farmland and urban areas . It becomes less common as a breeder in the southernmost part of the Deep South of the United States , and there prefers large shade trees on lawns . Its winter habitat is similar but includes more open areas .
= = = Conservation status = = =
The American robin has an extensive range , estimated at 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ( 6 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , and a large population of about 320 million individuals . The species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List ( i.e. , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) , and is therefore evaluated as least concern . At one point , the bird was killed for its meat , but it is now protected throughout its range in the United States by the Migratory Bird Act .
Birds in central California of the subspecies propinquus are considered to be still increasing their range , and this is probably the case elsewhere in the U.S.A.
= = = Disease = = =
The American robin is a known reservoir ( carrier ) for West Nile virus . While crows and jays are often the first noticed deaths in an area with West Nile virus , the American robin is suspected to be a key host , and holds a larger responsibility for the transmission of the virus to humans . This is because , while crows and jays die quickly from the virus , the American robin survives the virus longer , hence spreading it to more mosquitoes , which then transmit the virus to humans and other species .
= = Behavior = =
The American robin is active mostly during the day , and on its winter grounds it assembles in large flocks at night to roost in trees in secluded swamps or dense vegetation . The flocks break up during the day when the birds feed on fruits and berries in smaller groups . During the summer , the American robin defends a breeding territory and is less social .
= = = Diet = = =
The American robin 's diet generally consists of around 40 percent small invertebrates ( mainly insects ) , such as earthworms , beetle grubs , caterpillars and grasshoppers , and 60 percent wild and cultivated fruits and berries . Their ability to switch to berries allows them to winter much farther north than most other North American thrushes . They will flock to fermented Pyracantha berries , and after eating sufficient quantities will exhibit intoxicated behavior such as falling over while walking . Robins forage primarily on the ground for soft @-@ bodied invertebrates , and find worms by sight , pouncing on them and then pulling them up . Nestlings are fed mainly on worms and other soft @-@ bodied animal prey . In some areas , robins , particularly of the coastal race T. m. caurinus , will feed on beaches , taking insects and small mollusks .
The robin uses auditory , visual , olfactory and possibly vibrotactile cues to find prey , but vision is the predominant mode of prey detection . It is frequently seen running across lawns picking up earthworms , and its running and stopping behavior is a distinguishing characteristic . In addition to hunting visually , it also has the ability to hunt by hearing . Experiments have discovered that it can find worms underground by simply using its listening skills . It typically will take several short hops and then cock its head left , right or forward to detect movement of its prey . In urban areas , robins will gather in numbers soon after lawns are mowed or where sprinklers are in use . They also are attracted to freshly turned earth in gardens , where worms and grubs are abundant targets . Occasionally , they may visit bird feeders if mealworms or animal @-@ fat suet is offered .
= = = Threats = = =
Juvenile robins and eggs are preyed upon by squirrels , snakes , and some birds , such as blue jays , Steller 's jay , common grackles , American crows , and common ravens . Adults are primarily taken by Accipiter hawks , cats , dogs , and larger snakes ( especially rat snakes ) . They may be taken by nearly every variety of North American accipitrid , from the smallest , the sharp @-@ shinned hawk , to one of the two largest , the golden eagle , most every North American falcon from the smallest , the American kestrel , to the largest , the gyrfalcon , and almost all owl species from northern pygmy owls to snowy owls . Overall , 28 raptorial bird species are known to hunt robins . Adult robins are most vulnerable when distracted by breeding activities though may also be attacked on the ground or even in flight . However , when feeding in flocks , the American robin is able to remain vigilant and watch other flock members for reactions to predators .
The American robin is known to be a rejecter of cowbird eggs , so brood parasitism by the brown @-@ headed cowbird is rare . Even when it occurs , the parasite 's chick does not normally survive to fledging . In a study of 105 juvenile robins , 77 @.@ 1 % were infected with one or more species of endoparasite , with Syngamus species the most commonly encountered , found in 57 @.@ 1 % of the birds .
= = = Breeding = = =
The American robin begins to breed shortly after returning to its summer range . It is one of the first North American bird species to lay eggs , and normally has two to three broods per breeding season , which lasts from April to July .
The nest is most commonly located 1 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 14 @.@ 8 ft ) above the ground in a dense bush or in a fork between two tree branches , and is built by the female alone . The outer foundation consists of long coarse grass , twigs , paper , and feathers . This is lined with smeared mud and cushioned with fine grass or other soft materials . A new nest is built for each brood , and in northern areas the first clutch is usually placed in an evergreen tree or shrub while later broods are placed in deciduous trees . The American robin does not shy away from nesting close to human habitation and will frequently construct nests under eaves or awnings on human homes when such locations provide adequate shelter . Robins are not cavity nesters , and so will generally not use a bird house , but will take advantage of artificial nesting platforms that have been provided .
A clutch consists of three to five light blue eggs , and is incubated by the female alone . The eggs hatch after 14 days , and the chicks leave the nest a further two weeks later . The altricial chicks are naked and have their eyes closed for the first few days after hatching . While the chicks are still young , the mother broods them continuously . When they are older , the mother will brood them only at night or during bad weather .
The chicks are fed worms , insects , and berries . Waste accumulation does not occur in the nest because adults collect and take it away . Chicks are fed , and then raise tails for elimination of waste , a solid white clump that is collected by a parent prior to flying off . All chicks in the brood leave the nest within two days of each other . Even after leaving the nest , the juveniles will follow their parents around and beg food from them . Juveniles become capable of sustained flight two weeks after fledging .
The adult male and female both are active in protecting and feeding the fledged chicks until they learn to forage on their own . The adult robin gives alarm calls and dives in a threatening manner towards creatures it considers potential predators , such as approaching cats , dogs and humans . The fledglings are able to fly short distances after leaving the nest . The wings of juvenile birds develop rapidly , and it only takes a couple of weeks for them to become proficient at flying . The cryptically colored young birds perch in bushes or trees for protection from predators .
Bird banders have found that only 25 % of young robins survive the first year . The longest known lifespan in the wild of an American robin is 14 years ; the average lifespan is about 2 years .
= = = Vocalization = = =
The male American robin , as with many thrushes , has a complex and almost continuous song . Its song is commonly described as a cheerily carol , made up of discrete units , often repeated , and spliced together into a string with brief pauses in between . The song varies regionally , and its style varies by time of day . The song period is from early March in California to late July or early August ; some birds , particularly in the east , sing occasionally into September or later . The American robin is often among the first songbirds singing as dawn rises or hours before , and last as evening sets in . It usually sings from a high perch in a tree . The song of T. m. confinis is weaker than that of the nominate subspecies , and lacks any clear notes .
The robin also sings when storms approach and again when storms have passed . In addition to its song , the American robin has a number of calls used for communicating specific information such as when a ground predator approaches , and when a nest or robin is being directly threatened . Even during nesting season , when robins exhibit mostly competitive and territorial behavior , they may still band together to drive away a predator .
= = In culture = =
The American robin is the state bird of Connecticut , Michigan , and Wisconsin . It was also depicted on the 1986 Birds of Canada series Canadian $ 2 note , but this note has since been withdrawn .
Robin 's egg blue is a color named after the bird 's eggs .
The American robin has a place in Native American mythology . The story of how the robin got its red breast by fanning the dying flames of a campfire to save a Native American man and a boy is similar to those that surround the European robin . The Tlingit people of Northwestern North America held it to be a culture @-@ hero created by Raven to please the people with its song . One of the houses of the Raven Tribe from the Nisga 'a Nation holds the robin as a house crest .
The Peace Bridge robins were a family of American robins that attracted minor publicity in the mid @-@ 1930s for their prominent nest on the Canadian side of the Peace Bridge connecting Buffalo , New York to Fort Erie , Ontario .
The robin is considered a symbol of spring . A well @-@ known example is a poem by Emily Dickinson , " I Dreaded That First Robin So " . Among other 19th @-@ century poems about the first robin of spring is " The First Robin " by Dr. William H. Drummond , which according to the author 's wife is based on a Quebec superstition that whoever sees the first robin of spring will have good luck . The harbinger of spring sobriquet is borne out by the fact that robins tend to follow the 37 ° F ( 3 ° C ) isotherm north in spring , but also south in fall .
American popular songs featuring this bird include " When the Red , Red Robin ( Comes Bob , Bob , Bobbin ' Along ) " , written by Harry M. Woods and a hit for Al Jolson and others , and " Rockin ' Robin " , written by Roger Thomas and a hit for Bobby Day and others .
Although the comic @-@ book superhero Robin was inspired by an N. C. Wyeth illustration of Robin Hood , a later version had his mother nicknaming him Robin because he was born on the first day of spring . His red shirt suggests the bird 's red breast .
= Ballard Carnegie Library =
The Ballard Carnegie Library , also known until 1963 as the Seattle Public Library – Ballard Branch , is a historic library in the Ballard neighborhood in Seattle , Washington . The library was predated by a freeholders ' library in the 1860s , which eventually gave way to a reading room that was organized and funded by a women 's ' group in 1901 . With a grant for $ 15 @,@ 000 , among other funds , a new library for the then independent City of Ballard was created as a Carnegie library . The building , located at 2026 N.W. Market Street in downtown Ballard , opened to the public on June 24 , 1904 . Notable as the first major branch of the Seattle public library system , after Seattle annexed the City of Ballard into itself in 1907 , and for employing one of the first African American librarians in Seattle , the Ballard Carnegie Library was in service until 1963 , when a newer and more modern facility replaced it . After its sale , the old library building housed a variety of private commercial enterprises , including an antique shop , a restaurant and a kilt manufacturer .
After being nominated in 1976 for the recognition by Seattle architect Larry E. Johnson , it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) in 1979 ( ID # 79002535 ) .
= = History = =
In the late 1860s , when Ballard was a new settlement along the edge of Salmon Bay , a homesteader named Ira Wilcox Utter helped create a freeholders ' library . Later , in 1901 , the Women 's Christian Temperance Union of Ballard began raising money with fairs and socials for a new reading room on Ballard Avenue ; it moved and expanded several times to different locations . Having decided to build a proper library , the Ballard City Council established a library board in 1903 and the city applied to the philanthropist Andrew Carnegie for a library grant to help underwrite the costs of construction of a new library . The library was built on a lot of 100 feet ( 30 @.@ 5 m ) square , which was purchased for $ 2 @,@ 100 raised by local businesses and citizens , supported by the earlier fundraising and book collections of the women 's union , and a $ 15 @,@ 000 grant from Carnegie . When construction was completed , the building included features such as a 500 @-@ seat auditorium and a men 's smoking room , which was later converted into a reading room . Part of the construction work was executed by a chain gang .
Initially , the library had a cache of books waiting for the completion and grand opening that was provided by local residents and schools , as Carnegie 's gift for the construction did not cover the initial costs of new books . A call was also put out for citizens to donate books to the new facility to expand the collection . In 1907 , the Seattle Public Library took control of the Carnegie library , when Ballard was annexed by the neighboring City of Seattle government . Early Scandinavian immigrants to Ballard and the Pacific Northwest in particular made use of the new facility ; Ballard as an area has a strong historical presence of Scandinavian people . Early in the library 's existence , it had a turnstile at the entrance to its book stacks , to count the number of book borrowers that passed through . With the arrival of World War I , the Carnegie Library became home to various community activities , such as dispensing information on the war , and also provided Red Cross and English language classes . In 1942 , during World War II , one of the first African American librarians in Seattle , Lucille Smith , was assigned to the Carnegie library .
In 1956 , Seattle voters approved a municipal bond to replace what was by then considered the " inadequate and impractical " library . The Ballard Carnegie Library eventually was shut in 1963 , when a new , larger public library was built in the area , and the Carnegie building became an antique store . One of the cited reasons for the closure and sale of the library building were expert claims that the building would never survive an earthquake ( of which Seattle had numerous instances , both before and after 1963 ) . The building has , in fact , survived several quakes since 1963 .
= = The building today = =
The building is now owned by Karoline Morrison and her husband , Dennis Beals ; The former library was home to Carnegie 's , a French restaurant from 2003 until 2010 .
As of April 2010 , the building is home to Ström and Ström Consulting , providing legal and marketing services to mental health professionals . As of March 2011 , the building is also home to Root . Integrative Health , a holistic wellness center offering massage therapy , chiropractic , nutrition , mental health counseling , acupuncture , naturopathic medicine , and creative writing services . The area around Market Street in Ballard , where the library building is located , is one of the areas of Seattle that is quickly rising in land value , and has been compared to Belltown , a growing Seattle neighborhood that is affected by gentrification . As the Carnegie Library building is without the City of Seattle 's " City landmark status " despite its NRHP status , the structure is at risk from new development .
As of 2012 , the building is occupied by the Kangaroo and Kiwi Pub
= Siege of Klis =
The Siege of Klis or Battle of Klis ( Croatian : Opsada Klisa or Bitka kod Klisa , Turkish : Klise Kuşatması ) was a siege of Klis Fortress in the Kingdom of Croatia within Habsburg Monarchy . The siege of the fortress , which lasted for more than two decades , and the final battle near Klis in 1537 , were fought as a part of the Ottoman – Habsburg wars between the defending Croatian @-@ Habsburg forces under the leadership of Croatian feudal lord Petar Kružić , and the attacking Ottoman army under the leadership of the Ottoman general Murat @-@ beg Tardić .
After decisive Ottoman victory at the Battle of Krbava field in 1493 , and especially after the Battle of Mohács in 1526 , the Croats continued defending themselves against the Ottoman attacks . The Ottoman conquest during the early years of the 16th century prompted the formation of the Uskoks , which were led by Croatian captain Petar Kružić , also called ( Prince of Klis ) . As a part of the Habsburg defensive system , Uskoks used the base at Klis as an important defensive position . They fought almost alone against the Ottomans , and for more than two decades defended the fortress against the Ottoman attacks .
After the final battle , which resulted in an Ottoman victory and in Petar Kružić 's death , the Klis defenders , who were lacking in water supplies , finally surrendered to the Ottomans in exchange for their freedom on 12 March 1537 . Citizens fled the town , while the Uskoci retreated to the city of Senj , where they continued fighting the Ottoman army . Klis became an administrative centre or sanjak ( Kilis Sancağı ) of the Bosnia Eyalet , and would remain so for a century .
= = Background = =
After the fall of the Kingdom of Bosnia into the Ottoman hands in 1463 , the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Croatia remained unprotected , the defense of which was left to Croatian gentry who kept smaller troops in the fortified border areas at their own expense . Decisive Ottoman victory at the Battle of Krbava field in 1493 , shook all of Croatia . However , it did not dissuade the Croats from making more decisive and persistent attempts at defending themselves against the attacks of the much larger enemy . A new wave of Ottoman conquest began in 1521 , after which a good portion of Croatia was conquered or pillaged .
On 29 August 1526 , at the Battle of Mohács , the Christian forces led by King Louis II were defeated by Ottoman forces led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent . Louis was killed in the battle , which resulted in the end of the independent Kingdom of Hungary as he died without an heir . Both the Kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia became disputed territories with claims from both the Habsburg and Ottoman empires . Ferdinand I , Archduke of Austria , a member of the House of Habsburg , the brother of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and a future Holy Roman Emperor himself , married the sister of Louis II and was elected King by the nobles of both Hungary and Croatia .
Owing to its location , Klis Fortress was an important defensive position during the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans . The fortress stands along the route by which the Ottomans could penetrate the mountain barrier separating the coastal lowlands from around Split , from Ottoman @-@ held Bosnia . The Croat feudal lord Petar Kružić gathered together a garrison composed of Croat refugees , who used the base at Klis both to hold the Ottomans at bay , and to engage in marauding and piracy against coastal shipping . Although nominally accepting the sovereignty of the Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand , who obtained the Croatian crown in 1527 , Kružić and his freebooting Uskoks were a law unto themselves .
= = Siege = =
= = = Failed attempts = = =
From 1513 , Petar Kružić was one of the commanding officers of Klis Fortress . The Ottomans attempted to conquer the Klis Fortress on several occasions . The first major attempt was by Skender @-@ beg Ornosović in 1515 . The Ottomans captured Klis , a village just below the fortress bearing the same name , but the garrison in the fortress above held . Kružić was promoted to captain of the Klis Fortress by the ban Petar Berislavić in 1520 . The second major attempt was in 1520 , and a year later another attempt was made by Makut @-@ paša , with additional 2 @,@ 000 infantry , 50 horsemen and siege equipment . Another unsuccessful attempt was made in 1522 , by Hasan @-@ paša from Mostar and Mehmed @-@ beg Mihalbegović . Later that year , Mihalbegović made another attempt at a siege with 3 @,@ 000 men , but failed again . During 1523 , Klis Fortress was again under attack by the Sultan 's army . Attempts were also made by Gazi Husrev @-@ beg in 1526 and 1528 , and later in 1531 and 1532 .
In 1534 , the Ottomans under Mihalbegović laid a months @-@ long siege with a constant concentrated cannonade to the fortress . Ferdinand urged the Pope to send ships to relieve the Ottoman siege . Although the Ottomans eventually lifted the siege , Ferdinand was displeased that the Pope had provided no assistance in the defense of the fortress . In 1535 , the Ottomans tried to seize the fortress by treachery , and again in 1536 , but they failed on both occasions . During that year the Ottomans started a new siege which would last until the final fall of the fortress .
When a large Ottoman force threatened the fortress , Kružić appealed to Ferdinand for help , but the Emperor 's attention was diverted by an Ottoman attack in Slavonia . Kružić led the defense of Klis , and with his soldiers fought almost alone against the Ottomans , as they repeatedly hurled armies against the fortress . No troops from the Hungarian king arrived , as they were slaughtered by the Ottomans at the Battle of Mohács in 1526 , and the Venetians baulked at sending any help . Only the pope was willing to provide some men and money .
= = = Final battle = = =
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the case and read all the books on the subject . Ruffalo met Toschi and found out that he had " perfect recall of the details and what happened when , where , who was there , what he was wearing . He always knew what he was wearing . I think it is seared into who he is and it was a big deal for him . "
Robert Downey , Jr. as Paul Avery , a journalist at the San Francisco Chronicle who covered the Zodiac killer case .
Anthony Edwards as SFPD Inspector William Armstrong . When casting the role , Fincher said he thought of Edwards because " I knew I needed the most decent person I could find , because he would be the balance of the movie . In a weird way , this movie wouldn ’ t exist without Bill Armstrong . Everything we know about the Zodiac case , we know because of his notes . So in casting the part , I wanted to get someone who is totally reliable . "
Brian Cox as Melvin Belli , a prominent defense attorney who received a letter from the Zodiac killer .
Elias Koteas as Sgt. Jack Mulanax , a police detective from Vallejo .
Donal Logue as Ken Narlow , a police detective in Napa .
John Carroll Lynch as Arthur Leigh Allen , a prime suspect in the case . Allen was never charged with these crimes .
Dermot Mulroney as Captain Marty Lee , Armstrong 's and Toschi 's supervisor in the SFPD homicide division .
Philip Baker Hall as Sherwood Morrill , a handwriting analyst . Baker Hall had previously appeared in the 2005 film The Zodiac .
Chloë Sevigny as Melanie Graysmith , Graysmith 's wife .
John Getz as Templeton Peck , Chronicle managing editor .
John Terry as Charles Thieriot , another editor at the Chronicle , who is involved with the first Zodiac letter .
Adam Goldberg as Duffy Jennings , a real life journalist who replaced Avery at the San Francisco Chronicle when the latter went to the San Francisco Examiner . He received a letter from the Zodiac in 1978 .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
James Vanderbilt had read Robert Graysmith 's book Zodiac in 1986 while in high school . Years later , after becoming a screenwriter , he got the opportunity to meet Graysmith , and became fascinated by the folklore surrounding the Zodiac Killer . He then decided to try to translate the story into a script . Vanderbilt had endured bad experiences in the past , in which the endings of his scripts had been changed , and wanted to have more control over the material this time . He pitched his adaptation of Zodiac to Mike Medavoy and Bradley J. Fischer from Phoenix Pictures , by agreeing to write a spec script if he could have more creative control over it .
Graysmith first met Fischer and Vanderbilt at the premiere of Paul Schrader 's film , Auto Focus , which was based on Graysmith 's 1991 book about the life and death of actor Bob Crane . A deal was made and they optioned the rights to Zodiac and Zodiac Unmasked when they became available after languishing at another studio for nearly a decade . David Fincher was their first choice to direct based on his work on Seven . Originally , he was going to direct an adaptation of James Ellroy 's novel , The Black Dahlia ( later filmed by Brian De Palma ) , and envisioned a five @-@ hour , $ 80 million mini @-@ series with film stars . When that fell through , Fincher left that project and moved on to Zodiac .
Fincher was drawn to this story because he spent much of his childhood in San Anselmo in Marin County during the initial Zodiac murders . " I remember coming home and saying the highway patrol had been following our school buses for a couple weeks now . And my dad , who worked from home , and who was very dry , not one to soft @-@ pedal things , turned slowly in his chair and said : ' Oh yeah . There 's a serial killer who has killed four or five people , who calls himself Zodiac , who 's threatened to take a high @-@ powered rifle and shoot out the tires of a school bus , and then shoot the children as they come off the bus . ' " For Fincher as a young boy , the killer " was the ultimate boogeyman " . The director was also drawn to the unresolved ending of Vanderbilt 's screenplay because it felt true to real life , as cases are not always solved .
Fincher realized that his job was to dispel the mythic stature the case had taken on over the years by clearly defining what was fact and what was fiction . He told Vanderbilt that he wanted the screenplay re @-@ written but with additional research done from the original police reports . Fincher found that there was a lot of speculation and hearsay and wanted to interview people directly involved in the case in person to see if he believed what they were telling him . Fincher did this because he felt a burden of responsibility in making a film that convicted someone posthumously .
Fincher , Fischer and Vanderbilt spent months interviewing witnesses , family members of suspects , retired and current investigators , the only two surviving victims , and the mayors of San Francisco and Vallejo . Fincher said , " Even when we did our own interviews , we would talk to two people . One would confirm some aspects of it and another would deny it . Plus , so much time had passed , memories are affected and the different telling of the stories would change perception . So when there was any doubt we always went with the police reports " . During the course of their research , Fincher and Fischer hired Gerald McMenamin , an internationally known forensic linguistics expert and professor of linguistics at California State University Fresno , to analyze the Zodiac 's letters . Unlike document examiners in the 1970s , he focused on the language of the Zodiac and how he formed his sentences in terms of word structure and spelling .
Fincher and Fischer approached Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer to finance the film but talks with them fell through because the studio wanted the running time fixed at two hours and fifteen minutes . They then approached other studios , and Warner Bros. and Paramount Pictures agreed to share the production costs and were willing to be more flexible about the running time . The film was a tough sell to the studios and the executives were concerned about the heavy amount of dialogue and the lack of action scenes , as well as the inconclusive nature of the story arc .
When Dave Toschi met Fincher , Fischer and Vanderbilt , the director told him that he was not going to make another Dirty Harry ( which had been loosely based on the Zodiac case ) . Toschi was impressed with their knowledge of the case and afterwards , he realized that he had learned a lot from them . In addition , the Zodiac 's two surviving victims , Mike Mageau and Bryan Hartnell were consultants on the film .
Alan J. Pakula ’ s film All the President 's Men was the template for Zodiac as Fincher felt that it was also " the story of a reporter determined to get the story at any cost and one who was new to being an investigative reporter . It was all about his obsession to know the truth " . And like in that film , he did not want to spend time telling the back story of any of the characters , focusing , instead , on what they did in regards to the case . "
Vanderbilt was drawn to the notion that Graysmith went from a cartoonist to one of the most significant investigators of the case . He pitched the story as : " What if Garry Trudeau woke up one morning and tried to solve the Son of Sam " ? As he worked on the script , he became friends with Graysmith . The filmmakers were able to get the cooperation of the Vallejo Police Department ( one of the key investigators at the time ) because they hoped that the film would inspire someone to come forward with a crucial bit of information that might help solve this decades @-@ old cold case .
= = = Casting = = =
While researching the film , Fincher considered Jake Gyllenhaal to play Robert Graysmith . According to the director , " I really liked him in Donnie Darko and I thought , ' He 's an interesting double @-@ sided coin . He can do that naive thing but he can also do possessed . ' " In preparation for his role Gyllenhaal met Graysmith , and videotaped him to study his mannerisms and behavior .
Initially , Mark Ruffalo was not interested in the project but Fincher wanted him to play David Toschi . He met with the actor and told him that he was rewriting the screenplay . " I loved what he was saying and loved where he was going with it " , the actor remembers . For research , he read every report on the case and read all the books on the subject . Ruffalo met Toschi and found out that he had " perfect recall of the details and what happened when , where , who was there , what he was wearing . He always knew what he was wearing . I think it is seared into who he is and it was a big deal for him . "
When casting the role of Inspector William Armstrong , Fincher said he thought of Anthony Edwards because " I knew I needed the most decent person I could find , because he would be the balance of the movie . In a weird way , this movie wouldn 't exist without Bill Armstrong . Everything we know about the Zodiac case , we know because of his notes . So in casting the part , I wanted to get someone who is totally reliable . "
Originally , Gary Oldman was to play Melvin Belli but " he went to a lot of trouble , they had appliances , but just physically it wasn 't going to work , he just didn 't have the girth " , Graysmith remembers . Brian Cox was cast instead .
The finished film has an unusually large cast of characters . In a May 15 , 2007 , film review , Variety noted , " Performances and casting are impeccable down to the smallest role . "
= = = Principal photography = = =
Fincher decided to use the digital Thomson Viper Filmstream camera to shoot the film . Fincher had previously used the Thomson Viper over the past three years on commercials for Nike , Hewlett Packard , Heineken and Lexus which allowed him to get used to and experiment with the equipment . He was able to use inexpensive desktop software like Final Cut Pro to edit Zodiac . Fincher remarked in an interview , " Dailies almost always end up being disappointing , like the veil is pierced and you look at it for the first time and think , ' Oh my god , this is what I really have to work with . ' But when you can see what you have as it 's gathered , it can be a much less neurotic process . "
Zodiac was the first production to employ the Filmstream camera in its native Filmstream mode , which records an uncompressed video stream , allowing for exceptional quality .
Contrary to popular belief , Zodiac was not shot entirely digitally ; traditional high @-@ speed film cameras were used for slow @-@ motion murder sequences . Michael Mann 's Miami Vice , as well as his previous effort , Collateral ( a co @-@ production of Paramount and its current sister studio DreamWorks , and which also starred Mark Ruffalo ) , were also shot with the camera but mixed in other formats . Once shot on the Viper camera , the files were converted to DVCPro HD 1080i and edited in Final Cut Pro . This was for editorial decisions only . During the later stages of editing the original uncompressed 1080p 4 : 4 : 4 RAW digital source footage was assembled automatically to maintain an up @-@ to @-@ date digital " negative " of the film . Other digital productions like Superman Returns or Apocalypto recorded to the HDCAM tape format .
Fincher had previously worked with director of photography Harris Savides on Seven ( he shot the opening credits ) and The Game . Savides loved the script but realized , " there was so much exposition , just people talking on the phone or having conversations . It was difficult to imagine how it could be done in a visual way . " Fincher and Savides did not want to repeat the look of Seven . The director 's approach to Zodiac was to create a look mundane enough that audiences would accept that what they were watching was the truth . The filmmakers also did not want to glamorize the killer or tell the story through his eyes . " That would have turned the story into a first @-@ person @-@ shooter video game . We didn 't want to make the sort of movie that serial killers would want to own , " Fincher said .
Savides ' first experience with the Viper Filmstream camera was shooting a Motorola commercial with Fincher . From there , he used it on Zodiac . Fincher wanted to make sure that the camera was more inclined towards film production so that the studio would be more comfortable about using it on a project with large budget . To familiarize himself with the camera , he " did as many things ' wrong ' as I possibly could . I went against everything I was supposed to do with the camera . " Savides felt comfortable with the camera after discovering its limitations .
Fincher and Savides used the photographs of William Eggleston , Stephen Shore 's work from the early Seventies , and actual photos from the Zodiac police files . The two men worked hard to capture the look and feel of the period as Fincher admitted , " I suppose there could have been more VW bugs but I think what we show is a pretty good representation of the time . It is not technically perfect . There are some flaws but some are intended . " The San Francisco Chronicle was built in the old post office in the Terminal Annex Building in downtown Los Angeles . A building on nearby Spring Street subbed for the Hall of Justice and the San Francisco Police Department . Production began on September 12 , 2005 . The filmmakers shot for five weeks in the San Francisco Bay Area and the rest of the time in Los Angeles , bringing the film in under budget , wrapping in February 2006 . The film took 115 days to shoot .
Some of the cast was not happy with Fincher 's exacting ways and perfectionism . Some scenes required upwards of 70 takes . Gyllenhaal was frustrated by the director 's methods and commented in an interview , " You get a take , 5 takes , 10 takes . Some places , 90 takes . But there is a stopping point . There 's a point at which you go , ' That 's what we have to work with . ' But we would reshoot things . So there came a point where I would say , well , what do I do ? Where 's the risk ? " Downey said , " I just decided , aside from several times I wanted to garrote him , that I was going to give him what he wanted . I think I 'm a perfect person to work for him , because I understand gulags " . Fincher responded , " If an actor is going to let the role come to them , they can 't resent the fact that I 'm willing to wait as long as that takes . You know , the first day of production in San Francisco we shot 56 takes of Mark and Jake – and it 's the 56th take that 's in the movie " . Ruffalo also backed up his director 's methods when he said , " The way I see it is , you enter into someone else 's world as an actor . You can put your expectations aside and have an experience that 's new and pushes and changes you , or hold on to what you think it should be and have a stubborn , immovable journey that 's filled with disappointment and anger . "
= = = Visual effects = = =
Digital Domain handled the bulk of the film 's 200 + effects shots , including pools of blood and bloody fingerprints found at crime scenes . For the murder of Cecelia Shepard that took place at Lake Berryessa , blood seepage and clothing stains were added in post @-@ production . Fincher did not want to shoot the blood with practical effects because wiping everything down after every take would take too long so the murder sequences were done with CG blood .
CG was also used to recreate the San Francisco neighborhood at Washington and Cherry Streets where cab driver Paul Stine was killed . The area had changed significantly over the years and residents didn 't want the murder to be re @-@ created in their neighborhood , so Fincher shot the six @-@ minute sequence on a bluescreen stage . Production designer Donald Burt gave the visual effects team detailed drawings of the intersection as it was in 1969 . Photographs of every possible angle of the area were shot with a high @-@ resolution digital camera , allowing the effects crew to build computer @-@ based geometric models of homes that were then textured with period facades . 3 @-@ D vintage police motorcycles , squad cars , a firetruck and street lights were added to the final shot .
The film 's establishing shots of the Bay Area were created by Matte World Digital . The " helicopter shots " of the fireworks @-@ laden sky over Vallejo , the San Francisco waterfront , and the cab driving through San Francisco were CG , as was the shot looking down from the tower of the Golden Gate Bridge .
A time @-@ lapse sequence showing the building of the Transamerica Pyramid was a hybrid of 2D and 3D matte painting . The shot was initially created using reference photos of the Pyramid taken from the rooftop of Francis Ford Coppola 's Sentinel Building . MWD 's visual effects supervisor , Craig Barron , then researched the Pyramid 's original construction techniques for accuracy in the animated sequence .
The art for the Zodiac poster was also provided by Matte World Digital at Fincher 's request . Barron and his crew shot digital photos of the city skyline at night and composited them with a stock photo taken from the top of the Golden Gate Bridge . Layers of fog were added for the final image .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Originally , Fincher envisioned the film 's soundtrack to be composed of 40 cues of vintage music spanning the nearly three decades of the Zodiac story . With music supervisor George Drakoulias , the director searched for the right pop songs that reflected the era , including Three Dog Night 's cover of " Easy to Be Hard " because " it 's so ingrained in my psyche as being what the summer of ' 69 sounded like in northern California " . Initially , Fincher did not envision an original score for the film , but rather a tapestry of sound design , vintage songs of the period , sound bites and clips of KFRC ( an AM radio giant ) and " Mathews Top of the Hill Daly City " ( home of a prominent hi @-@ fi dealership of the time ) . The director told the studio that he did not need a composer and would buy various songs instead . They agreed , but as the film developed , sound designer and longtime Fincher collaborator Ren Klyce felt there were places in some scenes that could have used music . So , he inserted music from two of his favorite soundtracks , David Shire 's scores for The Conversation and All the President 's Men . Fincher was eager to work with Shire as All the President 's Men was one of his favorite films and one of the primary cinematic influences on Zodiac . He reminded Klyce of the deal that he had made with the studio .
Klyce got in touch with sound and film editor Walter Murch who worked on The Conversation and he got Klyce in touch with Shire . Fincher sent the composer a copy of the script and flew him in for a meeting and a screening in L.A. At first , Fincher only wanted 15 – 20 minutes of score and for it to be all based on solo piano . As Shire worked on it and incorporated textures of a Charles Ives piece called , " The Unanswered Question " and Conversation @-@ based cues , he found that he had 37 minutes of original music . The orchestra Shire assembled consisted of musicians from the San Francisco Opera and S.F. ballet . Shire said , " There are 12 signs of the Zodiac and there is a way of using atonal and tonal music . So we used 12 tones , never repeating any of them but manipulating them " . He used specific instruments to represent the characters : the trumpet for Toschi , the solo piano for Graysmith and the dissonant strings for the Zodiac killer .
= = Release = =
An early version of Zodiac ran three hours and eight minutes . It was supposed to be released in time for Academy Award consideration but Paramount felt that the film ran too long and asked Fincher to make changes . Contractually , he had final cut and once he reached a length he felt was right , the director refused to make any further cuts . To trim down the film to two hours and forty minutes , he had to cut a two @-@ minute blackout montage of " hit songs signaling the passage of time from Joni Mitchell to Donna Summer . " It was replaced with a title card that reads , " Four years later . " Another cut scene that test screening audiences did not like involved " three guys talking into a speakerphone " to get a search warrant as Toschi and Armstrong talk to SFPD Capt. Marty Lee ( Dermot Mulroney ) about their case against suspect Arthur Leigh Allen . Fincher said that this scene would probably be put back on the DVD .
To promote Zodiac , Paramount posted on light @-@ poles in major cities original sketches of the actual Zodiac killer with the words , " In theaters March 2nd , " at the bottom . The film was screened in competition at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival on May 17 , 2007 with Fincher and Gyllenhaal participating in a press conference afterwards . The director 's cut of Zodiac was given a rare screening at the Walter Reade Theater in New York City on November 19 , 2007 with Fincher being interviewed by film critic Kent Jones afterwards .
= = = Home media = = =
The DVD for Zodiac was released on July 24 , 2007 and is available widescreen or fullscreen , presented in anamorphic widescreen , and an English Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 Surround track . There are no extra materials included .
According to David Prior , producer of the subsequent two @-@ disc special edition , the initial bare bones edition " was only reluctantly agreed to by Fincher because I needed more time on the bonus material . The studio was locked into their release date , so Fincher allowed that version to be released first . It had nothing to do with Fincher ' double dipping his own movie before it even makes it to stores ' and everything to do with buying more time for the special edition " . He stated that the theatrical cut would only be available on the single @-@ disc edition . Prior elaborated further : " Nobody wants fans feeling like they 're being taken advantage of , and I know that double @-@ dipping creates that impression . That 's why it was so important to me that consumers be told there was another version coming . In this case it really was a rock @-@ and @-@ a @-@ hard @-@ place situation , and delaying the second release was done strictly for the benefit of the final product ... But this is a very ambitious project , easily the most far @-@ reaching I 've ever worked on , and owing largely to studio snafus that I can 't really elaborate on , I didn 't have enough time to do it properly . Thus Fincher bought me the extra time by agreeing to a staggered release , which I 'm very grateful for " . In its first week , rentals for the DVD earned $ 6 @.@ 7 million .
The two @-@ disc director 's cut DVD and HD DVD were released on January 8 , 2008 , with its UK release on Blu @-@ ray and DVD announced for September 29 , 2008 . Disc 1 features , in addition to a longer cut of the film , an audio commentary by Fincher and a second by Gyllenhaal , Downey , Fischer , Vanderbilt , and Ellroy . Disc 2 includes a trailer , a " Zodiac Deciphered " documentary , a " Visual Effects of Zodiac " featurette , previsualization split @-@ screen comparisons for the Blue Rock Springs , Lake Berryessa , and San Francisco murder sequences , a " This is the Zodiac Speaking " featurette , and a " His Name Was Arthur Leigh Allen " featurette . Other extras apparently originally intended for the set , including TV spots and featurettes on " Digital Workflow " , " Linguistic Analysis " , " Jeopardy Surface : Geographic Profiling " ( Dr. Kim Rossmo 's geographic profile of the Zodiac ) , and " The Psychology of Aggression : Behavioral Profiling " ( Special Agent Sharon Pagaling @-@ Hagan 's behavioral profile of the Zodiac ) were omitted . However , the latter three featurettes were made available on the film 's website . This new version runs five minutes longer than the theatrical cut . For Oscar contention , Paramount distributed the Director 's Cut DVD to the Producers Guild of America , the Writers Guild of America and the Screen Actors Guild , instead of the official release version . This was the first time that the studio had done this .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Opening in 2 @,@ 362 theaters on March 2 , 2007 , the film grossed US $ 13 @.@ 3 million in its opening weekend , placing second and posting a per @-@ theater average of $ 5 @,@ 671 . The film was outgrossed by fellow opener Wild Hogs and saw a decline of over 50 % in its second weekend , losing out to the record @-@ breaking 300 . It grossed $ 33 million in North America and $ 51 million in the rest of the world , bringing its current total to $ 84 million , above its estimated $ 65 million production budget . In an interview with Sight & Sound magazine , Fincher addressed the film 's low gross at the North American box office : " Even with the box office being what it is , I still think there 's an audience out there for this movie . Everyone has a different idea about marketing , but my philosophy is that if you market a movie to 16 @-@ year @-@ old boys and don 't deliver Saw or Seven , they 're going to be the most vociferous ones coming out of the screening saying ' This movie sucks . ' And you 're saying goodbye to the audience who would get it because they 're going to look at the ads and say , ' I don 't want to see some slasher movie . ' "
= = = Critical response = = =
Overall , reviews of the film were highly positive . Entertainment Weekly critic Owen Gleiberman awarded the film an " A " grade , hailing the film as a " procedural thriller for the information age " that " spins your head in a new way , luring you into a vortex and then deeper still . " Nathan Lee in his review for The Village Voice wrote that director Fincher 's " very lack of pretense , coupled with a determination to get the facts down with maximum economy and objectivity , gives Zodiac its hard , bright integrity . As a crime saga , newspaper drama , and period piece , it works just fine . As an allegory of life in the information age , it blew my mind . " Todd McCarthy 's review in Variety praised the film 's " almost unerringly accurate evocation of the workaday San Francisco of 35 – 40 years ago . Forget the distorted emphasis on hippies and flower @-@ power that many such films indulge in ; this is the city as it was experienced by most people who lived and worked there . " David Ansen , in his review for Newsweek magazine , wrote , " Zodiac is meticulously crafted – Harris Savides 's state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art digital cinematography has a richness indistinguishable from film – and it runs almost two hours and 40 minutes . Still , the movie holds you in its grip from start to finish . Fincher boldly ( and some may think perversely ) withholds the emotional and forensic payoff we 're conditioned to expect from a big studio movie . "
Some critics , however , were displeased with the film 's long running time and lack of action scenes . " The film gets mired in the inevitable red tape of police investigations , " wrote Bob Longino of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution , who also felt that the film " stumbles to a rather unfulfilling conclusion " and " seems to last as long as the Oscars . " Andrew Sarris of The New York Observer felt that " Mr. Fincher 's flair for casting is the major asset of his curiously attenuated return to the serial @-@ killer genre . I keep saying ' curiously ' with regard to Mr. Fincher , because I can 't really figure out what he is up to in Zodiac – with its two @-@ hour @-@ and @-@ 37 @-@ minute running time for what struck me as a shaggy @-@ dog narrative . " Christy Lemire wrote in the San Francisco Chronicle that " Jake Gyllenhaal is both the central figure and the weakest link ... But he 's never fleshed out sufficiently to make you believe that he 'd sacrifice his safety and that of his family to find the truth . We are told repeatedly that the former Eagle Scout is just a genuinely good guy , but that 's not enough . "
In the United Kingdom , Time Out magazine wrote , " Zodiac isn 't a puzzle film in quite that way ; instead its subject is the compulsion to solve puzzles , and its coup is the creeping recognition , quite contrary to the flow of crime cinema , of how fruitless that compulsion can be . " Peter Bradshaw in his review for The Guardian commended the film for its " sheer cinematic virility , " and gave it four stars out of five . In his review for Empire magazine , Kim Newman gave the film four out of five stars and wrote , " You 'll need patience with the film 's approach , which follows its main characters by poring over details , and be prepared to put up with a couple of rote family arguments and weary cop conversations , but this gripping character study becomes more agonisingly suspenseful as it gets closer to an answer that can 't be confirmed . " Graham Fuller in Sight & Sound magazine wrote , " the tone is pleasingly flat and mundane , evoking the demoralising grind of police work in a pre @-@ feminist , pre @-@ technological era . As such , Zodiac is considerably more adult than both Seven , which salivates over the macabre cat @-@ and @-@ mouse game it plays with the audience , and the macho brinkmanship of Fight Club . " Not all British critics liked the film . David Thompson in The Guardian felt that in relation to the rest of Fincher 's career , Zodiac was " the worst yet , a terrible disappointment in which an ingenious and deserving all @-@ American serial killer nearly gets lost in the meandering treatment of cops and journalists obsessed with the case . "
In France , Le Monde newspaper praised Fincher for having " obtained a maturity that impresses by his mastery of form , " while Libération described the film as " a thriller of elegance magnificently photographed by the great Harry Savides . " However , Le Figaro wrote , " No audacity , no invention , nothing but a plot which intrigues without captivating , disturbs without terrifying , interests without exciting . "
As of December 2015 , Zodiac has a rating of 89 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 233 reviews dubbing it " Certified Fresh " . Its consensus states " A quiet , dialogue @-@ driven thriller that delivers with scene after scene of gut @-@ wrenching anxiety . David Fincher also spends more time illustrating nuances of his characters and recreating the mood of the 70s than he does on gory details of murder . " . It also has a 78 metascore at Metacritic .
= = = = Top ten lists = = = =
Only two 2007 films ( No Country for Old Men and There Will Be Blood ) appeared on more critics ' top ten lists than Zodiac . Some of the notable top @-@ ten list appearances are :
In the British Film Institute 's 2012 Sight & Sound polls of the greatest movies ever made , three critics and one director – Bong Joon @-@ ho – named Zodiac one of their 10 favorite films .
= = = Accolades = = =
Nominations
Cannes Film Festival 2007 : Palme d 'Or
Chicago Film Critics Association Awards 2007 : Best Director , Best Screenplay Adapted
Satellite Awards 2007 : Best Supporting Actor ( Brian Cox ) , Best Cinematography ( Harris Savides ) , Best Adapted Screenplay ( James Vanderbilt )
Teen Choice Awards 2007 : Choice Movie Actor : Horror / Thriller ( Jake Gyllenhaal )
Toronto Film Critics Association Awards 2007 : Best Director ( David Fincher ) , Best Picture
Online Film Critics Society Awards 2007 : Best Picture , Best Director , Best Adapted Screenplay , Best Editing
World Soundtrack Awards 2007 : Best Original Soundtrack of the Year ( David Shire )
Saturn Award 2008 : Best Action or Adventure Film
Bodil Awards 2008 : Best American Film
Empire Awards 2008 : Best Director ( David Fincher ) , Best Film , Best Thriller
Edgar Allan Poe Awards 2008 : Best Motion Picture Screenplay ( James Vanderbilt )
Golden Trailer Awards 2008 : Best Teaser Poster
London Critics Circle Film Awards 2008 : Director of The Year ( David Fincher ) , Film of The Year
USC Scripter Award 2008 : James Vanderbilt ( screenwriter ) , Robert Graysmith ( author )
Visual Effects Society Awards 2008 : Outstanding Supporting Visual Effects in a Motion Picture and Outstanding Created Environment in a Live Action Motion Picture
Writers Guild of America Awards 2007 : Best Adapted Screenplay ( James Vanderbilt and Robert Graysmith ) from Zodiac
= Madagascar Plan =
The Madagascar Plan was a proposal by the Nazi German government to relocate the Jewish population of Europe to the island of Madagascar . Franz Rademacher , head of the Jewish Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for the German government , proposed the idea in June 1940 , shortly before the Fall of France . The proposal called for the handing over of control of Madagascar , then a French colony , to Germany as part of the French surrender terms .
The idea of deporting Polish Jews to Madagascar was investigated by the Polish government in 1937 , but the task force sent to evaluate the island 's potential determined that only 5 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 000 families could be accommodated , or even as few as 500 families by some estimates . As efforts by the Nazis to encourage emigration of the Jewish population of Germany before World War II were only partially successful , the idea of deporting Jews to Madagascar was revived by the Nazi government in 1940 .
Rademacher recommended on 3 June 1940 that Madagascar should be made available as a destination for the Jews of Europe . With Adolf Hitler 's approval , Adolf Eichmann released a memorandum on 15 August 1940 calling for the resettlement of a million Jews per year for four years , with the island governed as a police state under the SS . They assumed that many Jews would succumb to its harsh conditions should the plan be implemented . The plan was not viable due to the British naval blockade . It was postponed after the Axis lost the Battle of Britain in September 1940 , and was permanently shelved in 1942 with the commencement of the Final Solution , towards which it had functioned as an important psychological step .
= = Origins = =
In the late 1800s and early 1900s there were a number of resettlement plans for European Jews that were precursors to the Madagascar Plan . Paul de Lagarde , an Orientalist scholar , first suggested evacuating the European Jews to Madagascar in his 1878 work Deutsche Schriften ( " German Writings " ) . Members of the Zionist movement in 1904 – 1905 seriously debated the British Uganda Programme , by which Russian Jews , who were in immediate danger from ongoing pogroms , would be settled in what today is Kenya . The plan was later rejected as unworkable by the Zionist Congress . Adherents of territorialism split off from the main Zionist movement and continued to search for a location where Jews might settle and create a state , or at least an autonomous area . The idea of Jewish resettlement in Madagascar was promoted by British antisemites Henry Hamilton Beamish , Arnold Leese , and others . With the cooperation of the French , the Polish government commissioned a task force in 1937 to examine the possibility of deporting Polish Jews to the island . The head of the commission , Mieczysław Lepecki , felt the island could accommodate 5 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 000 families , but Jewish members of the group estimated that only 500 or even fewer families could safely be accommodated .
= = In Nazi Germany = =
Racism and antisemitism were basic tenets of the Nazi Party and the Nazi government . Discrimination and violent attacks against Jews began immediately after the seizure of power in 1933 . Violence and economic pressure were used by the Nazis to encourage Jews to voluntarily leave the country . By 1939 , around 250 @,@ 000 of Germany 's 437 @,@ 000 Jews had emigrated to the United States , Argentina , the United Kingdom , Palestine , and other countries .
The Nazi leadership seized on the idea of deporting the remaining German Jews overseas . Barren , unproductive lands were viewed as appropriate destinations as this would prevent the deportees from flourishing in their new location . In his May 1940 memorandum to Hitler , Concerning the Treatment of the Alien Population in the East , Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler declared that he hoped to see " the term ' Jew ' [ ... ] completely eliminated through the massive immigration of all Jews to Africa or some other colony " .
= = = Planning begins = = =
Initial discussions began to take place in 1938 among Nazi ideologues such as Julius Streicher , Hermann Göring , Alfred Rosenberg , and Joachim von Ribbentrop , . Ten per cent of Jews under German jurisdiction by that date were Polish nationals . Józef Lipski , the Polish ambassador to Germany , expressed his country 's reluctance to take them back , and the Polish government decreed that Polish passport holders would not be permitted to return except under specific conditions . When Ribbentrop raised the matter with French foreign minister Georges Bonnet in December of that year , Bonnet expressed French reluctance to receive more German Jews and inquired if measures could be taken to prevent their arrival . France itself was contemplating how to deport sone 10 @,@ 000 Jews and considered whether Madagascar might be an appropriate destination . Planning for German deportations to Madagascar formally began in 1940 . Franz Rademacher , recently appointed head of the Jewish Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs , forwarded on 3 June to his superior , the diplomat Martin Luther , a memorandum on the fate of the Jews . " The desirable solution is : all Jews out of Europe , " said Rademacher . He briefly considered Palestine as a destination , but deemed it unsuitable , as he considered it undesirable that a strong Jewish state should be created in the Middle East . As well , Palestine was at the time under British control . Rademacher recommended that the French colony of Madagascar should be made available as a destination for the Jews of Europe as one of the terms of the surrender of France , which the Germans had invaded on 10 May 1940 . The resettled Jews , noted Rademacher , could be used as hostages to ensure " future good behaviour of their racial comrades in America " . The plan was developed by Referat D III of the Abteilung Deutschland .
Luther broached the subject with Foreign Minister Ribbentrop , who was simultaneously developing a similar scheme . By 18 June , Hitler and Ribbentrop spoke of the Plan with Italian leader Benito Mussolini as a possibility that could be pursued after the defeat of France . Once he learned of the plan , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich , chief of the Reich Main Security Office ( RSHA ) , insisted that Ribbentrop relinquish any future responsibility for the Plan to that office . As Heydrich had been appointed by Göring in January 1939 to oversee Jewish evacuation from German @-@ occupied territory , the Jewish question was hence under his purview . Adolf Eichmann , head of the RSHA Sub @-@ Department IV @-@ B4 , which dealt with Jewish affairs and evacuation , soon became involved . On 15 August , he released a memorandum titled Reichssicherheitshauptamt : Madagaskar Projekt ( Reich Main Security Office : Madagascar Project ) , calling for the resettlement of a million Jews per year for four years and abandoning the idea of retaining any Jews in Europe . The RSHA , he emphasized , would control all aspects of the program . While Rademacher called for the colony to be under German control but self @-@ governing under Jewish administration , Eichmann made it plain that he intended for the SS to control and oversee every aspect of life on the island , which they would govern as a police state .
Most Nazi bureaux , including the Foreign Office , the Security Police , and the Generalgouvernement pinned their hopes on the plan as the last chance to " solve the Jewish problem " through emigration . In particular , Hans Frank , governor of the General Government ( the occupied portion of Poland ) , viewed the forced resettlement to Madagascar as being preferable to the heretofore piecemeal efforts at deportation into Poland . As of 10 July , deportations into Poland were cancelled and construction of the Warsaw ghetto was halted , since it appeared to be unnecessary .
= = = Planning continues = = =
Rademacher envisioned the founding of a European bank that would ultimately liquidate all European Jewish assets to pay for the plan . This bank would then play an intermediary role between Madagascar and the rest of the world , as Jews would not be allowed to interact financially with outsiders . Göring 's office of the Four Year Plan would oversee the administration of the plan 's economics .
Additionally , Rademacher foresaw roles for other government agencies . Ribbentrop 's Foreign Affairs Ministry would negotiate terms with the French for the handover of Madagascar to Germany . It would also play a part in crafting other treaties to deal with Europe 's Jews . Its Information Department , along with Joseph Goebbels and his Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda , would control the flow of information at home and abroad . Viktor Brack , a division chief in the Chancellery of the Führer , would oversee transportation . The SS would undertake the expulsion of the Jews from Europe and govern the island as a police state . The Nazis expected that after the invasion of the United Kingdom in Operation Sea Lion that they would commandeer the British merchant fleet to transport the Jews to Madagascar . Many deportees were expected to perish in the harsh conditions or die at the hands of the SS .
= = = Plan abandoned = = =
With the failure to defeat the Royal Air Force in the Battle of Britain , the proposed invasion of the UK was postponed indefinitely on 17 September 1940 . This meant the British merchant fleet would not be at Germany 's disposal for use in evacuations , and planning for the Madagascar proposal stalled . In late August 1940 , Rademacher entreated Ribbentrop to hold a meeting at his ministry to begin drawing up a panel of experts to consolidate the plan . Ribbentrop never responded . Likewise , Eichmann 's memorandum languished with Heydrich , who never approved it . Establishment of ghettos in Warsaw and other cities in Poland resumed in August 1940 . Hitler continued to mention the plan until February 1942 , when the idea was permanently shelved . British Empire forces took the island from Vichy France in the Battle of Madagascar in November 1942 and control was transferred to the Free French .
At the end of 1940 , Hitler asked Himmler to draft a new plan for the elimination of the Jews of Europe , and Himmler passed along the task to Heydrich . His draft proposed the deportation of the Jews to the Soviet Union via Poland . The later Generalplan Ost ( General Plan for the East ) , prepared by Professor Konrad Meyer and others , called for deporting the entire population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to Siberia , either for use as slave labour or to be murdered after the Soviet defeat . After the Axis failure in the Battle of Moscow and the entry of the United States into the war in December 1941 , Hitler resolved that the Jews of Europe were to be exterminated immediately rather than after the war , which now had no end in sight . Since transporting masses of people into a combat zone would be impossible , Heydrich decided that the Jews would be killed in extermination camps set up in occupied areas of Poland . The total number of Jews murdered during the resulting Holocaust is estimated at 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million people .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= M @-@ 24 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 24 is a state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan that extends 75 @.@ 691 miles ( 121 @.@ 813 km ) through Southeast Michigan and The Thumb , from northeast Auburn Hills to Unionville . It starts at an interchange with Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) and ends where it merges with M @-@ 25 . While the M @-@ 24 designation is similar to that of US Highway 24 ( US 24 ) which has a northern terminus located only a few miles from the southern terminus of M @-@ 24 , M @-@ 24 was never part of US 24 .
The first M @-@ 24 in Michigan was replaced by M @-@ 20 when US 10 replaced the original M @-@ 20 in 1926 . A 1936 bypass of downtown Pontiac resulted in the creation of M @-@ 24A which later became BUS M @-@ 24 in 1940 . An extension in 1997 moved the northern end of M @-@ 24 northward from Caro to Unionville , replacing a section of M @-@ 138 in the process .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 24 begins a hundred feet south of an overpass that is part of a double trumpet interchange with I @-@ 75 in Auburn Hills . The interchange also connects with an entrance into The Palace of Auburn Hills , home of the NBA 's Detroit Pistons , and a variety of electronic signs are contained in the area to indicate the status of access to the entrance . The roadway is a continuation of Business Loop I @-@ 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 ) that travels through Pontiac . This section of the highway dedicated to William Davidson , former owner of the Pistons , in legislation signed by Michigan Governor Rick Snyder in May 2011 .
The section of M @-@ 24 from its southern terminus in Auburn Hills north to the village of Oxford is one of the busiest stretches of road in the state in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . Near The Palace of Auburn Hills , 50 @,@ 600 vehicles used the roadway on average in 2007 . The road is a standard Michigan expressway design , with at @-@ grade intersections , traffic signals , and Michigan Lefts . M @-@ 24 continues north through the Bald Mountain Recreation Area and along the eastern shore of Lake Orion in the village of Lake Orion . This expressway continues a few miles north of the Lapeer County line , where the highway becomes a two @-@ lane highway for a few miles , before returning to expressway from Metamora to I @-@ 69 . South of Metamora , M @-@ 24 runs parallel to the former right @-@ of @-@ way for the Michigan Central Railroad north into the city of Lapeer .
M @-@ 24 continues north from Lapeer running west of Barnes Lake and east of the community of Columbiaville just south of the M @-@ 90 junction . South of the Tuscola County line , the trunkline passes the Greenbriar Golf Club and crosses the Pere Marquette Railroad before turning west along Saginaw Road into the community of Mayville and turning north along Mertz Road . South of Caro , M @-@ 24 meets M @-@ 46 . Once past Frank Street in Caro , M @-@ 24 becomes Ellington Street . M @-@ 24 then comes to meet M @-@ 81 in Caro , where the highway becomes Cleaver Road . M @-@ 24 then jogs west along Biebel Road and then north along Unionville Road past a junction with M @-@ 138 to end in Unionville at M @-@ 25 .
M @-@ 24 is also known locally as Lapeer Road in several areas , including Orion Township , Oxford Township , and Metamora . In the Village of Oxford , it is also known as Washington Street . In downtown Lapeer , it is known as Main Street , and north of Mayville as Mertz Rd . In the Unionville area , it is also known as Unionville Road .
= = History = =
= = = Original designation = = =
In 1919 , the first M @-@ 24 was designated along today 's M @-@ 20 . From Midland east , M @-@ 24 continued along today 's M @-@ 47 . When the U.S. Highway System was created , US 10 replaced M @-@ 20 and M @-@ 20 in turn replaced the first M @-@ 24 . The M @-@ 24 designation was then applied to the current routing .
= = = Current designation = = =
The current designation was assigned in two pieces , Pontiac to Lapeer and Vassar to Bay City . The two sections would be joined in 1927 by a concurrency along M @-@ 21 and M @-@ 15 . This arrangement lasted until a permanent solo routing was created in 1930 . The Pontiac area saw a rerouting of M @-@ 24 to an eastern bypass of town in 1936 . The former routing in town became M @-@ 24A . It would be redesignated as BUS M @-@ 24 in 1940 when the State Highway Department debuted business routes in Michigan . The northern terminus was moved to M @-@ 81 in Caro in 1942 , and the southern terminus was shifted to the present location in 1963 . Prior to a 1997 extension , M @-@ 24 ended at M @-@ 81 in Caro ; now it continues up to M @-@ 25 in Unionville .
From 2006 to 2008 , M @-@ 24 was expanded to a boulevard between Metamora and Lapeer . There is still a two lane section between the Lapeer / Oakland County Line and Metamora that is planned to be upgraded in the near future . The construction has been delayed because of development close to the highway near Metamora .
= = Major intersections = =
= Mark Speight =
Mark Warwick Fordham Speight ( 6 August 1965 – 7 April 2008 ) was an English television presenter , best known as the host of children 's art programme SMart . Speight grew up in Tettenhall , Wolverhampton , and left school at 16 to become a cartoonist . He took a degree in commercial and graphic art and , while working in television set construction , heard of auditions for a new children 's art programme . Speight was successful in his audition and became one of the first presenters of SMart , working on it for 14 years .
Speight was also a presenter on See It Saw It , where he met his future fiancée , actress and model Natasha Collins . He took part in live events , such as Rolf on Art and his own Speight of the Art workshops for children . He was involved in charity work ; he became the president of the Muscular Dystrophy Campaign 's Young Pavement Artists Competition , and was a spokesperson for ChildLine .
In January 2008 , Speight found Collins 's body in the bath of their shared London flat . He was arrested on suspicion of her murder , but not charged with any offence . An inquest later determined that Collins had died of a drug overdose and severe burns from hot water . In April that year , Speight was reported missing and was later discovered to have taken his own life by hanging himself near Paddington station . Two suicide notes were discovered , describing how he could no longer live without Collins .
= = Early life = =
Speight was born in Seisdon , Staffordshire , and grew up in Tettenhall , Wolverhampton . Speight had two siblings , Tina @-@ Louise Richmond ( née Speight ) , and Jason Speight . His father , Oliver Warwick Speight , is a property developer , and his mother , Jacqueline Fordham Speight ( née Parker ) , was an art teacher . Jacqueline died on 5 September 2008 , aged 62 , from a stroke allegedly brought on by the stress of her son 's death . Speight attended the independent school Tettenhall College for a year , before moving to state comprehensive Regis School , now known as King 's C.E. School , also in Tettenhall , at the age of 12 . Speight stated in an interview he was a slow learner at school , with a short attention span , and art was a way for him to communicate . He said he did " very badly " because he was a victim of bullying , and the " daily ordeal for two years " forced him to become the " class joker " . Speight left aged 16 and went on to attend Bilston Art School , where he took a degree in commercial and graphic art .
= = Career = =
He intended to become a cartoonist , but Speight eventually became a TV presenter following a job painting the set of a television production . He auditioned for SMart and , following a successful interview where he met future co @-@ presenter Jay Burridge , he went on to present SMart from its first edition in 1994 . Speight became close friends with Burridge , whose art studio in West London was used to create all of the art content for SMart ; Burridge noted : " We would bounce ideas and jokes off each other all day until we had developed an almost telepathically linked knowledge of what made each other laugh . " Speight and Burridge were joined by third presenter Zoë Ball , who was replaced first by Josie d 'Arby , and then Kirsten O 'Brien and Lizi Botham . With Burridge O 'Brien and Botham Speight presented the spin @-@ off shows SMart on the Road , and SMarteenies and participated in various live events . He achieved further fame while starring in the BAFTA @-@ nominated ITV Saturday morning show Scratchy & Co. from 1995 until 1998 .
Speight worked on numerous other shows , ranging from children 's television to adult factual programmes . His children 's television credits include playing the Abominable No Man in Timmy Mallett 's Timmy Towers and presenting Beat the Cyborgs , Name That Toon , On Your Marks , Insides Out , and History Busters , the last of which won a Royal Television Society Award . Speight also worked on This Morning , The Heaven and Earth Show , The Big Breakfast and was a contestant in ITV 's Celebrity Wrestling . Speight also played the king on children 's programme See It Saw It , where he met Natasha Collins . Collins was seriously injured after being hit by a car in 2001 , and had to leave See It Saw It . Speight began dating her in 2003 , and they became engaged in Barbados in 2005 . They planned to get married in fancy dress and Speight joked that the wedding might feature monkeys , his favourite animal .
In 2004 , Speight participated in Rolf Harris 's Rolf on Art , for which a giant reproduction of John Constable 's The Hay Wain was created in Trafalgar Square . In 2005 , he was involved in a similar project where Hans Holbein 's portrait of Henry VIII and Leonardo da Vinci 's Mona Lisa were both reconstructed , the latter in the grounds of Edinburgh Castle . Speight had planned a project involving a trip to Borneo in March 2008 to train abused orangutans not to fight each other , but this never took place . Speight regularly toured with Speight of the Art , a series of art workshops he ran for children , and during the Christmas period , he performed in pantomime as " Buttons " in Cinderella at the Watersmeet , Rickmansworth , in December 2007 .
Speight was involved in charity work . He was President of the Muscular Dystrophy Campaign 's Young Pavement Artists Competition , originally a one @-@ off , year @-@ long project that ended up lasting eight years , and he was a spokesperson for ChildLine . In 2007 he was the presenter of the Müller Big Art Project for Comic Relief in Trafalgar Square .
= = Arrest and disappearance = =
On the afternoon of 3 January 2008 , Speight called emergency services after waking up to discover Natasha Collins 's body in the bath at their St John 's Wood flat , in north @-@ west London . Speight told police that he and Collins had spent the previous evening " partying " , drinking wine and vodka , and taking cocaine and sleeping pills . Speight was questioned by police and was subsequently arrested on suspicion of murder and of supplying class A drugs , but was released on bail until the first week of February . Because of this , the BBC cancelled the Saturday repeat edition of SMart . An inquest , which opened on 8 January 2008 , heard that the death was not thought to be suspicious but should be " subject to further investigation " . At that point , police were awaiting results of toxicology tests after a postmortem examination was inconclusive . The BBC cancelled repeat broadcasts of SMart and SMarteenies until further notice , and on 28 February Speight announced he was quitting SMart , because the " tragic loss " of Collins had left him unable to continue with the show . Speight denied any involvement with Collins 's death , and on 19 March it was reported that the police were no longer considering Speight as a suspect .
In April 2008 , the coroner recorded a verdict of death by misadventure in relation to Collins . The cause of death was " cocaine toxicity and immersion in hot water " , according to the consultant pathologist . The inquest found that she had taken " very significant " amounts of cocaine with sleeping pills and vodka , and that she had suffered 60 % burns to her body , including her tongue . The coroner noted that at some stage in the night after both Speight and Collins had gone to bed , Collins got up to have a bath . He said that it was " more likely than not " that a heart problem had caused Collins to fall unconscious while the hot tap was running . Following Collins 's death , Speight moved in with Collins 's mother .
Speight planned to meet with Collins 's mother at Covent Garden for coffee on the afternoon of 7 April . He was dropped off at Wood Green tube station that morning , but never appeared at the planned meeting . Speight missed an appointment with a counsellor , but this was because of confusion over dates . Two police officers spoke to him , as he appeared " vacant " , " distracted " and " deep in thought " , but he refused their help . He was captured on CCTV in the afternoon taking money from a cash machine at Queen 's Park station , and he subsequently boarded a southbound Bakerloo line train . He was reported missing the following day by family and friends , and his mother and the mother of Natasha Collins made a public appeal in which they urged him to make contact . Speight 's father also appealed for him to get in touch .
= = Death and legacy = =
On 13 April , Speight 's body was discovered hanging from the roof of MacMillan House , adjacent to London 's Paddington Station , hidden from public view , six days after he died . The discovery was made by railway workers at 10 : 00 am , and British Transport Police confirmed that the body was Speight 's on 14 April 2008 . An inquest into his death opened on 16 April 2008 , and a post @-@ mortem confirmed the cause of death as hanging . It was then adjourned until 20 May . The police said Speight may have used a sixth floor fire exit to get to the area where he was found .
The report of Speight 's death on the BBC 's children 's news programme Newsround provoked complaints that it upset young viewers . The BBC decided to avoid using the word " suicide , " and instead Newsround reported that " police don 't think he was killed by anyone else . "
Speight 's funeral was held on 28 April at St Michael and All Angels Church in Tettenhall and hundreds went to pay their respects . The service included
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the second was a comfortable 3 – 0 victory . A 2 – 1 defeat at Napoli then took qualification out of Manchester City 's hands , and despite a 2 – 0 win against group winners Bayern Munich , City finished third in the group and failed to qualify for the knockout stages .
As a third placed team the club then entered the Europa League in the round of 32 , where they faced Europa League holders Porto . Manchester City won both legs . Agüero 's goal after 19 seconds of the second leg was the second fastest in the history of the competition . City returned to Portugal in the next round , against Lisbon club Sporting CP . Each team won their home leg ; the first leg finished 1 – 0 to Sporting , and the second leg 3 – 2 to Manchester City . Sporting won the tie on away goals .
= = UEFA competitions = =
= = Non @-@ UEFA competitions = =
In addition to the major UEFA competitions , Manchester City have also played a number of first team fixtures in other , more minor multi @-@ national competitions . As winners of the 1970 League Cup , Manchester City played against the Coppa Italia winners Bologna in the Anglo @-@ Italian League Cup . The competition started the previous year , as a way of enabling 1969 League Cup winners Swindon Town to play European opposition . For the first leg in Bologna , the City team stayed over 100 km ( 60 miles ) away in the coastal resort of Rimini , and took a relaxed attitude to proceedings . City lost the match 1 – 0 , and drew 2 – 2 at home , losing the competition .
After missing out on a UEFA berth for 1971 – 72 , Manchester City were invited to play in the Texaco Cup , a competition for English , Scottish and Irish teams . City fielded a weakened side for the second leg of their tie against Airdrieonians . As punishment Manchester City had their £ 1 @,@ 000 prize money withheld and were banned from the competition for two years . Upon the expiry of the suspension in 1974 , the club entered the competition again , but exited in the group stage . The tournament saw Denis Law play his final matches as a professional . The withdrawal of Irish teams saw the competition renamed the Anglo @-@ Scottish Cup the following year . Again , City failed to progress beyond the group stage .
= = Overall record = =
= = = By country = = =
= = = = UEFA competitions = = = =
= = = = Non @-@ UEFA competitions = = = =
= Battle off Texel =
The Battle off Texel , also known as the Action off Texel or the Action of 17 October 1914 , was a naval battle off the coast of the Dutch island of Texel during the First World War where a British squadron consisting of one light cruiser and four destroyers on a routine patrol encountered the remnants of the German 7th Half Flotilla of torpedo boats , which was en route to the British coast on a mission to lay minefields . The British forces attacked and sank the German flotilla of four torpedo boats . Outgunned , the German force attempted to flee and then fought a desperate and ineffective action against the British force .
The battle resulted in the loss of the German torpedo boat squadron and prevented the mining of busy shipping lanes , such as the mouth of the River Thames . The British had few casualties and little damage to their vessels . The outcome of the battle also greatly influenced the tactics and deployments of the remaining German torpedo boat flotillas in the North Sea area , as the loss greatly shook the faith of the commanders in the effectiveness of the force .
= = Background = =
After the opening naval Battle of Heligoland Bight , the German High Seas Fleet was ordered to avoid confrontations with larger opposing forces , to avoid costly and demoralizing reverses . Apart from occasional German raids , the North Sea was dominated by the Royal Navy which regularly patrolled the area , although German light forces operated regularly in North Sea . At 13 : 50 on 17 October 1914 , a routine patrol by the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla ( Harwich Force ) consisting of the light cruiser HMS Undaunted ( Captain Cecil Fox ) and four Laforey @-@ class destroyers , HMS Lennox , Lance , Loyal and Legion , was cruising off the island of Texel , when they encountered a waiting German squadron of torpedo boats , comprising the remaining vessels of the 7th Half Flotilla ( Korvettenkapitän Georg Thiele in S119 ) SMS S115 , S117 , S118 . The German ships made no hostile move British ships , nor did they try to flee the scene and it was assumed by the British that they had mistaken the British ships for friendly vessels . The German flotilla had been sent out of the Ems River to mine the southern coast of Britain including the mouth of the Thames and had been intercepted before reaching its objective .
The British squadron out @-@ gunned the German 7th Half Flotilla , the Undaunted ( Captain Cecil Fox , squadron commander ) — an Arethusa @-@ class light cruiser — was armed with two BL 6 inch Mk XII naval guns and seven QF 4 inch Mk V naval guns , in single mounts ( most without gun shields ) and eight torpedo tubes . Undaunted was experimentally armed with a pair of 2 @-@ pounder anti @-@ aircraft guns , something most of her class lacked and at best speed could make 28 @.@ 5 kn ( 32 @.@ 8 mph ; 52 @.@ 8 km / h ) . The four Laforey @-@ class destroyers were armed with two torpedo tubes , three 4 @-@ inch guns and a 2 @-@ pounder gun . The destroyers were slightly faster than the cruiser and could make about 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) at full power . The German vessels were inferior to the British in other areas , the 7th Half Flotilla was composed of ageing Großes Torpedoboot 1898 class and had been completed in 1904 . The German boats were nearly equal in speed to the British at 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . Each of the German vessels was armed with three 50 mm ( 1 @.@ 97 in ) guns , that were of shorter range and throw @-@ weight than the British guns . The biggest danger to the British squadron was the three 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes carried by each of the German boats , with five torpedoes per boat .
= = Battle = =
Upon closer approach , the German vessels realized the nearby vessels were British and scattered , while Undaunted — which was closer to the Germans than the destroyers — opened fire on the nearest torpedo boat . This German vessel managed to dodge the fire from Undaunted by changing course but lost speed and the British force caught up . To protect Undaunted from torpedo attack and to destroy the Germans as quickly as possible , Fox ordered the squadron to divide . Lance and Lennox chased S115 and S119 as Legion and Loyal pursued S117 and S118 . Fire from Legion , Loyal and Undaunted damaged S118 so badly that its bridge was blown off the deck , sinking her at 15 : 17 . Lance and Lennox engaged S115 , disabling her steering gear and causing the German vessel to circle . Lennox 's fire was so effective that the bridge of S115 was also destroyed but the German torpedo @-@ boat did not strike her colours .
The two central boats in the German flotilla , S117 and the flotilla leader S119 , tried to hit Undaunted with torpedoes ; despite the torpedoes , Undaunted outmanoeuvred the German boats and remained unscathed . When Legion and Loyal had finished off S118 , they came to Undaunted 's aid and engaged it 's two attackers . Legion attacked S117 , but it fired its last three torpedoes and continued to engage with gunfire . Legion pulverized S117 , damaging her steering mechanism which forced her to circle before she was sunk at 15 : 30 . At the same time , Lance and Lennox had damaged S115 to the point where only one of the destroyers was needed . Lance sjoined Loyal in bombarding S119 with lyddite shells . S119 managed to fire a torpedo run at Lance and hit the destroyer amidships but the torpedo failed to detonate . S119 was sunk at 15 : 35 by gunfire from Lance and Loyal , taking the German flotilla commander down with it . S115 stayed afloat despite constant attacks from Lennox , which sent a boarding party , who found a wreck with only one German on board who happily surrendered . Thirty members of the crew were eventually rescued from the sea by the British vessels . The action ended at 16 : 30 , with gunfire from Undaunted finishing off the abandoned hulk of S115 .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Analysis = = =
The battle was seen as a great boost of morale for the British as two days previous , they had lost the cruiser HMS Hawke to a U @-@ boat . The effect on British morale the battle had is reflected in its fictionalized and nationalistic inclusion in the 1915 dime novel The Boy Allies Under Two Flags , by Robert L. Drake . Some controversy arose in Germany from the battle , because the German hospital ship Ophelia , which had been sent out to rescue survivors from the sunken boats , was seized by the British for violating the Hague Convention rules on the use of hospital ships . The loss of a squadron of German torpedo boats , led to a drastic change in tactics in the English Channel and along the coast of Flanders . There were few sorties into the Channel and the torpedo boat force was relegated to coastal patrol and rescuing downed pilots . The British received a bonus on 30 November , when a British fishing trawler pulled up the sealed chest thrown off S119 by Captain Thiele . The chest contained a German codebook used by the German light forces stationed on the coast , allowing the British to decipher German communications for long afterwards .
= = = Casualties = = =
The four ships of the German Seventh Half Flotilla were sunk by Harwich Force and over two hundred sailors were killed including the commanding officer . Despite the odds no German vessel struck her colours and the Flotilla fought to the end . Only four British sailors were wounded , along with superficial damage to three of the destroyers . Legion had one 4 lb ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) shell hit and one man was wounded by machine @-@ gun fire . Loyal was hit twice and had three or four men wounded as a result . Lance had superficial machine @-@ gun damage and the other vessels were unscathed . Thirty @-@ one German sailors were rescued from the water and the sinking ships and taken prisoner ; a captured officer died of wounds soon after . Two more German sailors were later rescued by a neutral vessel .
= = Order of battle = =
= = = Royal Navy = = =
HMS Undaunted , light cruiser , flagship
HMS Lennox , destroyer
HMS Lance , destroyer
HMS Loyal , destroyer
HMS Legion , destroyer
= = = German Navy = = =
SMS S119 , torpedo boat , flagship
SMS S118 , torpedo boat
SMS S117 , torpedo boat
SMS S115 , torpedo boat
= Cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device =
The cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device is the earliest known interactive electronic game . The device simulates an artillery shell arcing towards targets on a cathode ray tube ( CRT ) screen , which is controlled by the player by adjusting knobs to change the trajectory of a CRT beam spot on the display in order to reach plastic targets overlaid on the screen . Thomas T. Goldsmith , Jr. and Estle Ray Mann constructed the game from analog electronics and filed for a patent in 1947 , which was issued the following year . The gaming device was never manufactured or marketed to the public , so it had no effect on the future video game industry . Under most definitions , the device is not considered a video game , as while it had an electronic display it did not run on a computing device . Therefore , despite its relevance to the early history of video games , it is not generally considered a candidate for the title of first video game .
= = Gameplay = =
The cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device consists of a cathode ray tube connected to an oscilloscope with a set of knobs and switches . The device uses purely analog electronics and does not use any digital computer or memory device or execute a program . The CRT projects a spot on the oscilloscope display screen , which traces a parabolic arc across the screen when a switch is activated by the player . This beam spot represents the trajectory of an artillery shell . Overlaid on the screen are transparent plastic targets representing objects such as airplanes . At the end of the spot 's trajectory , the beam defocuses , resulting in the spot expanding and blurring . This represents the shell exploding as if detonated by a time fuze . The goal of the game is to have the beam defocus when it is within the bounds of a target . Prior to the beam spot beginning its arc , the player can turn the control knobs to direct the beam spot 's trajectory and adjust the delay of the shell burst . The machine can be set to fire a " shell " either once or at a regular interval , which is adjustable by the player . This gives the player the goal of hitting one of the overlay targets with the shell burst within a time limit . The player was recommended to make the trajectory far removed from a straight line " so as to require an increased amount of skill and care " .
= = History = =
The cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device was invented by physicists Thomas T. Goldsmith , Jr. and Estle Ray Mann . The pair worked at television designer DuMont Laboratories specializing in the development of cathode ray tubes that used electronic signal outputs to project a signal onto television screens . Goldsmith , who had received a Ph.D. in physics from Cornell University in 1936 with a focus on oscilloscope design , was at the time of the device 's invention the director of research for DuMont Laboratories in New Jersey . The two inventors were inspired by the radar displays used in World War II , which Goldsmith had worked on during the war . The patent for the device was filed on January 25 , 1947 and issued on December 14 , 1948 . The patent , the first for an electronic game , was never used by either the inventors or DuMont Laboratories , and the device was never manufactured beyond original handmade prototype . Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers historian Alex Magoun has speculated that Goldsmith did not make the prototype with the intent for it to be the basis of any future production , but only designed the device as a demonstration of the kind of commercial opportunities DuMont could pursue . Goldsmith did not work on games after the invention of the device ; he was promoted to vice president in 1953 and left DuMont — by then split up and sold to other firms — to become a professor of physics at Furman University in 1966 . Goldsmith kept the device and brought it with him to Furman ; in a 2016 interview fellow physics professor Bill Brantley recalled Goldsmith demonstrating the game to him .
Despite being a game that used a graphical display , the cathode @-@ ray tube amusement device is generally not considered under most definitions to be a candidate for the first video game , as it used purely analog hardware and did not run on a computing device ; some loose definitions may still consider it a video game , but it is still usually disqualified as the device was never manufactured . Nevertheless , it is the earliest known interactive electronic game as well as the first to incorporate an electronic display , thus making it a forerunner to other games in the early history of video games . As the device was never manufactured or widely shown , however , it did not directly inspire any other games and had no impact on the future video game industry .
= Don Bradman with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
Don Bradman toured England in 1948 with an Australian cricket team that went undefeated in their 34 tour matches , including the five Ashes Tests . Bradman was the captain , one of three selectors , and overall a dominant figure of what was regarded as one of the finest teams of all time , earning the sobriquet The Invincibles .
Generally regarded as the greatest batsman in the history of cricket , the right @-@ handed Bradman played in all five Tests as captain at No. 3 . Bradman was more influential than other Australian captains because he was also one of the three selectors who had a hand in choosing the squad . He was also a member of the Australian Board of Control while still playing , a privilege that no other person has held . At the age of 40 , Bradman was by far the oldest player on the team ; three @-@ quarters of his team were at least eight years younger , and some viewed him as a father figure . Coupled with his status as a national hero , cricketing ability and influence as an administrator , this associated the team more closely to him than other teams to their respective captains . Bradman 's iconic stature as a cricketer also led to record @-@ breaking public interest and attendances at the matches on tour .
Bradman ended the first @-@ class matches atop the batting aggregates and averages , with 2428 runs at 89 @.@ 92 , and eleven centuries , the most by any player . Despite his success , his troubles against Alec Bedser 's leg trap — he fell three consecutive times in the Tests and twice in other matches to bowlers using this ploy — were the subject of much discussion .
Bradman scored 138 in the first innings of the First Test at Trent Bridge , laying the foundation for Australia 's 509 , which set up a lead of 344 and eventual victory . In the Fourth Test at Headingley , he scored an unbeaten 173 on a deteriorating pitch on the final day , combining in a triple @-@ century partnership with Arthur Morris as Australia scored 3 / 404 in the second innings to win by seven wickets . This set a world record for the highest ever successful run @-@ chase in Test history . The tour was Bradman 's international farewell , and when needing only four runs for a Test career average of exactly 100 , he bowed out with a second ball duck in the Fifth Test at The Oval , bowled by an Eric Hollies googly . Australia nevertheless won the Test to complete a 4 – 0 series win , and Bradman ended the series with 508 runs at 72 @.@ 57 , with two centuries . Only Morris — with three centuries — scored more runs in the five Tests . Bradman 's Test average for the series was the third @-@ highest among the Australians , behind that of Sid Barnes and Morris .
= = Background = =
Bradman had almost opted out of the tour , citing business commitments in Australia ; at the time , it was not possible to make a living from cricket . Prior to the campaign in England , Australia hosted India for a five @-@ Test series during the southern hemisphere summer of 1947 – 48 . Australia easily defeated the tourists 4 – 0 , and Bradman and his fellow selectors Chappie Dwyer and Jack Ryder thus began planning for the tour of England . Bradman made it publicly known that he wanted his team to become the first to play an English summer without defeat . England had agreed to make a new ball available every 55 overs , instead of the previous rule of after 200 runs had been scored . As the run rate was generally much slower than 3 @.@ 64 , 55 overs would usually elapse long before 200 runs were scored . This meant that the ball was in a shiny state more often , and thereby more conducive to fast and swing bowling . Bradman and his colleagues thus chose the team with an emphasis on strong batting and fast bowling , basing his strategy on an intense speed attack against England 's batsmen . His 17 @-@ man squad sailed for England and arrived in mid @-@ April .
= = Early tour = =
Australia traditionally fielded its first @-@ choice team in the tour opener , which was customarily against Worcestershire at the end of April . Bradman thus captained against Worcestershire with Australia bowling first and dismissing the hosts for 233 . After Sid Barnes and Arthur Morris put on a partnership of 79 runs in 99 minutes , Bradman came in at No. 3 and put on a stand of 186 in 152 minutes with Morris , before falling for 107 , having hit 15 fours . Morris narrowly beat Bradman to score Australia 's first century on tour , reaching triple figures while Bradman 's score was on 99 . Bradman declared Australia 's innings at 7 / 462 and the hosts fell for 212 to complete an Australian victory by an innings and 17 runs .
In the next match , against Leicestershire , Bradman won the toss and elected to bat , promoting Keith Miller ahead of himself to No. 3 . As Miller came out to bat , the large crowd mobbed the players ' entrance only to see that Bradman was not batting in his customary position . Bradman came to the crease at 2 / 157 , and after initially being troubled by the left @-@ arm unorthodox spin of Australian expatriate Jack Walsh , added 159 with Miller before falling for 81 . Australia compiled 448 and bowled out the home side for 130 and 147 to win by an innings , with Bradman taking one catch .
The Australians then proceeded to play Yorkshire , on a damp pitch that suited slower bowling . Bradman rested himself and returned to London , so his deputy Lindsay Hassett led the team . Yorkshire were bowled out in difficult batting conditions for 71 , before Australia replied with 101 . The hosts were then bowled out for 89 . Chasing 60 for victory , the Australian top order collapsed to 6 / 31 . Neil Harvey and Don Tallon survived a dropped catch and a stumping opportunity , before seeing Australia home by four wickets . It was the closest Australia came to defeat for the whole tour .
Bradman then returned in the next match against Surrey at The Oval in London , winning the toss and electing to bat . The last time Australia had played at the ground was the Fifth Test in 1938 , when England declared at a world record score of 7 / 903 ; Bradman had hurt his ankle , and was unable to bat as Australia fell to the largest defeat in Test history . This match was a far different experience for the Australians . Barnes and Morris put on 136 before Bradman came in to join Barnes ; together they added another 207 before Barnes fell for 176 . Bradman started slowly and was heckled by the crowd for taking 80 minutes to reach 50 , but accelerated and went on to score 146 before being dismissed at 3 / 403 , with Australia proceeding to be all out for 632 . He had attacked the medium pacers with his pull shot , but had some difficulties reading the left arm wrist spin of Australian expatriate John McMahon , nearly being caught behind the wicket on multiple occasions . Australia then bowled Surrey out for 141 and 195 to win by an innings .
Bradman rested himself for the next match against Cambridge University , leaving Hassett to orchestrate another innings victory . Bradman returned for the following match against Essex , and batted first after winnings the toss . Bill Brown opened with Barnes and they put on 145 in 97 minutes before Barnes hit his own wicket and was out . Bradman came in and seized the initiative , reaching 42 in the 20 minutes before lunch , including five fours from one over by Frank Vigar which subsequently entered Essex club folklore , as Australia passed 200 . Bradman and Brown put on a second @-@ wicket partnership of 219 in 90 minutes before Brown was out for 153 from three hours of batting , with the score at 2 / 364 . After Miller fell without scoring on the next ball , Ron Hamence joined Bradman and they put on another 88 before the Australian skipper was out for 187 at 4 / 452 . Bradman had added his last 87 runs in 48 minutes , hitting a total of 32 fours . Australia was out for 721 at stumps , setting a world record for the most runs in a single day 's play in first @-@ class cricket ; the record still stands . The tourists completed victory by an innings and 451 runs , their biggest winning margin for the tour . Bradman rested himself for the next match against Oxford University , which resulted in another innings victory .
The next match was against the Marylebone Cricket Club at Lord 's in late @-@ May . The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , and were basically a full strength Test team , as were Australia , who fielded their first @-@ choice team . Bradman captained the team and batted at No. 3 . Barring one change in the bowling department , the same team would line up for Australia in the First Test , with the top six batsmen playing in the same positions . It was a chance for both teams to gain a psychological advantage . Australia won the toss and batted but stumbled early . Morris was out for five and Bradman came in to join Barnes at 1 / 11 . The pair added 160 before Barnes fell and Hassett came in to join his captain . They took the score to 200 before the Bradman fell for 98 , leaving Australia at 3 / 200 . It was Bradman 's highest score under 100 in first @-@ class cricket and in his disappointment , he was slow to leave the ground after his dismissal . Bradman 's men went on to amass 552 and bowled out the hosts for 189 and 205 to win by an innings , with Bradman catching his opposite number Norman Yardley in the second innings . Up to this point , Bradman had played in five of the first eight matches , all of which were won , seven by an innings . He had scored 107 , 81 , 146 , 187 and 98 , yielding a total of 619 runs at an average of 123 @.@ 80 .
The MCC match was followed by Australia 's first non @-@ victory of the tour , against Lancashire . Australia were sent in to bat and dismissed for 204 , with Bradman bowled by an arm ball from Malcolm Hilton for 11 , his first score on the tour below 80 . The hosts replied with 182 and in the second innings , Bradman was again dismissed by Hilton , this time for 43 as the tourists reached 4 / 259 at the end of play . When Hilton came on , Bradman attempted to seize the initiative and hit him out of the attack , but missed his first two balls . On the third ball , he charged out of his crease and swung across the line , missed , fell over and was stumped . Hilton 's achievement garnered widespread press attention , particularly in Lancashire .
In the following match against Nottinghamshire , the hosts batted first and made 179 . Bradman joined Brown at 1 / 32 and they took the score to 197 when Bradman fell for 86 . The tourists reached 400 and the hosts ended at 8 / 299 in the second innings to hang on for a draw . Bradman rested himself for the next fixture against Hampshire , and Australia were dismissed for 117 on a drying pitch in reply to the home side 's 195 , the first time they had conceded a first innings lead in the tour . Australia would have been in deeper trouble but for a flurry of sixes by Miller . Hampshire were then bowled out for 103 to leave Australia a target of 182 , and this time the tourists batted with much more authority to seal an eight @-@ wicket win . The tourists had survived another tight battle under the leadership of Hassett . The final match before the First Test was against Sussex . Australia skittled the hosts for 86 before Morris and Brown put on an opening stand of 153 . Bradman then joined Morris , and gave two early chances . He was dropped on two and escaped a stumping on 25 . He and Morris put on 189 before the latter fell for 184 . Bradman then ended his Test preparation by reaching 109 , in 124 minutes with 12 fours , and declaring at 5 / 549 , before completing another innings victory .
= = First Test = =
Australia headed into the First Test at Trent Bridge starting on 10 June with ten wins and two draws from twelve tour matches , with eight innings victories . It was thought that Bradman would play a specialist leg spinner , but he changed his mind on the first morning when rain was forecast . Bill Johnston , a left @-@ arm paceman and orthodox spinner , was played in the hope of exploiting a wet wicket . This was the only change from the teams that Australia had fielded in the matches against Worcestershire and the MCC . Yardley won the toss and elected to bat . Pundits predicted that the pitch would be ideal for batting apart from some assistance to fast bowlers in the first hour , as the surface of the pitch had become moist following overnight rain , assisting seam bowling . Australia 's selection policy meant that their reserve opener Brown would bat out of position in the middle order while Barnes and Morris opened , while Neil Harvey was dropped despite making a century in Australia 's most recent Test against India .
Despite an injury to pace spearhead Ray Lindwall , Bradman 's fast bowlers reduced England in their first innings to 8 / 74 before finishing them off for 165 . Bradman dropped two catches in this innings . English gloveman Godfrey Evans came to the crease with the score at 6 / 60 , and hit Johnston hard to cover , where the ball went through Bradman for a boundary . The second chance went through Bradman 's hand and struck him in the abdomen . However , these missed catches did not cost Australia much , as Evans was soon caught at short leg by Morris close in , leaving England at 7 / 74 . England managed to recover somewhat after Laker and Bedser added 89 runs in only 73 minutes for the ninth wicket . At first , Bradman did not appear concerned by the partnership , and it was surmised that he may have been happy for England to continue batting so that his top order would not have to bat in fading light towards the end of the afternoon , but he became anxious as the total continued to mount and both Bedser and Laker appeared comfortable .
On the second day , Morris fell at 1 / 73 and Bradman came in to join Barnes . Yardley set a defensive field , employing leg theory to slow the scoring . He packed the leg side with fielders and ordered Alec Bedser to bowl at leg stump . Bradman almost edged the second ball onto his stumps , before defending uneasily for a period . While Jim Laker stopped the scoring at the other end , Bradman managed only four runs in his first 20 minutes . The Australian captain regarded Bedser as the finest seam bowler he faced in his career , and he batted in a circumspect manner as he sought to establish himself . At the other end , Bradman misjudged a ball from Laker and an incorrectly executed cut shot narrowly went wide of the slip fielder . Now aged 40 , Bradman 's reflexes had slowed and he no longer started his innings as confidently as he had done in the past .
The score progressed to 121 when Barnes fell to Laker . Miller came in and was dismissed for a duck without further addition to Australia 's total . The hard @-@ hitting Miller had come in at No. 4 , a position usually occupied by the more sedate Hassett , indicating that Bradman may have been looking to attack , but the change in batting order failed . All the while , Australia had been scoring slowly , as they would throughout the day . Brown came in , but he looked unaccustomed to batting in the middle order . The Australian captain decided to hasten the new ball by using his feet to get to the pitch of the ball to attack the spinners , hitting them through the off side . Yardley took the second new ball , but this move backfired as Bradman struck his first boundary in over 80 minutes , and in the first 40 minutes after lunch , 43 runs were added . Yardley then took the second new ball . Bradman struck his first boundary in more than 80 minutes but the run rate remained low . Australia passed England 's total before Yardley brought himself on to bowl and removed Brown . This ended a 64 @-@ run stand with Bradman in 58 minutes , and Hassett came in at 4 / 185 . Following the departure of Brown , the Australian scoring slowed as Bradman changed the team strategy to one of attempting to bat only once .
Yardley continued to employ a leg side field , as he and Barnett bowled outside leg stump . During one over , Bradman did not attempt a single shot and then put his hands on his hips . During the 15 minutes before the tea break , Bradman did not add a single run and was heckled by the crowd for his lack of scoring . The Australian captain reached the tea break on 78 ; 55 minutes after the resumption of play he played a cover drive against Bedser to reach his century in 218 minutes . It was his 28th Test century , and his 18th in Ashes Tests ; the last 29 runs took 70 minutes . It was one of his slower innings as Yardley focused on stopping runs rather than taking wickets . Nevertheless , Bradman had appeared comfortable after the early stages of his innings , and patiently scored most of his runs between mid @-@ off and mid @-@ on , often from the back foot . After the Australian captain had reached his milestone , many of the spectators began to leave the ground , content with what they had seen . Bradman added a further 30 in the last hour to end with 130 . Australia batted to stumps on the second day without further loss , ending at 4 / 293 , a lead of 128 .
After the day 's play , former Australian Test leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly and former teammate of Bradman , now a journalist , consulted Bedser on his use of leg theory . O 'Reilly had much experience in attacking leg stump in his career and helped Bedser refine his leg trap plan to ensnare Bradman .
On the third morning , amid sunshine , Bradman resumed on 130 , before progressing to 132 and becoming the first player to pass 1 @,@ 000 runs for the English season . The Australian captain was not aware of the reason for the spontaneous crowd applause until notified by wicket @-@ keeper Evans . Bedser was bowling and soon implemented O 'Reilly 's variation of the leg trap . Hutton was moved from leg @-@ slip to a squarer position at short fine leg , around 11 metres from the bat . Two short legs and a mid on were put in place . Bradman drove Bedser through cover for a boundary , but on the next ball , his innings was terminated at 138 when he glanced an inswinger from Bedser to Hutton at short fine leg , where he caught the ball without having to move . Bradman had batted for 290 minutes and faced 321 balls and Johnson replaced him with Australia at 5 / 305 . Bedser waved to O 'Reilly in the press box . When former Australian Test cricketer and journalist Jack Fingleton reported what his friend and former team @-@ mate O 'Reilly had done , there was some debate in the media as to whether O 'Reilly 's actions in advising Bedser were treacherous . Australia went on to end on 509 and take a 344 @-@ run first innings lead .
Although Lindwall was able to run between the wickets during Australia 's innings , he did not take the field in the second innings and the 12th man Neil Harvey replaced him . However , Yardley was sceptical as to whether Lindwall was sufficiently injured to be forced from the field , but did not approach Bradman to object to Harvey 's presence on the field . O 'Reilly said that as Lindwall demonstrated his mobility during his innings , he was in no way " incapacitated " and that the English captain " must be condemned for carrying his concepts of sportsmanship too far " when no substitute was justified .
After lunch on day four , with England on 3 / 191 , the light was poor with clouds gathering , although England did not appeal against it . Yardley wanted to bat in poor visibility so that he could build a lead , so that if a shower came later and turned the pitch into a sticky wicket , Australia would have to chase a target on an erratic surface . Bradman thought that rain might come so he utilised Ernie Toshack and Ian Johnson to bowl defensively with a leg side field so that England would not have a lead should rain and a sticky wicket arise . Wisden opined that " rarely can a Test Match have been played under such appalling conditions as on this day " . Fingleton said the conditions were " pitiable " and " utmost gloom in which batsmen and fieldsmen had intense difficulty in sighting the ball " . Australia eventually finished off the hosts ' second innings for 441 , leaving them a target of 98 on the final afternoon . Late in England 's innings , Bradman raised eyebrows by deliberately giving centurion Denis Compton easy singles by spreading his fielders in order to bring Evans on strike so that he could be targeted . Compton thought that Evans could be relied upon and readily accepted the runs gifted to him by the Australian captain , and Evans continued to play confidently , eventually reaching 50 .
Australia proceeded steadily to 38 from 32 minutes before Morris fell . Bradman came to the crease and stayed 12 minutes without getting off the mark . He was out for a duck from the 10th ball that he faced , caught again by Hutton at short fine leg in Bedser 's leg trap . Bradman showed obvious displeasure at allowing himself to be dismissed by the same trap in consecutive innings , and his departure left Australia at 48 / 2 . It was the first time in four tours to England that Bradman had made a duck in a Test . This left Australia 2 / 48 , but they reached the target without further loss after 87 minutes of batting .
Between Tests , Bradman rested himself during the match against Northamptonshire , which started the day after the Test , as Hassett led Australia to victory by an innings . He returned for the match against Yorkshire . Bradman came in at 1 / 0 when Barnes fell for a duck and top @-@ scored with 54 as Australia made 249 . Bradman pulled many short balls and reached 50 in 76 minutes . After the hosts replied with 209 , Bradman came in at 1 / 17 and put on 154 for the second wicket with Brown , ending with 86 as the match petered into a draw . His innings ended when Hutton caught him in the leg trap . Not wanting to tire his bowlers before the Second Test that started the day after next , Bradman showed little intent to win the match . The batsmen batted unhurriedly and set Yorkshire 329 for victory with only 70 minutes of play remaining and the hosts ended at 4 / 85 . Yardley expressed his displeasure by allowing his part @-@ timers to bowl and then promoting tail @-@ enders to the upper half of the batting order in the second innings . The Australians were booed from the field by the spectators .
= = Second Test = =
Bradman opted to field an unchanged lineup for the Second Test , which started on 24 June at Lord 's . Following his injury in the previous Test , Lindwall was subjected to a thorough fitness test on the first morning . Bradman was not convinced of Lindwall 's fitness , but the bowler 's protestations were sufficient to convince his captain to gamble on his inclusion . Bradman won the toss and elected to bat , allowing Lindwall further time to recover . Miller played , but was unfit to bowl .
Barnes fell for a duck in his second over , bringing Bradman to the crease at 1 / 3 . Bradman received a loud reception from the crowd as he came out to bat in his final Test at Lord 's . Bradman initially struggled against the English bowling . He faced his first ball from Alec Coxon and inside edged it past his leg stump , before missing the third ball from Coxon and surviving an appeal for leg before wicket ( lbw ) . Bowling from the other end , Bedser beat Bradman with seam movement off the pitch and the ball narrowly skimmed past the stumps . Standing up to the stumps , wicket @-@ keeper Godfrey Evans removed the bails as Bradman leaned forward , but his foot had stayed firmly behind the crease . In another close call , Bradman inside edged a ball towards Yardley at short leg , but the English captain was slow to react and the ball landed in front of him . The Australian captain managed only three runs in the first twenty minutes as Australia had only 14 after the first half @-@ hour . Coxon consistently moved the ball into a cautious Bradman , and the Australians scored only 32 runs in the first hour .
Edrich came on and bowled a bouncer , which Bradman tried to swing to the leg side , but instead the edge went in the air and landed behind point . On 13 , Bradman played a Bedser ball from his legs , narrowly evading Hutton in the trap at short fine leg . After one hour he was on 14 . Bradman and Morris settled down as Coxon and Doug Wright operated . The Australian captain drove the debutant Coxon through the covers for two fours , and Yardley made frequent rotations of his bowlers . At the lunch break , Australia were 1 / 82 with Morris on 45 and Bradman 35 . Shortly afterwards , in the third over after the resumption of play , with the score at 87 , Bradman was caught for 38 for the third consecutive time in Tests by Hutton off Bedser at short fine leg , just two days after falling the same way in the second innings against Yorkshire . According to O 'Reilly , this was evidence that Bradman was no longer the player he was before World War II , as he had been unable to disperse the close @-@ catching fielders by counter @-@ attacking , before eventually being dismissed . O 'Reilly said that this was the first time that Bradman had fallen to the same trap three times in succession . Australia reached 7 / 258 at the end of day one , before a lower order burst took them to 350 on the second morning .
England then started their reply , and Lindwall took the new ball and felt pain in his groin again after delivering his first ball to Hutton . Despite this , Lindwall persevered through the pain . Seeing that Lindwall was able to bowl through the pain , Bradman tossed the ball to Miller for the second over to see if Miller could bowl . However , Miller threw the ball back , indicating that his body would not be able to withstand it . This resulted in media consternation that Bradman and Miller had quarrelled .
Although Bradman claimed that the exchange had been amicable , others disputed this . Teammate Barnes later claimed that Miller had retorted by suggesting that Bradman — a very occasional slower bowler — bowl himself . Barnes said that the captain " was as wild as a battery @-@ stung brumby " and warned his unwilling bowler that there would be consequences for his defiance . According to unpublished writings in Fingleton 's personal collection , Bradman chastised his players in the dressing room at the end of the play , saying " I 'm 40 and I can do my full day 's work in the field . " Miller reportedly snapped " So would I — if I had fibrositis " ; Bradman had been discharged from the armed services during World War II on health grounds , whereas most of the team had been sent into battle . Miller had crash @-@ landed while serving as a fighter pilot in the Royal Australian Air Force in England and had suffered chronic back trouble since then .
On the second afternoon , Bradman delayed the taking of the second new ball until after tea so that Lindwall and Johnston could have an extra period of recuperation before a new attack . This proved dividends as the bowlers took a wicket apiece within three overs of the new ball being taken , leaving England at 6 / 134 . England were bowled out for 215 on the third morning , as Lindwall took 5 / 70 . In later years , Bradman told Lindwall that he pretended not to notice Lindwall 's pain . Lindwall was worried that Bradman had noticed his injury , but Bradman later claimed that he feigned ignorance to allow Lindwall to relax . Australia batted much more productively in the second innings in ideal weather on the third day . Morris and Barnes put on 122 before the former fell for 62 . Bradman joined Barnes at the crease for his last Test innings at the home of cricket . Yardley surrounded the Australian captain with fielders and Laker then beat his bat thrice in an over . Bedser was then introduced with the leg trap ploy again in place as he bowled on Bradman 's pads . The Australian captain decided to negate the danger of being caught glancing at short fine leg by padding the ball away with his front leg . Bedser responded by changing his tactics by bowling a series of outswingers , beating the outside edge of Bradman 's bat three times in a row , narrowly missing the off stump on one occasion . Barnes then manipulated the strike to shield his captain from Bedser . The Australian opener had little trouble against the leg trap , and negated the danger Bedser was posing . Bradman accelerated after tea and took two consecutive boundaries from Wright to bring up his fifty , with Barnes on 96 and Australia at 1 / 222 .
Barnes passed his century and began accelerating before finally falling for 141 , leaving Australia at 2 / 296 in 277 minutes , after a 174 @-@ run partnership with Bradman . Hassett was bowled first ball off the inside edge , but Miller survived a loud lbw appeal on Yardley 's hat @-@ trick ball . Bradman was on 89 and heading towards a century in his last Test innings at Lord 's when he fell to Bedser again , this time because of a one @-@ handed diving effort from Edrich . Bradman had been worried by Bedser 's angle into his pads and the leg trap , but Bedser then moved the ball the other way towards the slips and caught Bradman 's outside edge . It was the fourth time out of four innings in the series that Bedser had dismissed Bradman . This left Australia at 4 / 329 and the next day , Bradman was expected to declare just before lunch so that he could attack the English openers for a short period before the adjournment , but a shower at this time deterred him from doing so , as his bowlers would have struggled to grip the ball ; Lindwall had also been injured on a slippery surface in earlier times . The Australian captain declared on the following day of play at 7 / 460 , 595 runs ahead . It would take a world record chase from England to win the match . England lost wickets regularly and fell for 186 to lose by 409 runs .
The next match was against Surrey and started the day after the Test . Australia elected to field and the hosts made 221 . Brown injured a finger while fielding , and was not able to bat in Australia 's first innings . Ron Hamence filled in as an opener but was out for a duck , so Bradman joined Hassett at 1 / 6 . Bradman made 128 and put on 231 with Hassett ( 139 ) as Australia replied with 389 . Bradman 's innings took only 140 minutes with 15 fours and was described by Jack Fingleton as " lovely " . In the second innings , Australia 's makeshift openers Harvey and Sam Loxton chased down the 122 runs for victory to complete a 10 @-@ wicket win . Australia wanted to finish the run @-@ chase quickly so they could watch the Australian tennis player John Bromwich compete at Wimbledon and after Bradman had accepted Harvey 's offer to open , Australia made the runs in only one hour . Bradman rested himself in the following match against Gloucestershire before the Third Test . Hassett led the team as Australia reached 7 / 774 declared , its highest of the tour , underpinning an innings victory .
= = Third Test = =
The teams reassembled at Old Trafford on 8 July for the Third Test . Australia dropped Brown , who had scored 73 runs at 24 @.@ 33 in three innings ; he was replaced by the all rounder Sam Loxton , who had made 47 not out against Surrey and an unbeaten 159 against Gloucestershire . Yardley won the toss and elected to bat .
On the second day , Bradman was involved in effecting a run out . Denis Compton hit a ball into the covers and Bradman and Loxton collided in an attempt to prevent a run . Compton called Bedser through for a run on the misfield , but Loxton recovered and threw the ball to the wicket @-@ keeper 's end with Bedser a long way short of the crease . It ended an innings of 145 minutes , in which Bedser scored 37 and featured in a 121 @-@ run partnership with Compton . Compton hit several boundaries and Bradman responded by spreading his field to offer Compton a single so that the tail @-@ enders would be on strike and could be attacked . This worked , as Compton was unable to farm the strike as he desired , and wickets fell at the other end . Bradman caught Jack Young to end England 's innings at 363 . Having dropped Brown , Barnes was hit in the ribs by a Dick Pollard pull shot and taken to hospital , leaving Australia with only Morris as a specialist opening batsman . Ian Johnson was deployed as Australia 's makeshift second opener . He fell for one to bring Bradman to bat . O 'Reilly criticised the use of Johnson to partner Morris , as Hassett had transformed himself into a defensive batsman with little backlift and a guarded approach , a style typical of an opener . The Australian captain thus had to face Bedser , who had already dismissed him three times in the Tests with a new ball , and Pollard , who had troubled him in the match against Lancashire . Pollard then trapped Bradman for seven with an off cutter that struck the Australian captain on the back foot to leave Australia at 2 / 13 . Australia were eventually out for 221 , yielding a 142 @-@ run lead .
When Bill Edrich came to the crease , Bradman advised Lindwall not to bowl any bouncers at Edrich , fearing that it would be interpreted as retaliation for Edrich 's bouncing of Lindwall in the first innings and lead to a negative media and crowd reaction . Although Lindwall did not retaliate , Miller did so with four consecutive bouncers , earning the ire of the crowd . He struck Edrich on the body before Bradman intervened and ordered him to stop , before apologising to Edrich . England reached 3 / 174 , a lead of 316 , at the end of day three , but declared on the fifth morning after the fourth day was washed out . Bradman chose the light roller and play was supposed to begin after lunch . However , play did not begin until after tea and the pitch played very slowly because of the excess moisture . With Australia not looking to chase the runs , Yardley often had seven men in close catching positions . Australia showed little attacking intent and Bradman joined Morris with Australia at 1 / 10 after 32 minutes .
Bradman then played 11 balls from Young without scoring . Yardley used the spin of Young and Compton for an hour , while Morris and Bradman made little effort to score . For 105 minutes , Morris stayed at one end and Bradman at the other ; neither looked to rotate the strike with singles . Bradman only played eight balls from Morris 's main end , and at one point was so startled that Morris wanted a single that he sent him back . The tourists thereafter batted safely in a defensive manner to ensure a draw . They ended at 1 / 92 in 61 overs , a run rate of 1 @.@ 50 , with 35 maidens , which was the slowest innings run rate to date in the series . Bradman finished unbeaten on 30 from 146 balls when the oft @-@ interrupted match was finally terminated by a series of periodic rain interruptions . O 'Reilly criticised the approach taken by the Australians in the closing stages of the match , attributing it to Bradman 's orders . He said that the pitch was made so tame by the heavy rain that they could have played in a natural and attractive manner to entertain the spectators , rather than defending carefully . He said that Bradman 's " unwillingness to take a risk or to accept the challenging call of some particular phase of the game is one of the greatest flaws " in his leadership .
After the Test , Bradman managed only six as Australia scored 317 and 0 / 22 to defeat Middlesex by ten wickets in their only county match between Tests . He was again caught in the leg trap by Denis Compton .
= = Fourth Test = =
The Fourth Test was played at Headingley , starting on 22 July , and Australia made two changes . Harvey replaced the injured Sid Barnes , while Ron Saggers replaced Don Tallon , who had a finger injury , as wicket @-@ keeper . Brown was not recalled for the Fourth Test to open ; instead , Hassett was promoted to open with Morris , while the teenaged Harvey came into the middle @-@ order . As Australia were leading 2 – 0 after three Tests , England needed to win the last two Tests to square the series . England won the toss and elected to bat on an ideal batting pitch .
At the start of the innings , Bradman used off theory , but left a large gap square of the wicket in an attempt to coax England 's out @-@ of @-@ form top @-@ order to play risky shots into the inviting gap . However , Bradman 's offer was spurned as Hutton and Washbrook played cautiously . Meanwhile , Australia 's attack appeared unsettled . Bradman set defensive fields for most of the first day as England 's openers put on 168 for the first wicket . O 'Reilly said that Bradman 's defensive field settings " made the sorry admission of impotency " . England 's batsmen dominated to reach stumps at 2 / 268 . Jack Fingleton said that Australia 's day went " progressively downhill " and was its worst day of bowling since the Second World War , citing the proliferation of full tosses . O 'Reilly criticised the display as the worst by the Australians on tour and said that no bowler could be excused . He said that the attack " functioned without object — hopelessly and meaninglessly " throughout the day . He lambasted the bowlers for performing at a standard akin to county cricket . O 'Reilly criticised the players for having a casual and lethargic manner , speculating that Bradman had been allowed them to become complacent .
On the second day , Bradman continued to use defensive tactics for most of the day as England continued to dominate . Australia had trouble removing night @-@ watchman Bedser , who helped take the score to 2 / 423 . Bradman gave his leading bowler Lindwall a heavy workload as the other bowlers appeared unthreatening . O 'Reilly decried the use of Lindwall as excessive and potentially harmful to his longevity . The hosts were eventually out for 496 , their largest score of the series , after a largely self @-@ inflicted collapse late on the second day . Bedser removed Morris for six to leave Australia at 1 / 13 . This brought Bradman to the crease and he was mobbed by the spectators on a ground where he had previously scored two triple centuries and another century in three Tests at the venue . He had made a Test world record of 334 in 1930 , scoring 309 in one day 's play . Many spectators walked onto the playing arena to greet the arrival of Bradman and he doffed his baggy green and raised his bat to greet them . Fingleton opined that " on this field he [ Bradman ] has won his greatest honours ; nowhere else has he been so idolatrously acclaimed " . Bradman got off the mark from his first ball , which Compton prevented from going for four with a diving stop near the boundary . Hassett was restrained , while Bradman attacked , taking three fours from one Edrich over . Bradman was 31 and Hassett 13 as the tourists reached stumps at 2 / 63 . Bradman did the majority of the scoring in the late afternoon , scoring 31 in a partnership of 50 .
On the third morning , Bradman resumed proceedings by taking a single from a Bedser no ball . In same over , one ball reared from the pitch and moved into Bradman , hitting him in the groin , causing a delay as he recovered from the pain and recomposed himself before play resumed . In the second over bowled by Pollard , Hassett fell for 13 on the second ball , which lifted suddenly after bouncing . Miller came to the crease and drove his first ball for three runs , bringing Bradman on strike for the fourth ball of the over . Pollard then pitched a ball in the same place as he did to Hassett , but this time it skidded off the pitch and knocked out Bradman 's off stump for 33 . According to O 'Reilly , Bradman backed away from the ball as it cut off the pitch with a noticeable flinch . O 'Reilly attributed Bradman 's unwillingness to get behind the ball to the blow inflicted on him by Bedser in the previous over and the rearing ball that dismissed Hassett . The crowd , sensing the importance of the two quick wickets , in particular that of Bradman , who had been so productive at Headingley , erupted . This left Australia struggling at 3 / 68 , but a rapid counterattack by the middle and lower order took them to 9 / 457 at stumps and eventually 458 on the fourth morning .
England batted for the second time , and after lunch on the fourth afternoon , Bradman set fields to restrict the scoring , as England passed 100 without loss . Washbrook then hooked Johnston and top edged it , but Bradman failed to take the catch . He repeated the shot soon after and Harvey took the catch at 1 / 129 , so the Australian captain 's miss cost little . Johnson then removed Hutton for 57 without further addition to the total , caught by Bradman on the run , leaving England at 2 / 129 . During most of the afternoon , Bradman used a strategy of rotating his bowlers in short spells , and set a defensive , well @-@ spread field for Johnson , who had been repeatedly attacked by the batsmen . England then reached 8 / 362 at the close , a lead of 400 . England batted on for five minutes on the final morning , adding three runs in two overs before Yardley declared at 8 / 365 . As the batting team is allowed to choose which ( if any ) roller can be used at the start of the day 's play , this ploy allowed Yardley to ask the groundsman to use a heavy roller , which would help to break up the wicket and make the surface more likely to spin . Bradman had done a similar thing during the previous Ashes series in Australia in order to make the batting conditions harder for England . At the start of any innings , the batting captain also has the choice of having the pitch rolled . Bradman elected to not have the pitch rolled at all , demonstrating his opinion that such a device would disadvantage his batsmen . This left Australia to chase 404 runs for victory . At the time , this would have been the highest ever fourth innings score to result in a Test victory . Australia had only 345 minutes to reach the target , and the local press wrote them off , predicting that they would be dismissed by lunchtime on a deteriorating spinners ' wicket . Morris and Hassett started slowly , with only six runs in the first six overs on a pitch that offered spin and bounce . Only 44 runs came in the first hour , leaving 360 runs needed in 285 minutes . Both players survived close calls before Hassett fell at 1 / 57 .
Bradman joined Morris with 347 runs needed in 257 minutes . After receiving another rapturous welcome from the Headingley spectators , Bradman signalled his intentions by hitting a boundary from Compton ; and then , on his first ball from Laker , cover driving against the spin for a boundary . He reached 12 in six minutes . Yardley then called upon the occasional leg spin of Hutton in an attempt to exploit the turning wicket . Morris promptly joined Bradman in the counter @-@ attack , and 20 runs in two Hutton overs , which Fingleton described as " rather terrible " due to the errant length . Bradman took two fours off Hutton 's second over before almost holing out to Yardley . This let Australia reach 1 / 96 from 90 minutes .
In the next over , Compton deceived Bradman with a googly . Bradman expected the ball to turn in , but it went the other way , took the outside edge and ran away past slip for four . Bradman leg @-@ glanced the next one for another boundary , before again failing to read a googly on the third ball . This time the edge went to Crapp , who failed to hold on . The sixth ball of Compton 's over beat Bradman and hit him on the pads . At the other end , Morris continued to plunder Hutton 's inaccurate leg breaks , and Australia reached lunch at 1 / 121 , with Morris on 63 and Bradman on 35 . Hutton had conceded 30 runs in four overs , and in the half @-@ hour preceding the interval , Australia had added 64 runs . Both players had been given lives . Although Australia had scored at a reasonable rate , they had also been troubled by many of the deliveries and were expected to face further difficulty if they were to avoid defeat .
After the break , Morris added 37 runs in 14 minutes from a series of Compton full tosses and long hops , while Bradman had only added three . This prompted Yardley to take the new ball . Bradman reached 50 in 60 minutes and then aimed a drive from Ken Cranston , but sliced it in the air to point . Yardley dived and got his hands to the ball , but failed to hold on . Australia reached 202 — halfway to the required total — with 165 minutes left , after Morris dispatched consecutive full tosses from Laker . Bradman then hooked two boundaries , but suffered a fibrositis attack , which put him in significant pain . Drinks were then taken , and Morris had to farm the strike until Bradman 's pain had subsided . Australia then reached 250 shortly before tea with Morris on 133 and Bradman on 92 . Bradman then reached his century in 147 minutes as the second @-@ wicket stand passed 200 .
Bradman was given another life at 108 when he advanced two metres down the pitch to Jim Laker and missed , but Evans fumbled the stumping opportunity . Australia reached tea at 1 / 292 having added 171 during the session . Morris was eventually dismissed for 182 , having partnered Bradman in a stand of 301 in 217 minutes . This brought Miller to the crease with 46 runs still required . He struck two boundaries and helped take the score to 396 before falling with eight runs still needed . Harvey came in and got off the mark with a boundary that brought up the winning runs . This sealed an Australian victory by seven wickets , setting a new world record for the highest successful Test run @-@ chase , with Bradman unbeaten on 173 with 29 fours in only 255 minutes .
Immediately after the Fourth Test , Bradman scored 62 , before being bowled attempting a pull shot to a ball that kept low , as Australia compiled 456 and defeated Derbyshire by an innings . Bradman rested himself in the next match against Glamorgan , a rain @-@ affected draw that did not reach the second innings . He then scored 31 and 13 not out , bowled by Eric Hollies as Australia defeated Warwick
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front except for the Art Institute of Chicago Building . Eventually , Ward 's ideas were adopted by Daniel Burnham in his Plan of Chicago , which called for " insured light , air , and an agreeable outlook " along the Grant Park street frontage . The preservation of the lakefront view has inspired architects to create an architectural cornucopia of designs along the " streetwall " .
At no point is Michigan Avenue currently called Michigan Boulevard , but prior to the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 , the street was officially known as Michigan Boulevard and often referred to as " Boul Mich " . As recently as the 1920s , North Michigan Avenue ( especially the Magnificent Mile ) was referred to as " Upper Boul Mich " . Paris ' Boulevard Saint @-@ Michel is the original Boul Mich .
The district has changed over the years as various architectural designs have evolved to compliment it . The boulevard was widened between 1909 and 1910 causing the Art Institute of Chicago Building to have to move the lions guarding its entrance back 12 feet . At that time , the Jackson Boulevard and Michigan Avenue intersection ( the end of route 66 ) was known as " route center " . Also at that time , the boulevard had no streets crossing it and extending eastward , and thus , the Jackson intersection was a T intersection . This was still true in 1920 when the Michigan Avenue Bridge opened and increased traffic by connecting this boulevard with the Magnificent Mile and the community north of the Chicago River a quarter mile to the north of this district . The Fountain of the Great Lakes ( installed in 1913 ) was highly visible from route center . Today , four streets cross Michigan Avenue within the district ( in addition to its northern and southern endpoints at crossing streets ) . Three of the four change names as they cross Michigan : eastbound East Monroe Street ( 100 south ) becomes East Monroe Drive ; eastbound East Jackson Boulevard ( 300 south ) becomes East Jackson Drive ; and two @-@ way East Congress Parkway ( 500 south ) becomes East Congress Drive as it crosses into Grant Park to the east . East Balbo Drive ( 700 south ) does not change names as it crosses Michigan .
= = Today = =
Today the only building on the eastern side of Michigan Avenue in the Historic District hosts the Art Institute of Chicago . However , several interesting structures have been added to the northern part of the eastern side of Michigan Avenue in Millennium Park such as Crown Fountain and McCormick Tribune Plaza . The current " End Historic US 66 " marker is now located along Michigan Avenue in this district to mark the official end of U.S. Route 66 in Illinois , but this and several others traverse Michigan Avenue within Grant Park because landfill has created two blocks of real estate between Michigan Avenue and the Lake Michigan shoreline . Also , the Fountain was relocated and is no longer easily seen from Michigan Avenue .
Among the current issues today is the trend to redevelop properties by constructing grand towers behind the facades of historic structures along Michigan and Wabash Avenues ( the parallel street one block to the west ) . The most recent examples of this have been The Heritage at Millennium Park , Legacy at Millennium Park and the 80 @-@ story tower proposed as part of the YWCA building redevelopment at 830 S. Michigan Avenue . This trend is now endangering the Chicago Athletic Association Annex , which has been proposed for demolition to make way for a fifty- to eighty @-@ story condominium tower across from Millennium Park . As a result , the building is listed first on the 2006 @-@ 07 Chicagoland Watch List of the Landmarks Preservation Council of Illinois . On the other hand , many were concerned that the landmark district designation would stagnate development of the area . The purpose of the designation was to " keep the architecture there and encourage architecture like it and keep the wall of the park , " according to the City 's Department of Planning and Development . Thus , redevolpment for new uses will be part of the ongoing concerns for the neighborhood . Thus , buildings being renovated for condos and dormitories is a part of the present and future for the district .
= = Buildings in the District = =
Several of the buildings listed below have played a prominent role in the cultural history of Chicago .
The Blackstone has become part of Chicago 's history as the city that has hosted more United States presidential nominating conventions ( 26 ) than any other two American cities , The Blackstone Hotel has hosted almost every 20th century U.S. President , and it has contributed the phrase “ in a smoke @-@ filled room " to American political parlance .
The Chicago Symphony Orchestra debuted on October 16 , 1891 and made its home in the Auditorium Theatre until moving to Orchestra Hall in 1904 . Theodore Roosevelt gave his famous Bull Moose speech in 1912 at the Auditorium and was nominated for President of the United States by the independent National Progressive Party . The Auditorium has hosted Jimi Hendrix , The Who , the Grateful Dead , and many others . The Auditorium Building is considered a milestone in the development of modern architecture .
The Chicago Cultural Center serves as the city 's official reception venue where the Mayor of Chicago has welcomed Presidents and royalty , diplomats and community leaders . According to Crain 's Chicago Business , the Chicago Cultural Center was the eighth most @-@ visited cultural institution in the Chicago area in 2004 , with 767 @,@ 000 visitors . The interior includes ornate mosaics , marbles , bronze , and stained @-@ glass domes designed by the Tiffany Glass and Decorating Company .
The Art Institute of Chicago is a fine @-@ art museum well known for its Impressionist and American art .
North to south :
Statuses
CL @-@ Chicago Landmark
NHL @-@ National Historic Landmark
NRHP @-@ National Register of Historic Places
= The Haunted Mask =
The Haunted Mask is the eleventh book in Goosebumps , the series of children 's horror fiction novellas created and authored by R. L. Stine . The book follows Carly Beth , a girl who buys a Halloween mask from a store . After putting on the mask , she starts acting differently and discovers that the mask has become her face ; she is unable to pull the mask off . R. L. Stine says he got the idea for the book from his son who had on a mask that he had trouble getting off .
The Haunted Mask was featured on the USA Today and Publishers Weekly bestseller list , and cited by one reviewer as " ideal for reluctant readers and Halloween @-@ themed sleepovers . " In the mid @-@ 1990s , the book was adapted for television and released on VHS on March 12 , 1996 . The Haunted Mask has three published sequels ; The Haunted Mask II , The Scream of the Haunted Mask and a stand @-@ alone story , Wanted : The Haunted Mask .
= = Background = =
The Haunted Mask was authored by R. L. Stine and originally illustrated by Tim Jacobus . The author says the idea for the book came from his son Matthew Stine , who had on a Halloween mask that he had trouble getting off . Stine also says that he incorporated a duck costume his parents got him for trick @-@ or @-@ treating in the book .
The book was first published in September 1993 by Scholastic , and reissued on September 1 , 2008 .
= = Plot = =
Carly Beth Caldwell is a naive , timid and gullible 11 @-@ year @-@ old girl who is afraid of pretty much everything . Thus , she is a constant target for pranks , jokes and tricks , most of them being inflicted on her by Steve Boswell and Chuck Greene at Walnut Avenue Middle School . In the opening chapter , Carly Beth and Sabrina discuss what costumes they are going to wear for Halloween , and Carly Beth is tricked by Steve into eating a sandwich containing a live worm . Horrified , Carly Beth flees and vows revenge . After school , she goes home and finds her mother has made her a silly duck costume for Halloween , and also a very realistic plaster of Paris model of Carly Beth 's head . When she goes to her room , the duck costume seemingly comes alive and attacks Carly Beth . It turns out it is her younger brother , Noah , playing another trick on her . Sabrina calls , and they discuss the school science fair .
At the science fair , Steve causes a panic by announcing his pet tarantula has escaped , and Carly Beth is terrified of tarantulas . Steve creeps up behind her during the chaos , and pinches her leg to make it seem that the tarantula is biting her . Carly Beth flies into a frenzied panic , destroys her and Sabrina 's project and is again humiliated in front of her teachers and classmates . Carly Beth vows that she will definitely make Steve pay for what he did to her . She plots to go to a new store that has opened , which sells frightening costumes , and plans to scare Steve and Chuck as payback .
On Halloween day , she goes to the party store , but it is closed . However , the store manager appears and allows her into the shop . She dismisses the masks she sees on display as not good enough for scaring anyone . But she sneaks into a back room and discovers a row of hideously deformed masks . She is startled to find that the masks feel warm and like human skin , not rubber or plastic . The store owner reluctantly sells her one of the masks and Carly Beth goes home in delight . Later that day , after she takes the mold of her head that her mother made , she puts on the mask and goes in search of Chuck and Steve , determined to get revenge on them . She starts acting more and more aggressively as the night goes on : she chokes Sabrina , throws apples at a house , and frightens children she doesn 't know . When she manages to scare Chuck and Steve , she loses the head her mother made , but no longer cares .
While at Sabrina 's house , Carly Beth is shocked to find she is unable to remove the mask and that the mask has , in fact , become her face . She returns to the store and finds the owner waiting for her . The store owner tells her that the " mask " is actually a real living face . All the masks in the back room are deformed , monstrous , living faces . The store owner made them , but they started out beautiful but then became hideous . Every so often , a person puts one on and the mask possesses them . It can only be removed by a " symbol of love " , but if it attaches itself to her or another person again , it will be forever . Carly Beth screams in horror , and the other masks begin to pursue her . While running away from the masks , she realizes that the mold her mother made is a symbol of love . Carly Beth finds the mold and uses it to deter the masks and remove the mask from her face . She returns home to her mother , tossing the mask away . Noah later bursts in and asks her , " How do I look in your mask ? "
= = Reception = =
The Haunted Mask was featured on USA Today 's Top 150 Best @-@ Selling Books database for 43 weeks , attaining a peak position of 107 . In 2001 , it was listed as the 249th bestselling children 's paperback book of all time by Publishers Weekly , having sold 1 @.@ 42 million copies .
Terreece Clarke from Common Sense Media rated the book three stars out of five , commenting that it " is ideal for reluctant readers and Halloween @-@ themed sleepovers " and " is one of the better books in the Goosebumps series " . FlavorWire 's Kevin Pires listed the book as one of his ten favorite Goosebumps books , stating " Tim Jacobus ’ [ ... ] gripping illustration and Stine ’ s straightforward plot made The Haunted Mask an emblem for the series . " Nathan Reese from Complex.com ranked it as the best Goosebumps book , stating the book was very thrilling , and the twist ending caused the right amount of horror . Author and librarian Herbert N. Foerstel stated it was " perhaps the most famous Goosebumps book " .
= = Television adaptation and VHS release = =
Filming for The Haunted Mask television special began in 1995 in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . The special first aired on October 27 , 1995 on the Fox Network as the series premiere of the Goosebumps TV series . In the United States , The Haunted Mask obtained an 8 @.@ 2 rating and was viewed by 14 @.@ 1 million people . In Canada , the special aired on YTV and became the network 's highest rated episode up to that point , with nearly three million viewers .
It was subsequently released on VHS on March 22 , 1996 . The video was listed 75th in Billboard 's list of Top Video Sales in their 1996 Year @-@ In @-@ Video charts , the only Goosebumps video on the list . Complex.com 's Frazier Tharpe named it the 12th best Halloween themed TV episode and called it one of the scariest Goosebumps episodes . However , Michelle Erica Green from FamilyWonder.com thought that the video had stereotypical characters , a corny feel @-@ good message , and hokey special effects . In 1997 , Kathryn Long , who played Carly Beth , received a Gemini Award nomination for " Best Performance in a Children ’ s or Youth Program or Series " .
= = Sequels = =
Three sequels of the book were published , The Haunted Mask II in October 1995 ( the thirty @-@ sixth book in the Goosebumps series ) , The Scream of the Haunted Mask on August 1 , 2008 ( the fourth book in the Goosebumps HorrorLand series ) and a stand @-@ alone story in June 2012 , Wanted : The Haunted Mask . Wanted : The Haunted Mask was published as a celebration of the 20th anniversary of Goosebumps . Another book , The Haunted Mask Lives ! , was listed on illustrator Tim Jacobus 's website , but was not released .
= Planet Ladder =
Planet Ladder ( Japanese : プラネット · ラダー , Hepburn : Puranetto Radā ) is a science fantasy shōjo ( targeted towards girls ) manga written and illustrated by Yuri Narushima . Appearing as a serial in the Japanese manga magazine Crimson from the March 1998 issue to the May 2003 issue , the chapters of Planet Ladder were published by Sobisha / Shueisha in seven tankōbon volumes from December 1998 to May 2004 . Based on the Japanese folktale The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter in which a girl is discovered to be the princess of the moon , the story focuses on a teenager named Kaguya , who is prophesied to save only one of the nine parallel worlds , and her quest to bring peace to a waring universe while finding her true identity .
Planet Ladder was licensed for an English @-@ language translation in North America by Tokyopop , and released from April 2002 to March 2005 after being serialized in Tokyopop 's manga anthology Smile . Planet Ladder was part of Tokyopop 's line @-@ up of manga in its original right @-@ to @-@ left format ; previously , the majority of manga licensed in the United States was " flopped " to read left @-@ to @-@ right for a Western audience . Planet Ladder was positively received by English @-@ language readers , with two volumes placing in ICv2 's list of best @-@ selling graphic novels . The series received generally positive reviews from English @-@ language critics . On April 2 , 2007 , it went out of print in North America .
= = Plot = =
The series focuses on Kaguya Haruyama , a teenager who has lived with a Japanese foster family since she was found as an abandoned , amnesiac four @-@ year @-@ old . One night , two men — Idou , a monk , and Seeu , an emotionless prince — appear in her home and fight over her . Gold , Seeu 's robot modeled after Kaguya 's deceased brother Kagami , brings her to a world parallel to Earth on Seeu 's orders . After exploring the world with Gold , she encounters Shiina Mol Bamvivrie who believes Kaguya is the " Girl of Ananai " , destined to save only one of the nine parallel worlds from collision . Shiina explains that nine worlds exist : Ancient , the first civilized world that was mysteriously destroyed ; Asu , Seeu 's disintegrated world ; Eden , present @-@ day Earth ; Telene , a small world allied with Geo ; Fifth World , a politically neutral world ; Geus , a peaceful world under the control of Geo ; Geo , the most powerful of the worlds ; Asuraitsu , Geo 's rival ; and the Ninth World , destroyed before the start of the series .
Shiina and Waseda , a Tokyo University student trapped in the body of a giant rooster , join her and Gold in traveling across Telene . After learning that Seeu watched his people die from an incurable virus spread around Asu , Kaguya decides to change the fate of the worlds by confronting Kura , Geo 's indulgent emperor who ordered her kidnapping . Instead , while en route to Geo , Gold brings her to Seeu 's floating castle in Asu and Kura captures and recruits Shiina into his army .
Kaguya later makes an interplanetary broadcast , announcing her refusal to save only one world . Instead , she plans to find a person to help her save most of the worlds and people . Kura begins to destroy other worlds to increase Geo 's survival chances . Deciding to use Kaguya as a political figurehead , Kura sends Shiina to abduct her ; once there , Kaguya refuses to help him . Angered , Kura divulges that the " Girl of Ananai " legend is a myth elaborated on and spread around by him and Kagami . After a brief battle with Shiina , Seeu arrives to rescue Kaguya and she realizes her love for him . Transforming into a dragon , Gold teleports everyone to Ancient ; there Idou , Seeu , Kura , and Shiina are persuaded to combine their magical weapons with Gold to fix the rift in the universe , the cause of the eventual collision between the worlds . The series ends with an epilogue seven years later ; Kaguya explains the fate of everyone and meets Seeu and their young son with a picnic basket .
= = Production = =
According to manga artist Yuri Narushima , she began the manga with " a dramatic feeling in mind " and wanted to " start off with a comic book for young girls ( shōjo manga ) . " Narushima planned to have the plot progress quickly so the reader remembers the events and can " ' digest ' the foreshadowed events " . Planet Ladder was based on the Japanese folktale The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter , which focuses on a girl named Kaguya @-@ Hime who is discovered to be the princess of the moon . Additionally , the protagonist takes her name from the folktale .
After discovering that a North American version of Planet Ladder was being simultaneously released , Narushima designed the cover of volume 6 to be " export friendly " , describing it as " like Japanese style , but slightly off " . Additionally , she considered serializing Planet Ladder in another magazine , but decided against it since the series was close to ending .
= = Release = =
Written and illustrated by Yuri Narushima , Planet Ladder appeared as a serial in the Japanese manga magazine Crimson from the March 1998 issue to the May 2003 issue . Sobisha / Shueisha later published the chapters in seven tankōbon volumes from December 1998 to May 2004 . Shueisha re @-@ released Planet Ladder in four bunkoban volumes from July 18 , to August 8 , 2008 .
Tokyopop licensed Planet Ladder for an English @-@ language release in North America and serialized it in its manga magazine Smile . The first volume was released on April 23 , 2002 ; the final volume was published on March 8 , 2005 . Planet Ladder belonged to Tokyopop 's line @-@ up of manga in its original right @-@ to @-@ left format ; previously , the majority of manga licensed in the United States was " flopped " to read left @-@ to @-@ right for a Western audience . As a result , it was displayed in a case with the eight other " unflopped " manga — Chobits , Dragon Knights , Marmalade Boy , GTO , Real Bout High School , The Skull Man , Mars and Cowboy Bebop — and heavily advertised in anime magazines and on fan sites . Planet Ladder went out of print on April 2 , 2007 in North America .
Only the last two volumes were given titles in the English @-@ language release : The Fate of the Dark Planet for volume six and Ananai of the Puzzled Star for the seventh volume .
= = = Volume list = = =
= = Reception = =
Planet Ladder was positively received by English @-@ language readers . The fifth volume placed in the 44th spot on the list of the 50 best @-@ selling graphic novels of February 2003 , with an estimated 1 @,@ 176 copies sold . The sixth volume reached the 71st place on the list of the 100 best @-@ selling graphic novels of February 2004 , with an estimated 984 copies sold .
Critical reaction to Planet Ladder was generally positive . In Manga : The Complete Guide , Jason Thompson wrote that the manga reminded him of " prose science fiction " , citing A Wrinkle in Time by Madeleine L 'Engle ( 1962 ) and Nine Princes in Amber by Roger Zelazny ( 1970 ) as examples . His criticism of the series centered on Narushima 's " inconsistent designs , crude faces , and too much greasy looking screentone " . While stating that Planet Ladder is a " difficult title to warm to , since it feels like we 're in the middle of the story , rather than the beginning " , Mike Dungan of Mania Entertainment considered the effort " worthy " , and wrote that it made Kaguya more sympathetic at the cost of the other characters . Dungan enjoyed the " pleasant though not especially unique " art , the " attractively designed and well @-@ drawn " characters , the occasional humor , and the overall adaptation , especially the " natural sounding dialogue " . However , he criticized Tokyopop 's inconsistent handling of the sound effects . Sequential Tart 's Sheena McNeil praised the plot as original and noted elements from fairytales and fantasy in the series . In follow @-@ up reviews , she praised the manga as " turning out to be one of the best fantasy manga out there ; it stands apart from the rest with its uniqueness " but expressed her surprise that Sheena 's name changed to Shiina halfway through the series with no explanation .
= SMS Schwaben =
SMS Schwaben ( " His Majesty 's Ship Swabia " ) was the fourth ship of the Wittelsbach class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the German Imperial Navy . Schwaben was built at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven . She was laid down in 1900 , and completed in April 1904 , at the cost of 21 @,@ 678 @,@ 000 marks . Her sisters were Wittelsbach , Zähringen , Wettin and Mecklenburg ; they were the first capital ships built under the Navy Law of 1898 , brought about by Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz . Schwaben was armed with a main battery of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns and had a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Schwaben spent the majority of her career as a gunnery training ship from 1904 to 1914 , though she frequently participated in the large scale fleet exercises during this period . After the start of World War I in August 1914 , the ship was mobilized with her sisters as the IV Battle Squadron . She saw limited duty in the North Sea as a guard ship and in the Baltic Sea against Russian forces . The threat from British submarines forced the ship to withdraw from the Baltic in 1916 . For the remainder of the war , Schwaben served as an engineering training ship for navy cadets . She was retained by the Reichsmarine after the war and reactivated in 1919 . During this period , she served as a depot ship for F @-@ type minesweepers in the Baltic until June 1920 . The ship was stricken from the navy list in March 1921 and sold for scrapping in that year .
= = Description = =
Schwaben was 126 @.@ 8 m ( 416 ft 0 in ) long overall and had a beam of 22 @.@ 8 m ( 74 ft 10 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 95 m ( 26 ft 1 in ) forward . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines that drove three screws . Steam was provided by six water @-@ tube and six cylindrical coal @-@ fired boilers . Schwaben 's powerplant was rated at 14 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 13 @,@ 808 ihp ; 10 @,@ 297 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . She had a crew of 30 officers and 650 enlisted men .
Schwaben 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) SK L / 40 guns and twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns . The armament system was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all submerged in the hull ; one was in the bow , one in the stern , and the other four were on the broadside . Her armored belt was 225 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) thick in the central portion that protected her magazines and machinery spaces , and the deck was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The main battery turrets had 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armor plating .
= = Service history = =
Schwaben 's keel was laid 15 September 1900 , at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven , under construction number 27 . She was ordered under the contract name " G " , as a new unit for the fleet . The vessel was a member of the first class of battleships built under the direction of Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the State Secretary of the Reichsmarineamt ( RMA — Imperial Navy Office ) , according to the terms of the Navy Law of 1898 . Schwaben was launched on 19 August 1901 ; during the launching ceremony , King Wilhelm II of Württemberg gave a speech and his wife Queen Charlotte of Württemberg christened the ship . She was commissioned on 13 April 1904 , the last ship of her class to enter active service . The ship 's cost totaled 21 @,@ 678 @,@ 000 marks .
There was a dispute over where Schwaben should be assigned after her commissioning in April 1904 . Admiral Hans von Koester , the fleet commander , wanted the ship to be assigned to the active duty squadron , but Tirpitz wanted to use the new battleship as a training vessel , since the Training Squadron only possessed cruisers and obsolescent ships . Tirpitz won the debate , and so Schwaben was to replace the ancient ironclad frigate Friedrich Carl in the Training Squadron . There , she was to serve as a torpedo training ship . On 18 May , Schwaben departed Wilhelmshaven and passed through the Skagerrak to the Baltic Sea , arriving in Kiel on 22 May .
While on sea trials , she struck an uncharted shoal off the northern tip of the island of Fehmarn . The impact damaged a 30 @-@ meter ( 98 ft ) length of the ship 's hull and holed it in several places . After repairs were completed , she resumed her trials , which lasted until the end of 1904 . The trials were interrupted by the annual autumn maneuvers , during which Schwaben joined the active fleet in the North Sea . On 11 January 1905 , she was formally assigned to the Training Squadron , but as an artillery training ship to replace the old vessel Mars . The ship was based in Sonderburg in the Baltic , along with the armored cruisers Prinz Heinrich and Prinz Adalbert , and several other training ships . She began an annual routine of gunnery training in the western Baltic that was interrupted only by yearly gunnery drills with the entire High Seas Fleet in October . During these fleet exercises , Schwaben was supported by the tender Ulan . Schwaben also went into drydock from the end of October to the middle of December every year for periodic maintenance .
Schwaben participated in exercises in the Swinemünde Bay in April and May 1906 , and the annual fleet gunnery drills took place off Helgoland in August . Her annual overhaul was completed early , in November . In March 1907 , Schwaben participated in gunnery training with the fleet . She joined the flagship of the Reserve Squadron , the coastal defense ship Frithjof , for maneuvers off the coast of Farther Pomerania in July . The following month , Schwaben served as the flagship of Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Hugo Zeye for a training squadron during the fleet maneuvers in the North Sea . Directly after the conclusion of the fleet maneuvers in mid @-@ September , Schwaben participated in fleet gunnery drills off Helgoland . The year was concluded with an overhaul in the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven .
In 1908 , the training ships based in the Baltic were placed under the command of Rear Admiral Hugo von Pohl , who would go on to command the High Seas Fleet in 1915 during World War I. That year followed the same pattern as the previous year , but Schwaben did not participate in the autumn fleet maneuvers . She instead remained at Sonderburg and Alsen during the exercises . In 1909 , after the autumn maneuvers , Schwaben was assigned as the flagship of the Reserve Fleet , again under the command of Admiral Zeye . During her yearly overhaul at the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven , her guns were fitted with new motors produced in Germany to test their reliability over foreign @-@ manufactured motors . The tests proved to be successful . While steaming in the Flensburg Firth on 10 – 12 December , she had to assist the training ship Württemberg in heavy fog .
In 1910 , after the normal training routine in the first half of the year , Schwaben was assigned to the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the autumn maneuvers , which lasted from 19 August to 11 September . She served in this role to replace the battleships Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and Weissenburg , which had been sold to the Ottoman Empire just before the start of the maneuvers . On 14 October , she joined up with the battleship Elsass and steamed through the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal to Kiel for her yearly overhaul at the Imperial Dockyard there . These repairs lasted until 4 January 1911 . Schwaben served in the III Battle Squadron during the autumn maneuvers again in 1911 . By 1911 , the eight Nassau and Helgoland classes of dreadnought battleships had entered service ; these ships were assigned to the I Battle Squadron , which displaced the newer pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the Deutschland and Braunschweig classes to the II and III Battle Squadrons . As a result , Schwaben was decommissioned in Wilhelmshaven on 30 December 1911 and assigned to the Reserve Division in the North Sea . She was briefly placed back in service briefly from 9 to 12 May 1912 to move the ship to Kiel . Schwaben returned to service again to participate in the autumn maneuvers from 14 August to 28 September , as the flagship of then @-@ Konteradmiral Maximilian von Spee .
= = = World War I = = =
After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Schwaben and the rest of her class were mobilized to serve in the IV Battle Squadron , under the command of Vice Admiral Ehrhard Schmidt . After it reached full combat readiness , the Squadron was employed both as a defense force in the German Bight — usually stationed in the mouth of the Elbe — and for operations in the Baltic . Starting on 3 September , the IV Squadron , assisted by the armored cruiser Blücher , conducted a sweep into the Baltic . The operation lasted until 9 September and failed to bring Russian naval units to battle . In May 1915 , IV Squadron , including Schwaben , was transferred to support the German Army in the Baltic Sea area . Schwaben and her sisters were then based in Kiel . During this period , she served as the flagship of the second command admiral of the Squadron , Konteradmiral Alberts .
On 6 May , the IV Squadron ships were tasked with providing support to the assault on Libau . Schwaben and the other ships stood off Gotland in order to intercept any Russian cruisers that might try to intervene in the landings , which the Russians did not attempt . On 10 May , after the invasion force had entered Libau , the British submarines HMS E1 and HMS E9 spotted the IV Squadron , but were too far away to make an attack . The increasingly active British submarines forced the Germans to employ more destroyers to protect the capital ships . As a result , Schwaben and her sisters were not included in the German fleet that assaulted the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 , due to the scarcity of escorts . On 29 August , Kapitän zur See ( Captain at Sea ) Walter Engelhardt replaced Alberts aboard Schwaben . She was then used as a guard ship in Libau , starting on 24 September . On 10 – 11 November , Schwaben , her sisters Wittelsbach and Wettin , and Prinz Heinrich left Libau , bound for Kiel .
By late 1915 , the increasing threat from British submarines in the Baltic convinced the German navy to withdraw the elderly Wittelsbach @-@ class ships from active service . On 20 November Schwaben steamed to Wilhelmshaven , where she replaced Kaiser Karl der Grosse as a training ship for engineers , a role she held for the remainder of the war . After the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June , in which Schwaben did not take part , Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper , the commander of the German battlecruiser squadron , sent his four surviving battlecruisers to dock for repairs . Hipper made Schwaben , which was stationed in Wilhelmshaven , his temporary command ship while his force was being repaired . In 1916 , Schwaben was partially disarmed ; the four 24 cm guns were removed , her battery of 15 cm guns was reduced to six weapons , and only four 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were left aboard .
= = = Postwar service = = =
The ship was briefly retained by the Reichsmarine after the end of the war , and was reactivated for service on 1 August 1919 . According to Articles 182 and 193 of the Treaty of Versailles , Germany was obliged to keep sufficient vessels in commission to sweep mines from large areas in the North and Baltic Seas . Schwaben was therefore converted into a depot ship for F @-@ type minesweepers to assist in meeting Germany 's treaty obligations , which entailed removal of her remaining weaponry and construction of platforms to hold the minesweepers . She was assigned to the 6th Baltic Minesweeping Half @-@ Flotilla , though this service did not last long , as the minesweeping work was completed by 19 June 1920 . The old battleship was stricken from the naval register on 8 March 1921 . She was sold for 3 @,@ 090 @,@ 000 marks and broken up for scrap that year in Kiel @-@ Nordmole .
= 1914 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1914 Atlantic hurricane season was the least active Atlantic hurricane season on record , with only one known tropical storm . Although hurricane season typically encompasses a much larger time @-@ span , actual activity was confined to the middle of September . The only tropical cyclone of the year developed in the region of The Bahamas on September 15 and drifted northwestward , moving inland over Florida and Georgia . Thorough warnings before the storm prevented any major damage . The 1914 season is one of only two that did not produce any hurricanes ( the other being the 1907 season ) . Due to the lack of modern technology , including satellite imagery , information is often sparse , and an additional tropical depression may have existed in late October .
= = Season summary = =
With only one official tropical cyclone , the 1914 season was the least active Atlantic hurricane season on record . It is one of only two Atlantic seasons without a storm of hurricane intensity ( winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) or stronger ) , the other being the 1907 season . The sole tropical storm 's formation on September 14 represents the latest start to a hurricane season since officials records began in 1851 .
Information on the 1914 season is chiefly based on data from the Atlantic hurricane database ( HURDAT ) , which undertook a thorough reanalysis of hurricanes from 1911 through 1914 in 2005 . Several changes , mostly of a minor nature , were made to the September tropical storm . Additionally , two other systems during the year were formally considered for inclusion into the hurricane database ; one of them was deemed a potential tropical depression , but considered too weak to be classified a tropical storm . The other was assessed as a non @-@ tropical system . The 2005 HURDAT reanalysis relied largely on historical weather maps and ship reports in place of modern technology , including satellite imagery .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
The first and only tropical storm of the season originated in a westward @-@ moving tropical wave denoted on weather maps from September 13 . Decreases in air pressure occurred throughout the Bahamas , providing " strong indications of a disturbance " . The system became a tropical depression at 00 : 00 UTC on September 15 , approximately 200 mi ( 320 km ) east of Miami , Florida . It strengthened into a tropical storm about 12 hours later , leading to the issuance of storm warnings from the east coast of Florida to as far north as Hatteras , North Carolina .
The system drifted northwest while gradually intensifying , and was situated south of the Georgia coast late on September 16 . While most tropical systems in the vicinity tend to continue northward along the Eastern Seaboard , the cyclone curved westward and moved ashore near the Florida – Georgia state border after achieving a peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . It progressed inland over southern Georgia as it quickly weakened , but its intensity leveled off after around 18 : 00 UTC on September 17 . The storm skirted the northern Gulf of Mexico as it swerved slightly south of due west , weakening to a tropical depression over southeastern Louisiana . By early September 19 , the depression had further deteriorated into an open trough — a poorly defined , elongated area of low pressure .
The storm produced widespread rainfall in the Southeastern United States , accompanied by gale @-@ force winds along the coast , and ships reported severe conditions at sea . High tides occurred around St. Augustine , Florida , washing over the South Street Causeway . Winds from the storm dispersed large amounts of dead grass from marshes in the area . No significant damage was reported due to thorough warnings before the cyclone . A 2005 reanalysis of the storm made some minor changes to its listing in the official hurricane database , setting back the time of formation and raising the peak intensity .
= = = Tropical depression = = =
In addition to the September tropical storm , a possible depression that remained below tropical storm intensity developed in late October . On October 24 , a broad area of low pressure was present over the western Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea . A possible center of low pressure , attached to a cold front extending southward , had formed within the larger system and moved toward the east . Another center of low pressure formed in the northwestern Caribbean on October 25 and is considered a tropical depression in contemporary research . The depression had weak winds due to the light pressure gradient in the region and , at its peak , it had a minimum central pressure of 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . On October 26 , the cold front associated with the extratropical cyclone to the north absorbed the tropical system . The next day , the extratropical system deteriorated into an open trough . Although the tropical low was reviewed for inclusion into the hurricane database as a tropical storm in 2005 , it was deemed too weak .
= Campbell 's dwarf hamster =
Campbell 's dwarf hamster ( Phodopus campbelli ) is a species of hamster in the genus Phodopus . It was given its common name by Oldfield Thomas in honour of W.C. Campbell , who collected the first specimen in Mongolia on July 1 , 1902 . It is distinguished from the closely related Djungarian hamster as it has smaller ears and no dark fur on its crown . Campbell 's dwarf hamster typically has a narrow dorsal stripe compared to the Djungarian hamster and grey fur on the stomach .
In the wild , the breeding season for Campbell 's dwarf hamster varies by location . For example , the breeding season begins towards the middle of April in Tuva and towards the end of April in Mongolia . However , in captivity , there is no fixed breeding season and they can breed frequently throughout the year . Females are usually sexually mature at two months of age and the gestation period is typically 20 days . Campbell 's dwarf hamster is crepuscular , along with all species of Phodopus and is active throughout the year . Campbell 's dwarf hamsters are omnivores , and so feed on both plant and insect material . Campbell 's dwarf hamster inhabits burrows with four to six horizontal and vertical tunnels in the steppes and semi deserts of central Asia , the Altai mountains , autonomous areas of Tuva and the Hebei province in northeastern China .
This hamster is listed as of Least Concern by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . It is native to China , Kazakhstan , Mongolia and Russian Federation .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The binomial name of Campbell 's dwarf hamster is Phodopus campbelli . This species is the type species of Phodopus , and is named after W. C. Campbell , who first described it on July 1 , 1902 , in Inner Mongolia . The exact location was given as " Shaborte " ( a Mongolian word for a dry lake ) and so the exact co @-@ ordinates are not clear . Thomas described the type specimen in 1905 as Cricetulus campbelli .
Synonyms for this species are Phodopus crepidatus and Phodopus tuvinicus . Common names have been applied to Campbell 's dwarf hamster , including the striped hairy @-@ footed hamster , the Djungarian hamster , the Siberian hamster , and Campbell 's hamster . Campbell 's dwarf hamster is commonly confused with the Djungarian hamster ( Phodopus sungorus ) due to some of the common names , such as the " Siberian hamster " also being used to describe the Djungarian hamster .
= = = Subspecies = = =
American biologist Ned Hollister described a subspecies in 1912 :
P. c. crepidatus : Found in the Altai Mountains of Siberia
= = Physical description = =
A typical wild Campbell 's dwarf hamster is 13 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 53 in ) long , with a tail length of 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) . In captivity , they are proportionally larger , as commercial pet food and fruits provide more nutrition than food found commonly in the wild . The lips and cheeks have white fur and the rest of the fur around the face can be either grey or brown . A dark and narrow dorsal stripe runs along the center of the back from the nape of the neck to about 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) above the tail . The surface of the hands and feet are white to ensure the animal stays warm in colder climates in countries
such as Mongolia .
In both the wild and captivity , Campbell 's dwarf hamsters scent @-@ mark around their territories using Harderian glands , skin glands located behind the ears . They use urine and feces for communication .
Campbell 's dwarf hamster is distinguished from the similar looking Djungarian hamster by its smaller ears and no dark patch on the crown of its head , in certain colourations . The dorsal stripe of Campbell 's dwarf hamster is narrower , shorter , and darker than that of the Djungarian hamster , and the fur on the stomach of Campbell 's dwarf hamster is grey , but it is white on the Djungarian hamster . Campbell 's dwarf hamster does not turn white in the winter and has a grey tint to its fur . It has a smaller interorbital breadth , but has a larger auditory bulla . Campbell 's dwarf hamster is much less tolerant to lower temperatures than the Djungarian hamster . A laboratory experiment showed Campbell 's dwarf hamster can resist temperatures as low as − 31 @.@ 8 ° C ( − 25 @.@ 2 ° F ) , where the Djungarian hamster can withstand temperatures as low as − 44 @.@ 7 ° C ( − 48 @.@ 5 ° F ) . Campbell 's dwarf hamster reacts to lower temperatures by constantly exercising and tries to find a sheltered location , unlike the Djungarian hamster , which curls up and relies on its autonomic thermoregulation .
Campbell 's dwarf hamster has cheek pouches , which are an extension of the mouth , extending from the mouth all the way to the rear legs . Food is transferred into these pouches through the diastema . The inside of the pouch contains a large number of folds of dermal papillae . When the pouch is full , it extends and becomes part of the structure of the skin . By 11 days of age , the cheek pouches are fully grown and can carry objects up to the size of a sunflower seed . When the cheek pouches become full , they extend back to the shoulder blades , which restrict movement .
Campbell 's dwarf hamster is prone to genetic abnormalities in the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids . They can develop tumours of the mammary glands , lungs , uterus , and ovaries . Tumours can also develop if the animal is exposed to chemical carcinogens . Due to having slow locomotion and an insignificant response to bright lights and humans , as well as having a low population density , field studies allow scientists to study entire populations in the wild .
= = = Lifespan = = =
In a laboratory experiment , the average lifespan for a male Campbell 's dwarf hamster in captivity was 278 days and for a female was 356 days . In a different experiment , hamsters kept in captivity born in the summer lived for an average of 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 5 years . Young hamsters provided widely varied diets early in life are less likely to suffer digestive problems as they mature , but this is not always possible in the wild due to lack of food ; this causes the life expectancy of captive hamsters to be greater than that of wild hamsters .
= = Diet = =
As omnivores , Campbell 's dwarf hamsters eat a variety of different foods . A balanced diet for a hamster consists of 16 @-@ 24 % protein , 60 @-@ 65 % carbohydrates , and 5 – 7 % fat , with constant access to fresh water . In their natural habitats , dwarf hamsters feed almost exclusively on plant materials . In captivity , Campbell 's dwarf hamsters can get the required nutrition from commercially available food designed specifically for hamsters , which typically contain a mix of dry grains , nuts , and seeds that may be fortified with vitamins and minerals . An excess of any one particular seed or nut can lead to digestive problems , obesity , and forms nutritional deficiency .
In addition to a commercially prepared seed mix , a balanced diet for a Campbell 's dwarf hamster in captivity includes a regulated variety of fresh vegetables and fruits . Dark greens such as kale are rich in vitamins and minerals . Wild vegetables such as yarrow , chickweed , and dandelion and raspberry leaves , are also good sources of protein that helps prevent obesity .
A hamster in captivity can occasionally eat mealworms or earthworms , which have high protein contents . Boiled egg whites and small pieces of clean , cooked chicken are also sources of extra protein . They can also eat wheat grain , sunflower seeds , and locusts . The teeth of Campbell 's dwarf hamster never stop growing . Like all rodents , they must therefore gnaw regularly to keep their incisors from growing into the skin of the mouth and causing pain and irritation . Smooth , young wood from nontoxic trees , such as apple and willow , is readily used by most species in the genus . Most pet stores sell nontoxic wooden chews designed for rodents in captivity .
Certain food items commonly consumed by humans are toxic to hamsters and should be avoided completely in captivity . After they are completely weaned at around 21 days of age , Campbell 's dwarf hamsters are lactose intolerant and cannot digest milk . Onions and garlic are very dangerous and can cause severe haemolytic anemia . Leafy green vegetables such as cabbage and celery contain a large amount of water , so can have severe laxative effects on small animals . Grapes and raisins may contribute to acute renal failure , due to their high level of acidity . Chocolate and other sticky foods such peanut butter may solidify in a hamster 's cheek pouches and lead to infections , which can lead to death .
In the wild , the diets of Campbell 's dwarf hamsters vary across the population range . A total of 51 different species of plants were identified to be consumed by the Transbaikalia population , the most common being Stipa capillata and species of Allium . However , in Tuva , only 10 species of plant were identified to be consumed by the population , the most common being Potentilla . Campbell 's dwarf hamster is a natural predator of burrowing worms and grubs .
= = Breeding = =
In Tuva , the breeding season of Campbell 's dwarf hamster begins in April , and in Mongolia , it begins in at the end of April or the beginning of May . However , in all distribution ranges , it ends in late September or early October . In captivity , Campbell 's dwarf hamsters breed throughout the year , with no fixed breeding season , but a large number are born in the summer months . In the wild , three to four litters are produced each year , with an average of eight offspring per litter . In captivity , females can have between one and 18 litters per year , with one to nine offspring per litter . In captivity , the gestation period for Campbell 's dwarf hamster is between 18 and 20 days , and the shortest gestation period recorded for a captive female was 13 days . The male hamster is likely to assist the female during birth . The male may pull the offspring from the birth canal , clean them , or collect food for the mother and offspring .
When the offspring are born , they are hairless and have a body mass of approximately 1 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 053 oz ) . Incisors and claws are already formed , but the digits , eyes , and pinnae are closed and cannot be used . The rate at which the young develop differs depending on the distribution range . However , the differences are usually no longer than a day . In Tuva , the pinnae open on the first day of birth and are completely open after three days of development . However , in Mongolia , the same process occurs between two and four days of development . Fur first grows on the crown , back , and abdomen . The young are usually have a full coat of fur after seven days of development . Offspring born in captivity have a shorter development time than those born in the wild . Specifically , the growth and development of the head and body , tail , hind feet , and pinnae can be up to a day sooner than those found in the wild . After 28 days of development in captivity , the young are already around half the mass of their parents .
In captivity , females become sexually mature at two months of age . The ovarian follicle forms about 16 days prior to the birth of the offspring . After mating , female hamsters typically have larger uteri , ovaries , and adrenal glands compared to females which live alone , with other females or those that have not mated . The females and males may fight each other when getting to know their partner . Also , these females have a shorter gestation period , around four to five days .
= = = Hybrids = = =
In captivity , only Campbell 's dwarf hamsters and Djungarian hamsters are able to interbreed and produce live offspring or hybrids . Although hybrids make suitable pets , the breeding of hybrids and cloning can cause health problems , due to inherited diseases . Because genetic information can be very similar , genetic health problems or vulnerabilities can easily be inherited by the offspring . The widespread breeding and distribution of hybrids could threaten the existence of both pure species and subspecies of the ecosystem . This could ultimately lead to the extinction of the subspecies . Each litter becomes smaller as more generations are produced and the young commonly begin to inherit many congenital problems .
= = Habitat = =
Campbell 's dwarf hamsters inhabit burrows in the steppes and semideserts of central Asia , the Altai mountains , autonomous areas of Tuva , and the Hebei province in northeastern China . A burrow can contain four to six horizontal and vertical tunnels . The tunnels leading to the nesting area can be as deep as 1 m ( 3 ft 3 in ) below the ground , but are usually 20 – 30 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 11 @.@ 8 in ) deep . The burrows are lined with either dry grass or sheep 's wool . They may sometimes share burrows with Daurian pikas , but only in the steppes and semideserts of northern Manchuria . In parts of Mongolia , the hamsters may also share burrows with species of Meriones to save them from digging their own . In Tuva , Campbell 's dwarf hamsters have been found living with other hamsters , such as the Chinese striped hamster , the Roborovski hamster , and the long @-@ tailed dwarf hamster . The diets of the three types of hamsters are different to avoid fighting over the same type of food , which is why they live together .
Campbell 's dwarf hamsters may also live near areas of human civilization . In Mongolia , they may be found in yurts to keep warm during the winter , as they do not have thermoregulation like the Djungarian hamster . They have five main predators : the Eurasian eagle owl , the steppe eagle , the corsac fox , the common kestrel , and the saker falcon . All distribution areas have more females than males , because males are at higher risk from predators , as they cannot move as quickly .
= = Status and conservation = =
This hamster is listed as of Least Concern by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . The population and distribution size are large , and no major or widespread threats to the species are known . However , the increasing number of livestock in the areas of distribution , such as the steppes of central Asia , some burrows are at a small risk of being destroyed . In arid areas of distribution , the reduction in the amount of water sources is also a minor concern . These hamsters are conserved in protected areas .
= Battle of Concepción =
The Battle of Concepción was fought on October 28 , 1835 , between Mexican troops under Colonel Domingo Ugartechea and Texian insurgents led by James Bowie and James Fannin . The 30 @-@ minute engagement , which historian J. R. Edmondson describes as " the first major engagement of the Texas Revolution " , occurred on the grounds of Mission Concepción , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of what is now Downtown San Antonio in the U.S. state of Texas .
On October 13 , the newly created Texian Army under Stephen F. Austin had marched towards Bexar , where General Martín Perfecto de Cos commanded the remaining Mexican soldiers in Texas . On October 27 , Austin sent Bowie and Fannin , with 90 soldiers , to find a defensible spot near Bexar for the Texian Army to rest . After choosing a site near Mission Concepción , the scouting party camped for the night and sent a courier to notify Austin . After learning that the Texian Army was divided , Cos sent Ugartechea with 275 soldiers to attack the Texians camped at Concepción . The Texians took cover in a horseshoe @-@ shaped gully ; their good defensive position , longer firing range , and better ammunition helped them to repel several Mexican attacks , and the Mexican soldiers retreated just 30 minutes before the remainder of the Texian Army arrived . Historians estimate that between 14 and 76 Mexican soldiers were killed , while only one Texian soldier died .
= = Background = =
The newly organized Texian Army , determined to put a decisive end to Mexican control over Texas , began marching towards San Antonio de Bexar on October 13 , 1835 . Days earlier , General Martín Perfecto de Cos , brother @-@ in @-@ law of the Mexican president , had arrived in Bexar to take command of all the Mexican forces in Texas . By October 20 the Texians — led by Stephen F. Austin , the first empresario to bring English @-@ speaking settlers to Texas — had reached Salado Creek and initiated a siege of Béxar . To keep the Texians from examining Mexican defensive measures , Mexican troops attempted to restrict access to and from the city . Despite those efforts , several people were able to leave their homes and join the Texians . Among those was James Bowie , who was well known for his fighting prowess ; stories of his exploits in the Sandbar Fight and his search for the lost San Saba mine had been widely reported .
On October 22 , Austin named Bowie a colonel and gave him joint command of the 1st Battalion with Captain James W. Fannin . Before nightfall the 1st Battalion began a reconnaissance mission to evaluate the former missions around San Antonio as potential campsites . Locals familiar with the area , Juan Seguín and his Texians , would guide the men along the river . After investigating three of the missions , Bowie and Fannin selected Mission San Francisco de la Espada as the most promising campsite . The rest of the Texian Army joined them there early on October 27 . Eager to move closer to Bexar , Austin immediately sent Bowie and Fannin to find a good defensive spot for the army to rest that night .
= = Prelude = =
Bowie and Fannin were accompanied by ninety soldiers , divided into four companies led by Captains Andrew Briscoe , Robert Coleman , Michael Goheen , and Valentine Bennet . The group took a northerly route , following the San Antonio River past Missions San Juan and San José . Along the way they encountered a small party of Mexican scouts , who retreated to Bexar after a brief skirmish .
Approximately 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from San Antonio de Bexar and 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from the Texian camp at Espada , the Texian scouting party stopped at Mission Concepción . Five hundred yards ( 460 m ) west of the mission , the San Antonio River curved in a small horseshoe shape , with the two sides of the river 's curve approximately 100 yards ( 91 m ) apart . According to historian Alwyn Barr , " trees shaded both sides of the broad riverbottom which lay about six feet below the level of the rolling praire [ sic ? ] nearby " . Rather than return immediately to Austin , as their orders specified , Bowie and Fannin instead sent a courier to bring Austin directions to Concepción . The next day , an angry Austin issued a statement threatening officers who chose not to follow orders with court @-@ martial .
The Texian scouting party divided into two camps . Fannin supervised 49 men at the south part of the horseshoe bend , while Bowie and the remaining men camped at the northern part of the bend . Any Mexican force coming from the north would be caught in their cross @-@ fire . Pickets were stationed around the area and in the mission tower , which offered greater visibility . As they settled down for the evening , the Texians were surprised to see a Mexican cannonball , fired from one of the church towers in Bexar , hit just beyond their camp . Many of the Texian soldiers believed that a priest from the mission had informed the Mexican Army of their position .
= = Battle = =
Hoping to neutralize the Texian force at Concepción before the remainder of the Texian Army arrived , Cos ordered Colonel Domingo Ugartechea to lead an early @-@ morning assault on October 28 . At 6 : 00 a.m. , Ugartechea left Bexar with 275 Mexican soldiers and 2 cannons . Heavy fog delayed their approach , and the Mexican soldiers did not reach Concepción until 7 : 30 or 8 : 00 a.m. A Mexican cavalry scout fired at Texian picket Henry Karnes ; after returning fire , Karnes ran back to his company , frustrated because , as he put it , " Boys , the scoundrels have shot off my powder horn " . The Texians took refuge in the gully , firing from its edge before dropping the 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) down to the river level to reload . As the remaining Texian sentries hurried to join the main body of Texian soldiers , Pen Jarvis was struck by a Mexican bullet and fell down the river bank . The bullet hit a knife Jarvis had slipped through the front of his belt , and he suffered only bruises .
The Texian position was surrounded by trees , leaving the Mexican cavalry no room to maneuver . The 200 members of the cavalry remained on the west bank of the river , behind the Texians , to foil any escape attempts . Lieutenant Colonel José Maria Mendosa brought the Mexican infantry and artillery across the river to a position below that of the Texians . In response , Texians trimmed undergrowth near their camp to provide better visibility and dug steps into the embankment so that they could more easily climb up to fire . The two sides skirmished desultorily for two hours , until the fog began to lift . At that point , 50 – 60 Mexican infantrymen crossed the prairie to surround the Texians . Seeing their approach , Bowie shouted to his Texian forces , " Keep under cover , boys , and reserve your fire ; we haven 't a man to spare ! " At 300 yards ( 270 m ) from the Texian position , the Mexican infantry halted and formed a line with the cannon in the middle . They began firing as they advanced toward the Texian positions , to little effect . For the most part , the Mexican volleys passed over the heads of the Texians . According to Texian Noah Smithwick , " grapeshot and canister thrashed through the pecan trees overhead , raining a shower of ripe nuts down on us , and I saw men picking them up and eating them with as little concern as if they were being shaken down by a norther . " In his official report to Austin , Bowie remarked that " The discharge from the enemy was one continued blaze of fire , whilst that from our lines , was more slowly delivered , but with good aim and deadly effect . " The Mexican infantry were assigned Brown Bess muskets , which had a maximum range of only 70 yards ( 64 m ) , compared to the 200 @-@ yard ( 180 m ) effective range of the Texian long rifles . The Texians were short of ammunition , however , and although Mexican ammunition was plentiful , it was poor quality . In several cases , Mexican musket balls bounced off Texian soldiers , causing little damage other than a bruise .
When Mexican officers ordered a charge on the south bend held by Fannin , Bowie sent Coleman 's company to help . Most of the Texian reinforcements maneuvered to their new position from below the river bank , but several rose from cover and dashed across the prairie . One of them , Richard Andrews , was hit in the side with
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grapeshot and died several hours after the battle .
As the reinforcements reached the southern part of the horseshoe , the Mexican infantry fell back , leaving the cannon within 100 yards ( 91 m ) of the Texians . Texians redirected their fire to the cannoneers . After three different sets of gunners were killed or wounded , the cannons were abandoned . The Mexican infantry attempted three attacks ; all were repulsed . As the Mexican buglers called for a retreat , the infantry fell back beyond Texian rifle range . The Mexican cavalry was sent to retrieve wounded men and the cannon . As the cavalry approached , Bowie led a charge onto the prairie . The Texians quickly captured the cannon and turned it on the fleeing Mexican soldiers . Grapeshot killed one of the mule drivers , causing his caisson to go out of control and " careen [ ... ] through the shattered Mexican ranks " . The battle had lasted only 30 minutes .
= = Aftermath = =
Austin had intended to reunite the two parts of his army early on October 28 , but the group camping at Mission Espada had delayed their departure to unsuccessfully pursue a company that had deserted . Lieutenant Colonel William Barret Travis and his company of cavalry rode ahead of the main body of the army . When they reached Concepción , the Mexican Army was still visible in the distance . The small band of Texian cavalry pursued but the Mexican soldiers reached Bexar safely .
Less than 30 minutes after the battle ended , the rest of the Texian Army arrived . Austin felt that the Mexican morale must be low after their defeat and wanted to proceed immediately to Bexar . Bowie and other officers refused , as they believed Bexar was too heavily fortified . The Texians searched the area for any Mexican equipment which had been abandoned during the retreat . They found several boxes of cartridges . Complaining that the Mexican powder was " little better than pounded charcoal " , the Texians emptied the cartridges but kept the bullets .
That evening , Austin allowed a local priest and men from Bexar to retrieve the bodies of the Mexican soldiers who had died in battle . Barr estimated that at least 14 Mexican soldiers were killed , with an additional 39 wounded , several of whom died later . Timothy Todish et al . , in their book The Alamo Sourcebook , estimated that 60 Mexican soldiers were killed , while historian Stephen Hardin claimed that 76 Mexican soldiers died . The only Texian to die in battle was Andrews , and Jarvis was the only Texian classified as wounded .
This battle , which historian J. R. Edmondson describes as " the first major engagement of the Texas Revolution " , was the last offensive against the Texians that Cos would order . Barr attributed the Texian victory to " able leadership , a strong position , and greater firepower " . The Mexican cavalry was unable to fight effectively in the wooded , riverbottom terrain , and the weapons of the Mexican infantry had a much lower range than that of the Texians . Although Barr continues that the battle " should have taught ... lessons on Mexican courage and the value of a good defensive position " , Hardin believes that " the relative ease of the victory at Concepción instilled in the Texians a reliance on their long rifles and a contempt for their enemies " . A soldier who later served under Fannin complained that Fannin 's " former experience in fighting Mexicans [ at Concepción ] had led him to neglect to take such precautionary measures as were requisite " , which may have contributed to his defeat at the Battle of Coleto in March 1836 .
= The Usual Suspects =
The Usual Suspects is a 1995 American neo @-@ noir mystery crime thriller film directed by Bryan Singer and written by Christopher McQuarrie . It stars Stephen Baldwin , Gabriel Byrne , Benicio del Toro , Kevin Pollak , Chazz Palminteri , Pete Postlethwaite and Kevin Spacey .
The film follows the interrogation of Roger " Verbal " Kint , a small @-@ time con man who is one of only two survivors of a massacre and fire on a ship docked at the Port of Los Angeles . He tells an interrogator a convoluted story about events that led him and his partners in crime to the boat , and about a mysterious mob boss known as Keyser Söze who commissioned their work . Using flashback and narration , Kint 's story becomes increasingly complex .
The film , shot on a $ 6 million budget , began as a title taken from a column in Spy magazine called The Usual Suspects , after one of Claude Rains ' most memorable lines in the classic film Casablanca . Singer thought it would make a good title for a film , the poster for which he and McQuarrie had developed as the first visual idea .
The film was shown out of competition at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival , and then initially released in a few theaters . It received favorable reviews , and was eventually given a wider release . McQuarrie won an Academy Award for Best Writing ( Original Screenplay ) and Spacey won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance . The Writer 's Guild of America ranks the film as having the 35th greatest screenplay of all time . It is now remembered for having one of the most definitive and popular plot twists in cinematic history .
= = Plot = =
The film opens with criminal Dean Keaton lying badly wounded on a ship docked in the San Pedro Bay . He is confronted by a mysterious figure whom he calls " Keyser " , who shoots him dead and sets fire to the ship ,
The bloodbath on the ship leaves only two survivors : Arkosh Kovash , a Hungarian mobster hospitalized with severe burns ; and Roger " Verbal " Kint , a con artist with cerebral palsy . Customs agent Dave Kujan flies in from New York City to interrogate Verbal , who describes in flashback the events that led him and four other criminals - Keaton , Michael McManus , Fred Fenster and Todd Hockney - onto the ship .
Verbal explains that , six weeks earlier in New York , he and the other criminals were arrested on a trumped @-@ up hijacking charge , and decided to pull another heist to get back at the police . Led by Keaton , a former corrupt policeman , they robbed a group of corrupt cops who transported smugglers in a police convoy . They then went to California to fence the stolen jewels with a criminal named Redfoot . Redfoot turned them on to another jewel heist , but the quarry turned out to be heroin , and the five had to shoot their way out . Soon after , a lawyer named Kobayashi contacted them and told them that Keyser Söze , a Turkish crime lord with a mythical reputation from whom all of the thieves had unwittingly stolen , had offered them a job : invade a ship manned by a gang of Argentinian drug dealers with whom Söze was competing and destroy the $ 91 million worth of cocaine that they were transporting .
When Kujan learns of Söze from FBI agent Jack Baer , he questions Verbal about him . Verbal tells Kujan an underworld legend about Söze : that he had murdered his own family after they had been attacked by a gang of Hungarian criminals , and then massacred the Hungarians and everyone they held dear . He then went underground , never to be seen again , and did business only through underlings who did not know for whom they were working . He became a fearsome urban legend , " a spook story that criminals tell their kids at night " .
Verbal goes on to explain that , after Fenster had bailed on the group , Kobayashi gave them a location at which to find their compatriot 's dead body . They tried to kill Kobayashi , but he strong @-@ armed them into performing the heist by threatening their loved ones . They staked out the ship and killed several Argentinian and Hungarian gangsters , but found no drugs on board . McManus , Hockney and a man locked aboard the ship were killed by an unseen person , who also killed Keaton and set the ship on fire as Verbal looked on .
Verbal concludes his story , but Kujan does not believe it . He insists that Keaton must be Söze , as one of the murder victims on the boat was Arturo Marquez , a drug dealer who escaped prosecution by claiming he could identify Söze — and who was represented by Edie Finneran , Keaton 's lawyer and girlfriend . Kujan claims that the Argentinians were selling Marquez to Söze 's Hungarian rivals and Keaton used the heist as a distraction to let him kill Marquez . Kujan also informs Verbal that Finneran has been murdered . Verbal says that the entire plan was Keaton 's idea , but refuses to testify in court . Verbal 's bond is posted and he is released .
Moments later , Kujan realizes that Verbal 's entire story was a lie , pieced together from details on a crowded bulletin board in his office . Meanwhile , Verbal walks outside , gradually dropping his limp and flexing his supposedly withered hand . As Kujan runs after Verbal , a fax comes in from California : a police sketch artist 's rendering of Söze , dictated by Kovaz , that looks exactly like Verbal . Kujan misses Verbal by moments , as the latter disappears into a car driven by " Kobayashi " .
= = Cast = =
Stephen Baldwin as Michael McManus . The actor was tired of doing independent films where his expectations were not met ; when he met with director Bryan Singer , he went into a 15 @-@ minute tirade telling him what it was like to work with him . After Baldwin was finished , Singer told him exactly what he expected and wanted , which impressed the actor .
Gabriel Byrne as Dean Keaton . Kevin Spacey met Byrne at a party and asked him to do the film . He read the screenplay and turned it down , thinking that the filmmakers could not pull it off . Byrne met screenwriter Christopher McQuarrie and Singer and was impressed by the latter 's vision for the film . However , Byrne was also dealing with some personal problems at the time and backed out for 24 hours until the filmmakers agreed to shoot the film in Los Angeles , where the actor lived , and make it in five weeks .
Benicio del Toro as Fred Fenster . Spacey suggested del Toro for the role . The character was originally written with a Harry Dean Stanton @-@ type actor in mind . Del Toro met with Singer and the film 's casting director and told them that he did not want to audition because he did not feel comfortable doing them .
Kevin Pollak as Todd Hockney . He met with Singer about doing the film , but when he heard that two other actors were auditioning for the role , he came back , auditioned , and got it .
Kevin Spacey as Roger " Verbal " Kint . Singer and McQuarrie sent the screenplay for the film to the actor without telling him which role was written for him . Spacey called Singer and told them that he was interested in the roles of Keaton and Kujan but was also intrigued by Kint who , as it turned out , was the role McQuarrie wrote with the actor in mind .
Chazz Palminteri as U.S. Customs Special Agent Dave Kujan . Singer had always wanted the actor for the film , but he was always unavailable . The role was offered to Christopher Walken and Robert De Niro , both of whom turned it down . The filmmakers even had Al Pacino come in and read for the part , but he decided not to do it because he had just played a cop in Heat . Palminteri became available , but only for a week . When he signed on , this persuaded the film 's financial backers to support the film fully because he was a sufficiently high @-@ profile star , thanks to the recent release of A Bronx Tale and Bullets Over Broadway .
Pete Postlethwaite as Mr. Kobayashi , Söze 's right @-@ hand man .
Suzy Amis as Edie Finneran , an influential criminal lawyer and Keaton 's girlfriend .
Giancarlo Esposito as FBI Special Agent Jack Baer ; investigates the boat explosion on the pier .
Dan Hedaya as Sergeant Jeffrey " Jeff " Rabin ; assists in Kujan 's interrogation of Verbal
Peter Greene ( uncredited ) as Redfoot the Fence ; he not only sets up a job for the five criminals in Los Angeles , but also puts them in touch with Kobayashi .
= = Production = =
= = = Origins = = =
Bryan Singer met Kevin Spacey at a party after a screening of the young filmmaker 's first film , Public Access , at the 1993 Sundance Film Festival . Spacey had been encouraged by a number of people he knew who had seen it , and was so impressed that he told Singer and McQuarrie that he wanted to be in whatever film they did next . Singer read a column in Spy magazine called " The Usual Suspects " after Claude Rains ' line in Casablanca . Singer thought that it would be a good title for a film . When asked by a reporter at Sundance what their next film was about , McQuarrie replied , " I guess it 's about a bunch of criminals who meet in a police line @-@ up , " which incidentally was the first visual idea that he and Singer had for the poster : " five guys who meet in a line @-@ up , " Singer remembers . The director also envisioned a tagline for the poster , " All of you can go to Hell . " Singer then asked the question , " What would possibly bring these five felons together in one line @-@ up ? " McQuarrie revamped an idea from one of his own unpublished screenplays — the story of a man who murders his own family and disappears . The writer mixed this with the idea of a team of criminals .
Söze 's character is based on John List , a New Jersey accountant who murdered his family in 1971 and then disappeared for almost two decades , assuming a new identity before he was ultimately apprehended . McQuarrie based the name of Keyser Söze on one of his previous supervisors , Kayser Sume , at a Los Angeles law firm that he worked for , but decided to change the last name because he thought that his former boss would object to how it was used . He found the word söze in his roommate 's English @-@ to @-@ Turkish dictionary , which translates as " talk too much " . All the characters ' names are taken from staff members of the law firm at the time of his employment . McQuarrie had also worked for a detective agency , and this influenced the depiction of criminals and law enforcement officials in the script .
Singer described the film as Double Indemnity meets Rashomon , and said that it was made " so you can go back and see all sorts of things you didn 't realize were there the first time . You can get it a second time in a way you never could have the first time around . " He also compared the film 's structure to Citizen Kane ( which also contained an interrogator and a subject who is telling a story ) and the criminal caper The Anderson Tapes .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
McQuarrie wrote nine drafts of his screenplay over five months , until Singer felt that it was ready to shop around to the studios . None were interested except for a European financing company . McQuarrie and Singer had a difficult time getting the film made because of the non @-@ linear story , the large amount of dialogue and the lack of cast attached to the project . Financiers wanted established stars , and offers for the small role of Redfoot ( the L.A. fence who hooks up the five protagonists with Kobayashi ) went out to Christopher Walken , Tommy Lee Jones , Jeff Bridges , Charlie Sheen , James Spader , Al Pacino and Johnny Cash . However , the European money allowed the film 's producers to make offers to actors and assemble a cast . They were only able to offer the actors salaries that were well below their usual pay , but they agreed because of the quality of McQuarrie 's script and the chance to work with each other . That money fell through , however , and Singer used the script and the cast to attract PolyGram to pick up the film negative .
About casting , Singer said , " You pick people not for what they are , but what you imagine they can turn into . " To research his role , Spacey met doctors and experts on cerebral palsy and talked with Singer about how it would fit dramatically in the film . They decided that it would affect only one side of his body . According to Byrne , the cast bonded quickly during rehearsals . Del Toro worked with Alan Shaterian to develop Fenster 's distinctive , almost unintelligible speech patterns . According to the actor , the source of his character 's unusual speech patterns came from the realization that " the purpose of my character was to die . " Del Toro told Singer , " It really doesn 't matter what I say so I can go really far out with this and really make it uncomprehensible . "
= = = Filming = = =
The budget was set at $ 5 @.@ 5 million , and the film was shot in 35 days in Los Angeles , San Pedro and New York City . Spacey said that they shot the interrogation scenes with Palminteri over a span of five to six days . These scenes were also shot before the rest of the film . The police lineup scene ran into scheduling conflicts because the actors kept blowing their lines . Screenwriter Christopher McQuarrie would feed the actors questions off @-@ camera and they improvised their lines . When Stephen Baldwin gave his answer , he made the other actors break character . Byrne remembers that they were often laughing between takes and " when they said , ' Action ! ' , we 'd barely be able to keep it together . " Spacey also said that the hardest part was not laughing through takes , with Baldwin and Pollak being the worst culprits . Their goal was to get the usually serious Byrne to crack up . They spent all morning trying unsuccessfully to film the scene . At lunch a frustrated Singer angrily scolded the five actors , but when they resumed the cast continued to laugh through each take . Byrne remembers , " Finally , Bryan just used one of the takes where we couldn 't stay serious . " Singer and editor John Ottman used a combination of takes and kept the humor in to show the characters bonding with one another .
While Del Toro told Singer how he was going to portray Fenster , he did not tell his cast members , and in their first scene together none of them understood what Del Toro was saying . Byrne confronted Singer and the director told him that for the lockup scene , " If you don 't understand what he 's saying maybe it 's time we let the audience know that they don 't need to know what he 's saying . " This led to the inclusion of Kevin Pollak 's improvised line , " What did you say ? "
The stolen emeralds were real gemstones on loan for the film .
Singer spent an 18 @-@ hour day shooting the underground parking garage robbery . According to Byrne , by the next day Singer still did not have all of the footage that he wanted , and refused to stop filming in spite of the bonding company 's threat to shut down the production .
In the scene in which the crew meets Redfoot after the botched drug deal , Redfoot flicks his cigarette at McManus ' face . The scene was originally to have Redfoot flick the cigarette at McManus 's chest , but the actor missed and hit Baldwin 's face by accident . Baldwin 's reaction is genuine .
Despite enclosed practical locations and a short shooting schedule , cinematographer Newton Thomas Sigel " developed a way of shooting dialogue scenes with a combination of slow , creeping zooms and dolly moves that ended in tight close @-@ ups , " to add subtle energy to scenes . " This style combined dolly movement with " imperceptible zooms " so that you ’ d always have a sense of motion in a limited space . "
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
During the editing phase , Singer thought that they had completed the film two weeks early , but woke up one morning and realized that they needed that time to put together a sequence that convinced the audience that Dean Keaton was Söze — and then do the same for Verbal Kint because the film did not have " the punch that Chris had written so beautifully . " According to Ottman , he assembled the footage as a montage but it still did not work until he added an overlapping voice @-@ over montage featuring key dialogue from several characters and had it relate to the images . Early on , executives at Gramercy had problems pronouncing the name Keyser Söze and were worried that audiences would have the same problem . The studio decided to promote the character 's name . Two weeks before the film debuted in theaters , " Who is Keyser Söze ? " posters appeared at bus stops , and TV spots told people how to say the character 's name . Despite these efforts , all the actors in the film consistently mispronounce his name as " Soze " instead of " Söze " .
Singer wanted the music for the boat heist to resemble Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky 's Piano Concerto No. 1 . The ending 's music was based on a k.d. lang song .
= = Release = =
Gramercy ran a pre @-@ release promotion and advertising campaign before The Usual Suspects opened in the summer of 1995 . Word of mouth marketing was used to advertise the film , and buses and billboards were plastered with the simple question , " Who is Keyser Söze ? "
The film was shown out of competition at the 1995 Cannes Film Festival and was well received by audiences and critics . The film was then given an exclusive run in Los Angeles , where it took a combined $ 83 @,@ 513 , and New York City , where it made $ 132 @,@ 294 on three screens in its opening weekend . The film was then released in 42 theaters where it earned $ 645 @,@ 363 on its opening weekend . It averaged a strong $ 4 @,@ 181 per screen at 517 theaters and the following week added 300 locations . It eventually made $ 23 @.@ 3 million in North America .
= = Reception = =
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film received a rating of 88 % , based on 69 reviews , with an average rating of 7 @.@ 8 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads , " Expertly shot and edited , The Usual Suspects gives the audience a simple plot and then piles on layers of deceit , twists , and violence before pulling out the rug from underneath . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 77 out of 100 , based on 22 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Roger Ebert , in a review for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , gave the film one and a half stars out of four , considering it confusing and uninteresting . He also included the film in his " most hated films " list . USA Today rated the film two and a half stars out of four , calling it " one of the most densely plotted mysteries in memory — though paradoxically , four @-@ fifths of it is way too easy to predict . " However , Rolling Stone praised Spacey , saying his " balls @-@ out brilliant performance is Oscar bait all the way . " In his review for The Washington Post , Hal Hinson wrote , " Ultimately , The Usual Suspects may be too clever for its own good . The twist at the end is a corker , but crucial questions remain unanswered . What 's interesting , though , is how little this intrudes on our enjoyment . After the movie you 're still trying to connect the dots and make it all fit — and these days , how often can we say that ? "
In her review for The New York Times , Janet Maslin praised the performances of the cast : " Mr. Singer has assembled a fine ensemble cast of actors who can parry such lines , and whose performances mesh effortlessly despite their exaggerated differences in demeanor ... Without the violence or obvious bravado of Reservoir Dogs , these performers still create strong and fascinatingly ambiguous characters . " The Independent praised the film 's ending : " The film 's coup de grace is as elegant as it is unexpected . The whole movie plays back in your mind in perfect clarity — and turns out to be a completely different movie to the one you 've been watching ( rather better , in fact ) . "
= = = Accolades = = =
McQuarrie was nominated for the Best Original Screenplay and Kevin Spacey was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at the Academy Awards . They both won , and in his acceptance speech Spacey memorably said , " Well , whoever Keyser Söze is , I can tell you he 's gonna get gloriously drunk tonight . "
The film was nominated as the best film at the 1996 British Academy Film Awards ( BAFTA awards ) . McQuarrie won the BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay , and John Ottman won the BAFTA Award for Best Editing . The film was nominated for three Independent Spirit Awards — Best Supporting Actor for Benicio del Toro , Best Screenplay for Christopher McQuarrie and Best Cinematography for Newton Thomas Sigel . Both Del Toro and McQuarrie won in their categories .
Bryan Singer won the Best Debut award at the 1st Empire Awards .
The Usual Suspects was screened at the 1995 Seattle International Film Festival , where Bryan Singer was awarded Best Director and Kevin Spacey won for Best Actor . The Boston Society of Film Critics gave Spacey the Best Supporting Actor award for his work on the film . Spacey went on to win this award with the New York Film Critics Circle and the National Board of Review , which also gave the cast an ensemble acting award .
= = = Legacy = = =
On June 17 , 2008 , the American Film Institute revealed its " AFI 's 10 Top 10 " — the best ten films in ten " classic " American film genres — after polling over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community . The Usual Suspects was acknowledged as the tenth @-@ best mystery film . Verbal Kint was voted the # 48 villain in " AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains " in June 2003 .
Entertainment Weekly cited the film as one of the " 13 must @-@ see heist movies " . Empire ranked Keyser Söze # 69 in their " The 100 Greatest Movie Characters " poll .
In 2013 , the Writers Guild of America ranked the screenplay # 35 on its list of 101 Greatest Screenplays ever written .
American Film Institute Lists :
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Keyser Söze / Verbal Kint — # 48 Villain
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" The greatest trick the Devil ever pulled was convincing the world he didn 't exist . " — Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) — Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 : # 10 Mystery Film ( also Nominated Gangster Film )
= Rukia Kuchiki =
Rukia Kuchiki ( Japanese : 朽木 ルキア , Hepburn : Kuchiki Rukia ) is a fictional character in the anime and manga series Bleach created by Tite Kubo . In the series , Rukia Kuchiki is a Soul Reaper in charge of slaying evil spirits known as Hollows . At the beginning , after a brief meeting with the protagonist of the series , Ichigo Kurosaki , who can see supernatural beings such as Soul Reapers , she is forced to give him her powers in order to fulfill her duties as a Soul Reaper . Rukia has appeared in several other pieces of Bleach media , including the four featured films in the series , the two original video animations , and several video games .
Rukia was the first character of the series created by Kubo , her design being the one he decided to use for all the other Soul Reapers . Reaction to her character is generally positive . Her differences from typical shōnen heroines is praised , as is her interaction with other characters . Additionally , she usually ranks second in Weekly Shōnen Jump 's Bleach popularity polls , and is consistently the most popular female character in those polls . Several pieces of merchandise have been released in Rukia 's likeness , including a plush doll and several figurines .
= = Creation and conception = =
Bleach was first conceived from Tite Kubo 's desire to draw a shinigami in a kimono , which formed the basis for the design of the Soul Reapers . Because of this , Kuchiki was one of the first characters of the series to be created . Before deciding that every Soul Reaper had swords , Kubo thought that they all should use guns , while only Rukia used a scythe . However , this was changed as he created the Soul Reaper kimono . Kubo also mentioned that Rukia did not seem like a lead character , so he created Ichigo Kurosaki to be the series protagonist . Ichigo 's initial design had black hair like Rukia ; Kubo had to modify Ichigo 's appearance to contrast with hers , giving Ichigo orange hair and a trademark scowl .
As for her name , Kubo stated that , because Kuchiki " looks like a shinigami " , he wanted her name to sound like a something a shinigami would have as a name . When deciding upon her family name he considered using " Kuchiru " ( 朽ちる , lit . " to rot " ) because it sounded like a name a shinigami would have , and then decided to use " Kuchiki " ( 朽木 , lit . " rotten wood " ) . He adds that he once heard something that sounded like " Kuchiki Rukia " on Japanese television , and liked it enough to use it as a name . Her first name was conceived as a result of Kubo hearing the Latin name for cosmos on television , and later decided that the name really suited her since the Latin word from which her name is derived means " light " and Kubo sees her as " a ray of light for Ichigo . " Shonen Jump asked in an interview if Kubo had any plans to make Ichigo and Rukia a couple , but Kubo chose neither to confirm nor deny it . After designing Rukia 's zanpakutō , Kubo noted he liked it a lot and made it to be the most beautiful one from the series .
When Kubo was asked to make a cover with a female character during Christmas , Kubo initially thought of using Rukia ; he later changed to use Orihime Inoue as he thought Orihime was more suitable for such role . However , Kubo commented he previously made a Christmas illustration with Rukia , and that he received request by several fans wanting to see the image . In contrast to this , Kubo has found he liked Rukia more in the illustrations in which her face expresses pain such as when she is going to be executed in the manga .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Bleach = = =
Kuchiki first meets Ichigo Kurosaki in the midst of a hollow attack . After she is heavily injured by the hollow , Rukia is forced to transfer her Soul Reaper powers to Kurosaki so that he can kill the hollow and save their lives and his family . While he succeeds , Kuchiki is left too weak to return to Soul Society , and lives with Ichigo in the human world , intending to stay until her powers are restored . Therefore , her only ability then is her kidō spells , which are severely limited in strength and variety . She uses her kidō for such purposes as restraining , healing , or attacking others . Because of the amount of time she spends with Kurosaki , Kuchiki has been able to gain a keen understanding of his inner workings . Rukia 's relationship with Ichigo is unique , for despite the relatively short amount of time they have known each other , Ichigo can easily confide in her and considers her a true friend because she is encouraging and understands what he is feeling . During her time in the human world , Rukia remains unaccounted for in Soul Society , so Byakuya Kuchiki and Renji Abarai are sent to find her and return her to the Soul Society . They succeed , and upon their return Rukia is sentenced to death for giving her Soul Reaper powers to a human . Kurosaki ultimately arrives in Soul Society in time to stop her execution , and tries to get her to safety .
During the arc , Rukia 's past is explored . She died as an infant and was sent to Soul Society with her older sister , Hisana . Though Hisana initially tried to protect and provide for Rukia , she could not ensure her own survival while caring for a baby as well , and thus abandoned Rukia . As Rukia grew up , she befriended Renji Abarai , and entered the Soul Reaper academy , where she was adopted into the Kuchiki family . One year prior to the adoption , Hisana died after asking her husband , Byakuya Kuchiki , to find and adopt Rukia as his sister . This remains unknown to Rukia until Byakuya confesses it to her . When she was accepted into the 13th Division , Rukia befriended the lieutenant of her division , Kaien Shiba , and trained under him . During the course of a mission Kaien was possessed by a hollow and Rukia killed Kaien to protect herself .
During Rukia 's bid for freedom , she is stopped by Sōsuke Aizen and his accomplices . Aizen , having singlehandedly orchestrated Rukia 's execution , reveals to her that within her soul is stored the Hōgyoku ( " breakdown sphere " ) , a powerful artifact created and placed there by Kisuke Urahara that gives hollows Soul Reaper powers and vice versa . Wanting the Hōgyoku for himself , Aizen hoped that her death would give him access to it , but settles for a nonfatal alternative . The Hōgyoku is removed from her body , Aizen and his men flee Soul Society , and Rukia is acquitted of all charges . With the Hōgyoku , Aizen is able to create an army of arrancar , which he uses to attack Ichigo and his friends once they return to the human world . Rukia and a group of other Soul Reapers are sent to assist in fighting the arrancar , though after Aizen captures Orihime Inoue they are recalled to Soul Society . Rukia 's zanpakutō , Sode no Shirayuki ( 袖白雪 , literally " Sleeved white snow " ) , is also revealed as a completely white blade , earning it the recognition as the most beautiful zanpakutō in Soul Society . Sode no Shirayuki utilizes ice to attack , each of its abilities being labeled as " dances " by Rukia . During the anime 's 13th season , Sode no Shirayuki manifests in a yukionna @-@ like form , voiced by Mie Sonozaki .
Unwilling to give up Orihime to Aizen , Rukia goes to Hueco Mundo with Ichigo to rescue her . While there , Rukia encounters the Espada , Aaroniero Arruruerie , who is revealed to have possession of Kaien 's body . Saddened that she had not saved her mentor from the control of a hollow as she had previously thought , Rukia manages to kill Aaroniero . Rukia is badly injured during the battle , and it is not until Soul Society sends reinforcements to Hueco Mundo that she is revived and her wounds are healed . She later assists Ichigo in his rescue to save Orihime from the Espada Ulquiorra Cifer by engaging the remaining Arrancars until requiring support . Following Aizen 's defeat and the loss of Ichigo 's Soul Reaper powers , Rukia and Ichigo bid one another farewell as Ichigo loses the ability to sense Rukia 's presence .
Seventeen months later , Rukia , now lieutenant of Squad 13 , returns to aid in restoring Ichigo 's Soul Reaper powers before engaging the Fullbringer Riruka Dokugamine . When the Soul Society is abruptly invaded by the Wandenreich , an organization made up of Quincy who has survived their genocide one thousand years before , Rukia senses Byakuya being left near dead by Äs Nodt and is knocked out before she can come to her brother 's aid . Rukia is taken to the Royal Dimension so she could be healed , and is then taught by Ichibei Hyosube to achieve her bankai , Hakka no Togame ( 白霞罸 , literally " Censure of the white haze " ) . Returning to the Soul Society when the Wandenreich resume their attack , Rukia utilizes her newly acquired bankai to finally kill Äs Nodt .
= = = In other media = = =
Rukia has made several appearances outside of the Bleach anime and manga . She appears in all of the featured films in the series : she fights the Dark Ones with other Soul Reaper comrades in Bleach : Memories of Nobody and aids in the search for Tōshirō Hitsugaya in Bleach : The DiamondDust Rebellion . Rukia is also given the main focus role in the third movie , Bleach : Fade to Black where she is kidnapped and mind @-@ wiped by two mysterious rogues , and later transformed into ' Dark Rukia ' . In the fourth movie , Bleach : Hell Verse , Rukia helps Ichigo in rescuing his sister Yuzu from the depths of Hell . She is also present in both of the original video animations produced in the series , helping Ichigo in Memories in the Rain and combating the rogue Soul Reaper Baishin in The Sealed Sword Frenzy . In Rock Musical Bleach , a musical based on the Bleach series , she is played by Miki Satō . In the Bleach video games , Rukia is a playable character in every game , including the Heat the Soul and Blade Battlers series . In some games , her human form and Soul Reaper state are available as separate characters , while Dark Rukia is playable in Heat the Soul 6 and Heat the Soul 7 .
= = Reception = =
Rukia has ranked highly in the Weekly Shōnen Jump popularity polls for the series , placing in the top five most popular characters in all four polls . She was ranked as the second most popular character after Ichigo in the first two polls , and fell to third place in the third poll , being replaced by Tōshirō Hitsugaya . In early 2008 , she was voted the second most popular character in Bleach , receiving 383 votes less than the front runner , Tōshirō Hitsugaya . Her zanpakutō , Sode no Shirayuki , ranked 2nd in the zanpakutō popularity poll of the series . In 2009 , Rukia ranked 4th in a survey of the Japanese music distributor Recochoku titled " The Character I Want to Be My Bride " . In a 2007 character poll from the Japanese magazine Newtype magazine character polls , Rukia has been featured as one of the most popular female characters from any anime . She has also appeared twice in the Anime Grand Prix polls , ranking as one of the most popular female anime characters . NTT customers voted her as their eighth favorite black haired female anime character .
Merchandise based on Rukia 's appearance has been released , including a key chain , a plush doll , and a figurine . Fumiko Orikasa , Rukia 's Japanese voice actor , liked how Rukia was developed while fighting against the arrancar , noting her to be a hero during her introductions . However , she was saddened by how after Rukia defeats the first arrancar , ( Di Roy Rinker ) she is instantly stabbed by the arrancar Grimmjow . Michelle Ruff , Rukia 's English voice actress , found Rukia to be a " survivor " , due to how lonely she initially was and how she has been developed through the anime series as she had to start trusting people . She also liked how cool Rukia is when she is fighting but noted it challenging how to voice Rukia due to her various attitudes . Ruff was the winner in the category " Best Voice Actress ( English ) " from the 2009 SPJA Industry Awards for her work as Rukia . Rukia also won in the category " Best Female Character " based on her appearances on Bleach : Memories of Nobody .
Several publications for manga , anime , video games , and other related media have provided praise and criticism on Rukia 's character . Although Chris Beveridge from Mania Entertainment noted Rukia 's introduction in Bleach was typical in several others series , he praised how she interacted with her schoolmates and Ichigo . Anime News Network 's ( ANN ) Melissa Harper praised the differences between Rukia and stereotypical shōnen heroines , asserting that Rukia 's loss of her powers and subsequent dependence on Ichigo were " a great source of both drama and comedy in the show . " However , the removal of the humor from Rukia 's scenes as a schoolgirl due to the English translation was lamented , although Ruff was extolled for doing an " excellent job . " Carlos Alexandre from popcultureshock.com regarded her as " less of a foil to Ichigo and more like the other side of the same coin " . Her actions and words were also commented by Alexendre to make Rukia deserve the respect she commands . IGN called the scene where Rukia is forced to leave Ichigo Kurosaki and return to Soul Society as " touchingly beautiful " and celebrated Rukia 's character development during her time in the human world . Her subsequent appearances in Soul Society were criticized by ANN 's Theron Martin due to her lack of activity making them " irritating given how strong a character she was in the series ' early going " .
= Broken Home ( Body of Proof ) =
" Broken Home " is the ninth and final episode of the first season of the American medical drama Body of Proof . It was originally broadcast in the United States on ABC on 17 May 2011 . The episode was directed by Nelson McCormick and written by Andrew Dettman .
In this episode , Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) stops the funeral of Nikki Parkson ( Mary Fegreus ) after seeing irregularities in her death . Nikki 's mother Lillian ( Jill Eikenberry ) , and siblings Sara ( Jo Armeniox ) and Bill ( Eric Sheffer Stevens ) , all say that Nikki was suicidal , with evidence at the scene suggesting this , but when Megan and Peter Dunlop ( Nicholas Bishop ) do an autopsy , the evidence suggests otherwise . Meanwhile , Megan finds out from daughter Lacey ( Mary Mouser ) that her ex @-@ husband Todd ( Jeffrey Nordling ) is in a relationship with her boss Kate Murphy ( Jeri Ryan ) .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews , and was watched by 10 @.@ 33 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , on the Sunday night it aired in the United States . Christine Orlando of TV Fanatic was unsure whether the episode was good enough to be the season finale , however she did praise this " solid " episode , saying it had an " intriguing murder , lots of suspects , and an interesting personal twist for Megan " . This episode was nominated at the 21st Annual Environmental Media Awards , however lost out to the CSI : Crime Scene Investigation episode " Fracked " .
= = Plot = =
Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) and Todd Fleming ( Jeffrey Nordling ) are called to Lacey 's ( Mary Mouser ) school when she is seen looking at photos of a young woman , Nikki Parkson ( Mary Fegreus ) who died , after battling a terminal illness . When Megan looks at a photo , she sees irregularities and without permission from Kate Murphy ( Jeri Ryan ) , Megan and Peter Dunlop ( Nicholas Bishop ) stop Nikki being buried , so they can look at her body , much to the horror of Nikki 's mother Lillian ( Jill Eikenberry ) . Although Nikki 's family say that she committed suicide , Megan finds evidence to suggest otherwise ; Nikki 's neck has bruising on the bottom , showing that she was strangled . Nikki was being given pills to help her illness by Lillian , though these made her worse , but this kept Lillian in the social limelight , getting sympathy from friends ; however Lillian did not kill her . Samantha Baker ( Sonja Sohn ) , Megan , Ethan Gross ( Geoffrey Arend ) and Curtis Brumfield ( Windell Middlebrooks ) find out that Nikki 's boyfriend Shane ( Charlie Semine ) was actually working together with Nikki 's sister Sara ( Jo Armeniox ) . It is revealed that Shane and Sara killed Nikki , as in Nikki 's will she was giving all her money to a fake wildlife foundation which Sara had set up . However , Nikki wanted to switch charities , so Sara killed her to stop her from doing this , with Shane helping her to stage it as suicide , so they could both get the money .
The two are arrested , and Nikki 's funeral takes place . However , Samantha arrives to arrest Lillian , as Nikki 's brother Billy ( Eric Sheffer Stevens ) found the pills Lillian wasn 't giving Nikki , and Lillian is charged with interfering with her daughter ’ s medical care . Bill assures Megan that Nikki 's money in her will , will be put to a good use and thanks her and the team for investigating . Throughout the investigation Lacey thinks that Megan and Todd are getting back together , as Todd has made many calls to Megan 's work . Lacey is shocked to find out that Todd is not phoning Megan , but Kate , and the two are in a relationship . Megan is angry at Kate , but tells Lacey to respect her , even if she does not like her yet .
= = Production = =
" Broken Home " was written by Andrew Dettman and directed by Nelson McCormick , this being his third episode he directed , having directed the season premiere " Pilot " and the subsequent episode " Letting Go " . McCormick has directed many television series such as Third Watch , Nip / Tuck , ER and more recently , Criminal Minds . Daniel Licht , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for the episode . Actress Jill Eikenberry – best known for her role in L.A. Law – and actor Eric Sheffer Stevens – best known for his role in As the World Turns – both guest starred in this episode , as Lillian and Bill Parkson , respectively . Sheffer Stevens later reprised his role as Bill in season two 's fifth episode " Point of Origin " . Recurring cast members Jeffrey Nordling and Mary Mouser returned in this episode , with this being both Mouser 's and Nordling 's first appearance since seasons one 's seventh episode , " All in the Family " . Regular cast member John Carroll Lynch who plays Detective Bud Morris , did not appear in this episode , although he was credited .
" Broken Home " , along with the eight episodes from Body of Proof 's first season , were released on a two @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 20 , 2011 . The sets included brief audio commentaries from various crew and cast members for several episode 's , a preview of season 2 and a 10 @-@ minute " featurette " on the making of the show , with commentaries from the medical consultants who helped with the script , as well as a " Contaminated Evidence " blooper reel .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on May 17 , 2011 , " Broken Home " was seen by 10 @.@ 33 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 9 share . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This episode achieved a much higher number of viewers than the previous episode , " Buried Secrets " , and a significant higher number than subsequent episode " Love Thy Neighbor " , which is season two 's premiere . Body of Proof came fifth in the ratings on Tuesday night , being outperformed by the season finales of CBS 's NCIS and of The Good Wife as well as two airings of ABC 's Dancing with the Stars . " Broken Home " was watched by 1 @.@ 75 million viewers upon its airing on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical response = = =
This episode received mixed to positive reviews . Christine Orlando of TV Fanatic said that the plot of the episode had a " nice story arc when the cause of death ranged from disease , to suicide , and finally murder " . She added that Nikki 's family was a " nightmare " . She was surprised that Bill was not involved in killing Nikki , saying that he " came across as a bit of a jerk for most of the episode " , adding that Nikki had a " short , sad life " . Orlando praised the detail of Nikki 's neck , noticing the bruising to show she was strangled . She said , " I generally hate gore yet I found myself fascinated by the autopsy of the girl 's neck . Maybe it was the detail of the muscle and the lack of blood but I 've never seen such a procedure portrayed with that level of specificity " . Orlando carried on saying , " Is there some rule that we can 't have both detectives every week ? Detective Baker 's definitely growing on me but I missed Bud . He and Megan had some great chemistry and I was hoping for more of that by the end of the season " . Orlando understood Megan 's reaction to the fact that Kate was dating Todd , calling it " justified " , saying it was a " odd position
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the " Statutory Professors of the University of Oxford " . They are particularly influential in the running of the university 's graduate programmes . Examples of statutory professors are the Chichele Professorships and the Drummond Professor of Political Economy . The various academic faculties , departments , and institutes are organised into four divisions , each with its own head and elected board . They are the Humanities division ; the Social Sciences Division ; the Mathematical , Physical and Life Sciences Division ; and the Medical Sciences Division .
The University of Oxford is a " public university " in the sense that it receives some public money from the government , but it is a " private university " in the sense that it is entirely self @-@ governing and , in theory , could choose to become entirely private by rejecting public funds .
= = = Colleges = = =
To be a member of the university , all students , and most academic staff , must also be a member of a college or hall . There are 38 colleges of the University of Oxford and six Permanent Private Halls , each controlling its membership and with its own internal structure and activities . Not all colleges offer all courses , but they generally cover a broad range of subjects .
The colleges are :
The Permanent Private Halls were founded by different Christian denominations . One difference between a college and a PPH is that whereas colleges are governed by the fellows of the college , the governance of a PPH resides , at least in part , with the corresponding Christian denomination . The six current PPHs are :
The PPHs and colleges join together as the Conference of Colleges , which represents the common concerns of the several colleges of the university , and to discuss policy and to deal with the central university administration . The Conference of Colleges was established as a recommendation of the Franks Commission in 1965 .
Teaching members of the colleges ( i.e. fellows and tutors ) are collectively and familiarly known as dons , although the term is rarely used by the university itself . In addition to residential and dining facilities , the colleges provide social , cultural , and recreational activities for their members . Colleges have responsibility for admitting undergraduates and organising their tuition ; for graduates , this responsibility falls upon the departments . There is no common title for the heads of colleges : the titles used include Warden , Provost , Principal , President , Rector , Master and Dean .
= = = Finances = = =
In 2014 / 15 , the university had an income of £ 1,429m ; key sources were research grants ( £ 522.9m ) and academic fees ( £ 258.3m ) . The colleges had a total income of £ 415m ,
While the university has the larger annual income and operating budget , the colleges have a larger aggregate endowment : over £ 3.8bn compared to the university 's £ 834m . The Central University 's endowment , along with some of the colleges ' , is managed by the university 's wholly owned endowment management office , Oxford University Endowment Management , formed in 2007 . The university has substantial investments in fossil fuel companies , and in 2014 began consultations on whether it should follow some US universities which have committed to sell off their fossil fuel investments .
The University was one of the first in the UK to raise money through a major public fundraising campaign , The Campaign for Oxford . The current campaign , its second , was launched in May 2008 and is entitled " Oxford Thinking – The Campaign for the University of Oxford " . This is looking to support three areas : academic posts and programmes , student support , and buildings and infrastructure ; having passed its original target of £ 1 @.@ 25 billion in March 2012 , the target has now been raised to £ 3 billion . The university has raised £ 2 billion so far in 2015 .
= = = Affiliations = = =
Oxford is a member of the Russell Group of research @-@ led British universities , the G5 , the League of European Research Universities , and the International Alliance of Research Universities . It is also a core member of the Europaeum and forms part of the " golden triangle " of highly research intensive and elite English universities .
= = Academic profile = =
= = = Admission = = =
In common with most British universities , prospective students apply through the UCAS application system , but prospective applicants for the University of Oxford , along with those for medicine , dentistry , and University of Cambridge applicants , must observe an earlier deadline of 15 October .
To allow a more personalised judgement of students , who might otherwise apply for both , undergraduate applicants are not permitted to apply to both Oxford and Cambridge in the same year . The only exceptions are applicants for organ scholarships and those applying to read for a second undergraduate degree .
Most applicants choose to apply to one of the individual colleges , which work with each other to ensure that the best students gain a place somewhere at the university regardless of their college preferences . Shortlisting is based on achieved and predicted exam results , school references , and , in some subjects , written admission tests or candidate @-@ submitted written work . Approximately 60 % of applicants are shortlisted , although this varies by subject . If a large number of shortlisted applicants for a subject choose one college , then students who named that college may be reallocated randomly to under @-@ subscribed colleges for the subject . The colleges then invite shortlisted candidates for interview , where they are provided with food and accommodation for around three days in December . Most applicants will be individually interviewed by academics at more than one college . Students from outside Europe can be interviewed remotely , for example , over the Internet .
Offers are sent out in early January , with each offer usually being from a specific college . One in four successful candidates receives an offer from a college that they did not apply to . Some courses may make " open offers " to some candidates , who are not assigned to a particular college until A Level results day in August .
= = = Teaching and degrees = = =
Undergraduate teaching is centred on the tutorial , where 1 – 4 students spend an hour with an academic discussing their week 's work , usually an essay ( humanities , most social sciences , some mathematical , physical , and life sciences ) or problem sheet ( most mathematical , physical , and life sciences , and some social sciences ) . The university itself is responsible for conducting examinations and conferring degrees . Undergraduate teaching takes place during three eight @-@ week academic terms : Michaelmas , Hilary and Trinity . ( These are officially known as ' Full Term ' : ' Term ' is a lengthier period with little practical significance . ) Internally , the weeks in a term begin on Sundays , and are referred to numerically , with the initial week known as " first week " , the last as " eighth week " and with the numbering extended to refer to weeks before and after term ( for example " -1st week " and " 0th week " precede term ) . Undergraduates must be in residence from Thursday of 0th week . These teaching terms are shorter than those of most other British universities , and their total duration amounts to less than half the year . However , undergraduates are also expected to do some academic work during the three holidays ( known as the Christmas , Easter , and Long Vacations ) .
Research degrees at the master 's and doctoral level are conferred in all subjects studied at graduate level at the university .
= = = Scholarships and financial support = = =
There are many opportunities for students at Oxford to receive financial help during their studies . The Oxford Opportunity Bursaries , introduced in 2006 , are university @-@ wide means @-@ based bursaries available to any British undergraduate . With a total possible grant of £ 10 @,@ 235 over a 3 @-@ year degree , it is the most generous bursary scheme offered by any British university . In addition , individual colleges also offer bursaries and funds to help their students . For graduate study , there are many scholarships attached to the university , available to students from all sorts of backgrounds , from Rhodes Scholarships to the relatively new Weidenfeld Scholarships . Oxford also offers the Clarendon Scholarship which is open to graduate applicants of all nationalities . The Clarendon Scholarship is principally funded by Oxford University Press in association with colleges and other partnership awards .
Students successful in early examinations are rewarded by their colleges with scholarships and exhibitions , normally the result of a long @-@ standing endowment , although since the introduction of tuition fees the amounts of money available are purely nominal . Scholars , and exhibitioners in some colleges , are entitled to wear a more voluminous undergraduate gown ; " commoners " ( originally those who had to pay for their " commons " , or food and lodging ) are restricted to a short , sleeveless garment . The term " scholar " in relation to Oxford therefore had a specific meaning as well as the more general meaning of someone of outstanding academic ability . In previous times , there were " noblemen commoners " and " gentlemen commoners " , but these ranks were abolished in the 19th century . " Closed " scholarships , available only to candidates who fitted specific conditions such as coming from specific schools , now exist only in name .
= = = Libraries = = =
The university maintains the largest university library system in the UK , and , with over 11 million volumes housed on 120 miles ( 190 km ) of shelving , the Bodleian group is the second @-@ largest library in the UK , after the British Library . The Bodleian is a legal deposit library , which means that it is entitled to request a free copy of every book published in the UK . As such , its collection is growing at a rate of over three miles ( five kilometres ) of shelving every year .
The buildings referred to as the university 's main research library , The Bodleian , consist of the original Bodleian Library in the Old Schools Quadrangle , founded by Sir Thomas Bodley in 1598 and opened in 1602 , the Radcliffe Camera , the Clarendon Building , and the New Bodleian Building . A tunnel underneath Broad Street connects these buildings , with the Gladstone Link connecting the Old Bodleian and Radcliffe Camera opening to readers in 2011 .
The Bodleian Libraries group was formed in 2000 , bringing the Bodleian Library and some of the subject libraries together . It now comprises 28 libraries , a number of which have been created by bringing previously separate collections together , including the Sackler Library , Social Science Library and Radcliffe Science Library . Another major product of this collaboration has been a joint integrated library system , OLIS ( Oxford Libraries Information System ) , and its public interface , SOLO ( Search Oxford Libraries Online ) , which provides an electronic catalogue covering all member libraries , as well as the libraries of individual colleges and other faculty libraries , which are not members of the group but do share cataloguing information .
A new book depository opened in South Marston , Swindon in October 2010 , and current building projects include the remodelling of the New Bodleian building , which will be renamed the Weston Library when it reopens in 2014 – 15 . The renovation is designed to better showcase the library 's various treasures ( which include a Shakespeare First Folio and a Gutenberg Bible ) as well as temporary exhibitions .
The Bodleian engaged in a mass @-@ digitisation project with Google in 2004 .
= = = Museums = = =
Oxford maintains a number of museums and galleries , open for free to the public . The Ashmolean Museum , founded in 1683 , is the oldest museum in the UK , and the oldest university museum in the world . It holds significant collections of art and archaeology , including works by Michelangelo , Leonardo da Vinci , Turner , and Picasso , as well as treasures such as the Scorpion Macehead , the Parian Marble and the Alfred Jewel . It also contains " The Messiah " , a pristine Stradivarius violin , regarded by some as one of the finest examples in existence .
The University Museum of Natural History holds the university 's zoological , entomological and geological specimens . It is housed in a large neo @-@ Gothic building on Parks Road , in the university 's Science Area . Among its collection are the skeletons of a Tyrannosaurus rex and Triceratops , and the most complete remains of a dodo found anywhere in the world . It also hosts the Simonyi Professorship of the Public Understanding of Science , currently held by Marcus du Sautoy .
Adjoining the Museum of Natural History is the Pitt Rivers Museum , founded in 1884 , which displays the university 's archaeological and anthropological collections , currently holding over 500 @,@ 000 items . It recently built a new research annexe ; its staff have been involved with the teaching of anthropology at Oxford since its foundation , when as part of his donation General Augustus Pitt Rivers stipulated that the university establish a lectureship in anthropology .
The Museum of the History of Science is housed on Broad St in the world 's oldest @-@ surviving purpose @-@ built museum building . It contains 15 @,@ 000 artefacts , from antiquity to the 20th century , representing almost all aspects of the history of science . In the Faculty of Music on St Aldate 's is the Bate Collection of Musical Instruments , a collection mostly of instruments from Western classical music , from the medieval period onwards . Christ Church Picture Gallery holds a collection of over 200 old master paintings .
= = = Publishing = = =
The Oxford University Press is the world 's second oldest and currently the largest university press by the number of publications . More than 6 @,@ 000 new books are published annually , including many reference , professional , and academic works ( such as the Oxford English Dictionary , the Concise Oxford English Dictionary , the Oxford World 's Classics , the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , and the Concise Dictionary of National Biography ) .
= = = Rankings and reputation = = =
Oxford has been among the top ten universities in different league tables . In particular , it had held the number one position in the Times Good University Guide for eleven consecutive years , and the medical school has also maintained first place in the " Clinical , Pre @-@ Clinical & Health " table of the THE World University Rankings for the past five consecutive years . THE has also recognised Oxford as one of the world 's " six super brands " on its World Reputation Rankings . Its Saïd Business School came 23rd in the world in Financial Times Global MBA Ranking .
Oxford is ranked 5th best university worldwide and 1st in Britain for forming CEOs according to the Professional Ranking World Universities . It is ranked first in the UK for the quality of its graduates as chosen by the recruiters of the UK 's major companies .
In the 2017 Complete University Guide , 34 out of the 35 subjects offered by Oxford rank within the top 10 nationally meaning Oxford was one of only four multi @-@ faculty universities ( along with Cambridge , Imperial College London and Durham ) in the UK to have over 90 % of their subjects in the top 10 . Art & Design , East & South Asian Studies , Medicine , Music , Philosophy and Politics were ranked first in the UK by the guide .
= = Student life = =
= = = Traditions = = =
Academic dress is required for examinations , matriculation , disciplinary hearings , and when visiting university officers . A referendum held amongst the Oxford student body in 2015 showed 76 % against making it voluntary in examinations – 8671 students voted , with the 40 @.@ 2 % turnout the highest ever for a UK student union referendum . This was widely interpreted by students as not so much being a vote on making subfusc voluntary , but rather a vote on whether or not to effectively abolish it by default , as it was assumed that if a minority of people came to exams without subfusc , the rest would soon follow . In July 2012 the regulations regarding academic dress were modified to be more inclusive to transgender people .
Other traditions and customs vary by college . For example , some colleges have formal hall six times a week , but in others this only happens occasionally . At most colleges these formal meals require gowns to be worn , and a Latin grace is said .
Balls are major events held by colleges ; the largest , held triennially in 9th week of Trinity Term , are called Commemoration balls ; the dress code is usually white tie . Many other colleges hold smaller events during the year that they call summer balls or parties . These are usually held on an annual or irregular basis , and are usually black tie .
Punting is a common summer leisure activity .
There are several more or less quirky traditions peculiar to individual colleges , for example the All Souls mallard song .
= = = Clubs and societies = = =
Sport is played between college teams , in tournaments known as cuppers ( the term is also used for some non @-@ sporting competitions ) . In addition to these there are higher standard university wide groups . Significant focus is given to annual varsity matches played against Cambridge , the most famous of which is The Boat Race , watched by a TV audience of between five and ten million viewers . This outside interest reflects the importance of rowing to many of those within the university . Much attention is given to the termly intercollegiate rowing regattas : Christ Church Regatta , Torpids and Summer Eights . A blue is an award given to those who compete at the university team level in certain sports . As well as traditional sports , there are teams for activities such as Octopush and quidditch .
There are two weekly student newspapers : the independent Cherwell and OUSU 's The Oxford Student . Other publications include the Isis magazine , The Owl Journal , the satirical Oxymoron , and the graduate Oxonian Review . The student radio station is Oxide Radio . Most colleges have chapel choirs . Music , drama , and other arts societies exist both at collegiate level and as university @-@ wide groups . Unlike most other collegiate societies , musical ensembles actively encourage players from other colleges .
Most academic areas have student societies of some form which are open to all students , regardless of course , for example the Scientific Society . There are groups for almost all faiths , political parties , countries and cultures .
The Oxford Union ( not to be confused with the Oxford University Student Union ) hosts weekly debates and high profile speakers . There have historically been elite invite @-@ only societies such as the Bullingdon Club .
Sports teams , but also other societies and groups organised especially for the purpose , often take part in crewdates . These evenings involve ' crews ' ( often one of each gender , hence the name ) going for a meal and consuming much alcohol , before heading to a nightclub .
= = = OUSU and common rooms = = =
The Oxford University Student Union , better known by its acronym OUSU , exists to represent students in the university 's decision @-@ making , to act as the voice for students in the national higher education policy debate , and to provide direct services to the student body . Reflecting the collegiate nature of the University of Oxford itself , OUSU is both an association of Oxford 's more than 21 @,@ 000 individual students and a federation of the affiliated college common rooms , and other affiliated organisations that represent subsets of the undergraduate and graduate students . The OUSU Executive Committee includes six full @-@ time salaried sabbatical officers , who generally serve in the year following completion of their Final Examinations .
The importance of collegiate life is such that for many students their college JCR ( Junior Common Room , for undergraduates ) or MCR ( Middle Common Room , for graduates ) is seen as more important than OUSU . JCRs and MCRs each have a committee , with a president and other elected students representing their peers to college authorities . Additionally , they organise events and often have significant budgets to spend as they wish ( money coming from their colleges and sometimes other sources such as student @-@ run bars ) . ( It is worth noting that JCR and MCR are terms that are used to refer to rooms for use by members , as well as the student bodies . ) Not all colleges use this JCR / MCR structure , for example Wadham College 's entire student population is represented by a combined Students ' Union and purely graduate colleges have different arrangements .
= = Notable alumni = =
Throughout its history , a sizeable number of Oxford alumni , known as Oxonians , have become notable in many varied fields , both academic and otherwise , ranging from T. E. Lawrence , British Army officer known better as Lawrence of Arabia to the explorer , courtier , and man of letters , Sir Walter Raleigh , ( who attended Oriel College but left without taking a degree ) ; and the Australian media mogul , Rupert Murdoch . Moreover , 58 Nobel prize @-@ winners have studied or taught at Oxford , with prizes won in all six categories . More information on famous senior and junior members of the university can be found in the individual college articles . An individual may be associated with two or more colleges , as an undergraduate , postgraduate and / or member of staff .
= = = Politics = = =
27 British prime ministers have attended Oxford , including William Gladstone , Herbert Asquith , Clement Attlee , Harold Macmillan , Edward Heath , Harold Wilson , Margaret Thatcher , Tony Blair , David Cameron and most recently Theresa May . Of all the post @-@ war prime ministers , only Gordon Brown was educated at a university other than Oxford , while James Callaghan never attended a university .
Over 100 Oxford alumni were elected to the House of Commons in 2010 . This includes former Leader of the Opposition , Ed Miliband , and numerous members of the cabinet and shadow cabinet . Additionally , over 140 Oxonians sit in the House of Lords .
At least 30 other international leaders have been educated at Oxford This number includes Harald V of Norway , Abdullah II of Jordan , five Prime Ministers of Australia ( John Gorton , Malcolm Fraser , Bob Hawke , Tony Abbott , and Malcolm Turnbull ) two Prime Ministers of Canada ( Lester B. Pearson and John Turner ) , two Prime Ministers of India ( Manmohan Singh and Indira Gandhi ( although she did not finish her degree ) ) , five Prime Ministers of Pakistan ( Liaquat Ali Khan , Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy , Sir Feroz Khan Noon , Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto , and Benazir Bhutto ) , S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike ( former Prime Minister of Ceylon ) , Norman Washington Manley of Jamaica , Eric Williams ( Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago ) , Álvaro Uribe ( Colombia 's former President ) , Abhisit Vejjajiva ( former Prime Minister of Thailand ) and Bill Clinton ( the first President of the United States to have attended Oxford ; he attended as a Rhodes Scholar ) . Arthur Mutambara ( Deputy Prime Minister of Zimbabwe ) , was a Rhodes Scholar in 1991 . Festus Mogae ( former president of Botswana ) was a student at University College . The Burmese democracy activist and Nobel laureate , Aung San Suu Kyi , was a student of St. Hugh 's College .
= = = Mathematics and sciences = = =
Three Oxford mathematicians , Michael Atiyah , Daniel Quillen and Simon Donaldson , have won Fields Medals , often called the " Nobel Prize for mathematics " . Andrew Wiles , who proved Fermat 's Last Theorem , was educated at Oxford and is currently a Royal Society Research Professor at Oxford . Marcus du Sautoy and Roger Penrose are both currently mathematics professors . Stephen Wolfram , chief designer of Mathematica and Wolfram Alpha studied at the university , along with Tim Berners @-@ Lee , inventor of the World Wide Web , Edgar F. Codd , inventor of the relational model of data , and Tony Hoare , programming languages pioneer and inventor of Quicksort .
The university is associated with eleven winners of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry , five in physics and sixteen in medicine .
Scientists who performed research in Oxford include chemist Dorothy Hodgkin who received her Nobel Prize for " determinations by X @-@ ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances " . Both Richard Dawkins and Frederick Soddy studied at the university and returned for research purposes . Robert Hooke , Edwin Hubble , and Stephen Hawking all studied in Oxford .
Robert Boyle , a founder of modern chemistry , never formally studied or held a post within the university , but resided within the city to be part of the scientific community and was awarded an honorary degree . Notable scientists who spent brief periods at Oxford include Albert Einstein developer of general theory of relativity and the concept of photons ; and Erwin Schrödinger who formulated the Schrödinger equation and the Schrödinger 's cat thought experiment .
Economists Adam Smith , Alfred Marshall , E. F. Schumacher , and Amartya Sen all spent time at Oxford .
= = = Literature , music , and drama = = =
The long list of writers associated with Oxford includes John Fowles , Theodor Geisel , Thomas Middleton , Samuel Johnson , Christopher Hitchens , Robert Graves , Evelyn Waugh , Lewis Carroll , Aldous Huxley , Oscar Wilde , C. S. Lewis , J. R. R. Tolkien , Graham Greene , V.S.Naipaul , Philip Pullman , Joseph Heller , Vikram Seth , the poets Percy Bysshe Shelley , John Donne , A. E. Housman , W. H. Auden , T. S. Eliot , Wendy Perriam and Philip Larkin , and seven poets laureate : Thomas Warton , Henry James Pye , Robert Southey , Robert Bridges , Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , Sir John Betjeman , and Andrew Motion .
Composers Hubert Parry , George Butterworth , John Taverner , William Walton , James Whitbourn and Andrew Lloyd Webber have all been involved with the university .
Actors Hugh Grant , Kate Beckinsale , Dudley Moore , Michael Palin , Terry Jones , Anna Popplewell , and Rowan Atkinson were undergraduates at the university , as were filmmakers Ken Loach and Richard Curtis .
= = = Religion = = =
Oxford has also produced at least 12 saints , and 20 Archbishops of Canterbury , the most recent Archbishop being Rowan Williams , who studied at Wadham College and was later a Canon Professor at Christ Church . Religious reformer John Wycliffe was an Oxford scholar , for a time Master of Balliol College . John Colet , Christian humanist , Dean of St Paul 's , and friend of Erasmus , studied at Magdalen College . The founder of Methodism , John Wesley , studied at Christ Church and was elected a fellow of Lincoln College . The Oxford Movement ( 1833 – 1845 ) was closely associated with the Oriel Fellows John Henry Newman , Edward Bouverie Pusey and John Keble . Other religious figures were Mirza Nasir Ahmad , the third Caliph of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community , Shoghi Effendi , one of the appointed leaders of the Baha 'i faith and Joseph Cordeiro , the only Pakistani Catholic cardinal .
= = = Philosophy = = =
Oxford 's philosophical tradition started in the medieval era , with Robert Grosseteste and William of Ockham , commonly known for Occam 's razor , among those teaching at the university . Thomas Hobbes , Jeremy Bentham and the empiricist John Locke received degrees from Oxford . Though the latter 's main works were written after leaving Oxford , Locke was heavily influenced by his twelve years at the university .
Philosophy was never absent from Oxford 's preoccupations . Oxford philosophers of the 20th century include Gilbert Ryle , author of the influential The Concept of Mind , who spent his entire philosophical career at the university and Derek Parfit , who specialises in personal identity and related matters . Other commonly read modern philosophers to have studied at the university include A. J. Ayer , Paul Grice , Thomas Nagel , known for his essay " What Is it Like to Be a Bat ? " , Robert Nozick , John Rawls and Michael Sandel . John Searle , presenter of the Chinese room thought experiment , studied and began his academic career at the university .
= = = Sport = = =
Some 50 Olympic medal @-@ winners have academic connections with the university , including Sir Matthew Pinsent , quadruple gold @-@ medallist rower . Other sporting connections include Imran Khan .
Rowers from Oxford who have won gold at the Olympics or World Championships include Michael Blomquist , Ed Coode , Chris Davidge , Hugh Edwards , Jason Flickinger , Tim Foster , Christopher Liwski , Matthew Pinsent , Pete Reed , Jonny Searle , Andrew Triggs Hodge , Jake Wetzel , Michael Wherley , and Barney Williams . Many Oxford graduates have also risen to the highest echelon in cricket : Harry Altham , Bernard Bosanquet ( inventor of the googly ) , Colin Cowdrey , Gerry Crutchley , Jamie Dalrymple , Martin Donnelly , R. E. Foster ( the only man to captain England at both cricket and football ) , C. B. Fry , George Harris ( also served in the House of Lords ) , Douglas Jardine , Malcolm Jardine , Imran Khan , Alan Melville , Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi , Mansoor Ali Khan Pataudi , M. J. K. Smith , and Pelham Warner .
Oxford students have also excelled in other sports . Such alumni include American football player Myron Rolle ( NFL player ) ; Olympic gold medalists in athletics David Hemery and Jack Lovelock ; basketball players Bill Bradley ( US Senator and NBA player ) and Charles Thomas McMillen ( US Congressman and NBA player ) ; figure skater John Misha Petkevich ( national champion ) ; footballers John Bain , Charles Wreford @-@ Brown , and Cuthbert Ottaway ; modern pentathlete Steph Cook ( Olympic gold medalist ) ; rugby footballers Stuart Barnes , Simon Danielli , David Humphreys , David Edward Kirk , Anton Oliver , Ronald Poulton @-@ Palmer , Joe Roff , and William Webb Ellis ( allegedly the inventor of rugby football ) ; runner Sir Roger Gilbert Bannister ( who ran the first sub @-@ four @-@ minute mile ) , World Cup ski racer Ryan Max Riley ( national champion ) ; and tennis player Clarence Bruce .
= = = Adventure and exploration = = =
Three of the most well @-@ known adventurers and explorers who attended Oxford are Walter Raleigh , one of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era , T. E. Lawrence , whose life was the basis of the 1962 film Lawrence of Arabia , and Thomas Coryat . The latter , the author of " Coryat 's Crudities hastily gobbled up in Five Months Travels in France , Italy , & c ' " ( 1611 ) and court jester of Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales , is credited with introducing the table fork and umbrella to England and being the first Briton to do a Grand Tour of Europe .
Other notable figures include Gertrude Bell , an explorer , archaeologist , mapper and spy , who , along with T. E. Lawrence , helped establish the Hashemite dynasties in what is today Jordan and Iraq and played a major role in establishing and administering the modern state of Iraq ; Richard Francis Burton , who travelled in disguise to Mecca and journeyed with John Hanning Speke as the first European explorers to visit the Great Lakes of Africa in search of the source of the Nile ; mountaineer Tom Bourdillon , member of the expedition to make the first ascent of Mount Everest ; and Peter Fleming , adventurer and travel writer and elder brother of Ian Fleming , creator of James Bond .
= = Oxford in literature and other media = =
The University of Oxford is the setting for numerous works of fiction . Oxford was mentioned in fiction as early as 1400 when Chaucer in his Canterbury Tales referred to a " Clerk [ student ] of Oxenford " . By 1989 , 533 novels based in Oxford had been identified and the number continues to rise . Famous literary works range from Brideshead Revisited by Evelyn Waugh , to the trilogy His Dark Materials by Philip Pullman , which features an alternate @-@ reality version of the university .
Other notable examples include :
Gaudy Night , a Lord Peter Wimsey mystery by Dorothy L. Sayers ( who was herself a graduate of Somerville College ) .
The Inspector Morse series by Colin Dexter , and its spin off Lewis , are set in Oxford and frequently refer to the university ( although most of the college names are fictional ) .
Zuleika Dobson , by Max Beerbohm
Brideshead Revisited ( 1981 ) , based on Waugh 's novel ; a miniseries enormously popular in Britain and America , the film has sometimes been seen as drawing unwanted attention to Oxford 's stereotypical reputation as a playground of the upper classes . It stars Jeremy Irons and most college shots are of Christ Church and Hertford .
True Blue ( 1996 ) , about the mutiny at the time of the Oxford @-@ Cambridge Boat Race of 1987
The History Boys ( film ) ( 2008 ) movie about a group of boys applying to do history at Oxford . Set in 1983 and based on the play by Alan Bennett .
The Golden Compass ( film ) ( 2007 )
The Riot Club ( 2014 )
= Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty =
Count Étienne @-@ Marie @-@ Antoine Champion de Nansouty ( 30 May 1768 – 12 February 1815 ) was a French cavalry commander during the French Revolutionary Wars who rose to the rank of General of Division in 1803 and subsequently held important military commands during the Napoleonic Wars .
Of noble Burgundian descent , he was a student at the Brienne military school , then was a graduate of the Paris military school . Nansouty began his military career in 1785 , as a sub @-@ lieutenant in the regiment Bourgogne @-@ Infanterie , where his father had served during the wars of Louis XV . A cavalry officer at the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1792 , Nansouty was commissioned as an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Marshal Nicolas Luckner . During the First Coalition , he saw service as a lieutenant @-@ colonel and squadron commander in the 9th ( heavy ) Cavalry Regiment , campaigning with the French armies on the Rhine and in Germany . Promoted to Colonel in 1793 and given the command of the 9th Cavalry , he was noted for several well @-@ led cavalry actions . Finally made a Brigadier General in 1799 , after he had refused the promotion several times in the past , Nansouty fought the next year under General Jean Victor Moreau in southern Germany , in a decisive campaign of the Second Coalition .
Promoted to the top military rank of General of Division in 1803 , Nansouty was called to the command of the 1st Heavy Cavalry Division in Emperor Napoleon I 's newly created Grande Armée . Commanding this division from 1804 to 1809 , Nansouty was present at some of the most significant battles of the Third , Fourth and Fifth coalitions , leading cavalry actions at the battles of Austerlitz , Friedland , Eckmühl , Aspern @-@ Essling and Wagram . In 1812 , during the campaign in Russia , Nansouty commanded the I Cavalry Corps , which he led with distinction at such battles as Ostrovno and Borodino , where he received a severe knee wound . The next year , he commanded the Imperial Guard cavalry , which he led at Dresden , Leipzig and Hanau , where he was again wounded . In 1814 he led his men in several engagements , including La Rothière , Montmirail , Vauchamps and Craonne until his incapacitation from wounds that year .
A member of the military elite of the First French Empire and a recipient of the Grand Aigle de la Légion d 'Honneur , Comte de Nansouty was a member of the Military Household of the Emperor as First Squire of the Emperor , and also held the position of Colonel @-@ General of Dragoons . During the Bourbon Restoration , Louis XVIII awarded him additional honours and commands , including one in the Military Household of the King of France . Nansouty died in February 1815 and is buried at the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris . His name is inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe and a street in the 14th arrondissement of Paris is named after him .
= = Early life = =
Étienne de Nansouty was born on 30 May 1768 in Bordeaux . His father had served France for fifty years in Louis XV 's wars of the Polish Succession and Austrian Succession and the Seven Years ' War , and had subsequently been appointed " major " ( commander ) of the Château @-@ Trompette fortress in Bordeaux . Typically for a member of the minor nobility of the Ancien Régime , young Étienne de Nansouty chose to follow his father 's footsteps in the military . He was admitted at the military school of Brienne @-@ le @-@ Château in 1779 , aged ten , where he was noted for being a well @-@ behaved and assiduous student . On 21 October 1782 , he transferred to the École Militaire in Paris , where he obtained excellent grades . Two years later , Nansouty became a Chevalier ( Knight ) of the Order Notre @-@ Dame @-@ du @-@ Mont @-@ Carmel and had the honour of being decorated by Monsieur , the future King Louis XVIII , in person . Upon his graduation on 30 May 1783 , he was appointed sub @-@ lieutenant and , on 26 May 1785 , Nansouty was sent to the Bourgogne @-@ Infanterie regiment , where his father had served with distinction .
Throughout his childhood and youth , the Nansouty family led a tranquil yet modest life in Bordeaux , where his father held the position of commander of Château @-@ Trompette , in which he lived with his family , additionally receiving a pension of 1000 livres . He was still holding the position as commander when he died suddenly in 1785 , after more than 60 years of active service . His widow had no revenue with which to raise their son and two daughters . However , influential people such as the Duchess of Brancas and the wife of Marshal Beauvau contacted the Minister of War , Marshal de Ségur , regarding the situation of the young Nansouty . As a result , in 1788 , Nansouty was named interim captain in the light cavalry Franche @-@ Comté Cavalerie Regiment ( later rebaptised 4th Chasseurs à Cheval ) . He was soon transferred to the Lauzun Hussar Regiment ( which became the 6th Hussars in 1791 , then the 5th Hussars in 1793 ) . In 1791 , Nansouty then left the regiment to fill two consecutive military staff positions , first as deputy aid to Adjutant General Poncet de la Cour Maupas in the Army of the Centre on 20 December , then as aide @-@ de @-@ camp of Marshal Luckner at the beginning of 1792 . He was then promoted to lieutenant @-@ colonel and took up the command of a squadron of the 2nd Chasseurs à Cheval ( on 5 March ) , before being transferred to the command of a squadron of the 9th Cavalry Regiment on 4 April , a regiment in which he would serve for the next seven and a half years .
= = Revolutionary Wars = =
= = = War of the First Coalition = = =
= = = = An officer in the 9th Cavalry = = = =
As the French Revolutionary Wars broke out , Nansouty soon found himself in the position of having to take provisional command of the whole 9th Cavalry Regiment , as he was the most senior chef d 'escadron ( Lieutenant @-@ Colonel ) of the regiment when the commander , Colonel Badda de Bodosalva , fell ill at the end of May 1792 . His regiment was a part of the " Army of the Rhine " and was integrated in General Custine 's Corps , which was to march towards the Palatinate , where the first military manoeuvres took place . As Colonel Badda de Bodosalva died at the end of October that year , Nansouty naturally expected to be appointed commander of the regiment in his place . However , Custine appointed the more senior Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Loubat de Bohan as commander of the 9th Cavalry and , despite Nansouty 's protestations , maintained his decision . With Loubat in command , the 9th saw action against the Prussians in an engagement at Ober @-@ Flörsheim on 30 March 1793 . After a first successful charge , Nansouty 's 1st squadron was counter @-@ charged by enemy hussars ; the remaining squadrons under Loubat quickly caught up with Nansouty 's squadron and together they broke the enemy . Corps commander Custine was then called up to command the Army of the North but , before leaving his command , he attempted a last daunting move against the Habsburg army . This required a night march , not usually undertaken by cavalry , and poorly coordinated manoeuvres of cavalry , infantry and artillery . This led to total failure of the action of 17 May . During this action , though , the initial charge of the corps cavalry , which included the 9th , successfully took a number of enemy guns . However , a Habsburg counter @-@ charge forced them back in disorder , which spread panic among the ranks of oncoming infantry .
Despite this setback , a few days later , Lobat de Bohan was promoted to the rank of General and Nansouty again took provisional command of the regiment . When General Alexandre de Beauharnais took command of the Army of the Rhine , he directed his troops towards Mainz . Some fighting took place near Landau and the 9th Cavalry charged several times . Just after this event , the commander of the 2nd Squadron of the regiment invoked the provision of an equivocal new law , demanding that he be given command of the regiment instead of Nansouty . His request was rejected and Nansouty 's provisional command was confirmed .
= = = = Commander of the 9th Cavalry = = = =
Now holding the rank of chef de brigade ( colonel ) in command of the 9th Cavalry Regiment , Nansouty took part in several successful cavalry skirmishes around Strasbourg in November and December of 1793 . He then participated to the Battle of Geisberg , at the end of December . Following this battle , General of Division Donnadieu , who had commanded the cavalry division of which Nansouty 's regiment was a part , was tried and executed for alleged cowardice in front of the enemy . Nansouty was not involved in the incident . Furthermore , despite being a member of the Ancien Régime nobility , he was not harassed at any time during the radical phase of the French Revolution .
During the campaigns of 1794 , war continued in the Rhineland , with General Louis Desaix pushing back the Coalition forces . Nansouty 's 9th Cavalry was brigaded together with the 17th Dragoon Regiment , with General Delmas de La Coste as commander . The brigade performed well against Austrian cavalry in two distinct actions at the end of May of that year . General of Division Michaud , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of France 's Army of the Rhine , noted in his report that Delmas 's two regiments showed bravery and intrepidity every time they faced the enemy . In July , the 9th Cavalry was involved in several well @-@ led cavalry actions and Nansouty acquired an excellent reputation , recognised as a disciplinarian and a commander who knew how to drill his men effectively .
Beginning in December 1794 , the French forces on the Rhine experienced a difficult period , marked by General Charles Pichegru 's inability to take Mainz . General Jean Victor Marie Moreau replaced him as commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Moreau reorganised the army into three corps , plus a reserve , of which the 9th Cavalry was a part . The Reserve Cavalry , under Bourcier , intervened at the Battle of Ettlingen , with two squadrons of the 9th being committed and behaving most honourably . The next significant moment of this campaign was the incident that occurred at dawn on 11 August 1796 , while Nansouty and his men were temporarily attached to the " Corps of the Centre " , under General Laurent de Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr . Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr 's cavalry exhausted after several days of continuous marching , it was decided that a squadron of the fresher Carabiniers @-@ à @-@ Cheval would be posted as sentry , an unusual duty for such an elite heavy cavalry unit . At daybreak , as the Battle of Neresheim opened , Austrian cavalry charged the carabiniers , stunning the unprepared cavalrymen , who fled in panic . Their precipitate flight spread alarm among the ranks of the other cavalry regiments , who were used to seeing the Carabiniers @-@ à @-@ Cheval triumph against the enemy on every occasion . Nansouty did his best to stop the rout of the cavalrymen and to reorganise the other panic @-@ stricken regiments , but the morale of the cavalrymen remained very low throughout the day and Nansouty was forced to give ground in front of the enemy rather than attempt a risky charge with his demoralised troops . This elicited criticism from the Corps commander , General Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr , who sent his aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Nansouty with orders to charge , which the latter did after taking the necessary time to deploy his men . Under his direction , the four cavalry regiments ( 2nd and 20th Chasseurs à Cheval and 2nd and 9th Cavalry Regiments ) , executed a superb charge , which halted the advance of the Austrian first infantry line . The next day , Archduke Charles of Austria retreated from the field . Nansouty 's 9th Cavalry had numerous other opportunities to shine during the campaign of 1796 and rose to the occasion every time . He became very fond of his regiment and refused the promotion to brigadier general several times , preferring to remain colonel of the 9th cavalry .
= = = War of the Second Coalition = = =
The signature of the Treaty of Campo Formio in October 1797 marked the end of the War of the First Coalition but the fleeting period of peace ended in 1798 , with the formation of the Second Coalition against the French Republic . Nansouty 's 9th Cavalry Regiment was successively attached to the Armies " of Germany " , " of Mainz " and then to the " Army of the Danube " , under the command of Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan . In 1799 , the regiment , with Nansouty commanding it , was integrated into General of Division Jean @-@ Joseph Ange d 'Hautpoul 's Cavalry Reserve of the " Army of the Danube " . This army was sharply defeated at the Battle of Stockach and most of its units merged with General André Masséna 's " Army of Switzerland " ; the cavalry was sent to the newly formed " Army of the Rhine " .
In 1799 , France 's political and military situation seemed perilous , especially after the losses in southwestern Germany culminating in the Battle at Stockach . By then a colonel , Nansouty accepted the promotion to brigadier general on 29 August and was given the command of a heavy cavalry brigade formed by the 8th and 9th Cavalry Regiments . Later , Nansouty 's brigade was provisionally augmented to four regiments , which , alongside Brigadier General Jean @-@ Louis @-@ Brigitte Espagne 's four regiments , was included in a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ man @-@ strong Cavalry Reserve ( the 1st and 2nd Carabiniers @-@ à @-@ Cheval and the 6th , 8th , 9th , 10th , 19th and 23rd Cavalry Regiments , with 14 cannons ) , under the command of the 45 @-@ year @-@ old General d 'Hautpoul . Overall command of the " Army of the Rhine " was given to the promising General Claude Lecourbe . Lecourbe believed his forces to be insufficient for offensive action , so he decided to fall back . During the retreat , a cavalry combat took place during the Battle of Wiesloch , where d 'Hautpoul 's men , and Nansouty 's brigade in particular , were heavily engaged . With operations on the Rhine coming to an end , Lecourbe was replaced at the head of the army by Louis Baraguey d 'Hilliers , who reorganised d 'Hautpoul 's Cavalry Reserve , reducing Nansouty 's brigade to its initial strength of two regiments ( the 8th and 9th Cavalry ) .
= = = = Campaign in Germany = = = =
Despite the improvement of the military situation on its borders , France remained in political turmoil . Upon his return from the campaign in Egypt , General Napoleon Bonaparte received a hero 's welcome and was regarded by many as the saviour of France . Enjoying wide popular support and political backing , Bonaparte and his followers staged a coup and installed the French Consulate . Then , First Consul Bonaparte immediately drew up campaign plans against France 's only remaining continental enemy , Austria . Nansouty was first called to serve in the First Consul 's " Army of the Reserve " that was to operate in Italy , but General Jean Victor Marie Moreau insisted on retaining him in his own " Army of the Rhine " , which was to operate in central Germany . Consequently , Nansouty received command of the cavalry ( 15th Cavalry , 11th Dragoons and 12th Chasseurs à Cheval ) of Lecourbe 's " Right Wing Corps " of the " Army of the Rhine " .
Nansouty 's cavalry took part in several actions , beginning with the Battle of Engen , where the commander was noted for his able and daring manoeuvres , subsequently leading a successful charge against enemy infantry , whom he chased through the streets of the nearby city of Stockach , the locale of the French Army of the Danube 's defeat a year earlier . He patrolled the Tyrol and there repulsed Prince Reuss @-@ Plauen 's forces in an action fought on 14 June 1800 , the day when First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte was winning at Marengo further to the south . Nansouty served as a commander of an autonomous unit in the Tyrol until the end of the War of the Second Coalition , then under the successive command of Generals Molitor and Gudin . Nansouty 's command included as many as five regiments , after the 6th and 8th Hussars were attached to his force . During this time , he enhanced his solid reputation as an able and adept cavalry commander ; General Lecourbe stated that he wanted nobody else at the helm of his cavalry .
= = Years of peace = =
The signing of the Treaty of Lunéville initiated a period of peace on the European continent . Meanwhile , however , with the Kingdom of Portugal allied to the Kingdom of Great Britain , First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte decided to make a military demonstration against the Lusitanian nation . He ordered the creation of the " Observation Corps of the Gironde " . Chosen from a short list of nine men , Nansouty was named commander of the Corps cavalry . With orders to invade Portugal the " Observation Corps of the Gironde " entered Spanish territory , but it soon returned to France , after a treaty of peace was agreed with the Portuguese government . Nansouty then held various commands , before being named general of division on 24 March 1803 . He was 35 years old . A military commander in the department of Seine @-@ et @-@ Oise , he was then sent to command the cavalry ( 5th Chasseurs à Cheval , 2nd , 4th and 5th Hussar Regiments ) of General Édouard Mortier 's " Army of Hanover " , a position that he held until the Hanoverian army was disarmed and the French occupied the city .
On 1 February 1804 , Nansouty was called to a command in the cavalry reserve of the " Army of the Ocean coast " . The reform of the French cavalry arm had already begun in September 1803 , reorganising the first twelve regiments of heavy cavalry of the French Revolutionary army into regiments of cuirassiers . The reforms also established a powerful 6 @-@ regiment heavy cavalry division , comprising the 1st and 2nd Carabiniers @-@ à @-@ Cheval , 2nd , 3rd , 9th and 12th Cuirassiers , with command given to Nansouty . On 29 August 1805 this division was renamed the 1st heavy cavalry division of the newly created Grande Armée . Nansouty was also named Commander of the Legion of Honour on 14 June 1804 . In 1805 , Napoleon appointed him as First Chamberlain of the Empress , but Nansouty disliked Court life and resigned from the position as soon as he was able to find an acceptable excuse .
= = Napoleonic Wars = =
= = = War of the Third Coalition = = =
At the outbreak of the War of the Third Coalition , a cavalry reserve corps was organised in the Grande Armée , with command given to Marshal Joachim Murat . This cavalry reserve included Nansouty 's heavy cavalry division , another heavy cavalry division under Jean @-@ Joseph d 'Hautpoul , three dragoon divisions , a foot dragoon division and a light cavalry brigade . Nansouty 's six @-@ regiment division soon acquired the reputation of being the
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some distance away . After a brief combat , the Austro @-@ Russian horsemen broke and were driven off . However , Liechtenstein soon reformed his men and , seeing that all the French cavalry was positioned on the left of Caffarelli 's infantry division , he launched his men against the right wing of this division , but was instantly met with sustained musket volleys that disorganised his cavalrymen . Seeing this development , Nansouty wheeled right with his men and crossed the infantry intervals by platoons , and then formed his men on two battle lines in front of the infantry . Three charges ensued in brief succession , with Nansouty skilfully committing the 1st and 2nd Carabiniers @-@ à @-@ Cheval and the 2nd Cuirassiers from his first line , then the 9th Cuirassiers and Saint @-@ Germain 's brigade from his second line . The Austro @-@ Russian cavalry was finally broken and repulsed for good . After another series of well @-@ coordinated cavalry and infantry actions , Murat and Lannes were able to force Bagration 's entire force to withdraw , with a loss 2 @,@ 000 men ( approximately half of the force ) and 16 guns .
On the French side , despite their repeated charges on this day , the 1st heavy cavalry division registered only relatively minor casualties , a testament to the skill of its commanders . Piston 's 1st Brigade registered 2 killed and 41 wounded , La Houssaye 's 2nd Brigade registered 1 man killed and 25 wounded , while Saint @-@ Germain 's 3rd Brigade registered 47 killed and 28 wounded . The regiment that suffered the highest casualty rate was by far the 3rd cuirassiers , with 44 killed and 27 wounded , for a casualty rate of 21 per cent . Nansouty 's charge was rated " superb and brilliant " in the report drawn up by General Augustin Daniel Belliard , Murat 's chief of staff , and Nansouty was subsequently mentioned in the army bulletin for this action and named Grand Officier de la Légion d 'honneur on 25 December . Additionally , of the six colonels in his division , three were promoted to Brigadier General and three received the cross of Commandeur de la Légion d 'honneur . Following the peace of Pressburg with the Austrian Empire in late December 1805 , Nansouty 's division was stationed in Bavaria , where they took winter quarters .
= = = War of the Fourth Coalition = = =
= = = = Campaign in Prussia = = = =
As the War of the Fourth Coalition broke out in September 1806 , Emperor Napoleon I took his Grande Armée into the heart of Germany in a memorable campaign against Prussia . Comprising the same regiments as the year before ( 1st and 2nd Carabiniers @-@ à @-@ Cheval , 2nd , 3rd , 9th and 12th cuirassiers ) , Nansouty 's 1st heavy cavalry division was again a part of Joachim Murat 's cavalry reserve . At first , due to the extraordinary speed of Napoleon 's operations , the 1st heavy cavalry division and one of the two cuirassier brigades of d 'Hautpoul 's 2nd heavy cavalry division did not arrive at the front line in time to participate in the Battle of Jena . Beginning with the evening of 14 October , Nansouty 's cavalry pursued the routed Prussian army , following an enemy corps of 10 @,@ 000 infantrymen and 3 cavalry regiments into the streets of Erfurt on 15 October . With the enemy trapped in the city , Colonel Préval of the 3rd cuirassiers negotiated the capitulation of Erfurt by nightfall , which resulted in the capture of 12 @,@ 000 prisoners of war ( including 6 @,@ 000 wounded ) and 65 cannons .
Resuming its pursuit of the Prussian army , Nansouty 's division was at Potsdam beginning on 25 October , and two days later they participated to the triumphant parade of the Grande Armée in Berlin , before being reviewed by the Emperor on 30 October . Beginning on 7 November , Nansouty and his division were with Murat , heading for the river Vistula , which they crossed on 22 December with the rest of the cavalry reserve . After a brief and successful cavalry action at the Lapazin bridge , they tried to get to the Battle of Golymin in time for the action , but were delayed by the thick mud and by the slower dragoon division that preceded them ; they arrived after the battle . The division then took winter quarters in Warsaw , but with Murat on sick leave , Nansouty was soon called to replace him , taking command of Lasalle 's light cavalry division and the dragoon divisions of Klein and Milhaud . These divisions were placed in the first line of the army , and Nansouty , although formally placed under the overall command of Marshal Jean @-@ de @-@ Dieu Soult , had orders to act independently and report directly to the Emperor if any unforeseen and extraordinary events should occur . Nansouty handled this new mission with care , personally patrolling the front line and deciding where to place the pickets of light cavalry that were to cover the infantry outposts .
= = = = Campaign in Poland : early manoeuvres = = = =
With the news of the alarming Russian operations against the left wing of the army , Murat reassumed command of the cavalry reserve , ordering Nansouty to retake command of the 1st heavy cavalry division and follow the concentration of the army towards Eylau . Joining his men in Warsaw , Nansouty diligently led them towards his assigned destination , but did not arrive until 13 February 1807 , five days after the Battle of Eylau and too late to take part in any action . On 14 February , Nansouty learned of the death of his comrade and former commander during the Revolutionary Wars , General d 'Hautpoul , who had been fatally wounded during the heroic cavalry charges at Eylau . After the battle , the Emperor decided that the army was to take winter quarters . To ensure the safety of his outposts , he sent Murat with a powerful column , including Nansouty 's men , with the mission of pushing back any enemy they might find . A short skirmish involving the 1st heavy cavalry division occurred at Wolfsdorf on 10 March , before it was decided that all the heavy cavalry would be sent to the lower Vistula , where they were to rest and be reinforced .
With its ranks replenished after the winter actions , the six @-@ regiment division under Nansouty numbered , on 1 June 1807 , no less than 3 @,@ 257 men . It was by far the most powerful heavy cavalry division of the Cavalry Reserve , which then included two other such divisions , the 2nd under Saint @-@ Sulpice and a newly added 3rd , under Espagne . As military operation resumed later in 1807 , Nasouty 's division was hastily directed towards the town of Deppen , where Marshal Michel Ney had managed to retreat with his Corps , after energetically extricating himself from a dangerous situation , with surprisingly few losses . With Ney 's Corps , the Cavalry Reserve and the Guard , Napoleon moved towards Guttstadt , where on 9 June he found a large combined @-@ arms enemy force . Murat took Lasalle 's light horse and Nansouty 's heavy cavalry and launched a series of charges that drove back the enemy force . Murat continued to press on and pushed the enemy into the streets of Guttstadt , where he penetrated with the cavalry at nightfall . Having fought well with his men , Nansouty was rested the next day , leaving all the action at the Battle of Heilsberg to Espagne 's 3rd Heavy Cavalry division .
At the beginning of June 1807 , the Emperor reassessed his strategic situation and decided that he needed to move northeast , in order to prevent Bennigsen 's Russian army from using the bridge at Friedland to cross the Alle river . If the Russians managed to cross the Alle river at Friedland , they could then move closer to their Prussian allies , who were based in Königsberg . Napoleon drew up a plan , giving Marshal Murat two army corps and a powerful cavalry reserve , with orders to march on Königsberg , while sending the rest of the troops towards Friedland . Leading the thrust towards Friedland was Marshal Jean Lannes 's Reserve Corps ( two infantry divisions and one cavalry brigade ) , with Grouchy 's dragoons and Nansouty 's horse carabiniers and cuirassiers temporarily attached . In Murat 's absence , Grouchy was the senior cavalry commander and was to take overall command of all the cavalry that remained with the Emperor .
= = = = Campaign in Poland : Friedland = = = =
Arriving with his corps at Friedland on 13 June after nightfall , Lannes found the position already occupied by Russian forces . Very early on 14 June , Lannes intrepidly attacked with an almost symbolic force ( between 11 @,@ 000 and 13 @,@ 500 men ) against the might of a massed enemy army of 85 @,@ 000 . His goal was to prevent the enemy from crossing the Alle and to give Napoleon enough time to arrive with the remainder of his forces . Nansouty 's division arrived on the field of battle at Friedland after the first engagements and was directed towards the strategic village of Heinrichsdorf . This village needed to be held , as it protected Lannes 's communications with the rest of Napoleon 's army . Grouchy also directed his dragoon division towards the village and was shocked to find it in enemy hands and Nansouty 's men retreating at a trot , without even attempting to contain the enemy or to cover the route that represented the corps ' communication line . In fact , Nansouty had arrived not long before and had been instructed to place himself at Heinrichsdorf , without further instructions and without being informed of what was happening on the right . As Russian infantry and cavalry were boldly pressing him , he became concerned with his own lines of communication and thus ordered his men back , to avoid being cut off .
However , Nansouty 's move compromised Lannes 's entire plan , which counted on powerful reinforcements arriving through Heinrichsdorf . An alarmed Lannes immediately sent one of his aides de camp to Grouchy urging him to stop the enemy from cutting his communications with the Emperor , whatever the cost . Grouchy duly took command of Nansouty 's leading squadrons , ordering them back to their initial position , then launched a desperate but successful charge with his own dragoons , arriving in the streets of the village and cutting off its Russian defenders . Grouchy 's dragoons became disorganised and were badly positioned following this sudden charge , and the Russian cavalry countercharged them , but Nansouty arrived just in time and the French repulsed the Russian cavalry , momentarily securing the position . A lively argument ensued between the two cavalry commanders . Grouchy invoked his seniority and position as commander of the cavalry and criticised Nansouty 's earlier decision to withdraw . Nansouty countered by saying that he had superior experience at handling cavalry . When combat resumed , the quarrel did not prevent Nansouty from performing brilliantly under Grouchy 's command during the dramatic series of events that followed . Having been repulsed earlier , the Russians decided to force the position at Heinrichsdorf , and they assembled a strong infantry force preceded by no less than 60 cavalry squadrons , plus around 2 @,@ 000 Cossacks . To counter this move , Grouchy opted for deception , luring some of the enemy cavalry away from the infantry . Then , Grouchy charged the enemy horse from the front ; simultaneously Nansouty hit them from the flank and together Grouchy and Nansouty repulsed them . Despite numerous charges and countercharges , the French cavalry maintained the upper hand .
After the arrival of the Emperor with significant reinforcements , the time was right for a general counterattack . The Emperor planned his main attack against the Russian left and he wanted to prevent the enemy from transferring reinforcements from their right wing to their battered left . To that effect , Grouchy received orders to incessantly harass the enemy before him , in order to prevent Bennigsen from redeploying them on the left wing . Orders also required Grouchy to silence the enemy guns pounding the French left . In this difficult task , Grouchy was perfectly seconded by Nansouty , and together they ended to the Russian cannonade in this sector . Later , Grouchy 's report expressed admiration for Nansouty 's actions , adding that the latter had " gloriously repaired " his earlier error . Nansouty was also mentioned in the 79th Bulletin of the Grande Armée . After the battle , the 1st heavy cavalry division joined in the pursuit of the Russian army to the Nieman river , but the Treaties of Tilsit in July soon ended hostilities .
= = = Count of the Empire , First Squire and the Peninsula = = =
The numerous honours and endowments that General Nansouty received following the Battle of Friedland seem to suggest the Emperor 's appreciation and the fact that Napoleon did not regard the early incident during this battle as Nansouty 's fault . On 11 July 1807 , General of Division Nansouty was named Grand Aigle de la Légion d 'Honneur , the fifth and top rank of this order , reserved for the greatest general officers . This also brought an annual revenue of 20 @,@ 000 Francs . His first endowment of 12 @,@ 846 Francs was offered on 30 June 1807 , and was paid by the Duchy of Warsaw . On 23 September , he received another 5 @,@ 882 Francs on the Empire 's Grand Livre . A count of the Empire from 10 March 1808 , Nansouty was offered two additional endowments , one of 25 @,@ 000 Francs , paid by the Kingdom of Westphalia , and the second of 10 @,@ 000 Francs , paid by the Zeven domain in Hannover . He also received an endowment of 100 @,@ 000 Francs for the acquisition of a Parisian Hôtel particulier ; Nansouty bought the Hôtel du Président Duret in the Faubourg Saint @-@ Germain , a neighbourhood inhabited by the new elite of Imperial France . Indeed , first @-@ rate military figures such as the Viceroy of Italy Eugène , Marshals Davout and Lannes and Generals Rapp and Legrand also acquired residences in Faubourg Saint @-@ Germain .
Additionally , in 1808 , he was offered the position of First Squire of the Emperor in Napoleon 's Military Household , a dignity that offered an annual revenue of 30 @,@ 000 Francs and which gained importance when the Grand Squire , General Armand Augustin Louis de Caulaincourt , was sent to Saint @-@ Petersburg as ambassador . Napoleon allegedly chose Nansouty for his elegant manners and education , aristocratic posture and talent for administration . In his capacity as First Squire , Nansouty thus had to accompany the Emperor during the latter 's short campaign in Spain ( from November 1808 to early January 1809 ) . There , he was in charge of several administrative tasks linked with managing the Emperor 's stable services and suite and commanding his orderly officers . The Emperor 's aides @-@ de @-@ camp had their own aides @-@ de @-@ camp , who were also placed under the command of the First Squire . Although never very far away from the Emperor in a campaign that included many battles , Nansouty himself never exercised a field command during this campaign , and in January 1809 , he accompanied his master back to France , as the outbreak of the War of the Fifth Coalition was imminent .
= = = War of the Fifth Coalition = = =
With a large part of the French Empire 's forces now entangled in the bloody Peninsular War , the Austrian Empire believed that its best opportunity to avenge the humiliating defeat of 1805 had finally come . The Austrians were looking to defeat France and regain their former influence in Italy and Germany . In early 1809 , the Austrian war preparations were so intense that Napoleon was forced to leave Spain and head back to Paris to reorganise his main army in Germany . In spring , Nansouty was therefore recalled to the command of 1st of the three heavy cavalry divisions of the Cavalry Reserve , placed this time under the command of Marshal Jean @-@ Baptiste Bessières . As the War of the Fifth Coalition broke out , Nansouty 's division was soon detached from the Reserve and temporarily attached to Marshal Louis Nicolas Davout 's III Corps , the force that was assigned the most difficult tasks during the early military operations of this war . As Napoleon then ordered a concentration of the army at Ratisbon , Nansouty 's division was once again put under the command of Bessières and sent to serve with the Bavarian army . After his initial victories at Abensberg and Landshut , Napoleon concentrated the bulk of his army , including Nansouty 's men , at Eckmühl , where Davout was waiting .
= = = = Eckmühl and Ratisbon = = = =
Napoleon faced Archduke Charles 's Austrian army at the Battle of Eckmühl , on 21 – 22 April 1809 . On 22 April , the second day of the battle , Nansouty was at first sent to the Schierling plain , in support of Bavarian General Deroy , who , after several failed attempts , managed to take the town of Eckmühl from the enemy . Apart from the Schierling plain , the terrain at Eckmühl was very uneven and hilly , with dangerously steep slopes , which made cavalry action here improper . Yet , it was here that one of the most memorable cavalry actions of the entire Napoleonic Wars was to take place . It all began on the slopes next to Eckmühl , where a first brief cavalry engagement occurred , as Bavarian and Württemberger cavalry encountered and charged Austrian cavalry . The Austrians won out and the Bavarians and Württembergers retreated and reformed in the vicinity of the two French heavy cavalry divisions present . These two divisions , the 1st under Nansouty ( 1st and 2nd Carabiniers @-@ à @-@ cheval , 2nd , 3rd , 9th and 12th Cuirassiers ) and the 2nd under Saint @-@ Sulpice ( four regiments strong ) , were placed next to one another , forming five lines , with their regiments in column , one in front of the other . These men were ordered forward , up the slope and onto the plateau where the light cavalry had been repulsed moments earlier . Arriving on the plateau at a gallop , the cavalry overtook Marshal Lannes 's infantry , who admiringly cheered " Vive les cuirassiers " ( " Long live the cuirassiers " ) and applauded as the cavalry galloped past them , . With their two frontline regiments now deployed in line and with the German light cavalry protecting their flanks , the two heavy cavalry divisions clashed into whatever Austrian cavalry they could find on the plateau , repulsing them with ease . This was , however , only the prelude of a much larger cavalry combat .
In order to protect his retreat , Archduke Charles of Austria reunited his entire cavalry reserve , 44 squadrons in all , on either side of the Ratisbon road , next to the village of Eggolsheim . Between 19 : 00 20 : 00 in the evening , Napoleon ordered his cavalry to disperse the enemy horse from this position . In preparation of the charge , Nansouty formed five of his regiments in two lines : three regiments in the first line and two in the second line , leaving his remaining regiment with Saint @-@ Sulpice . Saint @-@ Sulpice 's division was on Nansouty 's right and it remained formed in regiment column formations , while the light cavalry was protecting the flanks of the whole . In all , the French had 48 squadrons , and , as they advanced , they were met by intense artillery fire from the Austrian batteries and then vigorously charged by the Gottesheim cuirassier regiment . Seeing the enemy charging , Nansouty ordered his squadrons forward towards the enemy , but at a gentle trot . Then , as soon as the Austrians were at about one hundred paces , the frontline regiment of Carabiniers @-@ à @-@ Cheval halted , loaded their carbines and fired a salvo from thirty or forty paces , then drew their swords and joined their fellow cuirassiers in an energetic charge . As Nansouty led , Saint @-@ Sulpice followed and , despite the vigour and determination of the Austrian cavalry , they were repulsed after a brief hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . Coming in support of the Gottesheim Cuirassiers , the Kaiser Cuirassier regiment shared the same fate , with the Stipsicz Hussars and Vincent Chevau @-@ légers also repulsed . A generalised and bloody mêlée then occurred under the moonlight , with the sabre hits on the steel cuirasses producing sparkles in the night . Austrian General Andreas von Schneller was wounded during this action and General Karl Wilhelm von Stutterheim , commanding the entire Austrian cavalry , only just escaped capture . The Austrian cavalry was repulsed and pushed into the marshes beyond , subsequently retreating towards Köfering , with the bulk of Archduke Charles 's forces retreating towards Ratisbon .
The pursuit resumed the next day at dawn , and was followed by yet another action at the Battle of Ratisbon , where the Austrians tried to delay the French pursuit . After fierce fighting , during which Nansouty 's and Saint @-@ Sulpice 's men successfully charged the enemy cavalry three times , the French captured the citadel at Ratisbon , but saw the Austrians skilfully retreating . Nansouty was left at Ratisbon with Davout , to observe the retreat of Archduke Charles .
= = = = Aspern @-@ Essling = = = =
On 21 May 1809 , Napoleon crossed the Danube not far from Vienna and attacked Archduke Charles 's Austrian army , situated on the northern bank of the river , in what became known as the Battle of Aspern @-@ Essling . The French were nonetheless critically outnumbered and it soon became obvious that they would have a hard time just holding out . Nansouty could only get one of his brigades , Saint @-@ Germain 's 3rd and 12th cuirassiers , across the Danube for the action on 21 May . He found the heroic cuirassiers of General Jean @-@ Louis @-@ Brigitte Espagne charging , as they had done all day long , in a desperate attempt to stop Austrian attacks on the thin French battle line . Espagne had just been killed in action and his exhausted and depleted squadrons needed to be relieved . Nansouty at once brought forward Saint @-@ Germain 's squadrons and charged the enemy infantry , allowing the army to maintain itself on the position .
On the second day of the battle , 22 May , Nansouty received his second cuirassier brigade , Doumerc 's 2nd and 9th regiments . During the morning , having received some reinforcements , Napoleon sent Marshal Lannes 's Corps forward , in an attack against the enemy line . Nansouty 's and Lasalle 's cavalry protected the infantry columns , charging the enemy cavalry to clear their path . However , at around 21 : 00 in the morning , news that the great bridge over the Danube had broken , making the arrival of further reinforcements virtually impossible , forced Napoleon to call off his attack and order a phased retreat . The situation of the French army was critical , with Marshal Lannes fatally wounded , and a great number of losses in men . It took all the skill of Nansouty and the other cavalry commanders to contain the formidable Austrian onslaught in order to allow the rest of the army to gradually disengage . After most of the army had safely crossed an arm of the Danube onto the island of Lobau , Nansouty 's men were also withdrawn from the battlefield during the night , with the French cavalry subsequently celebrated for their role in preventing a catastrophic defeat that day .
= = = = Wagram = = = =
After the bloody setback at Aspern @-@ Essling , Napoleon took six weeks to carefully plan another crossing of the Danube . He launched this operation late on 4 July and , by the early hours of the next day , he had managed to get a substantial force across the river . Nansouty 's division did not see any action during the first day of the Battle at Wagram and at night they camped behind the Imperial Guard . The next day , 6 July , Nansouty was at first directed to support Davout , on the French right , but when it became clear that the latter 's sector was not threatened by the arrival of enemy reinforcements , they were ordered back into reserve in a central position on the battlefield , not far from the village of Aderklaa . Then , as the situation on the French left rapidly deteriorated , they were called into action , when Napoleon ordered Marshal Bessières , commander of the Cavalry Reserve , to launch his men in a charge against the Austrians menacing his left . With time at the essence , Bessières opted not to wait for the Guard cavalry and , with his other two heavy cavalry divisions assigned to other sectors of the battlefield , he decided to lead forward only Nansouty 's men . This division was indeed very strong : 24 squadrons , more than 4 @,@ 000 men , including Brigadier General Defrance 's 1st and 2nd carabiniers @-@ à @-@ cheval , Brigadier General Doumerc 's 2nd and 9th cuirassiers and Brigadier General Berckheim 's 3rd and 12th cuirassiers .
Bessières and Nansouty led these men forward , through a hail of cannonballs and case @-@ shot , with the carabiniers @-@ à @-@ cheval at the front . Finding a weaker spot in the Austrian line , they pierced it and stormed past the enemy infantry formed in squares , sabering the Georger Grenzer battalion as they went along their way . However , many of the French cavalry did not manage to penetrate through the formidable masses of Austrian infantry , so Nansouty was now commanding a much diminished force . Showing great skill in handling his men , Nansouty then wheeled right and charged Liechtenstein 's artillery line . However , the Austrian cavalry promptly intervened , spearheaded by the Rosenberg chevaulegers and the Kronprinz cuirassier regiments , which caught the carabiniers @-@ à @-@ cheval in flank and repulsed them , pursuing them back to their lines . The costly repulse of Nansouty 's division did not dishearten Bessières , who was preparing another rapid charge , now with the support of elements of the Guard cavalry . This charge never came , as the Marshal 's horse was killed by a cannonball , with Bessières also hit and carried unconscious behind the lines . With his commander presumed dead , Nansouty did not know what the Emperor 's orders were and thus promptly decided to pull back his men , to avoid further damage to his already battered division .
This however was not to be the end of General Nansouty 's action at the great Battle of Wagram . Although the great cavalry attack had done much to ease the pressure on Napoleon 's left @-@ centre , the latter 's situation remained critical . The Emperor thus launched the Corps of General Jacques MacDonald in an attack against the Austrian right @-@ centre . MacDonald 's attack formation , formed by chance more than by any tactical forethought , was a huge infantry attack column or square , comprising all his divisions in a deep formation that was highly unusual for Napoleonic warfare . Four squadrons of Nansouty 's carabiniers @-@ à @-@ cheval were sent to support the flank of this attack , with the rest of his division further back . Realising that his advance is hampered by intense Austrian artillery fire , MacDonald aimed to clear the enemy guns before him , asking for a cavalry charge from Walther 's Guard cavalry on his right and Nansouty 's 1st heavy cavalry division on his left . With no direct orders from the Emperor and his commander , Marshal Bessières , out of action , Walther opted not to move , while Nansouty did send his men forward but , having been positioned too far back , he arrived only after the enemy guns had moved away .
Nansouty 's division suffered a very high casualty rate at the Battle of Wagram , with more men and horses lost than the other two heavy cavalry divisions combined . Losses in horses were extremely high , with 1 @,@ 141 animals killed or injured , while losses in men were also significant , despite the fact that only the carabiniers @-@ à @-@ cheval really came into contact with the enemy . Overall , Nansouty 's division lost 164 men killed and 436 wounded . Foremost of all , the highly battered two carabiniers @-@ à @-@ cheval regiments had no more than 300 horses standing between themselves by the end of the day , for an equine casualty rate of 77 percent , with the 9th and 12th cuirassiers also suffering high casualties . Bessières 's charge , hastily organised with only the division of Nansouty , through murderous artillery fire and against masses of infantry prepared to receive them , had less tactical effect than at Aspern @-@ Essling , but it did win Napoleon valuable time , allowing him to retake the initiative in this battle .
= = = Interlude between two campaigns = = =
General MacDonald was very critical of both Walther and Nansouty , for their alleged failure to provide proper cavalry support during his attack . MacDonald went on to write in his memoirs that he was " taken aback by the slowness of General Nansouty [ ... ] Nansouty did charge in the end , but too late to take advantage of the gaping hole that I had pierced in the centre of the Austrian army . " A few days after the Battle of Wagram , Napoleon confronted Nansouty over what he saw as being a failure to cooperate with MacDonald . Nansouty responded to the Emperor 's lively reproaches by offering categorical explanations , saying that he had not been consulted in the placement of his division , rendering manoeuvres impossible during that action . As Napoleon insisted , Nansouty stood up to him , finally retorting : " After all , it is not Your Majesty at any rate who can teach me to lead cavalry ... " Despite this remark , Nansouty would continue to be given significant commands in the coming years . It was shortly after this bloody battle that Nansouty insisted that the Carabiniers @-@ à @-@ Cheval be given the steel cuirass , in a bid to cancel out what he saw as being a state of inferiority of these troops vis @-@ à @-@ vis their fellow cuirassiers . Nansouty 's initiative was approved and was enforced in 1810 .
With the peace of Vienna signed between the French Empire and the Austrian Empire in October , Nansouty was ordered to leave the command of his division to General Bruyères and retake his position of First Squire alongside the Emperor ( 17 October 1809 ) . However , with the return of the Grand Squire Armand Augustin Louis de Caulaincourt , the role of the First Squire was much diminished . As a result , in 1811 Nansouty was given an additional function , that of General Inspector of cavalry . Very active in exercising this function , he soon became reputed for his strictness and for his detailed knowledge and invaluable experience that he had of this arm . Nonetheless , war was , once more , not far away and , on 19 October 1811 , Nansouty was called to the command of the 2nd and 4th cuirassier divisions of the " Observation Corps of the Elba " , under the command of Marshal Louis Nicolas Davout . Then , with the reorganisation of the Grande Armée in April 1812 , Nansouty was named at the command of the I Cavalry Corps .
= = = Campaign in Russia = = =
With the outbreak of the war with Russia in 1812 , the Grande Armée included , alongside the usual combined @-@ arms Army Corps , four large Cavalry Reserve Corps , commanded respectively by Generals Nansouty ( Ist ) , Montbrun ( IInd ) , Grouchy ( IIIrd ) and La Tour Maubourg ( IVth Corps ) . This innovation has been much criticised after this campaign and , in the words of Marshal Marmont , it had the only merit of " presenting an extraordinary spectacle that astonished the eye . "
During this campaign , Nansouty 's I Cavalry Corps was composed of :
General Bruyères 's 1st light cavalry division ( 7th , 8th Hussars , 16th Chasseurs à cheval , 9th Chevau @-@ légers lanciers , one Prussian and one Polish light horse regiments ) ,
General Saint @-@ Germain 's 1st cuirassier division ( 2nd , 3rd , 9th Cuirassiers , 1st Chevau @-@ légers lanciers regiments ) ,
General Valence 's 5th cuirassier division ( 6th , 11th and 12th Cuirassiers , 5th Chevau @-@ légers lanciers regiments ) ,
an artillery of 36 pieces .
Having crossed the Niemen river with his Corps , Nansouty would continuously march under the command of Joachim Murat during this campaign , preceding the advance of the army and taking Wilna as they advanced . Despite marching constantly alongside Murat and Emperor Napoleon , Nansouty 's Ist Corps of cavalry reserve saw little action , combating brilliantly in a vanguard action at Ostrovno and then briefly at Vitebsk . An incident involving some of Nansouty 's light cavalry occurred during the combat at Vitebsk , when the 8th Hussars and 16th Chasseurs à cheval turned and fled before the Russian light horse . This was evidence that the division of Bruyères , of which they were a part , had been much used by always being placed at the vanguard of the army , resulting in the loss many of the best and bravest troopers . Despite Nansouty 's best efforts , the extremely long and exhausting marches , the torrential rains and the absence of proper fodder took their toll on the Ist Cavalry Corps , with numbers reduced to half by this time . Additionally , just like the other Cavalry Corps commanders , Nansouty rarely had all his troops under direct control , which led to cavalry being used improperly at times .
With his three divisions reunited on 7 September 1812 , Nansouty 's Ist Cavalry Corps saw action at the Battle of Borodino . He was placed on the French right , in second line , behind the Corps of Marshal Davout and , after Murat managed to take two of the redoubts on the Russian left , Nansouty placed his men on the right of this position and then supported the advance of the right wing of the army . With the Russians making an offensive comeback , Nansouty placed himself at the head of the heavy divisions of Saint @-@ Germain and Valence and charged and while doing so a bullet pierced one of his knees . This was Nansouty 's first battle wound and it was serious enough to end his active role during this campaign . He was transported to Moscow following the battle and although still wounded , on 10 October , he was entrusted with the mission of commanding the convoy that was to take the wounded generals and colonels , as well as the main trophies captured , behind the lines . During this mission , he was exposed to great danger , to famine and extreme cold , which impacted his already frail health . He was then allowed to return to France and recover from his injury .
= = = War of the Sixth Coalition = = =
The remains of the French army had completely evacuated Russian territory by December 1812 but their defeat sparked anti @-@ French sentiments in Germany and Prussia joined the Russians , forming a Sixth Coalition . Hostilities thus continued in early 1813 but Nansouty 's wound did not yet allow him to return to action , so he was offered the prestigious position of Colonel @-@ General of dragoons ( 16 January ) , in replacement of General Louis Baraguey d 'Hilliers , who had just died of exhaustion . Nansouty 's wound was very serious but he had been very lucky : the bullet that pierced his knee only tore through flesh , leaving his kneecap intact . Having missed the first part of the campaign , General Nansouty was recalled to a field command once his knee wound was cured , towards mid @-@ 1813 . He accepted to take the helm of the Guard cavalry , with a complement of 5 @,@ 000 sabres , and including Guyot 's Grenadiers @-@ à @-@ cheval , Letort 's Dragons , Lefebvre @-@ Desnouettes Chasseurs @-@ à @-@ cheval and Édouard Colbert 's Chevau @-@ légers lanciers .
= = = = Campaign in Saxony = = = =
In 1813 , most military operations took part in Saxony , with the Chasseurs @-@ à @-@ cheval and Colbert 's Chevau @-@ légers lanciers encountering the enemy in several isolated cavalry actions , but the first serious action came only at the Battle of Dresden , where Nansouty 's Guard cavalry supported Marshal Michel Ney 's attack on the extreme left , in conjunction with Marshal Édouard Mortier 's " Young Guard " infantry divisions .
However , the Guard cavalry was not needed as a whole before the epic " Battle of Nations " at Leipzig . Placed in reserve at first , the Guard cavalry and artillery had to spring into action at once , after Napoleon received news of the Saxon defection . With the Saxons now in the Coalition camp and firing at the soldiers who moments before had been their allies , the situation of some of the French troops became desperate . The position of General Durutte 's division , placed close to Saxon lines , was particularly tenuous and Napoleon soon came to its aid , with Nansouty in command of the Guard cavalry and horse artillery . Nansouty launched an impetuous charge with some of his regiments , the Grenadiers @-@ à @-@ cheval , Dragons and Chevau @-@ légers and the Saxons were unable to hold out in this sector . However , the situation changed on 19 October , with the untimely explosion of a bridge over the Elster , the main retreat line for the French rearguard , which was now blocked in the city of Leipzig . The Guard cavalry extricated itself from the field of battle and was very useful in covering the retreat of the remaining French forces .
With the Grande Armée in full retreat , another dangerous situation occurred on 29 October . With Bavaria now also in the camp of the Coalition , an Austro @-@ Bavarian army of some 45 @,@ 000 men , under General Karl Philipp von Wrede , who had fought under the command of the Emperor during the previous campaigns , tried to block the French retreat and delay the French force until the arrival of the rest of the Coalition forces . Wrede had the means necessary to achieve his goal , as he possessed a numerous artillery of about one hundred pieces and a powerful cavalry of 50 squadrons . In comparison , the French forces were much dispersed and only a few units remained cohesive and combat @-@ capable . During the ensuing Battle of Hanau , Wrede placed his troops in front of the forest of Lamboi , through which he expected that the French would retreat . He also positioned almost all of his cavalry on the left , placing it under the command of Field Marshal @-@ Lieutenant Spleny . Despite his numeric inferiority , Napoleon sent forward a part of his men against Bavarians deployed in the forest before him , but the intervention of the Foot Guards was soon required . The Bavarians had fought alongside the French in the past and the sight of the fearsome Bearskins of French Guardsmen shook their morale and they abandoned their position in the forest after a brief fight . But , with the fire of a Bavarian grand battery upon them , the French infantry soon had to stop . Napoleon positioned General Le Noury 's artillery in battery and brought in support General Drouot with the horse artillery of the Guard , as well as other pieces , constituting a grand battery of some 50 pieces that was soon able to respond adequately to the Austro @-@ Bavarian cannonade . Nansouty , with the Guard Dragoons and Lancers , was instructed to protect this battery from the enemy and thus positioned his men behind the guns .
Seeing this inauspicious development , Wrede sent his cavalry , no less than 7 @,@ 000 men , to charge Drouot 's grand
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battery . The steady French canister fire was devastating and many Coalition squadrons turned back to safety . Some of them did manage to get to the French guns and crossed the battery , with the Guard cavalry immediately countercharging and driving them off . With the gun line now out of danger , Nansouty , with the aid of Sebastiani 's cuirassiers launched a pursuit of the repulsed enemy horse , encountering and breaking an Austrian cuirassier regiment , the Knesevich Dragoon regiment and two Bavarian chevaulegers regiments , all under the personal command of Field Marshal @-@ Lieutenant Franz Splény de Miháldy . Then , with a manoeuvre resembling that of Kellermann at Marengo , Nansouty wheeled his men left and rushed onto the enemy infantry , breaking them . The Grenadiers @-@ à @-@ Cheval were in the thick of the fighting and , with an offensive comeback of the Bavarian cavalry , they were momentarily in a dangerous situation , but were duly rescued by the Gardes d 'Honneur regiment . Nansouty then took his entire cavalry and broke the remaining enemy squares and cavalry , pushing some of these men into the Kinzig river . Meanwhile , Nansouty 's action left Sebastiani free to silence the Bavarian grand battery , skilfully using Saint @-@ Germain 's cuirassier division and Exelmans 's light division of his Corps . Nansouty received a light wound during this battle , but his role at Hanau is compared by a Russian author to that of Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz at the Battle of Zorndorf .
= = = = Campaign in France = = = =
Nansouty 's final campaign took place in 1814 on French soil , under bleak circumstances for the French , who saw huge Coalition armies invade France at the beginning of that year . During this campaign , his command , 5 @,@ 000 Horse Guards , included the 1st and 2nd Chevau @-@ légers Lanciers regiments , under General Édouard Colbert , the Chasseurs à Cheval , under General Laferrière , the Grenadiers à Cheval under General Guyot , the Dragons , under General Letort , as well as the entire Guard horse artillery .
These men soon saw action on 27 January , at the Battle of Brienne . Here , two companies of horse artillery , under an officer called Marin , a veteran of the campaigns in Italy and Egypt and personal favourite of the Emperor , were almost completely destroyed , with their guns and commander captured by the enemy . Napoleon was extremely irritated about the failure of the heavy cavalry of the Guard to protect these gunners . A further loss of cannon of the Guard artillery occurred at the Battle of La Rothière , a rare battlefield defeat for Napoleon . Here , a part of the Guard cavalry charged and was initially successful against enemy cavalry but , faced by steady ranks of the Russian and Prussian Guardsmen and with its flank threatened by enemy dragoons , it soon had to withdraw , leaving behind some of its cannon .
After rejoining the Emperor at Champaubert , Nansouty took part to the Battle of Montmirail , where he was at first instructed to protect the artillery . He then joined in the attack of the Guard infantry on the farm of Ėpine @-@ au @-@ Bois , where he suddenly wheeled left with his men and fell upon unprepared enemy infantry , charging home , routing these troops and subsequently pursuing the fugitives . This combined attack of the Guard resulted in a great number of prisoners and captured enemy guns , with Nansouty receiving a light wound in the process . A part of his men then took part to the Battle of Château @-@ Thierry , where the Emperor ordered the Guard cavalry to make a turning move against the enemy left , and where Nansouty 's subordinates General Letort and Colonel Curély brilliantly broke several enemy squares . Then , on 14 February , Nansouty personally led a brilliant charge at the Battle of Vauchamps , where he supported Grouchy in a cavalry action that decided the battle . Charging Blücher 's men from the front , Nansouty allowed Grouchy to magnificently fall behind the enemy columns , which they both then sabred and crushed , with the Guard cavalry subsequently participating to a highly successful pursuit . Enemy losses reached a staggering 9 @,@ 000 @-@ 10 @,@ 000 casualties , with 25 cannons lost . The Emperor was radiant following this battle , but , by nightfall , his mood changed when he found out of the loss of some Guard horse artillerymen . These men had been captured during their march and it was reported that their capture resulted from General Guyot ( one of Nansouty 's subordinates ) failing to provide an escort and a guide for them . In Nansouty 's presence , a fuming Napoleon summoned Guyot and then chastised him for the repeated losses in cannon during the previous battles , as well as for various other shortcomings , such as failing to properly escort the Emperor . After an angry tirade , Napoleon promptly axed Guyot and announced Nansouty that General Exelmans would replace Guyot at the helm of his Old Guard heavy cavalry . This episode apparently strained relations between Emperor Napoleon and General Nansouty .
Always in the thick of the action during this campaign , on 24 February , Nansouty was present near the city of Troyes . Negotiations for an armistice were ongoing in a village nearby and , despite formal orders to continue the fighting , the two armies had ceased the combat . Nansouty then took his men and attacked enemy troops , charging into the streets of the village where the negotiations were taking place . The French envoy to the armistice talks , Monsieur de Flahaut saw this development and found Nansouty , bitterly protesting against the latter 's action . Nansouty responded that the Emperor was doubtlessly aware that negotiations were indeed taking place there , but that he had orders to capture the position without further delay . On 27 February , the Emperor again moved against Blücher 's Prussians , leaving a part of his forces near Troyes to observe the movement of Prince of Schwarzenberg 's Austrian army . Nansouty , with the Guard cavalry , accompanied the Emperor , ensuring his protection and clearing his way after a bloody cavalry skirmish at Château @-@ Thierry on 3 March . Another cavalry skirmish occurred on 5 March , with Nansouty repulsing a numerous enemy cavalry , 3 @,@ 000 @-@ 4 @,@ 000 troopers , and capturing the bridge of Berry @-@ au @-@ Bac , over the Aisne , despite the enemy cannonade . Once across the Aisne with a few Polish lancer platoons , Nansouty launched a heroic pursuit , capturing enemy cannons and munitions , and taking a significant number of prisoners , among whom was the teenage Russian Prince Gagarin .
On 7 March , at the Battle of Craonne , another incident occurred , seemingly indicating that there had been some sort of disagreement between the General and the Emperor . As the battle was raging , General Belliard from the Emperor 's staff came to Nansouty and told him that he had orders to relieve him of command should his health prevent him from exercising his duties . Nansouty responded that he was indeed ill , but that he was able to retain command . Although in unusually bad humour after this incident , Nansouty subsequently led a most brilliant action at Craonne . He was ordered to cross bogged and broken terrain , and climb a steep incline with his cavalry and artillery , in order to fall on the enemy 's right flank . Managing to bring his cavalrymen on the ridge , Nansouty formed them in line and launched them against the enemy , pushing back in disorder two Russian battalions . Nansouty was again wounded during this action , but this injury was not very serious and he continued to energetically lead his men . Napoleon then allegedly ordered Nansouty to assault a redoubt , under the most murderous fire . Nonetheless , Nansouty ordered his men to halt and advanced alone towards the position . Asked to explain his behaviour , he replied that he would not send his men to die in vain and that he would be attacking alone . Napoleon at once revoked his order .
This was to be the last military engagement of Nansouty 's long career . On 8 March , on the eve of the Battle of Laon , Nansouty was at Chavignon , nine kilometres from Laon , where the Emperor was also present and , although the circumstances of Nansouty 's departure are unclear , it is certain that he left this village , and his command , that very day . Two days later , Napoleon wrote to his War Minister to inform him that General Nansouty 's health did not allow him to exercise his military duties and that he was authorised to take sick leave in Paris . General Belliard had taken interim command of the Guard cavalry during the battle of Laon , with General Sébastiani subsequently given permanent command .
= = Bourbon Restoration = =
Having left his command to General Belliard on 8 March , three days later , Nansouty was a part of a convoy of several officers , heading to Paris . On the road to the capital , they were attacked by a pulk of Cossacks , which managed to disperse the convoy 's escort . Nansouty and his officers fought their way out sabre in hand and made a run for it towards the river Aisne . Reaching the riverbanks , the General got isolated and , as he was preparing to cross the river on horseback , his horse was shot under him , throwing the General to the ground . Nevertheless , he stood up and swam to the other bank of the river and safety . This event , as well as his tireless activity during the campaign , seem to suggest that his health was not the main reason of his departure from the army . It is also unlikely that the Emperor himself decided to replace him , given Belliard 's tentative approach at the Battle of Craonne and this General 's subsequent provisional status as commander , after Nansouty 's departure . It is thus more likely that Nansouty resigned , following his disputes with the Emperor .
General Nansouty arrived in Paris and there he remained during the Bourbon Restoration that followed Napoleon 's abdication . He was one of the first general officers to swear allegiance to the new King of France , Louis XVIII , who would bestow a number of honours upon the General . His gesture encouraged many other generals to also swear allegiance to the new regime . On 12 April 1814 , Nansouty was named extraordinary commissioner of the King in the 2nd military division , then , on 20 April , became a member of the commission that was in charge of the dissolution of Napoleon 's Imperial Guard . He was given the distinction of Knight of the Order of Saint Louis on 1 June and on 6 July he was called to a command in the Military Household of the King of France , as captain @-@ lieutenant of the 1st company of musketeers ( grey musketeers ) . Despite these positions , Nansouty 's financial situation declined severely under the Restoration . The General had had a highly honourable behaviour during the Napoleonic Wars and , unlike some of his fellow Napoleonic Generals , had drawn no revenues from pillaging . He had also been living a lofty and very costly lifestyle , which he considered normal for a nobleman such as himself . Nansouty had been earning a high revenue from his various positions during the Empire and additionally Napoleon was constantly paying high endowments to his best generals . Napoleonic endowments aside , Nansouty 's salaries during the first four months of 1814 had brought him no less than 104 @,@ 000 Francs , but , under the Bourbons , his dignity as Colonel @-@ General of dragoons had been suppressed and transformed into an honorific title of Inspector of dragoons , leaving him with only a 25 @,@ 000 Francs salary as captain @-@ lieutenant in the King 's Military Household .
= = Death and resting place = =
By the second half of 1814 , following his long and almost continuous campaigns throughout Europe during the last ten years , the health of General Nansouty badly deteriorated . He was suffering from his wounds , some of which were very recent , but , above all from war fatigue . On his death bed , he is recorded to have said : " I have carefully reflected upon all my action ever since I was born and in all my life , I have not done anyone wrong . " He is also said to have reasserted his Christian faith and to have asked that his son be recommended for the King 's protection , as a favour for his services . Just before passing away , he told his son that his heritage would be to follow his example and live an honourable and blameless life . General Count Étienne @-@ Marie @-@ Antoine @-@ Champion de Nansouty died on 12 February 1815 in Paris , leaving behind his wife and their only son . A pension of 6 @,@ 000 Francs per year was granted to the General 's widow by the King of France . His final resting place is at the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris , division 27 . The engraving on his tombstone reads :
The name NANSOUTY is inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe in Paris .
= = Family = =
The Nansouty family was ancient Burgundy nobility and it was intimately linked to the history of this region , to which it gave several esteemed magistrates and soldiers throughout the centuries . One of its illustrious members , Seigneur de Nansouty was instrumental in ensuring the allegiance of Burgundy to King Henri IV and was rewarded by the monarch for his fidelity by being named state counselor .
General Count de Nansouty was the first child of Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ Pierre @-@ Charles Champion de Nansouty ( born 1718 in Dijon , died 1785 in Bordeaux ) and his wife Antoinette Hélène Harpailler ( born ca . 1740 ) , who also had Pierrette @-@ Adélaïde Champion de Nansouty ( 1771 – 1849 ) . On 27 September 1802 , General Nansouty married Jeanne @-@ Françoise Adélaïde Gravier de Vergennes ( 1781 – 1849 ) , the niece of a former minister of Louis XVI , Charles Gravier , comte de Vergennes . Her parents were : Charles Xavier Gravier de Vergennes , 1751 – 1794 , and Elisabeth Adélaïde Françoise de Bastard , 1763 – 1808 . General Count de Nansouty and his wife had only one child , Étienne Champion de Nansouty ( 1803 – 1865 ) , who , having followed his father 's and grandfather 's footsteps in the military , rose to the rank of squadron commander , but then resigned from the army . General Count Nansouty also had a nephew , Charles @-@ Étienne Champion de Nansouty , who saw a successful military career and who later rose to the rank of general of division .
= = Considerations = =
As a commander , General Nansouty is reported to have been a man of spirit but also to have had an excessive inclination towards sarcasm , which was damaging to his reputation and made him a number of enemies . His few months spent in Spain in 1808 , where he commanded the orderly officers of the Emperor and the aides @-@ de @-@ camp of the senior generals of the General Staff , seem to have acquired him an unwanted reputation for mockery on the service , to such a point that one of his subordinates reported that " no one ever knew when he was joking and when he was serious . " When it came to military matters though , Nansouty 's posture became extremely imposing , concise and tough . A perfectionist , with a keen eye and impeccable knowledge of his arm , he was shocked whenever he saw his cavalry manoeuvres mishandled and then he became sarcastic , at times even insulting his subordinates . However , whenever he went too far with his reprimands , he was noticeably displeased with himself and remorseful , trying to offer reparation to the person he had insulted . This behaviour seems to have been recurrent . His mood seems to have been particularly bad during his last days of service , in 1814 , after he had received a number of light wounds in a short period of time , and foremost , after he had fallen out with the Emperor . During this period , he severely mistreated one of his squadron commanders for not executing his order fast enough , and even sacked his chief of staff , Colonel de la Loyère , for a minor fault .
Nansouty 's character as a proud and independent commander was apparent throughout his career and his conceitedly assertive nature , quite typical of the great cavalry commanders of the time , led to several clashes with his peers . At least one such incident almost led to a duel with another senior cavalry commander , in front of their men . It occurred on 11 July 1809 , a few days after the Battle of Wagram , and opposed him to General Arrighi de Casanova , the commander of the 3rd heavy cavalry division . Both Nansouty and Arrighi adamantly claimed for their respective troops exclusive rights to use a small farm pond that they had found . Both men refused to give way and engaged in a heated argument , to such a point that they almost came to a duel in order to settle the matter . In the end , the more senior Nansouty won out and just after the incident , one of Arrighi 's cuirassiers erected a sign sarcastically saying " Nansouty 's pond " .
Indeed , at times , his sarcasm was directed even at his superiors , with Nansouty clashing with the more senior Grouchy at the Battle of Friedland . Nevertheless , Grouchy later recognised that the actions of Nansouty 's division throughout the battle were " glorious " . In 1809 , Nansouty famously responded to Napoleon 's criticism after the Battle of Wagram by saying : " It is not Your Majesty at any rate who can teach me how to handle cavalry . " Three years later , during the campaign in Russia , when Murat , King of Naples complained to him about the lack of resistance of the horses , Nansouty retorted : " Oh yes , Sire , this is because they lack patriotism . " At the Battle of Craonne , in 1814 , one day before resigning , he was recorded to have refused to execute Napoleon 's order to assault a redoubt , a move which he saw as a death sentence to his men . Instead , Nansouty told the Emperor : " I am going alone . There is nothing but death there and I will not lead these brave soldiers to it . "
His behaviour on campaign can only be described as perfectly honourable and at times humane , a trait which was illustrated during the French Revolutionary Wars , when he spared no effort to protect captured émigrés from the wrath of the Revolutionary radicals in the army . He also showed respect for occupied populations and never tolerated pillaging nor violence from his men . As a sign a gratitude , he was offered gifts several times but he was often seen refusing and sending them back . While on campaign in Tyrol , he was recorded to have accepted a large sum of money but he immediately distributed it to the local hospitals . Further evidence of his humanity was the care that he displayed for the lives and well @-@ being of his men , whom he was always reluctant to sacrifice for the sake of glory .
Overall as a heavy cavalry commander , Nansouty was one of the best men available during the Napoleonic Wars . Precise , methodical , with perfect knowledge of cavalry tactics , he was better than any other in preparing his attack dispositions . He was however less daring than the likes of Lasalle , Montbrun or Kellermann , which did not prevent him from leading some of the most memorable cavalry charges of the Napoleonic Wars . It has also been said that he reacted with " calculated slowness " when placed under the command of Murat . His talents for up @-@ keeping and training his troops seemed to surpass that of his peers . This was illustrated right from the start of the Napoleonic Wars , with the organisation of the cavalry reserve in the Grande Armée , under Marshal Murat . The command of the various units of this reserve was given to some of the best cavalry commanders available , including Jean @-@ Joseph Ange d 'Hautpoul , Louis Klein , Marc Antoine de Beaumont , Frédéric Henri Walther , Louis Baraguey d 'Hilliers and Édouard Jean Baptiste Milhaud . Despite the fame and quality of these commanders , it was Nansouty 's six @-@ regiment division that acquired the reputation of being the best serviced and most exact in its manoeuvres . He was also a commander who had his men continually manoeuvre during a battle , believing that this would distract them from the danger that they were facing .
Nansouty 's battlefield talents were demonstrated through superb charges at Austerlitz , Friedland , Eckmühl , Essling , Borodino , Hanau , Montmirail , Vauchamps or Craonne , thus contributing to some of the most glorious victories of the French Empire and eliciting comparisons with the superb Prussian cavalry commander Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz .
= Meteorological history of Hurricane Gustav =
The meteorological history of Hurricane Gustav spanned eleven days , from August 25 to September 4 , 2008 . The tropical disturbance which eventually spawned Hurricane Gustav gathered on August 16 , southwest of the Cape Verde islands , but was slow to develop as it trekked west across the Atlantic . Upon reaching the warm waters of Caribbean Sea it began to organize and became a tropical depression on August 25 . It quickly strengthened to a tropical storm , and then a hurricane , before making landfall on Haiti 's southwest peninsula . Gustav was severely disrupted by Hispaniola 's mountains and stalled , disorganized , in the Gulf of Gonâve between August 26 and 27 .
Deep convection reformed the storm 's center southwest of Haiti , near Jamaica 's east coast . Under the influence of a mid @-@ level ridge that extended from the Gulf of Mexico to the western Atlantic Ocean , Gustav picked up a westward motion . It was briefly disrupted by Jamaica as it passed over the mountainous island but rapidly strengthened when it moved over open water once again . Reaching Category 4 strength less than 24 hours after having been a tropical storm , Gustav brushed the Isle of Youth and made landfall on Cuba 's western 's peninsula .
Disrupted by mountains once again , Gustav never regained its former strength . Briefly traveling over a warm eddy of the Gulf Stream 's loop current it encountered moderate wind shear and cooling sea surface temperatures . Fluctuations in its internal structure and visible appearance did not counter the storm 's general weakening trend , and Hurricane Gustav made its final landfall as a Category 2 hurricane near Cocodrie , Louisiana on September 1 . Moving inland , the storm quickly weakened but persisted as a significant tropical depression until it was adsorbed by a frontal boundary on September 5 .
= = Formation = =
On August 18 , 2008 , a tropical wave which had left the coast of Africa five days previously , developed into a significant low pressure area about 600 miles ( 970 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Cape Verde islands . This wave moved westward across the Atlantic in conditions that were not favorable for development . As it began to approach the Windward Islands conditions improved and it showed some signs of organization , but no circulation . Upon reaching the windward islands on August 23 , bringing showers , thunderstorms , and generally squally weather , wind shear over the system decreased and atmospheric conditions improved . Over the eastern Caribbean Sea , about 250 miles ( 400 km ) south of Santo Domingo , a low level circulation began to form . Hours later well @-@ defined curved bands and an improving circulation at the surface warranted that the system be designated a tropical depression .
The depression formed a small inner wind core 25 mi ( 40 km ) in diameter which allowed it to rapidly organize , and on the afternoon of August 25 it was upgraded to a tropical storm and first given the name Gustav . A renewed period of disorganization proved to be very short lived , and that night a well @-@ defined eye formed . This eye was accompanied by strengthening as the storm continued to move northwest towards Haiti . Before reaching the island , Gustav 's strengthening pattern raised it to hurricane strength . Its prominent and organizing central dense overcast belied persistent strengthening which continued until Hurricane Gustav made landfall on Haiti 's southwest peninsula about 10 mi ( 16 km ) west of Jacmel around 1730 UTC on August 26 , with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum central pressure of 981 mbar ( 28 @.@ 97 inHg ) .
= = Interaction with Haiti and Jamaica = =
After making landfall near Jacmel , Hurricane Gustav began traversing northwestward across the mountainous terrain of southwestern Haiti , dumping heavy rains as it passed . With favorable atmospheric conditions the storm maintained its hurricane intensity for several hours after landfall , but the high mountains over which it was traveling disrupted its lower level circulation . The eye because ragged and clouded over as Gustav weakened to a tropical storm . A large mid- to upper @-@ level anticyclone over the Florida Straight slowed Gustav 's movement , holding it over the northern coast of Haiti 's southern peninsula . Rainfall from the storm , which had been heavy since its landfall , began to accumulate as the storm 's movement stalled . Although the storm 's upper levels began experiencing moderate shear , and although parts of its circulation were still interacting with the mountains of southwestern Haiti , enough of Gustav 's convection was over the Gulf of Gonâve that on the morning of August 27 its organization started to improve . That afternoon , as a broad ridge extended from the Gulf of Mexico into the western Atlantic Ocean , Tropical Storm Gustav began to slowly pull to the west , away from the island of Hispaniola . Increased shear weakened the storm as the building ridge to the north of Gustav imparted a southerly component to the storm 's motion .
Northeasterly shear inhibited convection in the northeast quadrant , breaking up the storm 's existing center . The storm 's center reformed to the south , east of Jamaica , around a flare of deep convection . This new center was a little stronger than its previous one , and Gustav began moving southwest toward Jamaica . With its southerly reformation Gustav had moved itself away from the mountains of Haiti and over the warm waters of the Caribbean Sea . Finding itself in a much more advantageous environment , Gustav restrengthened to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Continuing west under influence of the same mid @-@ level ridge that had dominated its steering thus far , Gustav approached Jamaica and its outer bands delivered heavy rains . Unwavering in its westward motion , Gustav made landfall on Jamaica 's eastern tip on August 28 at 1800 UTC at just below hurricane strength . It then moved across Jamaica , with its center on the southern coast , and its convection dragging across the island 's mountainous center . Fifteen hours after making landfall , Gustav 's center moved off the island 's west coast and back over the Caribbean Sea . Unlike its Haitian landfall , Gustav 's interaction with Jamaica did not disturb its structure . As it left the island on the morning of August 29 , the storm 's diameter increased substantially and prominent banding features developed . Its low @-@ level center reorganized over the open water and with little wind shear a strengthening pattern emerged which quickly returned Gustav to hurricane status that afternoon .
= = Western Caribbean Sea = =
Having cleared the disruptive landmass of Jamaica , Hurricane Gustav entered a period of sustained intensification . Within hours of leaving the island the storm regained hurricane status and the first signs of an eye appeared . Convective bands and upper @-@ level outflow became well defined in all quadrants , wind shear decreased , and deep warm waters of the Caribbean Sean provided the perfect conditions for strengthening . The subtropical ridge over the eastern Gulf of Mexico developed a weakness , and as Gustav approached the Cayman Islands it was into this weakness that Gustav was drawn . As Hurricane Gustav tore through the low @-@ lying Cayman Islands its 30 mi ( 48 km ) wide eye became very well pronounced . In the early morning hours of August 30 , and Gustav continued to pass through the Cayman Islands , the storm 's winds increased to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , raising Hurricane Gustav to Category 2 strength .
Through the morning Hurricane Gustav continued to rapidly strengthen . Deep convection around the eye flared intensely and the hurricane 's minimum central pressure dropped precipitously — 24 mbar ( 0 @.@ 71 inHg ) in 24 hours . By 1000 UTC it had reached Category 3 strength and continued to strengthen . Another drop in pressure – down 11 mbar ( 0 @.@ 32 inHg ) in 6 hours to 954 mbar ( 28 @.@ 17 inHg ) – was quickly followed by an increase in wind speed to 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) , making Hurricane Gustav a Category 4 hurricane when it had been a mere tropical storm only 24 hours earlier . That afternoon , as Hurricane Gustav continued moving northwest towards Cuba , its western eyewall passed directly over the Isle of Youth .
Passing along the eastern coast of the Isle of Youth , Gustav wobbled slightly , possibly the result of an eyewall replacement cycle , and strengthened even further . Here , even as it brushed the island , Hurricane Gustav continued to strengthen , making a brief landfall with a central pressure of 943 mbar ( 27 @.@ 85 inHg ) and winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) . Its long @-@ term motion continued to be dominated by a mid @-@ level ridge over the western Atlantic , and that evening , with a central pressure of 941 mbar ( 27 @.@ 79 inHg ) , the hurricane made landfall in western mainland Cuba near los Palacios at just under Category 5 intensity , bringing its 155 mph ( 249 km / h ) winds onshore . At a height of 10 metres ( 33 ft ) , a 211 mph ( 340 km / h ) gust was recorded , which the World Meteorological Organization confirmed to be strongest ever measured during a hurricane .
= = Gulf of Mexico = =
The low mountains of western Cuba disrupted Hurricane Gustav 's low @-@ level circulation . Although it crosses the island in only a few hours , the brief interaction caused the storm 's eye to partially cloud @-@ over and its wind speeds fell to 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) as it entered that southeastern Gulf of Mexico that night . Through that night and into the morning of August 31 it continued moving northwestward across the gulf , its winds weakening to 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) as the damage from its interaction with Cuba continued to take its toll . That morning the eye , which was expanding as the storm weakened , completely clouded over . Some mid- to upper @-@ level dry air was drawn into the cyclone and a trough to the south added a slight vertical shear , but these interferences were short lived . Under the continued influence of the ridge over the western Atlantic and southeastern United States Hurricane Gustav accelerated into the central gulf . Here the storm tracked over a warm eddy in the loop current , but the high oceanic heat content failed to induce strengthening . Deep convection continued to be asymmetric and the eyewall opened to the southeast as wind speed continued to fall into Category 2 status . However by the afternoon of August 31 the hurricane 's ragged appearance began to improve . The eye returned properly and its minimum central pressure fell even as its outer bands came ashore on the northern Gulf Coast . Its asymmetric appearance improved and its wind radius expanded , but by that night Gustav had moved off the eddy of the loop current and over slightly cooler water . It could not restrengthen here , despite its more impressive presentation .
In the pre @-@ dawn hours of September 1 , while 170 mi ( 270 km ) from the gulf coast , the hurricane 's wind field expanded and tropical storm force winds extended 220 mi ( 350 km ) from its center . Dry air intrusion from the south broke up the hurricane 's eye , completely dissolving the eyewall as heavy rain bands came ashore in the state of Louisiana . As the eye approached the Louisiana coast , the storm weakened to 105 mph . Making landfall near Cocodrie , Louisiana at 1430 UTC the eye briefly reformed but was not associated with any strengthening .
= = Dissipation = =
After landfall the hurricane continued moving northwestward at 15 mph ( 24 km / h ) . The mid @-@ level ridge over the southeastern United States which had dominated Gustav 's steering for the last few days drifted northward , pulling the hurricane with it . Moving further inland Hurricane Gustav continued to weaken while delivering torrential rains to the central gulf coast of the United States . The eye that had cleared during landfall filled in that afternoon and was replaced by a central dense overcast . That night , 12 hours after landfall , Gustav weakened to a tropical storm with winds of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) .
Slipping below tropical storm strength the following morning , Gustav 's previously firm steering currents began to erode and its forward motion slowed . As the storm crept through northwest Louisiana on September 2 , its heavy rainfall began to accumulate in the region . As the storm continued northwestward though the intersection of Arkansas , Louisiana , Texas , and Oklahoma and into Arkansas proper , its forward motion slowed considerably and it dumped isolated rainfall accumulations in excess of 9 inches ( 228 @.@ 60 mm ) . Through the morning of September 3 , Tropical Depression Gustav briefly drifted north @-@ northeastward under very weak steering currents , but stalled completely over southwestern Arkansas that afternoon and spread heavy rain into the mid @-@ Mississippi Valley . By the evening , steering currents returned and Gustav picked up speed to the northeast at 7 mph ( 11 km / h ) . Moving even more rapidly Gustav left the Mississippi Valley and headed towards the Ohio Valley .
The next morning , as it passed through Missouri , Gustav began to gain extratropical characteristics as it merged with a frontal boundary . The extratropical transition was completed on the afternoon of September 4 as Gustav 's remnant low was moving 28 mph ( 45 km / h ) over St. Louis , Missouri . Although no longer a tropical system , the remnants of Gustav continued to bring wind and rain to the northern United States . That evening , still traveling northeastward , the remnants dropped 2 – 4 in ( 51 – 102 mm ) of rain on Illinois and its widespread remnant low produced trace rainfall stretching from Iowa to Indiana . By nightfall on September 4 the remnants had reached southwest Michigan , where they dumped rain until the next morning , with accumulations as high as 5 in ( 130 mm ) . The storm 's circulation remained intact through Wisconsin where it dropped almost 1 in ( 25 mm ) of rainfall . Some of Gustav 's more northerly remnants even drifted into Minnesota where they dropped small amounts of rain . On September 5 , the storm 's extratropical remnants were absorbed by a larger extratropical low moving through the Great Lakes .
= Slime ( Dragon Quest ) =
The Slime is the mascot of the Dragon Quest role @-@ playing video game franchise . Originally inspired by the game Wizardry to be a weak and common monster for the video game Dragon Quest , Slime has appeared in almost every Dragon Quest game since . The character 's popularity led to the appearance of many varieties of slimes , including boss characters , and even emerging as the protagonist of the Rocket Slime video game series .
The Slime has been placed on a multitude of different kinds of merchandise . The Slime 's friendliness , limited power , and appealing form have caused the Slime to become a popular character and symbol of the Dragon Quest series .
= = Character design = =
The inspiration for the Slime came to Yuji Horii , the creator of Dragon Quest , from a role @-@ playing game called Wizardry . " I was really hooked on ' Wizardy , ' the PC game , ... There 's ... slime @-@ looking characters ... , so I got the inspiration from it . I was doodling the slime @-@ looking character and I took it to Mr. Toriyama , who did the character design , and he made it the Slime we see today . " Horii said that when it was originally conceived , the Slime was " a pile of goo " , but Toriyama 's design came back as a tear @-@ drop which they considered " perfect " .
= = Attributes = =
= = = Personality = = =
In most appearances of the Slime , it is an antagonist , and occasionally a boss . In some Dragon Quest titles , slimes also appear as friendly non @-@ player characters and peaceful inhabitants of cities . Friendly slimes usually greet players with the phrase , " I 'm not a bad slime ! " . Slimes , like many monsters in the Dragon Quest series , have a certain verbal tic , " slurp " . Slimes also replace certain words or syllables with the word " goo " ( i.e. " human " is " gooman " ) , or other words relating to slime or goo , when they speak .
= = = Outward appearance = = =
There are many different types of slimes found throughout the Dragon Quest and Rocket Slime series . These include slimes in different colors , bubble slimes , which look like pools of slime , nautical slimes that wear conch shells , the rare metal slimes , which have high defense , give out large amounts of experience points , and tend to flee from battle , healslimes , which have tentacles , and king slimes , which are very large slimes wearing crowns and come in various versions , such as regular or metal .
= = Appearances = =
The Slime made its first appearance in Dragon Quest as the first and weakest enemy in the game , and has made a similar appearance in all subsequent Dragon Quest titles . In Dragon Quest V , the monster is an easy recruit that learns a variety of magic spells . The Slime is also the protagonist of its own spinoff series , beginning with Slime MoriMori Dragon Quest , a Japanese Game Boy Advance title . It was followed by Dragon Quest Heroes : Rocket Slime , which was released worldwide for the Nintendo DS , and the Japanese @-@ exclusive title , Slime Mori Mori Dragon Quest 3 for the Nintendo 3DS . These games follow a nation of slimes who are intelligent and civilized , but also cute and somewhat comical . In the North American localization of the Dragon Quest games for the Nintendo DS , joking references and puns are made about slimes . Slime also appeared in three crossover games along with characters from Nintendo 's Mario franchise : Itadaki Street DS , Mario Sports Mix , and Fortune Street .
= = Analysis = =
Reviewers have seen the slime as symbolic of the Dragon Quest series in the same way that the Moogle represents Final Fantasy . Dragon Quest creator Yuji Horii speculated that the popularity of the slime may come from its cuteness , how it is easy to defeat , and while the protagonists change in every Dragon Quest game , the slime is always there . GamesRadar speculated that the intense " grinding " , or fighting of enemies in the Dragon Quest series exposed players to an abundance of slimes , but a positive association was created by their familiarity . Yoshiki Watabe , producer of Dragon Quest VIII , hypothesized its popularity came from it being a " well designed character " , but " simple " , being accessible to anyone .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise = = =
As the most recognizable symbol of the best @-@ selling video game series in Japan , the Slime has been featured prominently in Dragon Quest @-@ related merchandise . It has its own section called ' Smile Slime ' on the Square Enix JP shopping website . Slime merchandise includes plush toys , pencil cases , keychains , game controllers , a stylus , and several boardgames including one titled Dragon Quest Slime Racing . In Japan , pork filled steam buns shaped like slimes have been sold . For Dragon Quest 's 25th anniversary , special items were sold including business cards , tote bags , and crystal figurines .
= = = Reception = = =
The Dragon Quest Slime has received positive reception from critics and fans , being called the " most prolific " of all the " memorable " monsters from the series and is one of the most recognizable characters in gaming . The Slime has also been called cute and charming by several critics , especially when reviewing Rocket Slime . GamesRadar listed it as the most lovable blob in video games , calling them the " equivalent of training wheels " due to how easy they are to defeat typically , but also saying that their weird smile makes players think twice about killing them . They also listed it as a character they wished they knew less about . They stated that while they started out as nothing more than things for players to kill and not feel guilty about , the playable role of a Slime in the Dragon Quest Heroes series made them realize they were more than just generic enemies . In the January 2010 issue of Nintendo Power , the editors listed the Slime among its Favorite Punching Bags , a list including Goombas and Octoroks . They wrote that " The Slimes are just so cute and friendly @-@ looking , it 's almost hard to slay them . But you know , a hero 's gotta do what a hero 's gotta do . "
= Battle of Ngomano =
The Battle of Ngomano or Negomano was fought between the German Empire and Portugal during the East African Campaign of World War I. A force of Germans and Askaris under Paul Emil von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck had just won a costly victory against the British at the Battle of Mahiwa , in present @-@ day Tanzania and ran very short of supplies . To find food , the Germans invaded Portuguese East Africa to the south , to escape superior British forces to the north and supply themselves with captured Portuguese materiel .
Portugal was part of the Entente and a belligerent , employing troops in France and a force under Major João Teixeira Pinto was sent to stop von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck from crossing the border . The Portuguese were flanked by the Germans , while encamped at Ngomano on 25 November 1917 . The battle saw the Portuguese force nearly destroyed , with many troops killed and captured . The capitulation of the Portuguese enabled the Germans to seize a large quantity of supplies and continue operations in East Africa until the end of the war .
= = Background = =
By late November 1917 , the Germans in East Africa were left with few options if they wanted to continue the war . They were outnumbered drastically and were split up into several different columns . The two largest of these , under Theodor Tafel and Paul Emil von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck , were completely cut off from each other . Although von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's column had defeated a large British force at the Battle of Mahiwa he had lost a large number of troops and expended virtually his entire supply of modern ammunition . With only antiquated weapons and no way of resupplying , von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck decided to invade Portuguese East Africa in hopes of acquiring sufficient supplies to continue the war . There was no legal impediment to this attack ; Germany had declared war on Portugal on 9 March 1916 .
Although Tafel 's force was intercepted by the Allies and capitulated before reaching the border , von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck and his column was able to reach the Rovuma River . Facing supply shortages , the German general then reduced his force by dismissing a large number of Askaris , who could not be adequately equipped , as well as a number of camp followers . With his reduced force , von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck made plans to attack the Portuguese garrison across the river at Ngomano . The Portuguese force was a native contingent led by European officers under João Teixeira Pinto , a veteran with experience fighting in Africa . Rather than prepare defensive positions , the Portuguese had begun building a large encampment upon their arrival at Ngomano on 20 November . Pinto had at his disposal 900 troops with six machine guns and a large supply cache but his inexperienced force was no match for von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's force , which crossed the river with between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 veterans as well as a large number of porters .
= = Battle = =
At 07 : 00 on the morning of 25 November , the Portuguese garrison at Ngomano received word from a British intelligence officer that an attack was about to commence . Nevertheless , when the attack came they were unprepared . In order to distract Pinto and his men , the Germans shelled the camp from across the river with high explosive rounds . While the artillery attacked the camp , the Germans moved their forces upstream and crossed the Rovuma safely out sight of Pinto and his men . The Portuguese did not resist von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's forces when they crossed the river and remained encamped at Ngomano . The Germans were easily able to flank the Portuguese positions and completely envelop them with six companies of German infantry attacking the camp from the south , south @-@ east and west .
Having been forewarned about the attack , the Portuguese commander had been able to begin preparations for the assault ; however , he had planned on receiving a frontal assault and when the force came under attack from the rear he was completely surprised . The Portuguese attempted to entrench themselves in rifle pits , but they became disoriented after Pinto and several other officers were slain early in the engagement .
The Germans had very little in the way of heavy weapons , as they had discarded most of their artillery and machine guns due to lack of ammunition . Despite the chronic ammunition shortage von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck was able to move four machine guns up close to the rifle pits , using them only at close range to ensure his ammunition would not be wasted . The inexperience of the Portuguese proved to be their downfall , as despite their firing over 30 @,@ 000 rounds German casualties were extremely light , including only one casualty among their officers . Taking heavy casualties , having lost their commanding officer , and finding themselves hopelessly outnumbered , the Portuguese finally surrendered despite the fact that they had enough military supplies to continue the action .
= = Aftermath = =
The German casualties were light , with only a few Askaris and one European killed . The Portuguese , on the other hand , had suffered a massive defeat and by failing to prevent von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's force from crossing the Rovuma allowed him to continue his campaign until the end of the war . Estimates of Portuguese casualties vary , with some sources providing figures of over 200 Portuguese killed and wounded and nearly 700 taken prisoner ; other writers state around 25 Portuguese killed along with 162 Askari , with almost 500 captured . The prisoners of war were used by the Germans as porters for the 250 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition , six machine guns and several hundred rifles that were also captured . With this equipment , the Germans managed to completely resupply their force . Von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck abandoned and destroyed the majority of his force 's German weaponry for which he had no ammunition and armed his troops with Portuguese and British weapons . Portuguese uniforms seized from the captured prisoners were used to replace the ragged old German ones that the force had previously worn .
Von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck did not stay at Ngomano for long and soon marched his force south to attack more Portuguese positions , leaving only one company at Ngomano as a rearguard in case the British decided to follow him into Portuguese East Africa . His force won several more victories while seizing even more supplies and ammunition before moving back into German East Africa in 1918 .
= Pygmy hippopotamus =
The pygmy hippopotamus ( Choeropsis liberiensis or Hexaprotodon liberiensis ) is a small hippopotamid which is native to the forests and swamps of West Africa , primarily in Liberia with small populations in Sierra Leone , Guinea , and Ivory Coast .
The pygmy hippo is reclusive and nocturnal . It is one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae , the other being its much larger cousin the common hippopotamus ( Hippopotamus amphibius ) . The pygmy hippopotamus displays many terrestrial adaptations , but like its larger cousin , it is semi @-@ aquatic and relies on water to keep its skin moist and its body temperature cool . Behaviors such as mating and giving birth may occur in water or on land . The pygmy hippo is herbivorous , feeding on ferns , broad @-@ leaved plants , grasses , and fruits it finds in the forests .
A rare nocturnal forest creature , the pygmy hippopotamus is a difficult animal to study in the wild . Pygmy hippos were unknown outside West Africa until the 19th century . Introduced to zoos in the early 20th century , they breed well in captivity and the vast majority of research is derived from zoo specimens . The survival of the species in captivity is more assured than in the wild ; the World Conservation Union estimates that there are fewer than 3 @,@ 000 pygmy hippos remaining in the wild .
Pygmy hippos are primarily threatened by loss of habitat , as forests are logged and converted to farm land , and are also vulnerable to poaching , hunting for bushmeat , natural predators and war . Pygmy hippos are among the species illegally hunted for food in Liberia .
= = Taxonomy and origins = =
Nomenclature of the pygmy hippopotamus reflects that of the hippopotamus . The plural form is pygmy hippopotami ( hippopotamuses is also accepted as a plural form by the OED , or
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This movement uses text from chapter 3 of Lamentations , with a Hebrew letter preceding each block of three verses . It is much longer than the other two movements combined , and is divided into three sections :
Querimonia
( complaint ) uses verses 1 – 6 and 16 – 21 .
Sensus spei
( sense of hope ) uses verses 22 – 27 , 34 – 36 , 40 – 45 and 49 – 57 .
Solacium
( solace ) uses verses 58 – 64 .
= = = 3 . De Elegia Quinta = = =
This is by far the shortest movement of the work . It begins with the words " Oratio Jeremiae Prophetae " ( prayer of the prophet Jeremiah ) , after which the music sets Lamentations chapter 5 , verses 1 , 19 and 21 . No Hebrew letters are associated with this text .
= = Discography = =
Stravinsky : Threni , id est Lamentationes Jeremiae Prophetae ( 1957 – 58 ) , Igor Stravinsky Conducting . Bethany Beardslee ( s ) ; Beatrice Krebs ( contralto ) ; William Lewis and James Wainner ( tenors ) ; Mac Morgan ( baritone ) ; Robert Oliver ( bass ) ; The Schola Cantorum ( Hugh Ross , dir . ) ; Columbia Symphony Orchestra ; Igor Stravinsky conducting ( recorded 5 – 6 January 1959 , New York ) . LP recording , monaural . Columbia Masterworks ML 5383 . New York : Columbia Records , 1959 . Reissued on Stravinsky : Choral Works . Igor Stravinsky Recorded Legacy 14 . 2 @-@ LP set . CBS 37527 – 37528 . [ N.p. ] : CBS , 1981 . Reissued on Igor Stravinsky Edition , Vol . 11 . 2 @-@ CD set . Sony SM2K 46301 . [ N.p. ] : Sony Classical , 1991 . Reissued on Disc 21 ( 88697103112 @-@ 21 ) , " Sacred Works vol . 2 " , of Works of Igor Stravinsky . 22 @-@ CD set . Sony Classical 88697103112 . New York : Sony BMG Music Entertainment , 2007 .
Stravinsky Vol . VI : Symphony of Psalms , Les Noces , Lamentations of Jeremiah . The Philharmonia ; The Simon Joly Chorale ; Robert Craft , cond . In Les Noces : International Piano Quartet , Tristan Fry Percussion Ensemble , Alison Wells ( soprano ) , Susan Bickley ( mezzo @-@ soprano ) , Martyn Hill ( tenor ) , Alan Ewing ( basso profundo ) ; In Threni : Julie Moffat ( soprano ) , Jennifer Lane ( mezzo @-@ soprano ) , Martyn Hill and Joseph Cornwell ( tenors ) , David Wilson @-@ Johnson and Martin Robson ( basses ) . ( Symphony of Psalms recorded 5 & 6 January 2001 ; Les Noces recorded 8 & 9 January 2001 ; Threni recorded 25 – 30 June 2001 ; all recorded at Abbey Road Studio One , London , England . ) Koch KIC @-@ CD @-@ 7514 . New York : Koch International Classics , 2002 .
Stravinsky : Threni , Requiem Canticles . Collegium Vocale Gent ; Royal Flemish Philharmonic ; Philippe Herreweghe , cond . Christina Landshamer ( soprano ) , Ewa Wolak ( alto ) , Maximilian Schmitt ( tenor ) , Magnus Staveland ( tenor ) , Florian Boesch ( bass ) , David Soar ( bass ) , recorded 13 – 15 October 2014 . PHI – LPH020 . Phi Classics , 2016 .
= Subway Hero =
" Subway Hero " is the twelfth episode of the second season of 30 Rock and thirty @-@ third episode of the series . It was written by Jack Burditt , one of the series ' co @-@ executive producers , and executive producer Robert Carlock . It was directed by Don Scardino . It aired on April 17 , 2008 on the NBC network in the United States . Guest stars in this episode include Michael Bloomberg , Tim Conway and Dean Winters . The Lord Stanley Cup is also jokingly listed as a guest star . Dennis Duffy 's actions in this episode were modeled after real New York City Subway Hero Wesley Autrey .
The episode revolves around Liz 's former boyfriend , Dennis Duffy ( Dean Winters ) , becoming a local celebrity when he saves somebody 's life at a subway station . Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) is looking for a celebrity to be the face of the Republican Party and Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) meets one of his idols , Bucky Bright ( Tim Conway ) .
= = Plot = =
When invited to Jack 's office , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is asked whether or not she would mind having her former boyfriend , Dennis , appear on TGS with Tracy Jordan , a fictional sketch comedy series . Since they last met , Dennis saved somebody 's life at a subway station and has become a local celebrity . Liz and Dennis meet up where she agrees to let him appear on the show . Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) is wary and warns Liz not to let herself fall in love with Dennis again . When Liz realizes she does still have feelings for him , an excuse to get rid of him is presented when Dennis ' " 15 minutes of fame " are up and Liz revokes her invitation . Liz later follows him to 47th – 50th Streets – Rockefeller Center subway station where he tries to regain his subway hero title by throwing her onto the tracks of an oncoming train .
Jack is looking for a famous face to represent the Republican political party . After struggling to find somebody , he selects Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) for the position . One of Jack 's failed candidates , Bucky Bright , befriends Kenneth during a tour of 30 Rockefeller Plaza ; Bucky shares a number of horrifying backstage stories about the early days of television that wind up traumatizing Kenneth .
= = Production = =
Some scenes of " Subway Hero " were filmed on March 10 , 2008 . This episode was originally expected to air on April 10 , 2008 but was rescheduled to air on April 17 . The episode " MILF Island " aired on April 10 instead . On the newspaper shown to Liz by Jenna , the front page article states that Kay Cannon wrote the article . Kay Cannon is a writer of various episodes of 30 Rock . Upon working with Mayor Michael Bloomberg , Dean Winters described Bloomberg as " fun " and that " he was cool . And he 's a natural . " The scene that takes place at the Rockefeller Center Subway Station was actually filmed on the 42nd Street Shuttle platform at the Grand Central Subway Station , with prop signs reading " 47 – 50 Sts – Rockefeller Center " placed over the original signage , and a shuttle train relabelled as a D train .
= = Reception = =
" Subway Hero " brought in an average of 6 @.@ 4 million viewers . This was the highest @-@ rated episode since the episode " Somebody To Love " which aired on November 15 , 2007 . The episode also achieved a 2 @.@ 8 / 8 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 8 refers to 2 @.@ 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. and the 8 refers to 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast , in the U.S. This episode built by 0 @.@ 2 points , in the 18 – 49 demographic , from the episode of My Name Is Earl , named " No Heads And A Duffel Bag , " which aired prior to it .
Claire Zulkey of The Los Angeles Times wrote that " In some ways the episode almost felt too comfortable , with the familiar story lines and even the obligatory fantasy featuring Baldwin as a former president . The show , thus far post @-@ strike , hasn 't seemed like it has distinguished itself too much from Season 1 . But is that really so bad ? " Ann Oldenburg of USA Today said that " As always , [ this episode of ] 30 Rock was filled with fast one @-@ liners . " Jeff Labrecque of Entertainment Weekly thought that " Even for the always politically astute 30 Rock , last night 's episode was unusually so . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad said that " [ This ] episode of 30 Rock had more jokes and one @-@ liners - the kind where you actually smile and laugh out loud " and that " There 's no other comedy that 's running on all cylinders like 30 Rock is right now . " Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide said that " [ the episode ] was filled not with just great laughs , but also some heart . Damn the roller coaster that is the crazy Dennis @-@ and @-@ Liz on @-@ again / off @-@ again thing ! "
Robert Canning of IGN wrote that " this is why 30 Rock is still a show you can 't miss . Even the weaker episodes can be damn funny . " Canning rated the episode 7 @.@ 7 out of 10 . The Daily Herald 's Ted Cox wrote that " [ he has ] to insist that it sure seems to me that not just Fey and Liz , but most of all viewers at home deserve better . " Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said that " I saw " Subway Hero " a while back , and as I wrote in my column last week , my reaction to it was roughly the same as it was to " MILF Island " : a number of very funny individual moments , but an episode that was less than the sum of its parts . " David Hinckley of The New York Daily News said that there were " a lot of former @-@ boyfriend gags that are , once again , well @-@ formulated " in this episode and that " They work . " Hinckley also wrote that " the real reason [ " Subway Hero " ] is must @-@ see TV is a guest spot by Tim Conway as an old @-@ time television star whose deadpan recollections of the " good old days " keep getting weirder and funnier . He darn near steals the show . "
Conway won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for this episode .
= Two Complete Science @-@ Adventure Books =
Two Complete Science @-@ Adventure Books was a pulp science fiction magazine , published by Fiction House , which lasted for eleven issues between 1950 and 1954 as a companion to Planet Stories . Each issue carried two novels or long novellas . It was initially intended to carry only reprints , but soon began to publish original stories . Well @-@ known contributors included Isaac Asimov , Robert A. Heinlein , Arthur C. Clarke , Poul Anderson , John Brunner , and James Blish . The magazine folded in 1954 , almost at the end of the pulp era .
= = Publication history = =
The early 1950s saw dramatic changes in the world of U.S. science fiction ( sf ) publishing . At the start of 1949 , all but one of the major magazines in the field were in pulp format ; by the end of 1955 , almost all had either ceased publication or switched to digest format . Despite the rapid decline of the pulp market , several new science fiction magazines were launched in pulp format during these years . Planet Stories , a pulp sf magazine that focused on interplanetary adventure , was sufficiently successful to switch to from quarterly to bimonthly in late 1950 . The publisher , Fiction House , also decided to launch a companion magazine , aimed more specifically at the growing readership for pocket books . This was Two Complete Science @-@ Adventure Books ; the first issue was dated Winter 1950 , and it appeared three times a year on a regular schedule . Malcolm Reiss , who oversaw several of Fiction House 's magazines and comics , was editorially involved with the Two Complete Science @-@ Adventure Stories throughout its life , but for the first three issues Jerome Bixby , who at that time was editing Planet Stories , took on the new magazine as well . Bixby left in 1951 to work for Standard Publications . After this , Reiss was left in sole control until 1953 , when Katherine Daffron was appointed editor . Daffron edited the magazine for the last two issues . Fiction House tried another companion magazine that year , Tops in Science Fiction , but it lasted for only two issues . Two Complete Science @-@ Adventures Books outlasted Tops in Science Fiction by only a few months ; it was cancelled in 1954 , amid the collapse of the overall pulp market . The final issue was dated Spring 1954 , and Planet Stories itself only lasted until the following year .
Two Complete Science @-@ Adventure Books typically carried about 80 @,@ 000 words , which was noticeably more than most of its competitors , which usually ran from 45 @,@ 000 to 75 @,@ 000 words . Fiction House paid $ 300 or more for the original novels it printed .
= = Contents = =
The magazine was originally intended to be a vehicle for reprinting novels . The title and format were an echo of Two Complete Detective Books Magazine , which had been published , also by Fiction House , in the 1930s . The first issue included Isaac Asimov 's Pebble in the Sky , and L. Ron Hubbard 's " The Kingslayer " . Both of these were reprints : Pebble in the Sky had been published by Doubleday earlier in the year , and " The Kingslayer " had appeared in Hubbard 's short story collection The Kingslayer , published by Fantasy Publishing Company , Inc . , in 1949 . Subsequent issues abandoned the policy of reprinting two novels , and for a while each issue featured one original story and one reprint . In some later issues both stories were original .
Although the authors included well @-@ known names such as James Blish and Poul Anderson , much of the material was , in the words of sf historian Joseph Marchesani , " derivative space opera " , particular the original novels . The original stories that appeared in the magazine included " The Wanton of Argus " , an early story by John Brunner ; " Seeker of the Sphinx " , by Arthur C. Clarke ; " Sword of Xota " and " Sargasso of Lost Cities " , both by James Blish ; and " The Tritonian Ring " , by L. Sprague de Camp . Reprints included The Time Machine by H.G. Wells ; Beyond This Horizon , by Robert A. Heinlein ( under the pseudonym Anson MacDonald ) ; and The Humanoids by Jack Williamson .
Bixby included a column for readers ' letters in the issues he edited , but Reiss and Daffron did not , and none of the three wrote editorials .
The following table shows which novels appeared in which issues .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Two Complete Science @-@ Adventure Books was edited primarily by Jerome Bixby for the first three issues , then by Malcolm Reiss for six issues , and then primarily by Katherine Daffron for the last two issues . Reiss was involved with editing the magazine throughout its run .
The schedule was completely regular , with issues dated Spring , Summer , and Winter of each year . The magazine was in pulp format throughout ; each issue was priced at 25 cents . The first three issues were 144 pages ; this was reduced to 128 pages for the Winter 1951 issue , reduced again to 112 pages for the Spring 1952 issue , and reduced further to 96 pages for the next four issues . The last two issues were 128 pages long . The publisher was listed as Wings Publishing Co . , in New York for the first six issues and in Stamford , Connecticut , for the last five issues .
= Flying Aces ( magazine ) =
Flying Aces was a monthly American periodical of short stories about aviation , one of a number of so @-@ called " flying pulp " magazines popular during the 1920s and 1930s . Like other pulp magazines , it was a collection of adventure stories , originally printed on coarse , pulpy paper but later moved to a slick format . The magazine was launched in October 1928 by Periodical House , Inc . It featured stories written and illustrated by known authors of the day , often set against the background of World War I. Later issues added non @-@ fiction aviation articles , as well as articles and plans for model airplanes . The latter became more prominent , and eventually the magazine was renamed Flying Models , and catered exclusively to model airplane hobbyists .
= = Historical context = =
The period from the late 1920s through the 1930s is considered the heyday of pulp fiction , and pulps were at the peak of their popularity . Over 200 magazines were published monthly , reaching an audience of 10 million readers , with the most successful titles selling up to a million copies per issue . Pulp fiction publishers employed unprecedented levels of market segmentation for their titles , exploring every popular category , including love stories , western stories , detective stories , and mystery stories . Publications were highly specialized , with each category having its own set of magazines , readers , and reader expectations .
This period also coincided with the golden days of aviation , highlighted by feats such as Lindbergh 's solo flight across the Atlantic and the first extensive use of airplanes in combat in World War I. Pulp publishers sought to capitalize on public interest in flying , which was influenced by stories of World War I flying aces , particularly Eddie Rickenbacker ’ s memoirs , Fighting the Flying Circus , and Elliot Spring 's book on World War I combat flying , Nocturne Militaire . The revived interest in these stories was also due to films such as the 1927 release of Wings and Howard Hughes ' 1930 production of Hell 's Angels , an epic , mega @-@ budget movie featuring more than 100 pilots and dozens of planes , glorifying World War I American air aces . The movie led to numerous similar films , and a plethora of aviation @-@ oriented pulp magazines followed . Nicknamed " flying pulps , " more than forty pulps devoted to World War I air battles began publication during this time , including titles such as Aces ( 1928 ) , Battle Birds ( 1932 ) , Air Trails ( 1928 ) , G @-@ 8 and his Battle Aces ( 1933 ) , Sky Birds ( 1928 ) , War Aces ( 1930 ) , War Birds ( 1928 ) , Wings ( 1927 ) , and Flying Aces ( 1928 ) .
= = Content = =
The magazine ’ s genre was air adventure stories , some set against a war background , written by well @-@ known authors such as Lester Dent , Donald E. Keyhoe , Joe Archibald , and Arch Whitehouse . With the exception of Keyhoe and Whitehouse , who was with the RAF in World War I , the authors had no personal knowledge of flying . The plot invariably centered on a hero — a military pilot — trapped in a difficult situation , from which he would extricate himself utilizing exceptional flying skills . The stories never featured any love interest or profanity . Attempts to introduce such elements were soundly rejected by the readership . According to Whitehouse , he tried hard to introduce a " seductive secretary " character to the Kerry Keene series , but the effort was met with numerous letters from readers demanding that he " Get rid of the broad . Get her out of the series of Kerry Keene stories . "
The cover art featured dramatic air battle scenes painted by notable commercial artists of the day , such as Alex Schomburg and his brother August Schomburg .
= = = Notable series and recurring characters = = =
Many of the stories published were part of long @-@ running series , featuring well developed characters who appeared in every story .
= = = = Kerry Keene / The Griffon = = = =
Created by Arch Whitehouse , Kerry Keene , the Griffon , was a Department of Justice employee , and the pilot of an amphibian plane . The plane incorporated many modern design elements , such as folding wings and retractable landing gear ( wheels and floats ) . This enabled the plane to land on water in Long Island Sound and then run up into a secret hangar on land , not far from Keene 's residence in New York City . Keene was accompanied by his side @-@ kick , an Irish mechanic named Barney O ’ Dare . Several features of the plane were incorporated into airplane models sold by the magazine ’ s advertisers . 43 stories were published between 1935 and 1942 . Altus Press is doing a reprint series , with Pro Se Press doing new stories .
= = = = Phineas Pinkham = = = =
Joe Archibald created the character of Lt. Phineas Pinkham , a World War I pilot stationed in Bar @-@ le @-@ Duc , France , as part of the " 9th pursuit squadron . " Phineas , a freckled farm boy from Boontown , Iowa , was a fearless stunt performer , to the disapproval of the squadron commander , Major Rufus Garrity and the flight leader , Captain Howell . His creator describes him as " maybe the worst pilot to fly a plane … downed more Krauts with trickery than any other way . " Like American World War I ace Eddie Rickenbacker , he flew a Spad biplane , and was the first pilot to rig the plane with a rear @-@ gun — a shotgun operated with wires from the cockpit . The series ran in Flying Aces for 12 years . Archibald later published the collection of stories as The Phineas Pinkham Scrapbook .
= = = = Captain Philip Strange = = = =
Created by Donald Keyhoe , Captain Strange , was referred to as " the Brain Devil " and " the Phantom Ace of G.2. " . Captain Strange was an American intelligence officer during World War I who was gifted with ESP and other mental powers . His stories ran for nine years , 1931 @-@ 39 , with 64 stories . Age of Aces is reprinting his stories .
= = = = Richard Knight = = = =
Created by Donald Keyhoe , his other " superpowered " flying ace was Richard Knight , a World War I veteran who was blinded in combat but gained a supernatural ability to see in the dark . Knight featured in a number of adventure stories set in the 1930s ( when the stories were written ) . His series lasted for seven years , from 1936 @-@ 42 , for 35 stories . Altus Press is doing a reprint series , with Pro Se Press doing new stories .
= = Publication history = =
The magazine was launched in October 1928 by Periodical House , Inc . It was initially published in a 7x10 ” format , with more than 100 pages per issue , and sold for 15 cents per copy . In November 1933 , the magazine moved to the so @-@ called " slick " format — an 8 ½ x10 " format printed on glossy paper and began featuring full @-@ sized plans for model airplanes in every issue . Issue size was reduced to 74 pages . The magazine was published on a monthly basis . In addition to adventure stories , non @-@ fiction aviation articles and aviation news were added , as were modeling articles . The magazine ’ s tagline became " Fiction , Model Building , Fact — Three Aviation Magazines in One . "
During World War II the magazine had been subtitled " Magazine of the Flying Age " . The content focused on the war effort , with little advertising , and late in the war the name changed briefly to Flying Age . In later years , aviation modeling articles started appearing more regularly and became more and more dominant , until finally , in 1947 , the magazine was renamed Flying Models , and later sold to Carstens Publications in 1969 , without the fiction content . Flying Models ceased publication in 2014 .
= = Impact and historical significance = =
Many American pilots who took part in World War II grew up during the 1930s enthusiastically reading flying pulps such as Flying Aces , and were captivated by the adventure stories , an experience that no doubt played a part in their decision to become military aviators themselves . Joseph W. Rutter , a pilot in the Army Air Force in 1944 , recalls this vividly in his book Wreaking Havoc : A Year in an A @-@ 20 , as does First Blue , the biography of Roy Marlin Voris , World War II ace and two @-@ time commander of the Blue Angels .
Many have noted the uncannily accurate way that stories in Flying Aces predicted the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor as well as the locations of other air battles of the Pacific Theater .
= = Fan club = =
In addition to the magazine , the publishers created a fan club for readers . Members were organized into regional " squadrons , " and were offered flying @-@ themed stationery , stickers , and even uniforms mimicking those in use by the United States Army Air Forces . The club arranged meetings between readers and notable military and commercial pilots , both American and foreign . Some of the " squadrons " originated by the magazine have lived on , as clubs for modeling enthusiasts . The Flying Aces Club , a model airplane club dedicated to free @-@ flight models , takes its name from the magazine and its old clubs . A Flying Aces Club squadron in Connecticut has named its airstrip ' Pinkham Field ' in honor of the fictional Phineas Pinkham .
= Royal Rumble ( 2007 ) =
Royal Rumble ( 2007 ) was the twentieth annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It took place on January 28 , 2007 , at the AT & T Center in San Antonio , Texas and featured talent from the Raw , SmackDown ! and ECW brands . This marked the first time that the new ECW brand participated in the Royal Rumble match . As has been customary since 1993 , the Royal Rumble match winner received a match at that year 's WrestleMania , ( in this instance : WrestleMania 23 ) for his choice at either the WWE Championship , the World Heavyweight Championship or the ECW World Championship .
Five professional wrestling matches were featured on the event 's supercard , a scheduling of more than one main event . The main event was the annual 30 @-@ man Royal Rumble match , which featured wrestlers from all three brands . The Undertaker , the thirtieth entrant , won the match by last eliminating Shawn Michaels , the twenty @-@ third entrant . The primary match on the Raw brand was a Last Man Standing match for the WWE Championship between John Cena and Umaga . Cena won the match and retained the title after Umaga was unable to get to his feet before the referee counted to ten . The predominant match on the SmackDown ! brand was Batista versus Mr. Kennedy for the World Heavyweight Championship , which Batista won by pinfall after executing a Batista Bomb . The featured match on the ECW brand was between Bobby Lashley and Test for the ECW World Championship , which Lashley won after Test was counted out .
= = Background = =
Royal Rumble featured professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds , plots , and storylines that were played out on Raw , SmackDown ! , and ECW – World Wrestling Entertainment 's ( WWE ) primary television programs . Wrestlers portrayed a villain or a hero as they followed a series of events that built tension , and culminated into a wrestling match or series of matches . The event featured wrestlers from WWE 's Raw , SmackDown , and ECW brands – a storyline division in which WWE employees were assigned to a television program of the same name .
The main feud heading into the Royal Rumble on the Raw brand was between John Cena and Umaga , with the two feuding over the WWE Championship . At the previous pay @-@ per @-@ view event , New Year 's Revolution , Cena defeated Umaga to end his undefeated streak and retain the WWE Championship . The night after on Raw , Armando Alejandro Estrada , Umaga 's manager , asked for a rematch , which Cena agreed to . Later that night , during a match between Cena and The Great Khali , Umaga interfered and attacked Cena . The following week , the official contract signing for their rematch at the Royal Rumble took place . After it was announced that Estrada could choose the match type , Estrada chose the match to be a Last Man Standing match . Cena signed the contract and proceeded to attack both Umaga and Estrada . On the January 22 episode of Raw , after Cena was eliminated from a Battle Royal , Umaga attacked Cena , and injured his spleen , which was portrayed as real as part of their storyline .
The predominant feud on the SmackDown ! brand was between Batista and Mr. Kennedy , with the two battling over the World Heavyweight Championship . On the January 5 episode of SmackDown ! a Beat the Clock Sprint began . Wrestlers competed in single matches , and the wrestler to win a match in the shortest amount of time would then become the number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship at the Royal Rumble . Mr. Kennedy , who defeated Chris Benoit in nearly five minutes , had the shortest time at the end of the show . The following week , the Sprint continued . In the final match , between The Undertaker and The Miz , Kennedy interfered by pulling The Miz out of the ring . After performing the Tombstone piledriver on The Miz , The Undertaker went for the pin attempt . Time , however , ran out and Kennedy became the winner of the Sprint . The following week after on SmackDown ! , The Undertaker was put in a match with Kennedy , where if he won , he would be added to the title match at the Royal Rumble . During the match , after Kennedy attacked Batista , who was at ringside . Batista retaliated against Kennedy , causing The Undertaker to get disqualified . Thus , the match at the Royal Rumble remained a singles match between Batista and Kennedy .
The main feud on the ECW brand was between Bobby Lashley and Test , with the two feuding over the ECW Championship . Rob Van Dam won an online poll against Test and Sabu to earn a title shot on the January 2 episode of ECW , which ended in no @-@ contest . Van Dam was given another title match the next week . Test interfered in the match , and attacked both men . A Triple Threat match for the title occurred on the January 16 episode of ECW between Lashley , Van Dam , and Test . Lashley won , but was beaten down afterwards by Test . A title match between Lashley and Test was then made for the Royal Rumble . A week after that match was made , on the January 23 episode of ECW , Lashley defeated Test in another title match .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , JTG defeated Lance Cade in a dark match .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired was a tag team match between The Hardys ( Matt and Jeff Hardy ) and MNM ( Joey Mercury and Johnny Nitro ) . The match went back and forth until MNM took control by attacking Matt 's injured jaw repeatedly . The Hardys gained the advantage briefly , but lost it when Nitro countered an aerial attack by Jeff . Jeff finally tagged Matt , who beat down both Mercury and Nitro . The finish came when Matt hit the Twist of Fate , and Jeff hit the Swanton Bomb on Nitro . Jeff then pinned Nitro for the victory .
The second match was between ECW World Champion Bobby Lashley and Test for the ECW World Championship . Test used several illegal moves , and took control after driving Lashley 's shoulder into the ringpost . He continued to attack the shoulder until Lashley fought back with several powerful moves . Test rolled out of the ring , and allowed himself to be counted out . Lashley won , and retained his title . He came after Test , however , brought him back into the ring , and continued to beat him down .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The third match was between World Heavyweight Champion Batista and Mr. Kennedy for the World Heavyweight Championship . Batista gained an early advantage by overpowering Kennedy until Kennedy injured Batista 's knee by using the steel steps . Kennedy continued to attack Batista 's knees , and applied various submission holds that target the knee . Batista fought back , still favoring the knee , until Kennedy pushed Batista into the referee , and hit a low blow . Kennedy had a clear advantage and had Batista pinned for over a three @-@ count , but the match went on due the referee being knocked out . Batista eventually rose and hit a clothesline , and a Batista Bomb for the pinfall to retain the title as the referee had since woken up .
The fourth match was the Last Man Standing match between John Cena and Umaga for the WWE Championship . Umaga dominated Cena , gaining the advantage by using powerful moves , and attacking Cena 's bandaged ribs . Cena tried to fight back using the steel steps , but Umaga quickly recovered , and continued the beat down . Cena managed to hit a low blow , a bulldog onto the steel steps , a spin @-@ out powerbomb , and the Five Knuckle Shuffle all onto Umaga . Umaga regained control when Cena attempted an FU onto the steps , and collapsed , hitting his head on the steps . Cena avoided a running headbutt drop , and hit Umaga in the head with a television monitor . Umaga got up , but missed a running splash through the announce table . Umaga got up again as his manager , Armando Alejandro Estrada , detached one of the top turnbuckles for Umaga to use . Cena avoided the attack , hit an FU , and choked Umaga using the loose ring rope . Umaga failed to answer the referee 's count of ten , and Cena retained the title .
The final match was the Royal Rumble match . Kane , the tenth entrant , dominated the match upon entering , and eliminated Tommy Dreamer and Sabu , hitting the latter with a chokeslam through a table Sabu had earlier set up . The Sandman , entering fifteen , used his signature Singapore Cane in the match before being quickly eliminated by King Booker . Randy Orton and Edge worked together to eliminate the Hardys . After Booker was eliminated by Kane , he returned to the ring , eliminated Kane , and continued to beat him down . It took the combined effort of eight men to eliminate Viscera after Shawn Michaels hit him with a superkick . The Great Khali , entering twenty @-@ eighth , dominated upon entering the match , and eliminated seven men . Entering last was The Undertaker , who immediately fought with , and eliminated Khali . He then eliminated Montel Vontavious Porter , leaving four in the match : Edge , Orton , Michaels , and The Undertaker . Orton caught Edge trying to attack him , but the two soon reconciled , and worked together on The Undertaker . Michaels , who was outside of the ring , came back in , and eliminated both Orton and Edge . The remaining two exchanged attacks until the end , when The Undertaker hit a chokeslam , but Michaels came back with a superkick . Michaels went for another superkick , but The Undertaker avoided it , and eliminated Michaels to win the match . The Undertaker is the first competitor to win the Rumble match from slot 30 ( what is considered to be the " easiest " spot to win from , despite no one having done so in any previous match ) .
= = Aftermath = =
The shows following the Royal Rumble surrounded The Undertaker 's choice of which champion to face at WrestleMania 23 . The Undertaker appeared on all three brands , and stared down the champions . Finally , on the February 5 episode of Raw , The Undertaker chose to face Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship , and performed a chokeslam on him , starting their rivalry . The Undertaker won the title at WrestleMania , and their feud continued until the May 11 episode of SmackDown ! , when The Undertaker lost the title to Edge , who cashed in the Money in the Bank , that he won from Mr. Kennedy , earlier that week on Raw .
After The Undertaker made his choice on February 5 , Shawn Michaels , Edge , and Randy Orton all wanted to face Cena for his title at WrestleMania . A Triple Threat match was made between the three for the title shot , which Michaels won after pinning Orton . Cena successfully retained his title against Michaels at WrestleMania . They continued to feud over the title with the addition of Orton and Edge , but Cena remained champion . Soon after the Royal Rumble , Umaga and Bobby Lashley joined the feud between Mr. McMahon and Donald Trump in the " Battle of the Billionaires " as their representatives respectively for the Hair vs. Hair match at WrestleMania .
His Royal Rumble match marked the start of Mr. Kennedy 's push to main @-@ event status . He went on to face Bobby Lashley for the ECW Championship at No Way Out , which he won via disqualification , thus failing to win the title . Kennedy won the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania , which gave him a world title shot at any time of his choosing for the year following . Kennedy sustained an injury at a house show , however , that would leave him sidelined for five to seven months , and was booked to lose his title shot to Edge on the May 7 episode of Raw . Later results showed the injury to be much less severe , but Kennedy had already lost his title shot . He returned to mid @-@ card status for the remainder of the year .
= = = Reception = = =
The AT & T Center has hosted many different events that have a variety of seating maximums . A Basketball event , which has a smaller set @-@ up than a wrestling event , can hold a maximum of 18 @,@ 797 fans . Due to the Royal Rumble 's production , the maximum standard was lowered and the event drew 13 @,@ 500 fans and received 491 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys . WWE made $ 15 @.@ 8 million from pay @-@ per @-@ view revenues in their first quarter ( which included the Royal Rumble , No Way Out , and WrestleMania ) versus $ 17 @.@ 1 million in 2006 for the same events , a $ 1 @.@ 3 million difference . The 2006 Royal Rumble also resulted in 548 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , 57 @,@ 000 more than the 2007 Royal Rumble . Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling sub website , Slam ! Wrestling , rated the entire event 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 points , due to the event not lasting its entire three hours and many mishaps that occurred during the Royal Rumble match , which they also rated a 7 @.@ 5 . The Royal Rumble 2007 was released on DVD on February 27 , 2007 and was distributed by WWE . The DVD debuted on Billboard 's Top DVD sales chart at # 3 on March 24 , 2007 . The DVD remained on the chart for 13 consecutive weeks until June 16 , 2007 when its final rank was at # 10 .
= = Results = =
= = = Royal Rumble entrances and eliminations = = =
Red █ █ and " Raw " indicates a Raw superstar , blue █ █ and " SD ! " indicates a SmackDown ! superstar , purple █ █ and " ECW " indicates an ECW superstar .
= 2006 – 07 Toronto Raptors season =
The Toronto Raptors 2006 – 07 season is the twelfth National Basketball Association ( NBA ) season for the Toronto Raptors basketball franchise . Following a poor 2005 – 06 season , General Manager Bryan Colangelo greatly revamped the team roster during the pre @-@ season but continued to build the team around All @-@ Star Chris Bosh . Despite a sluggish start , the 2006 – 07 season transformed into a watershed year for Toronto . The Raptors captured their first division title , finished third in the Eastern Conference , made the playoffs for the first time in five years , equalled their best ever regular season record , and secured home court advantage for the first time in franchise history . However , the Raptors met the New Jersey Nets in the first round of the playoffs and were defeated four games to two . At the end of the regular season , head coach Sam Mitchell and Colangelo were named NBA Coach of the Year and NBA Executive of the Year respectively .
= = Pre @-@ season = =
= = = NBA Draft = = =
= = = Pre @-@ season trades = = =
Before the season , Toronto won the NBA Draft Lottery and were awarded the 1st overall pick in the 2006 NBA Draft . To prepare for their draft choice , the Raptors traded Rafael Araújo for Kris Humphries and Robert Whaley , and traded Matt Bonner , Eric Williams and a second round pick for Rasho Nesterovič and cash considerations . The 1st overall pick was used to select Italian Andrea Bargnani , making him the first European drafted number one overall . Maurizio Gherardini was hired as the club 's vice @-@ president and assistant general manager , making him the first European elevated to an NBA executive job . Promising small forward Charlie Villanueva was traded for point guard T. J. Ford and cash considerations , while Chris Bosh was rewarded with a three @-@ year extension .
= = Roster = =
= = Regular season = =
General Manager Bryan Colangelo continued to surround Bosh with complementary players , and signed two @-@ time Euroleague Most Valuable Player Anthony Parker . Spanish international Jorge Garbajosa and former slam dunk champion Fred Jones were also signed from free agency . The Raptors concluded pre @-@ season transactions by re @-@ signing veteran Darrick Martin . With this new lineup , Toronto looked to maintain a team who could both pass and shoot the ball , but was also stronger defensively than the 2005 – 06 roster . As a showcase of their new roster , on 15 October 2006 , the 119 points by Toronto marked the third highest total in a pre @-@ season game in franchise history . The Raptors finished the pre @-@ season with a 7 – 1 win @-@ loss record , which was the best record in the league and a franchise record .
= = = Push for playoffs = = =
The first half of the season produced mixed results as Toronto struggled towards the .500 mark after a dismal 2 – 8 start . Bosh 's consistent performances however ensured he was named an All @-@ Star starter in the 2007 NBA All @-@ Star Game on 25 January 2007 . He received the most number of votes after LeBron James among all Eastern Conference forwards . A day later , the Raptors hit the .500 mark for the first time since the 2003 – 04 season after defeating the Boston Celtics at the Air Canada Centre . On 2 February , the Raptors went 24 – 23 , the first time since 2001 – 02 that they had been over .500 this late in a season . As a result , the Raptors won three NBA Eastern Conference awards for the month of January : Player of the Month ( Bosh ) , Rookie of the Month ( Bargnani ) and Coach of the Month ( Sam Mitchell ) . On 4 February , the Raptors ' 122 – 110
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on equal rights for all women . Anthropologist Christine Walley writes that a common trope within the anti @-@ FGM literature has been to present African women as victims of false consciousness participating in their own oppression , a position promoted by several feminists in the 1970s and 1980s , including Fran Hosken , Mary Daly and Hanny Lightfoot @-@ Klein . It prompted the French Association of Anthropologists to issue a statement in 1981 , at the height of the early debates , that " a certain feminism resuscitates ( today ) the moralistic arrogance of yesterday 's colonialism . "
As an example of the disrespect arguably shown toward women who have undergone FGM , commentators highlight the appropriation of the women 's bodies as exhibits . Historian Chima Korieh cites the publication in 1996 of the Pulitzer @-@ prize @-@ winning photographs ( above ) of a 16 @-@ year @-@ old Kenyan girl undergoing FGM . The photographs were published by 12 American newspapers , but according to Korieh the girl had not given permission for the images to be taken , much less published .
= = = Comparison with other procedures = = =
Nnaemeka argues that the crucial question , broader than FGM , is why the female body is subjected to so much " abuse and indignity " around the world , including in the West . Several authors have drawn a parallel between FGM and cosmetic procedures . Ronán Conroy of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland wrote in 2006 that cosmetic genital procedures were " driving the advance of female genital mutilation " by encouraging women to see natural variations as defects . Anthropologist Fadwa El Guindi compares FGM to breast enhancement , in which the maternal function of the breast becomes secondary to men 's sexual pleasure . Benoîte Groult made a similar point in 1975 , citing FGM and cosmetic surgery as sexist and patriarchal .
Carla Obermeyer maintains that FGM may be conducive to women 's well @-@ being within their communities in the same way that rhinoplasty and male circumcision may help people elsewhere . In Egypt , despite the 2007 ban , women wanting FGM for their daughters discuss the need for amalyet tajmeel ( cosmetic surgery ) to remove what is viewed as excess genital tissue for a more acceptable appearance .
The WHO does not cite procedures such as labiaplasty and clitoral hood reduction as examples of FGM , but its definition aims to avoid loopholes , so several elective practices on adults do fall within its categories . Some of the laws banning FGM , including in Canada and the US , focus only on minors . Several countries , including Sweden and the UK , have banned it regardless of consent , and the legislation would seem to cover cosmetic procedures . Sweden , for example , has banned " [ o ] perations on the external female genital organs which are designed to mutilate them or produce other permanent changes in them ... regardless of whether consent to this operation has or has not been given . " Gynaecologist Birgitta Essén and anthropologist Sara Johnsdotter note that it seems the law distinguishes between Western and African genitals , and deems only African women ( such as those seeking reinfibulation after childbirth ) unfit to make their own decisions .
Arguing against suggested similarities between FGM and dieting or body shaping , philosopher Martha Nussbaum writes that a key difference is that FGM is mostly conducted on children using physical force . She argues that the distinction between social pressure and physical force is morally and legally salient , comparable to the distinction between seduction and rape . She argues further that the literacy of women in practising countries is generally poorer than in developed nations , and that this reduces their ability to make informed choices .
Several commentators maintain that children 's rights are violated with the genital alteration of intersex children , who are born with anomalies that physicians choose to correct . Legal scholars Nancy Ehrenreich and Mark Barr write that thousands of these procedures take place every year in the United States , and say that they are medically unnecessary , more extensive than FGM , and have more serious physical and mental consequences . They attribute the silence of anti @-@ FGM campaigners about intersex procedures to white privilege and a refusal to acknowledge that " similar unnecessary and harmful genital cutting occurs in their own backyards . "
= Cocker Spaniel =
Cocker Spaniels are dogs belonging to two breeds of the spaniel dog type : the American Cocker Spaniel and the English Cocker Spaniel , both of which are commonly called simply Cocker Spaniel in their countries of origin . In the early 20th century , Cocker Spaniels also included small hunting Spaniels .
Cocker Spaniels were originally bred as hunting dogs in the United Kingdom , with the term cocker deriving from their use to hunt the Eurasian woodcock . When the breed was brought to the United States , it was bred to a different standard , which enabled it to specialize in hunting the American woodcock . Further physical changes were bred into the cocker in the United States during the early part of the 20th century .
Spaniels were first mentioned in the 14th century by Gaston III of Foix @-@ Béarn in his work the Livre de Chasse . The " cocking " or " cocker spaniel " was a type of field or land spaniel in the 19th century . Prior to 1901 , Cocker Spaniels were only separated from Field Spaniels and Springer Spaniels by weight . Two dogs are considered to be the foundation sires of both modern breeds , the English variety are descended from Ch . Obo , while the American breed descends from Obo 's son , Ch . Obo II . In the United States , the English Cocker was recognized as separate from the native breed in 1946 ; in the UK , the American type was recognized as a separate breed in 1970 . In addition , there is a second strain of English Cocker Spaniel , a working strain which is not bred to a standard but to working ability . Both breeds share similar coat colors and health issues with a few exceptions .
= = History = =
While their origins are unknown , " spaynels " are mentioned in 14th century writings . It is commonly assumed that they originated in Spain , and Edward of Norwich , 2nd Duke of York in his 15th century work The Master of Game introduces them as " Another kind of hound there is that be called hounds for the hawk and spaniels , for their kind cometh from Spain , notwithstanding that there are many in other countries . " The Master of Game was mostly an English translation of an earlier 14th century Old French work by Gaston III of Foix @-@ Béarn entitled Livre de Chasse .
In 1801 , Sydenham Edwards wrote in Cynographia Britannica that the " Land Spaniel " is divided into two types : the hawking , springing / springer and the cocking / cocker spaniel . The term cocker came from the dog 's use in hunting woodcocks . During the 19th century a " cocker spaniel " was a type of small Field Spaniel ; at the time , this term referred to a number of different spaniel hunting breeds , including the Norfolk Spaniel , Sussex Spaniel , and Clumber Spaniel . While there were no Sussex Cockers or Clumber Cockers , there were dogs known as Welsh Cockers and Devonshire Cockers . The Welsh or Devonshire were considered cockers until 1903 when they were recognized by The Kennel Club as the Welsh Springer Spaniel .
Prior to the 1870s , the only requirement for a dog to be classed as a Cocker Spaniel was that it needed to weigh less than 25 pounds ( 11 kg ) , although breeders separated the cocker from the King Charles Spaniel which remains a smaller breed of spaniel . This maximum weight limit remained on the Cocker Spaniel until 1900 , with larger dogs being classed as Springer Spaniels . The colors of the Devonshire and Welsh Cockers were described by John Henry Walsh under the pseudonym Stonehenge in his book The Dog in Health and Disease as being a deeper shade of liver than that of the Sussex Spaniel . Following the formation of The Kennel Club in the UK in 1873 , efforts were made by breeders to record the pedigrees of cockers and springers . In 1892 , English Cocker Spaniels and English Springer Spaniels were recognized as separate breeds by The Kennel Club .
There are two dogs which are thought to be the foundation sires of both modern breeds of cocker spaniels . Ch . Obo is considered by breed enthusiasts to be the father of the modern English Cocker Spaniel , while his son , Ch . Obo II , is considered to be the progenitor of the American Cocker Spaniel . Obo was born in 1879 , at which point registration as a cocker was still only by size and not by ancestry . He was the son of a Sussex Spaniel and a Field Spaniel . Although Obo was an English dog , Obo II was born on American shores – his mother was shipped to the United States while pregnant . During his lifetime , it was claimed in advertisements that Obo II was the sire or grandsire of nearly every prize winning cocker in America .
= = Modern breeds = =
There are two modern breeds of cocker spaniel , the English Cocker Spaniel and the American Cocker Spaniel . They were bred as gun dogs ; to use their sense of smell to cover low areas near the handler in order to flush birds into the air to be shot , and to use their eyes and nose to locate the bird once downed , and then to retrieve the bird with a soft mouth . The major differences between the English and American varieties is that the American is smaller with a shorter back , a domed head and a shorter muzzle , while the English variety is taller with a narrower head and chest .
Cocker spaniel coats come in a variety of colors including black , liver , red and golden in solids . There are also black and tan , and sometimes liver and tan , as well as a variety of color mixtures of those solid colors including roans , roan and tans , tricolors and those solid colors with additional white markings .
Rare colours can appear unexpectedly in certain lines , for instance while an all @-@ white cocker is usually bred by selective breeding of very light golden strains , they can still appear very uncommonly to parents who are dark colored . A noted occurrence of this happened in 1943 , when a grandson of My Own Brucie , Best in Show at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1940 and 1941 , was born all @-@ white .
In its native United States , the American Cocker Spaniel was ranked the 23rd most popular breed according to registration statistics of the AKC in 2009 , a decrease in popularity since 1999 when it was ranked 13th . For twenty five years the American Cocker Spaniel was the most popular dog in America . It was ranked number one first in 1936 prior to the English Cocker Spaniel being recognized as a separate breed , and held onto the spot until 1952 when Beagles became the most popular dog . It regained the spot in 1983 and held on at number one until 1990 . In the UK , the American Cocker Spaniel is far less popular than its English cousin with 322 registrations compared to the English Cocker 's 22 @,@ 211 in 2009 .
= = = English Cocker Spaniel = = =
Called simply Cocker Spaniel in the UK , this is the breed that was originally recognized by The Kennel Club ( KC ) in 1892 . The American Kennel Club ( AKC ) recognized the English Cocker Spaniel as a separate breed in 1946 .
The size of the English Cocker Spaniel according to the KC is 15 @.@ 5 – 16 inches ( 39 – 41 cm ) at the withers for males , and 15 – 15 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 – 39 cm ) for females . The weight of a show dog should be 28 – 32 pounds ( 13 – 15 kg ) .
The English Cocker Spaniel is the most successful breed at the most popular dog show in the UK , Crufts , with seven best @-@ in @-@ show wins since the prize was first awarded in 1928 . This was mostly due to the success of dog breeder H.S. Lloyd 's Ware Kennel , dogs of which won best @-@ in @-@ show on six occasions between 1930 – 1950 . They are the second most popular dog breed in the UK according to statistics released by the KC with 22 @,@ 211 registrations in 2009 , beaten only by the Labrador Retriever with 40 @,@ 943 . In third place was the English Springer Spaniel with 12 @,@ 700 . The English Cocker 's popularity has increased steadily since 1999 in the United States when they were ranked 76th in registrations by the AKC , to 2009 when they were ranked 66th .
There are physical differences between the show strains and working strains in the UK . While the show strain is bred to the conformation standard , the working strain is bred for working ability and as such several physical differences have appeared . Working type dogs tend to be larger with flatter heads and shorter ears . The coat also tends to be shorter and finer than the show variety and have less feathering . The working strain seems to be more energetic than the show strain .
= = = American Cocker Spaniel = = =
Cocker Spaniels were recognized by the AKC in 1878 . Generally smaller than its English cousin , separate classes were created for the two types in America in 1935 and the Cocker Spaniel Club of America discouraged breeding between the two types in 1938 . The American Cocker Spaniel was recognized as a separate breed by the KC in the UK in 1970 . The American Cocker Spaniel is referred to as the Cocker Spaniel within the United States .
The American Cocker Spaniel was bred smaller as American woodcocks are smaller than their European cousins , and the breeds appearance changed slightly during the first part of the 20th century as the preference by American breeders was for a more stylized appearance . The standard size according to the AKC is between 14 @.@ 5 – 15 @.@ 5 inches ( 37 – 39 cm ) at the withers for males and 13 @.@ 5 – 14 @.@ 5 inches ( 34 – 37 cm ) for females . The weight of the breed is on average between 24 – 30 pounds ( 11 – 14 kg ) .
At the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show , the most prestigious dog show in the United States , the American Cocker Spaniel has won Best in Show on four occasions since its first award in 1907 . The most successful breed is the Wire Fox Terrier with thirteen wins . The American Cocker Spaniel is judged in three separate breed classes under AKC rules ; " black " , " parti @-@ color " , and " any solid color other than black ... " ( ASCOB ) . Sophia and Olivia won the gold medal of dog showing in 2012 .
= = Common health issues = =
In a survey conducted by the Kennel Club ( UK ) , the American Cocker Spaniels had a median age of death of ten years and four months , while the English Cocker Spaniel had a median age of eleven years and two months . According to the survey , the most common cause of death for both breeds was cancer , while old age was the second most common cause . The two modern breeds are susceptible to several health problems . Issues common to the two breeds include ear infections , and a variety of eye problems . A large number of breeds are susceptible to hip dysplasia . In a survey conducted by Orthopedic Foundation for Animals , the American Cocker Spaniel was ranked 115th out of 157 different breeds , with 1 being the highest percentage dysplastic and 157 being the lowest percentage dysplastic . The English Cocker was ranked 129th .
= = = Otitis externa = = =
Cocker spaniels and other dogs that have long , pendulous ears are more predisposed to ear problems than some other breeds . The fold of the ear can prevent air from entering , and it also creates a warm , moist environment where organisms can grow . Otitis externa is an inflammation of the ear canal which can be caused by a variety of factors including parasites , microorganisms , foreign bodies , tumors , and underlying dermatological disease . Ear mites can cause otitis externa ; ticks and fleas can also live in dogs ' ear canals .
The most common types of canine ear infections are caused by microorganisms , including yeast and bacterial infections . The most common variety of this is Malassezia pachydermatitis . Symptoms can include the dog shaking its head or scratching at its ears more frequently . The ear canal will appear inflamed , a pus @-@ like substance will be discharged in some cases , and the ear will smell quite pungent in most cases . Treatment for the more common causes of otitis externa in dogs often includes oral antibiotics and flushing the ears with an antibacterial solution . In some cases , anti @-@ inflammatory medication is prescribed . Some conditions can increase the chance of ear infections , including living in a humid environment and frequent swimming or bathing without adequate drying of the ear afterwards . Keeping the hair on the ears short can be used as a preventative method to ear problems .
= = = Eye conditions = = =
Progressive retinal atrophy ( PRA ) is a group of diseases that affect a dog 's eyesight and can lead to blindness . It has been documented in a large number of different dog breeds including both the American and English Cocker Spaniels . The two types of Cockers are susceptible to a specific type of PRA called Progressive rod @-@ cone degeneration ( PRCD ) , symptoms include night blindness leading to total blindness between the ages of three and five . PRCD is the most widespread hereditary retinal disease which may lead to blindness in dogs .
Another leading cause of blindness is Canine glaucoma . This is an increase in the pressure of the fluid in the eye which , if left untreated , can cause visual impairment and eventual loss of sight . The condition can be inherited ( Primary glaucoma ) or a secondary condition to a variety of other eye issues including tumors or lens luxation . Both breeds are affected by juvenile cataracts which can occur at up to four years of age . Symptoms can include discoloring of the pupil , and treatment may include surgery to remove the cataract .
= = In popular culture = =
The Cocker Spaniel is featured in the 1955 Disney film Lady and the Tramp who is Lady .
= Falun Gong outside mainland China =
Falun Gong , a qigong practice that combines meditation with the moral philosophy articulated by founder Li Hongzhi , first began spreading widely in China in 1992 . Li 's first lectures outside mainland China took place in Paris in 1995 . At the invitation of the Chinese ambassador to France , he lectured on his teachings and practice methods to the embassy staff and others . From that time on , Li gave lectures in other major cities in Europe , Asia , Oceania , and North America . He has resided permanently in the United States since 1998 . Falun Gong is now practiced in some 70 countries worldwide , and the teachings have been translated to over 40 languages . The international Falun Gong community is estimated to number in the hundreds of thousands , though participation estimates are imprecise on account of a lack of formal membership .
Since 1999 , the Chinese Communist Party has persecuted Falun Gong in mainland China . In response , Falun Gong practitioners around the world have conducted activities aimed at raising awareness about the related human rights issues . These include lobbying , passing out of flyers , participating in sit @-@ ins in front of Chinese embassies and consulates , and staging parades and demonstrations . They have established media outlets , have founded advocacy and research organizations to report information on the persecution in China , and launched lawsuits against the alleged architects and participants of the persecution campaign .
Several foreign governments , the United Nations , and human rights organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have expressed their concerns over allegations of torture and ill @-@ treatment of Falun Gong practitioners in China . Nonetheless , some observers have noted that Falun Gong has failed to attract the level of sympathy and sustained international attention afforded to Tibetans , Chinese Christians or democracy activists . This has been attributed to the group 's unsophisticated PR skills , the impact of the Communist Party 's propaganda against the practice , or the foreign nature of its teachings , which identify with Buddhist and Daoist traditions .
= = History = =
From 1992 – 1994 , Li Hongzhi traveled throughout China giving week @-@ long seminars on Falun Gong 's spiritual philosophy and exercises and meditation practices . In late 1994 , he declared that he had finished his work of teaching the practice in China , and the content of his lectures was compiled in the book Zhuan Falun , published in January 1995 . Later that year , Li left China and began teaching the practice overseas , beginning with a stop at the Chinese embassy in Paris in March 1995 , followed by lectures in Sweden in May 1995 . Between 1995 and 1999 , Li gave lectures in the United States , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , Germany , Switzerland , and Singapore . Falun Gong associations and clubs began appearing in Europe , North America and Australia , with activities centered mainly on university campuses .
As the practice began proliferating outside China , Li was the recipient of a measure of recognition in the United States and elsewhere in the western world . In August 1994 , the city of Houston named Li as an honorary citizen and goodwill ambassador for his " unselfish public service for the benefit and welfare of mankind . " In May 1999 , Li was welcomed to Toronto with greetings from the mayor and the provincial governor general , and in the two months that followed also received recognition from the cities of Chicago and San Jose .
Translations of Falun Gong teachings began appearing in the late 1990s . Although the practice was beginning to attract an overseas constituency , it remained relatively unknown in the Western world until the Spring of 1999 , when tensions between Falun Gong and Communist Party authorities became a subject of international media coverage . With the increased attention , the practice gained a greater following outside China . Following the launch of the Communist Party 's persecution of Falun Gong , the overseas presence became vital to the practice 's resistance in China and its continued survival .
= = Organization = =
Falun Gong embraces a minimal organizational structure , and does not have a rigid hierarchy , physical places of worship , fees , or formal membership . As a matter of doctrinal significance , Falun Gong is intended to be " formless , " having little to no material or formal organization . Practitioners of Falun Gong are forbidden to solicit donations or charge fees for the practice , and are similarly forbidden teach or interpret the teachings for others .
In the absence of membership or initiation rituals , a Falun Gong practitioner can be anyone who chooses to identify themselves as such . Students participate in the practice and follow its teachings as much or as little as they like , and practitioners do not instruct others on what to believe or how to behave .
Falun Gong can be said to be highly centralized in the sense that neither spiritual nor practical authority is dispersed . Li Hongzhi 's spiritual authority within the practice is absolute , yet the organization of Falun Gong works against totalistic control . Li does not intervene in the personal lives of practitioners , who have little to no contact with Li , except through the study of his teachings . Volunteer " assistants " or " contact persons " coordinate local activities , but they do not hold authority over other practitioners , regardless of how long they have practiced Falun Gong ; they cannot collect money , conduct healings , or teach or interpret doctrine for others .
Falun Gong 's nebulous structure and lack of membership makes it difficult to gauge the scope and size of Falun Gong communities outside China . Local groups post their practice site times on Falun Gong websites , but do not attempt to keep up with how many practitioners there are in certain areas . University of Montreal historian David Ownby notes that there are no " mid- or upper @-@ level tiers of the organization where one might go for such information . " He says that practitioners are not " members " of an " organization " , and do not fill out any forms at any point .
To the extent that organization is achieved in Falun Gong , it is accomplished partly through a global , networked , and often virtual community . In particular , electronic communications , email lists and a collection of websites are the primary means of coordinating activities and disseminating Li Hongzhi 's teachings . In addition to disseminating teachings , the internet serves to forge and maintain community , and is used as a medium for raising awareness of the persecution in China . Practitioners maintain hundreds of websites around the world . Most contain content in both Chinese and English , while others include German , French , Russian , Portuguese , Spanish , Japanese , and other languages .
Falun Gong 's reliance on the internet as a means of organizing has led to the group 's characterization by some observers as " a virtual religious community , " though other scholars are wary about overstating the significance of the internet . Scott Lowe , for instance , believes that the Internet is not a significant factor in attracting people to the practice ; instead , the influence of family and friends , as well as the prospect of better health , seem far more important in establishing initial interest .
Although the spiritual practice of Falun Gong has little clear organization , practitioners of Falun Gong have organized considerably among themselves since 1999 , establishing their own research and advocacy organizations , media groups , and arts companies .
= = Group exercise and study = =
Outside mainland China , a network of volunteer " contact persons , " regional Falun Dafa Associations and university clubs exists in approximately 70 countries . In most mid- to large @-@ sized cities , Falun Gong practitioners organize regular group meditation or study sessions in which they practice Falun Gong exercises and read ( or re @-@ read ) Li Hongzhi 's writings . The exercise and meditation sessions are described as informal groups of practitioners who gather in public parks — usually in the morning — for one to two hours . Group study sessions typically take place in the evenings in private residences or university or high school classrooms , and are described by David Ownby as " the closest thing to a regular ' congregational experience ' " that Falun Gong offers . Individuals who are too busy , isolated , or who simply prefer solitude may elect to practice privately .
Large Falun Gong " experience @-@ sharing " conferences are also held every several months in major metropolitan areas , in which Falun Gong students read prepared testimonials detailing their experiences in the practice . These conferences , which can attract audiences of thousands , also provide a venue for Li Hongzhi to address practitioners .
= = Evangelism = =
Practitioners of Falun Gong are encouraged to engage in Hong Fa activities , meaning " making known the way . " The Chinese term " Hong Fa " may be interpreted to refer to proselytizing , yet because Falun Gong espouses a belief that individuals are either predestined or not to obtain the practice , practitioners of Falun Gong do not actively attempt to convert people . Hong Fa activities include handing out flyers in the subway or at the mall , leaving Falun Gong literature in stores , libraries , etc . , and participating in activities such as marches , parades , and Chinese cultural events .
= = Demographics = =
Ownby confirms estimates that Falun Gong is practiced by hundreds of thousands of people outside China , with the largest communities found in Taiwan and in North American cities with large Chinese populations , such as New York and Toronto . Demographic surveys by sociologist Susan Palmer and David Ownby in North American communities found that 90 % of practitioners were ethnic Chinese ( in Europe , there are proportionally more Caucasians ) . The average age was approximately 42 . Among survey respondents , 56 % were female and 44 % male ; 80 % were married . The surveys found the respondents to be highly educated : 9 % held PhDs , 34 % had master 's degrees , and 24 % had a bachelor 's degree .
Most of the Falun Gong practitioners in North America were among the Chinese students who emigrated in the 1980s and 1990s . In Craig Burgdoff 's ethnographic research of Ohio practitioners , he found that 85 – 90 % were Chinese graduate students or their family members . Similar results for North American practitioners were borne out by Scott Lowe , a professor of Philosophy and Religious Studies at the University of Wisconsin @-@ Eau Claire . In a 2003 Internet survey , Lowe found that the Chinese respondents living in Western nations were " uniformly well educated , clearly representing the expatriate elite " , with all respondents holding a master 's degree or higher . Respondents from Singapore and Malaysia had a more mixed educational profile , with a minority holding university degrees .
The preponderance of North American practitioners learned Falun Gong after leaving China . Ownby suggests that Falun Gong appealed to a broad spectrum of social groups , " including university professors and students , high party and government officials , well @-@ educated cadres and members of the comfortable middle class , and [ ... ] the old , the infirm , the unemployed , and the desperate . " In contrast to the typical mainland Chinese practitioner , who is likely to be a female retiree , Ownby 's survey at practitioners ' conferences in Montreal , Toronto , and Boston between 1999 and 2002 found the average Chinese practitioner in North America to be " young , urban , dynamic " . Non @-@ Chinese Falun Gong practitioners tend to fit the profile of non @-@ conformists and " spiritual seekers " — people who had tried a variety of qigong , yoga , or religious practices before finding Falun Gong . This stands in contrast to the standard profile of Chinese , whom Ownby described as " the straightest of straight arrows " .
= = Reasons for practicing Falun Gong = =
In surveys of the Falun Gong practitioners in North America , the most commonly reported reasons for being attracted to the practice were the teachings , cultivation exercises , and health benefits . In a study conducted by David Ownby , close to 30 % of practitioners said they were attracted to Falun Dafa for its " intellectual content " , 27 % for " spiritual enlightenment " , 20 % for " health benefits " , 15 % the exercises , 7 % for Li Hongzhi himself , and 2 % for the community . The " intellectual content " , according to Ownby , refers to the value of Falun Dafa doctrine in describing the " functioning of the moral and physical universe . "
Scott Lowe 's survey found that Falun Gong 's spiritual teachings and promise of good health were the most common reasons for people to have taken up the practice . In Lowe 's survey , 22 respondents gave " Master Li 's philosophy and his answers to life 's most difficult questions " as their primary attraction to the practice , while another twenty were attracted for health benefits . Nine were drawn by the moral principles , twelve by the books , ten by the exercises , and small numbers of others by a variety of other factors . Several respondents apparently realized that other forms of qigong were " shallow , exoteric , and superficial , " while they came to believe that Falun Gong is the " most complete , efficacious , and comprehensive system of spiritual cultivation on the planet . "
In Lowe 's survey , The practitioners were asked if their attraction to and focus on Falun Gong practice had changed over time . Ten claimed that they had no change , since they started Falun Gong with the intention of gaining enlightenment , which is the goal of practice . Others , over time , put less emphasis on the health improvements they experienced , which they came to see " as a relatively trivial result of cultivation . " Twenty @-@ six respondents said they felt a newfound sense of moral certitude and spiritual growth , while ten " discovered a firm determination to carry their cultivation through to the end goal of enlightenment or consummation , no matter what obstacles might appear in their path . "
= = Overseas responses to persecution in China = =
In July 1999 , the Communist Party initiated a campaign to persecute Falun Gong , including through the use of extralegal imprisonment , torture and other coercive measures , and propaganda . Falun Gong communities inside and outside China have adopted a variety of approaches to resist and mitigate the persecution in China . These tactics range from engagement with the media , lobbying of governments and NGOs , public protests and demonstrations , and attempts to seek legal redress . As the persecution in China progressed , overseas Falun Gong efforts increasingly tied their pleas for relief to Western human rights discourse , emphasizing the implications for freedom of speech , assembly , and conscience .
= = = Legal initiatives = = =
Lawyers acting on behalf of Falun Gong practitioners have filed dozens of largely symbolic lawsuits around the world against Jiang Zemin , Luo Gan , and other Chinese officials alleging genocide and crimes against humanity . According to International Advocates for Justice , Falun Gong has filed the largest number of human rights lawsuits in the 21st century and the charges are among the most severe international crimes defined by international criminal laws . As of 2006 , 54 civil and criminal lawsuits were under way in 33 countries .
In some instances , courts have refused to adjudicate Falun Gong cases against Chinese officials on the grounds of sovereign immunity . In November 2009 , however , Jiang Zemin and Luo Gan were indicted by a Spanish court on charges of genocide and crimes against humanity for their involvement in the persecution of Falun Gong . One month later , an Argentine judge concluded that Jiang and Luo had adopted a " genocidal strategy " in pursuing the eradication of Falun Gong , and asked Interpol to seek their arrest .
In May 2011 , a lawsuit was filed on behalf of Falun Gong practitioners against technology giant Cisco . The suit alleges , based mainly on internal Cisco documents , that the technology company " designed and implemented a surveillance system for the Chinese Communist Party , knowing it would be used to root out members of the Falun Gong religion and subject them to detention , forced labor and torture . " Cisco denies customizing its products to facilitate censorship or repression .
In addition to high @-@ profile lawsuits against Chinese officials and corporations , Falun Gong practitioners have filed a number of complaints and civil suits alleging discrimination outside China , most of them centered within the Chinese diaspora community . Several complaints have been made after Falun Gong groups were barred from participating in parades or events , with mixed results . In Canada and in New York , Falun Gong practitioners won judgments against Chinese businesses or community organizations for discriminating against them on the basis of their religious creed .
Practitioners of Falun Gong have been involved in a number of defamation cases against Chinese @-@ language media outlets or agents of the Chinese government . In 2004 , a Canadian Falun Gong practitioner Joel Chipkar won a libel case against Pan Xinchun , an officer at the Chinese consulate in Toronto , who had called Chipkar a member of a " sinister cult " in a newspaper article . Pan was ordered to pay $ 10 @,@ 000 in damages to Chipkar , but left the country before paying . In 2008 , the Appeals Court of Quebec , Canada , ruled that a Chinese language newspaper " Les Presses Chinoises " had defamed Falun Gong when it depicted the practice as dangerous and perverse . The court did not award damages , however , on the basis that the defamation targeted the group , rather than the individual plaintiffs
= = = Media organizations = = =
In the early 2000s , Falun Gong practitioners in the United States began establishing their own Chinese @-@ language media organizations to gain wider exposure for their cause and challenge the narratives of the dominant Chinese state @-@ run media . These include The Epoch Times newspaper , New Tang Dynasty Television , and Sound of Hope radio station . In addition to carrying content related to Falun Gong , they became vocal critics of Communist Party policies more generally , carrying reports on other human rights issues in China , on corruption , environment and public health issues , and other topics . According to communications professor Yuezhi Zhao , these media organizations are an example of how Falun Gong entered into a " de facto media alliance " with China 's democracy movements in exile , as demonstrated by its frequent printing of articles by prominent overseas Chinese critics of the mainland Chinese government .
Although initially created to address the needs of the Chinese @-@ language media market , the media organizations have expanded into dozens of additional languages ; The Epoch Times newspaper is distributed across over 30 countries in 17 languages , and NTD Television has a satellite or cable presence in North America , Europe , and Asia , and produces programs in 18 languages . The organizations maintain that they are not formally affiliated with Falun Gong , which lacks both a centralized organization and funds . However , most of their staff are Falun Gong practitioners , and many contribute on a volunteer basis .
= = = Demonstrations and sit @-@ ins = = =
After the launch of the persecution campaign in 1999 , practitioners outside China began holding frequent protests , rallies , and appeals . These include large @-@ scale marches , demonstrations , and vigils to coincide with notable anniversaries , such as April 25 , 1999 , and July 20 , 1999 . Marches typically involve participants holding signs and banners , devoting different sections of the parade to different aspects of the persecution . There is usually a section involving participants wearing only white ( symbolizing mourning ) and holding photos of those killed in China .
Practitioners also stage sit @-@ ins and demonstrations outside Chinese embassies and consulates . Falun Gong practitioners in Vancouver , Canada continue to stage the world 's longest , continuous protest against the persecution . It which runs twenty @-@ four hours a day at the entrance to the PRC consulate on Granville Street . In June 2006 , it was announced by the mayor of Vancouver that the protest signs and structures must be taken down in accordance with a by @-@ law against building permanent structures on public property . In 2010 , the B.C. Court of Appeal ruled that the city 's order to remove the protest structures was unconstitutional , and the structure was restored .
Anniversaries of significant dates in the persecution are marked with protests by Falun Gong communities around the world , . In Washington DC , for instance , the anniversary of 20 July 1999 is marked by a rally at the U.S. capitol attended by several thousand practitioners . Diplomatic visits by high @-@ ranking Chinese officials are also met with demonstrations by Falun Gong practitioners .
= = = Parades = = =
In contrast to marches , which focus on bringing attention to the persecution in China , celebratory Falun Gong parades usually incorporate traditional @-@ style Chinese dances , costumes , song , exercise demonstrations , drumming , floats , and banners . Practitioners regularly hold parades or public exhibitions of Chinese cultural performances to coincide with May 13 , the anniversary of the practice 's first public teaching in China . Practitioners also utilize various parade venues around the world to publicize their group and its message .
= = = Arts and culture = = =
A number of Falun Gong practitioners and organizations outside China are engaged in the promotion of classical visual and performing arts . Practitioners frame Falun Gong as being part of the wider cultural tradition that gave rise to Chinese arts , which they describe as having been persecuted and attacked under Communist Party rule .
Falun Gong devotees trained in the visual arts have held exhibitions of their works as a means of representing their beliefs and practice , and raising awareness of the persecution in China . These include Zhang Cuiying , an Australian painter who was imprisoned in China for practicing Falun Gong , and Zhang Kunlun , a Canadian citizen and former professor who was also imprisoned in China . Zhang Kunlun is part of a collective of twelve Falun Gong visual artists whose exhibit " The Art of Zhen Shan Ren " travels internationally .
In 2006 , Falun Gong practitioners with backgrounds in classical Chinese dance and music established Shen Yun Performing Arts in New York state . Shen Yun comprises three separate companies of dancers and musicians that tour internationally . Its stated mission is " reviving 5 @,@ 000 years of divinely inspired Chinese culture . " Shen Yun 's performance programs consists of classical Chinese dance , ethnic folk dance , solo musicians , and narrative dances that portray Falun Gong . Local productions of Shen Yun are often presented by the host city 's Falun Dafa Association .
New Tang Dynasty , the television station founded by Chinese @-@ American practitioners of Falun Gong , organizes a variety of cultural outreach programs as part of its mission to promote " appreciation and awareness of traditional Chinese culture . " In 2008 , the station began organizing a series of annual competitions open to ethnic Chinese participants in fields of classical Chinese dance , martial arts , traditional clothing design , painting , music , photography , and Chinese cooking .
= = = Research and advocacy organizations = = =
Supporters and practitioners of Falun Gong have established a number of research and advocacy organizations involved in reporting on human rights abuses in China and presenting this information to Western governments , NGOs , and multilateral organizations . These include the Falun Dafa Information Center , a volunteer @-@ run organization which presents itself as the " official source on Falun Gong and the human rights crisis in China , " and functions largely as a press office , publishing press releases and annual reports . The Falun Gong Human Rights Working Group conducts similar research and issues reports on the persecution in China , often presenting these findings to the United Nations . The World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong ( WOIPFG ) is as a research organization dedicated to investigating " the criminal conduct of all institutions , organizations , and individuals involved in the persecution of Falun Gong . " Falun Gong supporters and sympathizers have also founded groups such as Friends of Falun Gong and the Committee to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong ( CIPFG ) .
= = = Circumvention tools = = =
Roughly coinciding with the launch of the persecution in 1999 , Chinese authorities began establishing and fortifying a system of internet censorship and surveillance , sometimes referred to as the " golden shield . " Since that time , information relating to Falun Gong has consistently been among the primary targets of censorship and monitoring on the internet , with several Falun Gong practitioners reportedly being captured and sent to prison or labor camps for downloading or distributing information online .
In 2000 , North American Falun Gong computer scientists began developing circumvention and annonymizing tools to enable those in mainland China to access information on Falun Gong . Their software tools , such as Freegate and GPass , have since become a popular means of evading government controls of the internet in several other countries .
= = = Other initiatives and campaigns = = =
Practitioners of Falun Gong have launched a number of other campaigns to bring attention to the treatment of Falun Gong in China . Notable examples include the Human Rights Torch Relay , which toured to over 35 countries in 2007 and 2008 ahead of the 2008 Beijing Olympics . The relay was intended to draw attention to a range of human rights issues in China in connection with the Olympics , especially those related to Falun Gong and Tibet , and received support from hundreds of elected officials , past Olympic medallists , human rights groups and other concerned organizations .
Some practitioners of Falun Gong both inside and outside China are also involved in the promotion of the Tuidang movement , a dissident phenomenon catalyzed by an editorial series in The Epoch Times in late 2004 . The movement encourages Chinese citizens to renounce their affiliations to the Chinese Communist Party , including ex post facto renunciations of the Communist Youth League and Young Pioneers . Practitioners of Falun Gong outside China make phone calls or faxes to mainland China to inform citizens of the movement and solicit renunciation statements .
= = Attempts at persecution overseas by the Communist Party = =
The Communist Party 's campaign against Falun Gong has extended to diaspora communities , including through the use of media , espionage and monitoring of Falun Gong practitioners , harassment and violence against practitioners , diplomatic pressure applied to foreign governments , and hacking of overseas websites . According to a defector from the Chinese consulate in Sydney , Australia , " The war against Falun Gong is one of the main tasks of the Chinese mission overseas . "
In 2004 the U.S. House of Representatives unanimously passed a resolution condemning the attacks on Falun Gong practitioners in the United States by agents of the Communist Party . The resolution reported that party affiliates have " pressured local elected officials in the United States to refuse or withdraw support for the Falun Gong spiritual group , " that Falun Gong spokespeople have had their houses have been broken into , and individuals engaged in peaceful protest actions outside embassies have been physically assaulted .
The overseas campaign against Falun Gong is described in documents issued by China 's Overseas Chinese Affairs Office ( OCAO ) . In a report from a 2007 meeting of OCAO directors at the national , provincial , and municipal level , the office stated that it " coordinates the launching of anti- ' Falun Gong ' struggles overseas . " OCAO exhorts overseas Chinese citizens to participate in " resolutely implementing and executing the Party line , the Party 's guiding principles , and the Party 's policies , " and to " aggressively expand the struggle " against Falun Gong , ethnic separatists , and Taiwanese independent activists abroad . Other party and state organs believed to be involved in the overseas campaign include the Ministry of State Security ( MSS ) , 6 @-@ 10 Office , and People 's Liberation Army , among others .
= = = Surveillance and espionage = = =
In 2005 , Chen Yonglin , a political consul from the Chinese consulate in Sydney , and Jennifer Zeng , a Falun Gong victim of torture from China , both sought asylum in Australia while making claims that Chinese agents were engaged in large @-@ scale operations to monitor , intimidate , and undermine support for Falun Gong outside China . Chen alleged that his primary function at the consulate involved efforts to monitor and harass Falun Gong and to minimize support for the practice from Australian media and elected officials . Zeng stated that " espionage and intimidation against [ Falun Gong ] practitioners overseas is so common that many of us have become accustomed to it . "
Hao Fengjun , another defector to Australia , had worked for the 610 Office of Tianjin city and claims that his job involved the collection and analysis of intelligence reports on Falun Gong from Europe , Australia , and North America . The implication was that local 610 offices are involved in the espionage efforts abroad . Another defector from China 's Ministry of State Security — which conducts both domestic and international intelligence — claimed that the repression and monitoring of underground Christians and Falun Gong practitioners is a major focus of the ministry .
In 2005 , a Ministry of State Security ( MSS ) agent working with the Chinese embassy in Berlin recruited a German Falun Gong practitioner Dr. Dan Sun to act as an informant . The MSS agent reportedly arranged a meeting for Sun with two men who purported to be scholars of Chinese medicine interested in researching Falun Gong , and Sun agreed to pass information to them , ostensibly hoping to further their understanding of the practice . The men were in fact high @-@ ranking agents of the 610 Office in Shanghai . Sun maintained that he had no knowledge the men he was corresponding with were Chinese intelligence agents , but was he nonetheless convicted of espionage in 2011 . According to Der Spiegel , the case demonstrated " how important fighting [ Falun Gong ] is to the [ Chinese ] government , " and " points to the extremely offensive approach that is sometimes being taken by the Chinese intelligence agencies . "
= = = Blacklisting = = =
Chinese authorities reportedly maintain lists of high @-@ profile overseas Falun Gong practitioners , and they use these blacklists to impose travel and visa restrictions on practitioners . Chen Yonglin , the defector from the Chinese consulate in Sydney , said in 2005 that approximately 800 Australian Falun Gong practitioners had been blacklisted ( Chen claimed he sought to remove most of these names ) .
In order to prevent potential protests during the 2008 Beijing Olympics , authorities imposed a blacklist on overseas Falun Gong practitioners , preventing them from traveling to China . 42 other categories of individuals , including Tibetans and " counter @-@ revolutionary figures , " were also blacklisted . Chinese authorities tolerated Bibles and other religious items at the Olympics , with the exception of Falun Gong materials . Ahead of the Olympic Games , Chinese public security bodies reportedly requested lists of Japanese Falun Gong practitioners from the government of Japan . The request was denied .
In June 2002 , when Jiang Zemin visited Iceland , Icelandic authorities complied with requests from the Chinese government to deny entry to Falun Gong practitioners who sought to enter the country to protest . Using a blacklist provided by China , hundreds of Falun Gong practitioners were turned away by the national airline or detained if they managed to make it to the country . The blacklisting ignited protests by Icelandic citizens and members of parliament . In 2011 , Iceland 's foreign minister Össur Skarphéðinsson issued an apology for violating Falun Gong practitioners ' freedom of expression and movement .
In August 2010 , an airline hostess from the Australian airline , Qantas , was demoted to short haul flights after being threatened by Chinese officials in Beijing , in spite of having flown there several times before .
Although Falun Gong is practiced freely within Hong Kong , Falun Gong practitioners from abroad have also reported being blacklisted from entering the territory . In 2001 , Hong Kong officials admitted that they had used a blacklist to deny entry to approximately 100 Falun Gong practitioners during a visit by then @-@ Communist Party chief Jiang Zemin . In 2004 , a Canadian Falun Gong practitioner on a book tour was denied entry to the territory , and in 2008 , two Falun Gong practitioners from the United States and Switzerland were separately denied entry while on professional and research trips .
In 2003 , 80 Taiwanese practitioners were blocked from entering Hong Kong , and again in 2007 , hundreds more Taiwanese were blocked from entering Hong Kong or detained at the airport , These events set off a six @-@ year human rights case that tested the integrity of the one country , two systems arrangement . In 2009 , Falun Gong 's case against the Hong Kong immigration department was dismissed . Months later , Hong Kong immigration officials denied visas to several members of the Falun Gong @-@ affiliated Shen Yun dance company , which was scheduled to perform in the territory in January 2010 . Democratic Party chairman Albert Ho said the denial of the visas was a worrying new erosion of Hong Kong 's freedoms , and damaged the reputation of Hong Kong as a liberal and open society . A court ruling in March 2010 overturned the Immigration Department 's decision .
= = = Disruption , monitoring of electronic communications = = =
Since 1999 , Falun Gong practitioners outside China have reported having their telephone lines tapped and electronic correspondence monitored . Falun Gong websites based outside China were the earliest targets of Chinese denial of service attacks , according to Chinese internet expert Ethan Gutmann . In 2011 , dated stock footage aired on China Central Television of People 's Liberation Army staff carrying out attacks on U.S.-based Falun Gong websites .
= = = Violence = = =
In isolated instances , violence against practitioners of Falun Gong has reportedly been committed by agents of the Chinese government abroad , though the connection to Chinese authorities is sometimes tenuous or difficult to verify .
In September 2001 , five Falun Gong practitioners were assaulted while demonstrating outside the Chinese consulate in Chicago . The assailants , who were later convicted of battery , were members of a Chinese @-@ American association with connections to the Chinese consulate . In 2002 , 25 @-@ year @-@ old Ottawa practitioner Leon Wang reported being kicked , dragged , and beaten inside the Chinese embassy after he was caught taking pictures of an anti @-@ Falun Gong exhibit being held there . The embassy responded that Wang had " sneaked in . . . and disrupted its normal functioning " of the event .
In June 2004 , Australian Falun Gong practitioner David Liang was injured in a drive @-@ by shooting while in South Africa . The purpose of his visit was to protest outside the South Africa @-@ China Binational Commission ( BNC ) meetings and to launch a lawsuit against high @-@ ranking Chinese officials for their involvement in the persecution of Falun Gong . Practitioners allege that the drive @-@ by shooting was an assassination attempt , and noted that the assailants made no attempt to rob them . Chinese Embassy officials denied involvement . In December 2005 , Argentine Falun Gong practitioners filed a lawsuit against former 610 Office chief and Politburo member Luo Gan while he visited the country . During Luo 's visit , practitioners were beaten by Chinese assailants in Buenos Aires 's Congress Square . Police were reportedly ordered not to intervene . Amnesty International 's Argentina director suggested the assaults may have been " connected to officials of the Chinese government . "
In the spring and summer of 2008 , practitioners of Falun Gong in New York became the targets of sustained violence within the largely ethnic Chinese neighborhood of Flushing , Queens . Groups of Chinese reportedly punched , assaulted , and threw rocks at Falun Gong practitioners , leading to multiple arrests . The Chinese consul general in New York , Peng Keyu , was reportedly involved in inciting the violence against Falun Gong and providing " guidance " to the assailants .
= = = Diplomatic and commercial pressure = = =
Representatives of the party @-@ state , typically acting through China 's overseas diplomatic mission , have applied diplomatic and commercial pressure on foreign governments , media organizations , and private enterprises with regards to Falun Gong .
In North America , Chinese agents have reportedly visited newspaper offices to " extol the virtues of Communist China and the evils of Falun Gong . " There have also been instances where international media organizations have cancelled programing or print articles about Falun Gong in response to requests from the Chinese government . In 2008 , for instance , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation succumb to pressure from the Chinese embassy in Ottawa to pull a documentary on Falun Gong hours before it was set to air . In 2009 @-@ 2010 , the Washington Post commissioned a feature article on Falun Gong . The article was killed " immediately after the Chinese embassy became aware of it , " according to the journalist .
Chinese diplomats also exhort politicians not to support or recognize Falun Gong , and threaten that expressions of support for Falun Gong will jeopardize trade relations with China . In 2002 , the Wall Street Journal reported that hundreds of American municipalities had received letters from Chinese diplomatic missions urging them to shun or persecute Falun Gong , using approaches that " combine gross disinformation with scare tactics and , in some cases , slyly implied diplomatic and commercial pressure . "
According to Perry Link , pressure on Western institutions also takes more subtle forms , including academic self @-@ censorship , whereby research on Falun Gong is avoided because it could result in a denial of visas for fieldwork in China . Ethan Gutmann also noted that media organizations and human rights groups also self @-@ censor on the topic , given the PRC government 's attitude toward the practice , and the potential repercussions that may follow for making overt representations on Falun Gong 's behalf .
Governments and private enterprises have also come under pressure from China to censor media organizations operated by Falun Gong practitioners . In 2008 , for instance , French satellite provider Eutelsat suspended its Asian broadcasts of New Tang Dynasty Television in response to pressure from China 's State Administration of Radio , Film and Television . The move was viewed as a quid pro quo attempt to secure access to the Chinese market .
In 2011 , under pressure from Chinese authorities , the Vietnamese government tried two Falun Gong practitioners who had been operating a shortwave radio station and broadcasting information into China . The pair was charged with unlicensed broadcasting , and sentenced to 2 and 3 years in prison . Earlier in the same year , another radio station operated by Falun Gong practitioners in Indonesia , Radio Erabaru , was shuttered under diplomatic pressure from China .
= = International reception and response = =
Western governments and human rights organizations have expressed condemnation of the suppression in China and sympathized with Falun Gong 's plight . Since 1999 , members of the United States Congress have made public pronouncements and introduced several resolutions in support of Falun Gong . In 2010 , House Resolution 605 described Falun Gong as a set of " spiritual , religious , and moral teachings for daily life , meditation , and exercise , based upon the principles of truthfulness , compassion , and tolerance , " called for " an immediate end to the campaign to persecute , intimidate , imprison , and torture Falun Gong practitioners , " condemned the Chinese authorities ' efforts to distribute " false propaganda " about the practice worldwide , and expressed sympathy to persecuted Falun Gong practitioners and their families .
United Nations Special Rapporteurs on Torture , Extrajudicial executions , Violence against Women and Freedom of Religion or Belief have issued numerous reports condemning the persecution of Falun Gong in China , and relayed hundreds of cases of concern to Chinese authorities . In 2003 , for instance , The Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial Killings wrote that reports from China " describe harrowing scenes in which detainees , many of whom are followers of the Falun Gong movement , die as a result of severe ill @-@ treatment , neglect or medical attention . The cruelty and brutality of these alleged acts of torture defy description . " In 2010 , the special rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief condemned the defamation against minority religious groups , singling out the governments of Iran and China for their treatment of the Bahá 'í Faith and Falun Gong , respectively . " Small communities , such as Jehovah 's Witnesses , Baha 'is , Ahmadis , Falun Gong and others are sometimes stigmatized as " cults " and frequently meet with societal prejudices which may escalate into fully fledged conspiracy theories , " said the rapporteur at the UN general assembly .
Although the persecution of Falun Gong has drawn considerable condemnation outside China , some observers note that Falun Gong has failed to attract the level of sympathy and sustained attention afforded to other Chinese dissident groups . Katrina Lantos Swett , vice chair of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom , notes that most Americans are aware of the persecution of " Tibetan Buddhists and unregistered Christian groups or pro @-@ democracy and free speech advocates such as Liu Xiaobo and Ai Weiwei , " and yet " know little to nothing about China ’ s assault on the Falun Gong . "
From 1999 – 2001 , Western media reports on Falun Gong — and in particular , the mistreatment of practitioners — were frequent , if mixed . By the latter half of 2001 , however , the volume of media reports declined precipitously , and by 2002 , coverage of Falun Gong by major news organizations like the New York Times and Washington Post had almost completely ceased , particularly from within China . In a study of media discourse on Falun Gong , researcher Leeshai Lemish found that Western news organizations also became less balanced , and more likely to uncritically present the narratives of the Communist Party , rather than those of Falun Gong or human rights groups .
Adam Frank writes that foreign media adopted a variety of frames in reporting on Falun Gong , including linking Falun Gong to historical antecedents in China , reporting on human rights violations against the group , and practice @-@ based reporting on the experience of Falun Gong . Ultimately , Frank writes that in reporting on the Falun Gong , the Western tradition of casting the Chinese as " exotic " took dominance , and that " the facts were generally correct , but the normalcy that millions of Chinese practitioners associated with the practice had all but disappeared . " David Ownby observes that sympathy for Falun Gong is further undermined by the impact of the " cult " label applied to the practice by the Chinese authorities , which never entirely went away in the minds of some Westerners , and the stigma of which still plays a role in public perceptions of Falun Gong .
Ethan Gutmann , a journalist reporting on China since the early 1990s , has attempted to explain the apparent dearth of public sympathy for Falun Gong as stemming , in part , from the group 's shortcomings in public relations . Unlike the democracy activists or Tibetans , who have found a comfortable place in Western perceptions , " Falun Gong marched to a distinctly Chinese drum , " according to Gutmann . This , coupled with western skepticism of persecuted refugees , has resulted in a perception that Falun Gong practitioners tended to exaggerate , or " spout slogans rather than facts . " Gutmann also observes that Falun Gong also lacks robust backing from the American constituencies that usually support religious freedom : liberals are wary of Falun Gong 's conservative morality , Christian conservatives don 't accord the practice the same space as persecuted Christians , and the political center is wary of disrupting commercial and political relations with the Chinese government . Thus , Falun Gong practitioners have largely had to rely on their own resources in responding to the persecution .
= SMS Monarch =
SMS Monarch ( " His Majesty 's Ship Monarch " ) was the lead ship of the Monarch @-@ class coastal defense ships built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the 1890s . After their commissioning , Monarch and the two other Monarch @-@ class ships made several training cruises in the Mediterranean Sea in the early 1900s . Monarch and her sisters formed the 1st Capital Ship Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy until they were replaced by the newly commissioned Habsburg @-@ class predreadnought battleships at the turn of the century . In 1906 the three Monarchs were placed in reserve and only recommissioned during the annual summer training exercises . After the start of World War I , Budapest was recommissioned and assigned to 5th Division together with her sisters .
The division was sent to Cattaro in August 1914 to attack Montenegrin and French artillery that was bombarding the port , and Monarch remained there for the rest of the war . The ship was decommissioned in early 1918 and became an accommodation ship . She was awarded to Great Britain by the Paris Peace Conference in 1920 . The British sold her for scrap and she was broken up in Italy beginning in 1921 .
= = Description and construction = =
At only 5 @,@ 785 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 694 long tons ) maximum displacement , the Monarch class was less than half the size of the battleships of other major navies at the time , and were officially designated as coast defense ships . Austria @-@ Hungary 's only coastline was on the Adriatic Sea , and the Austro @-@ Hungarian government believed that the
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Koločepski Channel near Šipan , in September . The ships were briefly recommissioned at the beginning of 1913 , as the 4th Division after the start of the Second Balkan War , but were decommissioned again on 10 March . In early 1914 , Monarch made a cruise in the Levant with the dreadnoughts Viribus Unitis , Tegetthoff and the predreadnought Zrínyi . Two of the ship 's crew came down with smallpox and cerebrospinal meningitis in Egypt and caused the ship to be quarantined for several weeks in Pola .
= = = World War I = = =
With the beginning of World War I the three Monarchs were recommissioned as the 5th Division . They were sent down to the Bay of Kotor in August 1914 , to attack Montenegrin artillery batteries on Mount Lovćen bombarding the Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Cattaro and the fortifications defending it . Monarch and her sisters arrived on 13 August , but their guns could not elevate enough to engage all of the enemy artillery , which was reinforced by eight French guns on 19 October . The battleship Radetzky was summoned to deal with the guns two days later , and she managed to knock out several French guns and forced the others to withdraw by 27 October . Monarch remained at Cattaro for the rest of the war to deter any further attacks . The ship 's crew joined in the Cattaro Mutiny in early February 1918 . Six weeks later she became an accommodation ship for the submarine crews based at nearby Gjenovic . Monarch was handed over to Great Britain as war reparations in January 1920 and broken up for scrap in Italy in 1921 .
= Ambler 's Texaco Gas Station =
Ambler 's Texaco Gas Station , also known as Becker 's Marathon Gas Station , is a historic filling station located at the intersection of Old U.S. Route 66 and Illinois Route 17 in the village of Dwight , Illinois , United States . The station has been identified as the longest operating gas station along Route 66 ; it dispensed fuel for 66 continuous years until 1999 . The station is a good example of a domestic style gas station and derives its most common names from ownership stints by two different men . North of the station is an extant outbuilding that once operated as a commercial icehouse . Ambler 's was the subject of major restoration work from 2005 – 2007 , and reopened as a Route 66 visitor 's center in May 2007 . It was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 2001 .
= = History = =
Located at the intersection of U.S. Route 66 and Illinois Route 17 in Dwight , Illinois , United States , Ambler 's Texaco Station was built in 1933 by Jack Schore on property originally owned by Otto Strufe . The gas station is no longer in operation as a filling station , but when it closed , it held the record as the longest operating gas station along the historic Route 66 . The station last dispensed gasoline in 1999 . In 1936 , the station was leased to Vernon Von Qualen and became known as Vernon 's Texaco Station . Over the next two years , Von Qualen purchased the station from Schore , and sold it in 1938 to Basil " Tubby " Ambler . Ambler owned the station from 1938 – 1966 . Ambler 's ownership was the longest of any owner during the most historically significant period ; as a result , the station was known as Ambler 's longer than by any other name .
The owner at the time of the building 's nomination to the National Register of Historic Places , Phil Becker , grew up living on Mazon Street ( Illinois Route 17 ) . He had been hanging out at the station since he was nine and began working at the station in 1964 . One year after Becker 's employment began , Ambler sold the station to Earl Kochler . Kochler sold the station to Royce McBeath , who ran it between 1965 – 1970 . The station changed hands once again when Becker bought the station from McBeath on March 4 , 1970 . About a year after Becker took over operation of the station , Texaco suddenly stopped supplying the location with gasoline and Becker contracted with Marathon Oil . The brand change was accompanied by a name change to Becker 's Marathon Gas Station , a name the station would be known by for over 26 years . Becker operated the station , along with his wife Debbie , from the time of purchase until 1996 . After closing the station , the couple leased the building out as an auto repair shop and eventually donated the building to the village of Dwight .
In 2005 , a project to restore the old gas station began . The village of Dwight applied for and received a US $ 10 @,@ 400 federal cost @-@ share grant from the U.S. National Park Service and its Route 66 Corridor Preservation Program . The grant required the village to present matching funds in the amount of the grant . The restoration 's ultimate goal was to reopen the station as a rest stop and interpretive center along the historic roadway .
= = Restoration = =
The combined grant and village @-@ funded restoration included door , window , and roof repairs , along with interior and exterior repainting . The repainting matched the station 's 1940s color scheme . On April 24 , 2007 , the National Park Service presented a plaque commemorating the restoration project at the station . In early May 2007 , with the restoration completed , Ambler 's Texaco Gas Station reopened as a visitor 's center .
Following the restoration , the station evokes the 1940s ; the interior is complete with a potbelly stove , tiny Coca @-@ Cola bottle and antique Dwight Lumber / Route 66 advertising yardsticks . Also inside are an old cash register , old 7 Up bottles and a plaid stamp saver book . The restored station is owned by the village of Dwight .
= = Architecture = =
The Ambler 's Texaco Station is built in a common gas station style known as " house and canopy " style or " domestic style . " The style was developed by Standard Oil of Ohio in 1916 , and consisted of a small house @-@ like building with an attached canopy . The canopy extended out over the pumps to protect customers from the weather . The style was meant to evoke feelings of home and comfort in travelers and , in turn , to make people more at ease buying goods from the station .
The one @-@ story building has no basement and originally consisted of only the house and canopy portion , and three Texaco gas pumps . The house , or main office portion of the station includes the interior office and the men 's and women 's restrooms . The men 's restroom is accessed from the interior office and the women 's restroom is accessed via an outside door on the south side of the building . The original " LADIES " sign still protrudes from the wall above the entrance . The entire house section of the station is 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) by 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . The exterior of the building is wood and sided with clapboard , save the garage bay area which is concrete block . The bay was built during World War II , between 1941 – 45 , and material shortages forced the use of the differing building material .
The building has a wooden , side gabled roof covered with asphalt shingles , which extends over the station 's canopy . The canopy supporting piers originally " flared out " and have been altered since the building 's original construction . The three original Texaco pumps were replaced with 1960s era Marathon pumps , which are on display in the service bay . The Marathon change @-@ over also resulted in a sign being attached to the roof of the service bay which read " Marathon , " this sign is no longer extant .
= = Icehouse = =
Located on the property of Ambler 's Texaco Gas Station , just north of the station , is a 24 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) by 16 foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) wood clad , wooden frame building that once housed a commercial icehouse . Though its exact dates of operation are unknown , it is believed the icehouse was established by a member of Jack Schore 's family during the 1930s . While the icehouse was in business , there was a small pond located about 200 feet ( 61 m ) east of the property . Operators cut ice from the pond and stored it in the building until sale . After the icehouse ceased operation , a date that is also unknown , the building was used as a storage shed for the gas station . The building features a double wall with sawdust stuffed in between the walls to provide insulation . The wooden roof has asphalt shingles . Ambler 's Texaco Station listing on the National Register lists the icehouse building as a contributing property .
= = Significance = =
The building is a good example of the house and canopy style , and for its architectural and commercial significance it was nominated to the National Register of Historic Places in October 2001 and listed on November 29 , 2001 . Commercially , the station is most significant for the services and products it provided travelers along U.S. Route 66 , including fuel , oil and automobile repairs . The gas station met all criteria listed in the National Register of Historic Places Multiple Property form as requirements for adding gas stations to the listing . In order for gas stations along U.S. Route 66 in Illinois to qualify for listing on the National Register , they must show a clear connection to and raise feelings associated with early traffic and tourism along Route 66 . A gas station listed for its architecture , such as Ambler 's , must be a " good example " of an architectural style or type through many details from design to location , all of which must convey a connection with its historic appearance along Route 66 .
= Angel One =
This article is for the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode . For the cable channel known as " Angel One " , see Sky Angel .
" Angel One " is the 14th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . It was first broadcast on January 25 , 1988 , in the United States in broadcast syndication . It was written by Patrick Barry and was directed by Michael Ray Rhodes .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , an away team visits a world dominated by women to search for survivors of a downed freighter , while the crew of the Enterprise suffer from the effects of a debilitating virus .
The episode was intended to be commentary on Apartheid in South Africa , using gender role reversal . However , there were problems between the cast and director during filming , and Patrick Stewart sought to have the sexist nature of the episode changed . The resulting episode was not well liked by members of the production team , and the response from reviewers was negative .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise arrives at the planet Angel One , where its native population is run as an oligarchy , with women in the dominant position of power . The ship is looking for survivors from the shipwrecked freighter Odin , 7 + years after having been evacuated . The freighter was missing 3 escape pods and the only planet in range was Angel One . An away team consisting of Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) , Lt. Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) , Lt. Tasha Yar ( Denise Crosby ) , and Counselor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) beam down to the surface . They attempt to negotiate with Beata ( Karen Montgomery ) , the " Elected One " of the native inhabitants , to let them search for the survivors . Time is of the essence however , as the Enterprise must travel to a Federation outpost near the Romulan Neutral Zone ( where a group of Romulan Battlecruisers has been detected ) as soon as they resolve their investigation into the Odin survivors .
Beata reveals that they are aware of four male survivors of the Odin who have caused disruption in their society , and are considered fugitives . Beata requests Riker stay with her ( and later requests that he orders Troy , Data , and Yar to track down the survivors ' camp and their leader Ramsey ( Sam Hennings ) , while he stay and dine with her ) . After some back and forth the Data concludes Ramsey and the survivors of the Odin would have Platinum with them , and Angel One is naturally devoid of Platinum , allowing the Enterprise to easily detect them . Meanwhile , Riker dresses in the garb given to him for his dinner with Beata , Troy and Yar taunt him for dressing in clothes that sexualize him and in some ways demean him , and he is only doing it to win favor with Beata . He responds by saying he is honoring the local customs , and acknowledges Beata 's beauty , and that the garb is rather comfortable .
The Enterprise searches while in orbit of Angel One . Doctor Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) relieves Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) of duty after he and most of the crew have fallen ill to a random virus on board , that gives the sense of an odd smell to its victims at the time of infection . The Captain leaves Lieutenant Geordi La Forge ( Levar Burton ) in command ( Geordi 's first time in Acting Command of a Starship ) . Shortly after , they find Ramsey and transmit his location to the Away Team , who beam directly to there .
When confronted by Data , Yar , and Troy , Ramsey and his men , having taken wives and started families during the seven years , refuse to leave , Geordi informs Yar of the medical situation on board , and that more Romulan ships have been detected near the Neutral Zone . Riker learns from Beata that their society structure has already been collapsing , but Ramsey and his men have served to accelerate its decline . Riker argues that it may just be the course of evolution taking place . On the Enterprise , systems are becoming harder to maintain with more crew succumbing the virus . Geordi ( after a friendly reminder from a sniffling Worf ( Michael Dorn ) ) remembers that in command , he must delegate others perform tasks so he can stay on the Bridge . Dr. Crusher finds that the virus is an airborne organism that produces a sweet smell , to encourage inhalation , after which becomes viral inside the body .
Riker gets up to date with the situation , and decides that while Ramsey and his group are at large and refusing to leave the planet , there is little they can do . Before leaving they find that one of Beata 's assistants , Ariel ( Patricia McPherson ) , has married Ramsey , and was followed by Beata 's men to their camp , where they arrested the survivors and their families . The Away Team attempt to explain to Beata the reason for Ramsey 's refusal to leave . Beata and her council reject his reasoning , and threatens to execute them the following day . After failing to convince Ramsey and his group to leave with them , Riker contacts the Enterprise , in hopes to transport Ramsey and his group without their consent ( despite it being a violation of the Prime Directive , and almost certainly an end to his career ) , but Dr. Crusher ( while treating an incapacitated Geordi in the Captain 's chair ) refuses to allow anyone to beam aboard for fear of being infected , but allows Data , as an android , to return . Riker orders Data to take command and get the Enterprise to the Neutral Zone before it 's too late .
The following morning the Away Team is invited to witness the execution of Ramsey and his followers . Moments after Riker rejects their invitation Data makes contact and informs them that there is a 48 @-@ minute window for which Dr. Crusher has to find a cure , and for Riker to defuse the situation on the planet before the ship must leave to the Neutral Zone . On the planet , Ramsey and his men are prepared to be executed by disintegration despite Ariel 's pleas , while Dr. Crusher discovers a cure for the virus . Riker is prepared to have the away team and the Odin survivors beamed to the Enterprise , but Beata announces that she will stay the execution and banish Ramsey , his men , their families , and any others that support them to the far side of the planet . She explains that their banishment will not stop the fall of the oligarchy , but will slow it down enough that Beata will not be around to see its end . The away team return to the ship and Picard , already recovering from the virus but hardly having a voice , orders the ship to the Neutral Zone at high warp .
= = Production = =
Producer Herbert Wright explained that the episode was to be a commentary on Apartheid in South Africa , with men on the planet representing black people . The original plot by Patrick Berry would have seen Riker and Data travel to the surface with an otherwise all female away team , which offended the planet 's leader to the extent that Yar stuns him with a phaser as a show of strength in order to prevent his immediate execution . Riker is imprisoned as one of the marooned men , named Lucas Jones , begins an uprising . Jones is killed , but his death inspires his followers to assault the government . In that version , Picard is the only one to fall ill on board the Enterprise . The reverse role society had already been included in Gene Roddenberry 's 1974 TV pilot / movie Planet Earth , and Wright described it as " being done a thousand times already " . In her book Sexual Generations : " Star Trek , the Next Generation " and Gender ( University of Illinois Press , 1999 ) , Robin Roberts points out that a similar plot was used by Walter Besant in his 1882 anti @-@ feminist dystopia , The Revolt of Man . " Angel One " featured the first mention of the Romulans , who would appear later in the season one finale , " The Neutral Zone " .
Michael Ray Rhodes directed the episode as part of a deal with The Bronx Zoo , another television show filmed at Paramount Studios . Rhodes had previously won Emmy Awards on four occasions for his work on the television series Insights between 1981 and 1984 . Wil Wheaton later recalled that there were some issues between the main cast and the director , but didn 't know what they were about as he only worked for one day of the shoot . Gates McFadden described it as " one of the most sexist episodes we ever had " , and Patrick Stewart sought to have the episode changed to reduce those elements . Some of the production crew subsequently thought poorly of " Angel One " . Executive producer Maurice Hurley described it as " Terrible . Just terrible . One of the ones you 'd just as soon erase " . Producer Herbert Wright felt that the " sexual places it was dragged to were absurd " .
= = Reception = =
" Angel One " first aired in the United States in broadcast syndication on January 25 , 1988 . It received an 11 @.@ 4 rating , meaning that it was seen by 11 @.@ 4 percent of all households . This was an increase from the previous week 's " Datalore " which received a rating of 10 @.@ 3 .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode following the end of the series . Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com. He described the episode as being " one of the most sexist episodes of Star Trek ever produced under the veneer of feminism " , and that the virus subplot was " filler , and boring filler at that " . Overall , he said that it was " one of the absolute low points of the show " , giving it a score of two out of ten . Cast member Wil Wheaton watched it for AOL TV , and thought that it started well but soon descended into the appearance of an episode from The Original Series with Riker in the Kirk role . He also noted that if the speech that Riker gave towards the end of the episode had been given to Yar or Troi then the overall message would have been more subtle . He gave it a grade of D overall .
James Hunt for Den of Geek said that the episode was not as bad as " Code of Honor " , but that it contained " almost every terrible cliché about seen in TNG 's first season in one episode " . He summed it up , saying " We 've seen all of this before , and it was barely interesting the first time around . The second time , it 's just tedious . A horrible episode on so many levels . " Zack Handlen watched the episode for The A.V. Club and said that he " expected more from TNG " , saying that he was not sure what the reversal of gender roles in the episode was meant to achieve . He described the virus subplot as " absurd " and gave the episode an F grade . The episode was included in a couple of worst episode lists , including in one compiled by Scott Thrill for Wired magazine , and it was ranked the fourth worst episode by Jay Garmon at the website TechRepublic .
= = Home media release = =
The first home media release of " Angel One " was on VHS cassette , appearing on August 26 , 1992 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 , and then released as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= History of Mars observation =
The recorded history of Mars observation dates back to the era of the ancient Egyptian astronomers in the 2nd millennium BCE . Chinese records about the motions of Mars appeared before the founding of the Zhou Dynasty ( 1045 BCE ) . Detailed observations of the position of Mars were made by Babylonian astronomers who developed arithmetic techniques to predict the future position of the planet . The ancient Greek philosophers and Hellenistic astronomers developed a geocentric model to explain the planet 's motions . Measurements of Mars ' angular diameter can be found in ancient Greek and Indian texts . In the 16th century , Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model for the Solar System in which the planets follow circular orbits about the Sun . This was revised by Johannes Kepler , yielding an elliptic orbit for Mars that more accurately fitted the observational data .
The first telescopic observation of Mars was by Galileo Galilei in 1610 . Within a century , astronomers discovered distinct albedo features on the planet , including the dark patch Syrtis Major Planum and polar ice caps . They were able to determine the planet 's rotation period and axial tilt . These observations were primarily made during the time intervals when the planet was located in opposition to the Sun , at which points Mars made its closest approaches to the Earth .
Better telescopes developed early in the 19th century allowed permanent Martian albedo features to be mapped in detail . The first crude map of Mars was published in 1840 , followed by more refined maps from 1877 onward . When astronomers mistakenly thought they had detected the spectroscopic signature of water in the Martian atmosphere , the idea of life on Mars became popularized among the public . Percival Lowell believed he could see a network of artificial canals on Mars . These linear features later proved to be an optical illusion , and the atmosphere was found to be too thin to support an Earth @-@ like environment .
Yellow clouds on Mars have been observed since the 1870s , which Eugène M. Antoniadi suggested were windblown sand or dust . During the 1920s , the range of Martian surface temperature was measured ; it ranged from − 85 to 7 ° C ( − 121 to 45 ° F ) . The planetary atmosphere was found to be arid with only trace amounts of oxygen and water . In 1947 , Gerard Kuiper showed that the thin Martian atmosphere contained extensive carbon dioxide ; roughly double the quantity found in Earth 's atmosphere . The first standard nomenclature for Mars albedo features was adopted in 1960 by the International Astronomical Union . Since the 1960s , multiple robotic spacecraft have been sent to explore Mars from orbit and the surface . The planet has remained under observation by ground and space @-@ based instruments across a broad range of the electromagnetic spectrum . The discovery of meteorites on Earth that originated on Mars has allowed laboratory examination of the chemical conditions on the planet .
= = Earliest records = =
The existence of Mars as a wandering object in the night sky was recorded by ancient Egyptian astronomers . By the 2nd millennium BCE they were familiar with the apparent retrograde motion of the planet , in which it appears to move in the opposite direction across the sky from its normal progression . Mars was portrayed on the ceiling of the tomb of Seti I , on the Ramesseum ceiling , and in the Senenmut star map . The last is the oldest known star map , being dated to 1534 BCE based on the position of the planets .
By the period of the Neo @-@ Babylonian Empire , Babylonian astronomers were making systematic observations of the positions and behavior of the planets . For Mars , they knew , for example , that the planet made 37 synodic periods , or 42 circuits of the zodiac , every 79 years . The Babylonians invented arithmetic methods for making minor corrections to the predicted positions of the planets . This technique was primarily derived from timing measurements — such as when Mars rose above the horizon , rather than from the less accurately known position of the planet on the celestial sphere .
Chinese records of the appearances and motions of Mars appear before the founding of the Zhou Dynasty ( 1045 BCE ) , and by the Qin Dynasty ( 221 BCE ) astronomers maintained close records of planetary conjunctions , including those of Mars . Occultations of Mars by Venus were noted in 368 , 375 , and 405 CE . The period and motion of the planet 's orbit was known in detail during the Tang Dynasty ( 618 CE ) .
The early astronomy of ancient Greece was influenced by knowledge transmitted from the Mesopotamian culture . Thus the Babylonians associated Mars with Nergal , their god of war and pestilence , and the Greeks connected the planet with their god of war , Ares . During this period , the motions of the planets were of little interest to the Greeks ; Hesiod 's Works and Days ( c . 650 BCE ) makes no mention of the planets .
= = Orbital models = =
The Greeks used the word planēton to refer to the seven celestial bodies that moved with respect to the background stars and they held a geocentric view that these bodies moved about the Earth . In his work , The Republic ( X.616E – 617B ) , the Greek philosopher Plato provided the oldest known statement defining the order of the planets in Greek astronomical tradition . His list , in order of the nearest to the most distant from the Earth , was as follows : the Moon , Sun , Venus , Mercury , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , and the fixed stars . In his dialogue Timaeus , Plato proposed that the progression of these objects across the skies depended on their distance , so that the most distant object moved the slowest .
Aristotle , a student of Plato , observed an occultation of Mars by the Moon in 365 BCE . From this he concluded that Mars must lie further from the Earth than the Moon . He noted that other such occultations of stars and planets had been observed by the Egyptians and Babylonians . Aristotle used this observational evidence to support the Greek sequencing of the planets . His work De Caelo presented a model of the universe in which the Sun , Moon , and planets circle about the Earth at fixed distances . A more sophisticated version of the geocentric model was developed by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus when he proposed that Mars moved along a circular track called the epicycle that , in turn , orbited about the Earth along a larger circle called the deferent .
In Roman Egypt during the 2nd century CE , Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Ptolemy ) attempted to address the problem of the orbital motion of Mars . Observations of Mars had shown that the planet appeared to move 40 % faster on one side of its orbit than the other , in conflict with the Aristotelian model of uniform motion . Ptolemy modified the model of planetary motion by adding a point offset from the center of the planet 's circular orbit about which the planet moves at a uniform rate of rotation . He proposed that the order of the planets , by increasing distance , was : the Moon , Mercury , Venus , Sun , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , and the fixed stars . Ptolemy 's model and his collective work on astronomy was presented in the multi @-@ volume collection Almagest , which became the authoritative treatise on Western astronomy for the next fourteen centuries .
In the 5th century CE , the Indian astronomical text Surya Siddhanta estimated the angular size of Mars as 2 arc @-@ minutes ( 1 / 30 of a degree ) and its distance to Earth as 10 @,@ 433 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 296 @,@ 600 yojana , where one yojana is equivalent to eight km in the Surya Siddhanta ) . From this the diameter of Mars is deduced to be 6 @,@ 070 km ( 754 @.@ 4 yojana ) , which has an error within 11 % of the currently accepted value of 6 @,@ 788 km . However , this estimate was based upon an inaccurate guess of the planet 's angular size . The result may have been influenced by the work of Ptolemy , who listed a value of 1 @.@ 57 arc @-@ minutes . Both estimates are significantly larger than the value later obtained by telescope .
In 1543 , Nicolaus Copernicus published a heliocentric model in his work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium . This approach placed the Earth in an orbit around the Sun between the circular orbits of Venus and Mars . His model successfully explained why the planets Mars , Jupiter and Saturn were on the opposite side of the sky from the Sun whenever they were in the middle of their retrograde motions . Copernicus was able to sort the planets into their correct heliocentric order based solely on the period of their orbits about the Sun . His theory gradually gained acceptance among European astronomers , particularly after the publication of the Prutenic Tables by the German astronomer Erasmus Reinhold in 1551 , which were computed using the Copernican model .
On October 13 , 1590 , the German astronomer Michael Maestlin observed an occultation of Mars by Venus . One of his students , Johannes Kepler , quickly became an adherent to the Copernican system . After the completion of his education , Kepler became an assistant to the Danish nobleman and astronomer , Tycho Brahe . With access granted to Tycho 's detailed observations of Mars , Kepler was set to work mathematically assembling a replacement to the Prutenic Tables . After repeatedly failing to fit the motion of Mars into a circular orbit as required under Copernicanism , he succeeded in matching Tycho 's observations by assuming the orbit was an ellipse and the Sun was located at one of the foci . His model became the basis for Kepler 's laws of planetary motion , which were published in his multi @-@ volume work Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae ( Epitome of Copernican Astronomy ) between 1615 and 1621 .
= = Early telescope observations = =
At its closest approach , the angular size of Mars is 25 arcseconds ; this is much too small for the naked eye to resolve . Hence , prior to the invention of the telescope , nothing was known about the planet besides its position on the sky . The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei was the first person known to use a telescope to make astronomical observations . His records indicate that he began observing Mars through a telescope in September 1610 . This instrument was too primitive to display any surface detail on the planet , so he set the goal of seeing if Mars exhibited phases of partial darkness similar to Venus or the Moon . Although uncertain of his success , by December he did note that Mars had shrunk in angular size . Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius succeeded in observing a phase of Mars in 1645 .
In 1644 , the Italian Jesuit Daniello Bartoli reported seeing two darker patches on Mars . During the oppositions of 1651 , 1653 and 1655 , when the planet made its closest approaches to the Earth , the Italian astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli and his student Francesco Maria Grimaldi noted patches of differing reflectivity on Mars . The first person to draw a map of Mars that displayed terrain features was the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens . On November 28 , 1659 he made an illustration of Mars that showed the distinct dark region now known as Syrtis Major Planum , and possibly one of the polar ice caps . The same year , he succeeded in measuring the rotation period of the planet , giving it as approximately 24 hours . He made a rough estimate of the diameter of Mars , guessing that it is about 60 % of the size of the Earth , which compares well with the modern value of 53 % . Perhaps the first definitive mention of Mars 's southern polar ice cap was by the Italian astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini , in 1666 . That same year , he used observations of the surface markings on Mars to determine a rotation period of 24h 40m . This differs from the currently @-@ accepted value by less than three minutes . In 1672 , Huygens noticed a fuzzy white cap at the north pole .
After Cassini became the first director of the Paris Observatory in 1671 , he tackled the problem of the physical scale of the Solar System . The relative size of the planetary orbits was known from Kepler 's third law , so what was needed was the actual size of one of the planet 's orbits . For this purpose , the position of Mars was measured against the background stars from different points on the Earth , thereby measuring the diurnal parallax of the planet . During this year , the planet was moving past the point along its orbit where it was nearest to the Sun ( a perihelic opposition ) , which made this a particularly close approach to the Earth . Cassini and Jean Picard determined the position of Mars from Paris , while the French astronomer Jean Richer made measurements from Cayenne , South America . Although these observations were hampered by the quality of the instruments , the parallax computed by Cassini came within 10 % of the correct value . The English astronomer John Flamsteed made comparable measurement attempts and had similar results .
In 1704 , Italian astronomer Jacques Philippe Maraldi " made a systematic study of the southern cap and observed that it underwent " variations as the planet rotated . This indicated that the cap was not centered on the pole . He observed that the size of the cap varied over time . The German @-@ born British astronomer Sir William Herschel began making observations of the planet Mars in 1777 , particularly of the planet 's polar caps . In 1781 , he noted that the south cap appeared " extremely large " , which he ascribed to that pole being in darkness for the past twelve months . By 1784 , the southern cap appeared much smaller , thereby suggesting that the caps vary with the planet 's seasons and thus were made of ice . In 1781 , he estimated the rotation period of Mars as 24h 39m 21.67s and measured the axial tilt of the planet 's poles to the orbital plane as 28 @.@ 5 ° . He noted that Mars had a " considerable but moderate atmosphere , so that its inhabitants probably enjoy a situation in many respects similar to ours " . Between 1796 and 1809 , the French astronomer Honoré Flaugergues noticed obscurations of Mars , suggesting " ochre @-@ colored veils " covered the surface . This may be the earliest report of yellow clouds or storms on Mars .
= = Geographical period = =
At the start of the 19th century , improvements in the size and quality of telescope optics proved a significant advance in observation capability . Most notable among these enhancements was the two @-@ component achromatic lens of the German optician Joseph von Fraunhofer that essentially eliminated coma — an optical effect that can distort the outer edge of the image . By 1812 , Fraunhofer had succeeded in creating an achromatic objective lens 190 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter . The size of this primary lens is the main factor in determining the light gathering ability and resolution of a refracting telescope . During the opposition of Mars in 1830 , the German astronomers Johann Heinrich Mädler and Wilhelm Beer used a 95 mm ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) Fraunhofer refracting telescope to launch an extensive study of the planet . They chose a feature located 8 ° south of the equator as their point of reference . ( This was later named the Sinus Meridiani , and it would become the zero meridian of Mars . ) During their observations , they established that most of Mars ' surface features were permanent , and more precisely determined the planet 's rotation period . In 1840 , Mädler combined ten years of observations to draw the first map of Mars . Rather than giving names to the various markings , Beer and Mädler simply designated them with letters ; thus Meridian Bay ( Sinus Meridiani ) was feature " a " .
Working at the Vatican Observatory during the opposition of Mars in 1858 , Italian astronomer Angelo Secchi noticed a large blue triangular feature , which he named the " Blue Scorpion " . This same seasonal cloud @-@ like formation was seen by English astronomer J. Norman Lockyer in 1862 , and it has been viewed by other observers . During the 1862 opposition , Dutch astronomer Frederik Kaiser produced drawings of Mars . By comparing his illustrations to those of Huygens and the English natural philosopher Robert Hooke , he was able to further refine the rotation period of Mars . His value of 24h 37m 22.6s is accurate to within a tenth of a second .
Father Secchi produced some of the first color illustrations of Mars in 1863 . He used the names of famous explorers for the distinct features . In 1869 , he observed two dark linear features on the surface that he referred to as canali , which is Italian for ' channels ' or ' grooves ' . In 1867 , English astronomer Richard A. Proctor created a more detailed map of Mars based on the 1864 drawings of English astronomer William R. Dawes . Proctor named the various lighter or darker features after astronomers , past and present , who had contributed to the observations of Mars . During the same decade , comparable maps and nomenclature were produced by the French astronomer Camille Flammarion and the English astronomer Nathan Green .
At the University of Leipzig in 1862 – 64 , German astronomer Johann K. F. Zöllner developed a custom photometer to measure the reflectivity of the Moon , planets and bright stars . For Mars , he derived an albedo of 0 @.@ 27 . Between 1877 and 1893 , German astronomers Gustav Müller and Paul Kempf observed Mars using Zöllner 's photometer . They found a small phase coefficient — the variation in reflectivity with angle — indicating that the surface of Mars is smooth and without large irregularities . In 1867 , French astronomer Pierre Janssen and British astronomer William Huggins used spectroscopes to examine the atmosphere of Mars . Both compared the optical spectrum of Mars to that of the Moon . As the spectrum of the latter did not display absorption lines of water , they believed they had detected the presence of water vapor in the atmosphere of Mars . This result was confirmed by German astronomer Herman C. Vogel in 1872 and English astronomer Edward W. Maunder in 1875 , but would later come into question .
A particularly favorable perihelic opposition occurred in 1877 . The English astronomer David Gill used this opportunity to measure the diurnal parallax of Mars from Ascension Island , which led to a parallax estimate of 8 @.@ 78 ± 0 @.@ 01 arcseconds . Using this result , he was able to more accurately determine the distance of the Earth from the Sun , based upon the relative
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century , sustaining much of the early growth of the city . Between 1850 and 1950 , 450 @,@ 000 tons of gum were exported . The peak in the gum market was 1899 , with 11 @,@ 116 tons exported that year , with a value of £ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 989 @,@ 700 ) . The average annual export was over 5 @,@ 000 tons , with the average price gained £ 63 ( $ 103 @.@ 91 ) per ton .
= = Appearance = =
The gum varied in color depending on the condition of the original tree . It also depended on where the gum had formed and how long it had been buried . Colors ranged from chalky @-@ white , through red @-@ brown to black ; the most prized was a pale gold , as it was hard and translucent . The size of each lump also varied greatly . Swamps tended to yield the small nuggets known as " chips " , whereas the hillsides tended to produce larger lumps . The majority were the size of acorns , although some were found which weighed a few pounds ; the largest ( and rarest ) were reported to weigh half a hundredweight . Kauri gum shares a few characteristics with amber , another fossilised resin found in the Northern Hemisphere , but where amber can be dated as millions of year old , carbon @-@ dating suggests the age of most kauri gum is a few thousand years .
= = Gumfields = =
Most of the gumfields were in Northland , Coromandel and Auckland , the site of the original kauri forests . Initially , the gum was readily accessible , commonly found lying on the ground . Captain Cook reported the presence of resinous lumps on the beach at Mercury Bay , Coromandel , in 1769 , although he suspected it came from the mangroves , and missionary Samuel Marsden spoke of their presence in Northland in 1819 .
By 1850 , most of the surface @-@ lying gum had been picked up , and people began digging for it . The hillsides yielded shallow @-@ buried gum ( about 1 m ) , but in the swamps and beaches , it was buried much further down ( 4 m or below ) .
= = Gum @-@ diggers = =
Gum @-@ diggers were men and women who dug for kauri gum , a fossilised resin , in the old kauri fields of New Zealand at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries . The gum was used mainly for varnish . The term may be a source for the nickname " Digger " given to New Zealand soldiers in World War I. In 1898 , a gum @-@ digger described " the life of a gum @-@ digger " as " wretched , and one of the last [ occupations ] a man would take to . "
Gum @-@ diggers worked in the old kauri fields , most of which were then covered by swamp or scrub , digging for the gum . Much of the population was transient , moving from field to field , and they lived in rough huts or tents ( which were called " whares " , after the Maori for ' house ' ) . It was extremely hard work and not very well paid , but it attracted many Maori and European settlers , including women and children . There were many Dalmatians , who had first come to work the South Island goldfields in the 1860s . They were transient workers , rather than settlers , and much of their income was sent out of the country , resulting in much resentment from the local workforce . In 1898 , the " Kauri Gum Industry Act " was passed , which reserved gum @-@ grounds for British subjects , and requiring all other diggers to be licensed . By 1910 , only British subjects could hold gum @-@ digging licences .
Gum @-@ digging was the major source of income for settlers in Northland , and farmers often worked the gumfields in the winter months to subsidise the poor income from their unbroken land . By the 1890s , 20 @,@ 000 people were engaged in gum @-@ digging , of which 7000 worked full @-@ time . Gum @-@ digging was not restricted to settlers or workers in the rural areas ; Auckland families would cross the Waitemata Harbour by ferry at weekends to dig in the fields around Birkenhead , causing damage to public roads and private farms , and leading to local council management of the problem .
= = = Gumdigging methods = = =
Most gum was dug from the ground using gum @-@ spears ( pointed rods to probe for gum ) and " skeltons " , defined as blade @-@ edged spades for cutting through old wood and roots as well as soil . Once the gum was retrieved it would need to be scraped and cleaned .
Digging in swamps was more complicated ; a longer spear ( up to 8m ) was often used , often fitted with a hooked end to scoop out the lumps . Scrub was often cleared first with fire ; some got out of control and swamp fires could burn for weeks . Holes were often dug by teams in both hills and swamps — often up to 12m deep — and some wetlands were drained to aid in the excavation of gum . As field gum became scarce , " bush gum " was obtained by purposely cutting the bark of kauri trees and returning months later to retrieve the hardened resin . Due to the damage caused to the trees by the cutting the practice was banned in state forests in 1905 . Gum chips , small lumps useful for the manufacture of linoleum , were difficult to find , and by 1910 , the process of washing and sieving to retrieve the chips became common . The process was later mechanised .
= = Gum merchants = =
Gumdiggers generally sold their gum to local gumbuyers , who transported it to Auckland ( generally by sea ) for sale to merchants and exporters . There were six major export firms in Auckland who dealt in gum , employing several hundred workers who graded and rescraped the gum for export , packing them in cases made from kauri timber .
As early as the 1830s and 1840s , merchants , including Gilbert Mair and Logan Campbell , were buying gum from local Māori for £ 5 ( $ 8 @.@ 25 ) a ton , or trading it for goods . The majority of the gum was exported to America and London ( from whence it was distributed throughout Europe ) , although smaller amounts were sent to Australia , Hong Kong , Japan and Russia .
= Council of Lithuania =
The Council of Lithuania ( Lithuanian : Lietuvos Taryba , German : Litauischer Staatsrat , Polish : Rada Litewska ) , after July 11 , 1918 The State Council of Lithuania ( Lithuanian : Lietuvos Valstybės Taryba ) , was convened at the Vilnius Conference that took place between 18 and 23 September 1917 . The twenty men initially composing the council were of different ages , social status , professions , and political affiliations . The council was granted the executive authority of the Lithuanian people and was entrusted to establish an independent Lithuanian state . On 16 February 1918 , the members of the council signed the Act of Independence of Lithuania and declared Lithuania an independent state based on democratic principles . 16 February is celebrated as Lithuania 's State Restoration Day . The council managed to establish the proclamation of independence despite the presence of German troops in the country until the autumn of 1918 . By the spring of 1919 , the council had almost doubled in size . The council continued its efforts until the Constituent Assembly of Lithuania ( Lithuanian : Steigiamasis Seimas ) first met on 15 May 1920 .
= = Historical background and Vilnius Conference = =
After the last Partition of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795 , Lithuania had become part of the Russian Empire . During the 19th century , both the Poles and the Lithuanians attempted to restore their independence . They rebelled during the November Uprising in 1830 and the January Uprising in 1863 , but the first realistic opportunity came about during World War I. In 1915 , Germany occupied Lithuania as its troops marched towards Russia . After the Russian Revolution in 1917 , opportunities for independence opened up . Germany , avoiding direct annexation , tried to find a middle path that would involve some kind of union with Germany . In the light of upcoming peace negotiations with Russia , the Germans agreed to allow the Vilnius Conference , hoping that it would proclaim that the Lithuanian nation wanted to be detached from Russia and wished for a closer relationship with Germany . However , the conference , held between 18 and 23 September 1917 , adopted a resolution that an independent Lithuania should be established and that a closer relationship with Germany would depend on whether it recognized the new state . On 21 September , the attendees at the conference elected a 20 @-@ member Council of Lithuania to establish this resolution . The German authorities did not allow that resolution to be published , but they did permit the council to proceed . The authorities censored the council 's newspaper , Lietuvos aidas ( Echo of Lithuania ) , preventing the council from reaching a wider public audience . The Conference also resolved that a constituent assembly be elected " in conformity with democratic principles by all the inhabitants of Lithuania " .
= = Membership = =
The twenty men initially composing the council were of different ages ( the youngest was 25 ; the oldest 66 ) , social status , professions , and political affiliations . There were eight lawyers , four priests , three agronomists , two financiers , a doctor , a publisher , and an engineer . Eight of the members were Christian democrats and seven were not affiliated . All except one had gained degrees in tertiary education . The council 's last surviving member , Aleksandras Stulginskis , died in September 1969 .
During the first meeting on September 24 , Antanas Smetona was elected as the chairman of the council . The chairman , two vice @-@ chairmen , and two secretaries made up the presidium . The vice @-@ chairs and secretaries would change from time to time , but Smetona retained the chairmanship until 1919 when he was elected the first President of Lithuania . Smetona was succeeded by Stasys Šilingas as the chairman . He was not among the original twenty members . The first change in membership took place on 13 July 1918 , when six new members ( Martynas Yčas , Augustinas Voldemaras , Juozas Purickis , Eliziejus Draugelis , Jurgis Alekna and Stasys Šilingas ) were admitted and four ( Kairys , Vileišis , Biržiška , Narutavičius ) resigned . By the spring of 1919 , the council had almost doubled in size .
= = Declaration of Independence = =
Soon after the council was elected , major developments took place in Russia . The October Revolution brought the Bolsheviks to power . They signed a truce with Germany on December 2 , 1917 and started peace negotiations . Germany needed some documentation of its relationship with Lithuania . In the so @-@ called Berlin Protocol Germany offered to recognize Lithuanian independence if the latter agreed to form a firm and permanent federation with Germany , based on conventions concerning military affairs , transportation , customs , and currency . The council agreed , on condition that Lithuania would decide its own internal affairs and foreign policy . The Germans rejected this proposal . On December 11 , the council adopted a resolution agreeing to a " firm and permanent alliance " with Germany on the basis of the four conventions . Only fifteen members voted for this resolution , but all twenty signed it .
The Germans broke their promise and did not recognize the state and did not invite its delegation to the negotiations of Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk . Lithuanians , including those living abroad , disapproved of the December 11 declaration . The declaration , seen as pro @-@ German , was an obstacle in establishing diplomatic relations with England , France and the United States , the enemies of Germany . On January 8 , the same day that Woodrow Wilson announced his Fourteen Points , the council proposed amendments to the declaration of December 11 calling for a constituent assembly . The amendments were rejected by the Germans and it was made clear that the council would serve only advisory functions . The council was torn apart and a few members threatened to leave . On February 16 , the council , temporarily chaired by Jonas Basanavičius , decided to re @-@ declare independence , this time mentioning nothing specific about a relationship with Germany . That was left for a constituent assembly to decide . February 16 is celebrated as Lithuania 's State Restoration Day .
= = Establishing independence = =
The Germans were not satisfied with the new declaration and demanded that the council go back to the December 11 decision . On March 3 , Germany and Bolshevik Russia signed the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk . It declared that the Baltic nations were in the German interest zone and that Russia renounced any claims to them . On March 23 , Germany recognized independent Lithuania on the basis of the December 11 declaration . However , nothing in essence changed either in Lithuania or in Council 's status : any efforts to establish administration were hindered . The form of government , however , was left undecided . Germany , ruled by a kaiser , preferred a monarchy . It proposed a personal union with the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty . As an alternative , on June 4 the council voted to invite Duke Wilhelm of Urach , Count of Württemberg , to become the monarch of Lithuania . He agreed and was elected King of Lithuania ( Mindaugas II ) on July 13 , 1918 . The decision was very controversial and four members of the council left in protest .
Germany did not recognize the new king and its relationship with the council remained tense . The council was not allowed to determine the borders of Lithuania , establish an embassy in Berlin , or begin forming a stable administrative system . It received small funds to cover its expenses only in September 1918 . The situation changed when the German Revolution started and Germany lost the war in fall of 1918 – it was no longer in a position to dictate terms . On November 2 , the council adopted the first provisional constitution . The decision to invite King Mindaugas II was annulled and this helped to reconcile the political factions . The functions of government were entrusted to a three @-@ member presidium , and Augustinas Voldemaras was invited to form the first Cabinet of Ministers . The first government was formed on November 11 , 1918 , the day that Germany signed the armistice in Compiègne . The council began to organize an army , police , local government , and other institutions . It also expanded to include ethnic minorities ( Jews and Belarusians ) . There were no women in the council , despite a petition that gathered 20 @,@ 000 signatures .
The Freedom Wars started and political processes were derailed during the turmoil . Lithuanian elections to the Constituent Assembly of Lithuania were not held until April 1920 . The council was not replaced by a parliament ( Seimas ) until August 1 , 1922 , when the Constitution of Lithuania was adopted .
= M @-@ 3 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 3 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Detroit metropolitan area of the US state of Michigan . For most of its length , the trunkline is known as Gratiot Avenue / ˈɡræʃᵻt / . The trunkline starts in Downtown Detroit and runs through the city in a northeasterly direction along one of Detroit 's five major avenues . The highway passes several historic landmarks and through a historic district . It also connects residential neighborhoods on the city 's east side with suburbs in Macomb County and downtown .
Gratiot Avenue in Detroit was one of the original avenues laid out by Judge Augustus Woodward after the Detroit fire in 1805 . It was later used as a supply road for Fort Gratiot in Port Huron under authorization from the US Congress in the 1820s . The roadway was included in the State Trunkline Highway System in 1913 and signposted with a number in 1919 . Later , it was used as a segment of US Highway 25 ( US 25 ) before that highway was functionally replaced by Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) in the 1960s . The M @-@ 3 designation was applied to the current highway in 1973 , and a southern section was reassigned to M @-@ 85 in 2001 .
= = Route description = =
The southern end of M @-@ 3 is at an intersection between Jefferson Avenue and Randolph Street near the near entrance to the Detroit – Windsor Tunnel , the Mariners ' Church , and the Renaissance Center in downtown Detroit . This intersection also serves as the termini for M @-@ 10 and Business Spur I @-@ 375 ( BS I @-@ 375 ) . M @-@ 3 follows Randolph Street northward under the Detroit People Mover past Cadillac Square . North of Monroe Avenue , the street runs through the Randolph Street Commercial Buildings Historic District before M @-@ 3 crosses under the People Mover again and turns northeasterly along Gratiot Avenue , one of Detroit 's five major thoroughfares . This street is a boulevard setup with four lanes divided with a median or center turn lane .
Gratiot Avenue runs northeasterly through downtown , past Ford Field . Near the stadium , the street passes over I @-@ 375 ( Chrysler Freeway ) without any direct connections . On the east side of the freeway , M @-@ 3 runs past the Historic Trinity Lutheran and St. John 's @-@ St. Luke 's Evangelical churches before intersecting the end of the Fisher Freeway , which at this location is an unnumbered connector to I @-@ 75 and I @-@ 375 . Gratiot continues past the freeway on the city 's east side , bordering residential neighborhoods along the way . Through this area , it had a continuous center turn lane , losing the grassy median it had in places downtown . The highway intersects Grand Boulevard near Dueweke Park , and at Van Dyke Avenue , it intersects the southern end of M @-@ 53 . Gratiot Avenue crosses I @-@ 94 at the latter 's exit 219 near the Coleman A. Young International Airport and an adjacent industrial area .
Past the airport , Gratiot Avenue once again runs through residential neighborhoods while being immediately bordered by commercial properties . The southern end of M @-@ 97 is at the intersection between Gratiot and Gunston avenues just northeast of the Outer Drive junction by the airport . The trunkline passes the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary Church near a branch location of the Detroit Public Library at McNichols Street . Just before crossing M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) , Gratiot Avenue widens back to a boulevard . This intersection marks the transition from Detroit and Wayne County to Eastpointe in Macomb County .
In Macomb County , M @-@ 3 follows a boulevard setup complete with Michigan lefts at the major intersections in the suburbs of Detroit . There are a series of commercial properties between 10 Mile Road and I @-@ 696 ( Reuther Freeway ) that includes the Eastgate Shopping Center in Roseville . Near 13 Mile Road , there is a partial interchange with I @-@ 94 that allows eastbound traffic , which is physically traveling northbound to access northbound M @-@ 3 and southbound M @-@ 3 traffic to access westbound I @-@ 94 . The missing connections are possible through the adjacent interchange for Little Mack Avenue on I @-@ 94 which also connects to 13 Mile Road and Gratiot Avenue . North of 14 Mile Road , M @-@ 3 crosses into Clinton Charter Township next to the Hebrew Memorial Park , a cemetery .
North of the intersection with Metropolitan Parkway , Gratiot Avenue splits into a one @-@ way pairing of Northbound and Southbound Gratiot avenues as it crosses into Mount Clemens near the Clinton River . The two separate streets are one , two , or even three blocks apart through the city 's downtown area . North of the Patterson Street intersections , the two streets cross back into Clinton Township and merge back together in four @-@ lane street with a center turn lane . North of M @-@ 59 ( Hall Road ) . M @-@ 3 clips the southeastern corner of Macomb Township near Selfridge Air National Guard Base . The highway continues into Chesterfield Township . M @-@ 3 parts from Gratiot Avenue at the intersection with 23 Mile Road , turning eastward along that roadway to an intersection with I @-@ 94 . At exit 243 , M @-@ 3 terminates at this interchange and 23 Mile Road continues easterly as M @-@ 29 .
M @-@ 3 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 3 were the 73 @,@ 957 vehicles daily south of 14 Mile Road in Roseville ; the lowest counts were the 4 @,@ 609 vehicles per day north of Cadillac Square in downtown Detroit . All of M @-@ 3 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Original designation = = =
The first trunkline to be designated M @-@ 3 was Schaefer Highway in 1937 , running north – south from US 25 ( Dix Avenue ) in Melvindale to US 16 ( Grand River Avenue ) in western Detroit . Two years later , the highway became M @-@ 39 . Since M @-@ 39 was moved to Southfield Road in the end of the 1950s , Schaefer Highway has been a locally maintained road .
= = = Current designation = = =
The chief transportation routes in 1701 were the Indian trails that crossed the future state of Michigan ; the one connecting what are now Detroit and Port Huron was one of these thirteen trails at the time . Detroit created 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) rights @-@ of @-@ way for the principle streets of the city , the modern Gratiot Avenue included , in 1805 . This street plan was devised by Augustus Woodward and others following a devastating fire in Detroit . Gratiot Avenue , then also called Detroit – Port Huron Road , was authorized by the US Congress on March 2 , 1827 , as a supply road from Detroit to Port Huron for Fort Gratiot . Construction started in Detroit in 1829 , and the roadway was completed in the same year to Mount Clemens . The rest was finished in 1833 . The road was named for the fort near Port Huron , which was in turn named for Colonel Charles Gratiot , the supervising engineer in charge of construction of the structure in the aftermath of the War of 1812 .
On May 13 , 1913 , the Michigan Legislature passed the State Reward Trunk Line Highway Act , which included Gratiot Avenue as part of Division 1 of the initial highway system . When the Michigan State Highway Department signposted the first state highways in 1919 , the trunkline bore the M @-@ 19 designation for its entire length from Detroit to Port Huron . In 1926 , Gratiot Avenue was redesignated as part of US 25 , while the M @-@ 19 designation was relocated westward , connecting Yale with US 25 ( Gratiot Avenue ) just north of 31 Mile Road . In 1963 , the portion of US 25 north of 23 Mile Road was turned over to local control as US 25 was routed over the newly constructed I @-@ 94 freeway , with the exception of the stretch between New Haven and Muttonville , which was again designated M @-@ 19 as an extension of that route . Between Hall and 23 Mile roads , Gratiot Avenue was added to an extended M @-@ 59 .
M @-@ 3 returned to existence in 1973 , when US 25 , now concurrent with I @-@ 94 and I @-@ 75 for most of its length through Michigan and Ohio , was truncated at Cincinnati . The former US 25 section of Gratiot Avenue was redesignated M @-@ 3 , along with a southwestern extension down Fort Street to Clark Avenue ( I @-@ 75 exit 47A ) . This also provided an international connection via the Ambassador Bridge to Ontario 's Highway 3 . The signs were changed over in February 1974 to complete the change .
At the end of 2000 , MDOT proposed several highway transfers in Detroit . Some of these involved transferring city streets in the Campus Martius Park area under the department 's jurisdiction to city control ; another part of the proposal involved MDOT assuming control over a section of Fort Street from the then northern terminus of M @-@ 85 to the then southern terminus of M @-@ 3 at Clark Street . When these transfers were completed the following year , M @-@ 3 was severed into two discontinuous segments by the Campus Marius changes , and the southern segment between Clark and Griswold streets was added to an extended M @-@ 85 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Aarhus =
Aarhus ( Danish pronunciation : [ ˈɒːhuːˀs ] ; officially spelled Århus from 1948 until 31 December 2010 ) is the second @-@ largest city in Denmark and the seat of Aarhus municipality . It is located on the east coast of the Jutland peninsula , in the geographical centre of Denmark , 187 kilometres ( 116 mi ) northwest of Copenhagen and 289 kilometres ( 180 mi ) north of Hamburg , Germany . The inner urban area contains 264 @,@ 716 inhabitants ( as of 1 January 2016 ) and the municipal population is 330 @,@ 639 ( as of 2016 ) . Aarhus is the central city in the East Jutland metropolitan area , which had a total population of 1 @.@ 378 million in 2016 .
The history of Aarhus began as a fortified Viking settlement founded in the 8th century and with the first written records stemming from the bishopric seated here from at least 948 . The city was founded on the northern shores of a fjord at a natural harbour and the primary driver of growth was for centuries seaborne trade in agricultural products . Market town privileges were granted in 1441 , but growth stagnated in the 17th century as the city suffered blockades and bombardments during the Swedish Wars . In the 19th century it was occupied twice by German troops during the Schleswig Wars but avoided destruction . As the industrial revolution took hold , the city grew to become the second @-@ largest in the country by the 20th century .
Today Aarhus is at the cultural and economic core of the region and the largest centre for trade , services and industry in Jutland . The city ranks as the 92nd largest city in the European Union , and as number 234 among world cities . It is also a top 100 conference city in the world . Aarhus is the principal industrial port of the country in terms of container handling and an important trade hub in Kattegat . Major Danish companies have based their headquarters here and people commute for work and leisure from a wide area in Region Midtjylland . It is a centre for research and education in the Nordic countries and home to Aarhus University , Scandinavia 's largest university , including Aarhus University Hospital and INCUBA Science Park . Being the Danish city with the youngest demographics , with 48 @,@ 482 inhabitants aged under 18 , Aarhus is also one of the fastest growing Danish cities , with an average growth of 4 @,@ 000 people per annum since 2010 .
Aarhus is notable for its musical history . In the 1950s many jazz clubs sprang up around the city , fuelled by the young population . By the 1960s , the music scene diversified into rock and other genres . In the 1970s and 1980s , Aarhus became the centre for Denmark 's rock music fostering many iconic bands such as TV @-@ 2 and Gnags . Aarhus is home to the annual eight @-@ day Aarhus International Jazz Festival , the SPoT Festival and the NorthSide Festival .
= = Etymology = =
In Valdemar 's Census Book ( 1231 ) the city was called Arus , and in Icelandic it was known as Aros , later written as Aars . It is a compound of the two words ār , genitive of ā ( " river " , Modern Danish å ) , and ōss ( " mouth " , in Modern Icelandic this word is still used for " river delta " ) . The name originates from the city 's location around the mouth of Aarhus Å ( Aarhus River ) . The spelling " Aarhus " is first found in 1406 and gradually became the norm in the 17th century .
Aarhus / Århus spelling
With the Danish spelling reform of 1948 , " Aa " was changed to " Å " . Some Danish cities resisted the new spelling of their names , notably Aalborg and Aabenraa . Århus city council explicitly embraced the new spelling , as it was thought to enhance an image of progressiveness . In 2010 , the city council voted to change the name from " Århus " to " Aarhus " in order to strengthen the international profile of the city . The renaming came into effect on 1 January 2011 .
Certain geographically affiliated names have been updated to reflect the name of the city , such as the Aarhus River , changed from " Århus Å " to " Aarhus Å " . It is still grammatically correct to write geographical names with the letter Å and local councils are allowed to use the Aa spelling as an alternative . Whichever spelling local authorities choose most newspapers and public institutions will accept it . Some official authorities such as the Danish Language Committee , publisher of the Danish Orthographic Dictionary , still retain " Århus " as the main name , providing " Aarhus " as a new , second option , in brackets .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Founded in the early Viking Age , Aarhus is one of the oldest cities in Denmark , along with Ribe and Hedeby .
Achaeological evidence under the Aros settlement 's defences indicate the site was a town as early as the last quarter of the 8th century , considerably earlier than had been generally supposed . Discoveries after a 2003 archaeological dig unearthed half - buried longhouses , firepits , glass pearls and a road dated to the late 700s . Archaeologists have conducted several excavations in the inner city since the 1960s revealing wells , streets , homes and workshops . In the buildings and adjoining archaeological layers , everyday utensils like combs , jewellery and basic multi @-@ purpose tools from approximately the year 900 have been found .
The centre of Aarhus was once a pagan burial site until Aarhus ' first church , Holy Trinity Church , a timber structure , was built upon it during the reign of Frode , King of Jutland , around 900 . In the 900s an earth rampart for the defence of the early city was constructed , encircling the settlement , much like the defence structures found at Viking ring fortresses elsewhere . The rampart was later reinforced by Harald Bluetooth , and together with the town 's geographical placement , this suggests that Aros was an important trade and military centre . There are strong indications of a former royal residence from the Viking Age in Viby , a few kilometres south of the Aarhus city centre .
The bishopric of Aarhus dates back to at least 948 when Adam of Bremen reported the bishop Reginbrand attended the synod of Ingelheim in Germany . The bishopric and the town 's geographical location propelled prosperous growth and development of the early medieval town . The finding of six runestones in and around Aarhus indicates the city had some significance around the year 1000 , as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them . The era was turbulent and violent with several naval attacks on the city , such as Harald Hardrada 's assault around 1050 , when the Holy Trinity Church was burned to the ground .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
The growing influence of the Church during the Middle Ages gradually turned Aarhus , with its bishopric , into a prosperous religious centre . Many public and religious buildings were built in and around the city ; notably Aarhus Cathedral was initiated in the late 12th century by the influential bishop Peder Vognsen . In 1441 Christopher III issued the oldest known charter granting market town status although similar privileges may have existed as far back as the 12th century . The charter is the first official recognition of the town as a regional power and is by some considered Aarhus ' birth certificate .
The official and religious status spurred growth so in 1477 the defensive earthen ramparts , ringing the town since the Viking age , were abandoned to accommodate expansion . Parts of the ramparts are still in existence today and can be experienced as steep slopes at the riverside and they have also survived in some place names in the inner city , including the streets of Volden ( The Rampart ) and Graven ( The Ditch ) . Aarhus grew to become one of the largest cities in the country by the early 16th century . In 1657 octroi was imposed in larger Danish cities which changed the layout and face of Aarhus over the following decades . Wooden city walls were erected to prevent smuggling , with gates and toll booths on the major thoroughfares , Mejlgade and Studsgade . The city gates funnelled most traffic through a few streets where merchant quarters were built .
In the 17th century , Aarhus entered a period of recession as it suffered blockades and bombardments during the Swedish wars and trade was dampened by the preferential treatment of the capital by the state . It was not until the middle of the 18th century growth returned in large part due to trade with the large agricultural catchment areas around the city ; particularly grain proved to be a remunerative export . The first factories were established at this time as the industrial revolution reached the country and in 1810 the harbour was expanded to accommodate growing trade .
= = = Industrialisation = = =
Following the Napoleonic wars , Denmark lost Norway and was excluded from international trade for some years which caused a recession for Aarhus ' trade based economy that lasted until the 1830s . The economy turned around as the industrial revolution reached the city and factories with steam @-@ driven machinery became more productive .
In 1838 , the electoral laws were reformed leading to elections for the 15 seats on the city council . The rules were initially very strict allowing only the wealthiest citizens to run . In the 1844 elections only 174 citizens qualified out of a total population of more than 7 @,@ 000 . The first city council , mainly composed of wealthy merchants and industrialists , quickly looked to improve the harbour , situated along the Aarhus River . Larger ships and growing freight volumes made a river harbour increasingly impractical . In 1840 , the harbour was moved to the coast , north of the river where it became the largest industrial harbour outside Copenhagen over the following 15 years . From the outset , the new harbour was controlled by the city council , as it is to this day .
During the First Schleswig War Aarhus was occupied by German troops from 21 June to 24 July 1849 . The city was spared any fighting , but in Vejlby north of the city a cavalry skirmish known as Rytterfægtningen took place which stopped the German advance through Jutland . The war and occupation left a notable impact on the city as many streets , particularly in Frederiksbjerg , are named after Danish officers of the time . Fifteen years later , in 1864 , the city was occupied again , this time for seven months , during the Second Schleswig War .
In spite of wars and occupation the city continued to develop . In 1851 octroi was abolished and the city walls were removed to provide easier access for trade . Regular steamship links with Copenhagen had begun in 1830 and in 1862 Jutland 's first railway was established between Aarhus and Randers .
In the second half of the 19th century industrialisation came into full effect and a number of new industries emerged around production and refinement of agricultural products , especially oil and butter . Many companies from this time would come to leave permanent iconic marks on Aarhus . The Ceres Brewery was established in 1856 and served as Aarhus ' local brewery for more than 150 years , gradually expanding into an industrial district known as Ceres @-@ grunden ( lit . : the Ceres @-@ grounds ) . In 1896 local farmers and businessmen created Korn- og Foderstof Kompagniet ( KFK ) , focused on grain and feedstuffs . KFK established departments all over the country , while its headquarters remained in Aarhus where its large grain silos still stand today . Otto Mønsted created the Danish Preserved Butter Company in 1874 , focusing on butter export to England , China and Africa and later founded the Aarhus Butterine Company in 1883 , the first Danish margarine factory . The industry became an important employer , with factory employees increasing from 100 in 1896 to 1 @,@ 000 in 1931 , effectively transforming the city from a regional trade hub into an industrial centre . Other new factories of note include the dockyard of Flydedokken and the oil mill of Århus Oliefabrik , both located at the harbour , and Frichs , a machine factory initiated in 1854 .
Aarhus became the largest provincial city in the country by the turn of the century and the city marketed itself as the " Capital of Jutland " . The population increased from 15 @,@ 000 in 1870 to 52 @,@ 000 in 1901 and in response the city annexed large land areas to develop new residential quarters such as Trøjborg , Frederiksbjerg and Marselisborg . Many of its cultural institutions were also established at this time such as the Aarhus Theatre ( 1900 ) , the national library ( 1902 ) , Aarhus University ( 1928 ) and several hospitals .
= = = Second World War = = =
On 9 April 1940 , Germany invaded Denmark , occupying Aarhus the following day and 5 years hence . The occupation was a destructive period with major disasters , loss of life and economic depression . The Port of Aarhus became a hub for supplies to the Baltics and Norway while the surrounding rail network supplied the Atlantic Wall in west Jutland and cargo headed for Germany . Combined , these factors resulted in a strong German presence , especially in 1944 @-@ 45 . The first years were peaceful in conjunction with the policies of the Danish Protectorate Government , but following the enactment of the Communist Law in August 1941 , the first armed resistance and sabotage commenced , gradually growing in intensity over the years with repression and terror in response .
Small , independent resistance groups first appeared in 1941 @-@ 42 but the first to coordinate with the Freedom Council was the Samsing Group , responsible for most operations from early 1943 . The Samsing group , along with others in and around Aarhus , was dismantled in June 1944 when Grethe " Thora " Bartram turned her family and acquaintances over to German authorities . In response , requests for assistance was sent to contacts in England and in October 1944 the Royal Air Force bombed the Gestapo headquarters successfully destroying archives and obstructing the ongoing investigation . The 5 Kolonne group was established with assistance from Holger Danske to restore a resistance movement in Aarhus along with the L @-@ groups , tasked with assassinating collaborators . Resistance operations escalated from mid @-@ 1944 with most major sabotage operations and assassinations occurring in the period 1944 @-@ 45 . The growing resistance was countered with 19 Schalburgtage terror operations by the Peter Group from August 1944 , including large @-@ scale fire bombings and murders . The increasingly destructive occupation was compounded when an ammunition barge exploded in 1944 , destroying much of the harbor and damaging the inner city . On 5 May 1945 German forces in Denmark surrendered but during the transitional period fighting broke out in Aarhus between the resistance and German soldiers resulting in 22 dead . Order was restored by the end of the day and on 8 May the British Royal Dragoons entered the city .
= = = Post @-@ World War II years = = =
In the 1980s the city entered a period of rapid growth and the service sector overtook trade , industry and crafts as the leading sector of employment for the first time . Workers gradually began commuting to the city from most of east and central Jutland as the region became more interconnected . The student population tripled between 1965 and 1977 turning the city into a Danish centre of research and education . The growing and comparably young population initiated a period of creativity and optimism ; Gaffa and the KaosPilot school were founded in 1983 and 1991 respectively , and Aarhus was at the centre of a renaissance in Danish rock and pop music launching bands and musicians such as TV2 , Gnags , Thomas Helmig , Bamses Venner , Anne Dorte Michelsen , Mek Pek and Shit & Chanel .
Since the turn of the millennium both skyline and land use has changed as former industrial sites are being redeveloped into new city districts . Starting in 2007 , the former docklands are being converted to a new mixed use district dubbed " Aarhus Ø " ( Aarhus Docklands ) . The site of the former Royal Unibrew Ceres breweries began redevelopment in 2012 into " CeresByen " , a residential district with educational institutions . The former DSB repair facilities at Frederiks Plads have been demolished and are being developed into a new business district with high @-@ rise buildings scheduled for completion in 2017 . The main bus terminal is planned to be moved to the central railway station by 2018 and the current site will be made into a new residential district . Construction of the first light rail system in the city commenced in 2013 , with the first increment to be finished in 2017 . The light rail system is planned to eventually tie many of the suburbs closer to central Aarhus . The next phase will connect a large planned suburb west of Lisbjerg .
Accelerating growth since the early 2000s brought the inner urban area to roughly 260 @,@ 000 inhabitants by 2014 . The rapid growth is expected to continue until at least 2030 when Aarhus municipality has set an ambitious target for 375 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
= = Geography = =
Aarhus is located at the Bay of Aarhus facing the Kattegat sea in the east with the peninsulas of Mols and Helgenæs across the bay to the northeast . Mols and Helgenæs are both part of the larger regional peninsula of Djursland . A number of larger cities and towns is within easy reach from Aarhus by road and rail , including Randers ( 38 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 9 mi ) by road north ) , Grenå ( northeast ) , Horsens ( 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) south ) and Silkeborg ( 44 kilometres ( 27 mi ) east ) .
= = = Topography = = =
At Aarhus ' location , the Bay of Aarhus provides a natural harbour with a depth of 10 m ( 33 ft ) quite close to the shore . Aarhus was founded at the mouth of a brackish water fjord , but the original fjord no longer exists , as it has gradually narrowed into what is now the Aarhus River and the Brabrand Lake , due to natural sedimentation . The land around Aarhus was once covered by forests , remains of which exist in parts of Marselisborg Forest to the south and Riis Skov to the north . Several larger lakes extend west from the Skanderborg railway junction and the landscape rises to heights exceeding 152 metres ( 499 ft ) at Himmelbjerget , forming part of the larger region called Søhøjlandet .
The hilly area around Aarhus consists of a moranial plateau from the last ice age , broken by a complex system of tunnel valleys . The most prominent valleys of this network are the Aarhus Valley in the south , stretching inland east @-@ west with the Aarhus River , Brabrand Lake and Tåstrup Sø ( Tåstrup Lake ) and the Egå Valley to the north , with the stream of Egåen , Kasted Mose ( Kasted Bog ) and Geding Sø ( Geding Lake ) . Most parts of the two valleys have been drained and subsequently farmed , but recently some of the drainage was removed for environmental reasons . The valley system also includes the Lyngbygård Å ( Lyngbygård River ) in the west and valleys to the south of the city , following erosion channels from the pre @-@ quaternary . By contrast , the Aarhus River Valley and the Giber River Valley are late glacial meltwater valleys . The coastal cliffs along the Bay of Aarhus consist of shallow tertiary clay from the Eocene and Oligocene ( 57 to 24 million years ago ) .
= = = Climate = = =
Aarhus is in the humid continental climate zone ( Köppen : Dfb ) and the weather is influenced by low @-@ pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year . Temperature varies a great deal across the seasons with a mild spring in April and May , warmer summer months from June to August , frequently rainy and windy autumn months in October and September and cooler winter months , often with snow and frost , from December to March . The city centre experiences the same climatic effects as other larger cities with higher wind speeds , more fog , less precipitation and higher temperatures than the surrounding , open land .
Western winds from the Atlantic and North Sea are dominant resulting in more precipitation in western Denmark . In addition , Jutland rises sufficiently in the centre to lift air to higher , colder altitudes contributing to increased precipitation in eastern Jutland . Combined these factors make east and south Jutland comparatively wetter than other parts of the country . Average temperature over the year is 8 @.@ 43 ° C ( 47 ° F ) with February being the coldest month ( 0 @.@ 1 ° C ) and August the warmest ( 15 @.@ 9 ° C ) . Temperatures in the sea can reach 17 to 22 degrees Celsius in June to August , but it is not uncommon for beaches to register 25 degrees Celsius locally .
The geography in the area affects the local climate of the city with the Aarhus Bay imposing a temperate effect on the low @-@ lying valley floor where central Aarhus is located . Brabrand Lake to the west further contributes to this effect and as a result the valley has a very mild , temperate climate . The sandy ground on the valley floor dries up quickly after winter and warms faster in the summer than the surrounding hills of moist @-@ retaining boulder clay . These conditions affect crops and plants that often bloom 1 – 2 weeks earlier in the valley than on the northern and southern hillsides .
Because of the northern latitude , the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter . On the summer solstice , the sun rises at 04 : 26 and sets at 21 : 58 , providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight . On the winter solstice , it rises at 08 : 37 and sets at 15 : 39 with 7 hours and 2 minutes of daylight . The difference in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices is 10 hours and 30 minutes .
= = Politics and administration = =
Aarhus is the seat of Aarhus Municipality and Aarhus City Council ( Aarhus Byråd ) is also the municipal government . The Mayor of Aarhus until 2017 is Jacob Bundsgaard of the Social Democrats . Municipal elections are held every fourth year on the third Tuesday of November . The city council consists of 31 members elected for four @-@ year terms . When an election has determined the composition of the council , it elects a mayor , two deputy mayors and five aldermen from their ranks . Anyone who is eligible to vote and who resides within the municipality can run for a seat on the city council provided they can secure endorsements and signatures from 50 inhabitants of the municipality .
The first publicly elected mayor of Aarhus was appointed in 1919 . In the 1970 Danish Municipal Reform the current Aarhus municipality was created by merging 20 municipalities . Aarhus was the seat of Aarhus County until the 2007 Danish municipal reform , which substituted the Danish counties with five regions and replaced Aarhus County with Central Denmark Region ( Region Midtjylland ) , seated in Viborg .
= = = Subdivisions = = =
Aarhus Municipality has 45 electoral wards and polling stations in four electoral districts for the Folketing ( national Parliament ) . The diocese of Aarhus has four deaneries composed of 60 parishes within Aarhus municipality . Aarhus municipality contains 21 postal districts and some parts of another 9 . The urban area of Aarhus and the immediate suburbs are divided into the districts Aarhus C , Aarhus N , Aarhus V , Viby J , Højbjerg and Brabrand .
= = = Environmental planning = = =
Aarhus has increasingly been investing in environmental planning . The city council has identified a number of environmental targets for the coming years within energy efficiency and aquatic environment . The targets are designed to provide the guidelines for green growth in the city . In accordance with national policy , Aarhus aims to be CO2 neutral and independent of fossil fuels for heating by 2030 . These goals have materialised in a plan to increase multiple @-@ source heat production and the waste and district heating service AffaldVarme Aarhus is building a combined heat and power plant running on biofuels .
Aarhus has been heavily involved with several large @-@ scale water treatment projects on many levels in the last two decades and more will follow in the future . The initiatives are part of a larger and broader action plan for Aarhus municipality , that aims for a coherent and holistic administration of the water cycle . This should protect against or clean up previous pollution and encourage green growth and self @-@ sufficiency . One of the main tasks is to deal with the large quantities of excessive nutrients in and around Aarhus , primarily nitrogen and phosphorus . A second task is to tackle the increasing levels of precipitation brought about by current and future climate change , and a third important task is to secure fresh , clean and safe drinking water for the future .
Aarhus Municipality and the city council have attacked the challenges from different angles in a constructive collaboration with private partners . Many new underground rainwater basins have been built across the city in recent years . The two lakes of Årslev Engsø and Egå Engsø were created in 2003 and 2006 respectively . Large expanses of forest have been planted in vulnerable land areas in order to secure drinking water and avoid groundwater pollution from pesticides and other sources . Since 1988 , the New Forests of Aarhus have been developed to assist in binding CO2 , securing drinking water , protecting groundwater from pollution , dealing with excessive nutrients , increasing biodiversity , creating an attractive countryside , providing easy access to nature and offering outdoor activities to the public . The afforestation plans were realised as a local project in collaboration with private landowners , under a larger national agenda , and there are new afforestation objectives to double the forest cover in Aarhus municipality , before the year 2030 .
= = Demographics = =
Aarhus has a population of 261 @,@ 570 on 91 square kilometres ( 35 sq mi ) for a density of 2 @,@ 874 / km2 ( 7 @,@ 444 / sq mi ) . Aarhus municipality has a population of 330 @,@ 639 on 468 km2 with a density of 706 / km2 ( 1 @,@ 829 / sq mi ) . Less than a fifth of the municipal population resides beyond city limits and almost all live in an urban area . The population of Aarhus is both younger and better @-@ educated than the national average which can be attributed to the high concentration of educational institutions . More than 40 % of the population have an academic degree while only some 14 % have no secondary education or trade . The largest age group is 20- to 29 @-@ year @-@ olds and the average age is 37 @.@ 5 , making it the youngest city in the country and one of its youngest municipalities . Women have slightly outnumbered men for many years .
The city is home to 75 different religious groups and denominations most of which are Christian or Muslim with a smaller number of Buddhist and Hindu communities . Since the 1990s there has been a marked growth in diverse new spiritual groups although the total number of followers remains small . The majority of the population are members of the Protestant state church , Church of Denmark , which is by far the largest religious institution both in the city and the country as a whole . Some 20 % of the population are not officially affiliated with any religion , a percentage that has been slowly rising for many years .
Aarhus has the highest ratio of immigrants in Denmark , 14 @.@ 8 % of the population , outside the Copenhagen area . During the 1990s there was significant immigration from Turkey and in recent years , there has been high growth in the overall immigrant community , from 27 @,@ 783 people in 1999 to 40 @,@ 431 in 2008 . The majority of immigrants have roots outside Europe and the developed world , comprising some 25 @,@ 000 people from 130 different nationalities , with the largest groups coming from the Middle East and north Africa . Some 15 @,@ 000 have come from within Europe , with Poland , Germany , Romania and Norway being the largest contributors .
Many immigrants have established themselves in Brabrand , Hasle and Viby , where the percentage of inhabitants with foreign origins has risen by 66 % since the year 2000 . This has resulted in several ' especially vulnerable residential areas ' ( a.k.a. ghettos ) , with Gellerup as the most notable neighbourhood . In Brabrand and Gellerup , two thirds of the population now have a non @-@ Danish ethnic background . The international cultures present in the community are an obvious and visible part of the city 's daily life and contribute many cultural flavours hitherto uncommon for the Nordic countries , including Bazar Vest , a market with shopkeepers predominantly of foreign descent .
= = Economy = =
The economy of Aarhus is predominantly knowledge and service based , strongly influenced by the University of Aarhus and the large healthcare industry . The service sector dominates the economy and is growing as the city is transitioning away from manufacturing . Trade and transportation remain important sectors benefiting from the large port and central position on the rail network . Manufacturing has been in slow but steady decline since the 1960s while agriculture long has been a marginal employer within the municipality . The municipality is home to 175 @,@ 000 jobs with some 100 @,@ 000 in the private sector and the rest split between state , region and municipality . The region is a major agricultural producer , with many large farms in the outlying districts .
The job market is knowledge and service based and the largest employment sectors are healthcare and social services , trade , education , consulting , research , industry and telecommunications . The municipality has more high and middle income jobs , and fewer low income jobs , than the national average .
Today the majority of the largest companies in the municipality are in the sectors of trade , transport and media . The wind power industry has strong roots in Aarhus , and the larger region of Midtjylland , and nationally most of the revenue in the industry is generated by companies in the greater Aarhus area . The wind industry employs about a thousand people within the municipality making it a central component in the local economy . The biotech industry is well established in the city with many small and medium @-@ sized companies mainly focused on research and development .
The city has become a leading centre for retail in the Nordic and Baltic countries with expansive shopping centres , the busiest commercial street in the country and a dense urban core with many specialty shops . People commute to Aarhus from as far away as Randers , Silkeborg and Skanderborg and almost a third of those employed within Aarhus municipality commute from neighbouring communities .
Several major companies have their headquarters in Aarhus such as Arla Foods , one of the largest dairy groups in Europe , Dansk Supermarked , Denmark 's largest retailer , Jysk , a world @-@ wide retailer specializing in household goods , bedding , furniture and interior design , Vestas , one of the major wind turbine producers worldwide , and several leading retail companies . In total four of the 10 largest companies in the country are based in the municipality . Since the early 2000s the city has experienced an influx of larger companies moving from other parts of the Jutland peninsula . Other large employers of note include Krifa ( a trades union organisation ) and 5R , a telemarketing company , while metallurgy and electronics remain important sectors .
= = = Port of Aarhus = = =
The Port of Aarhus is one of the largest industrial ports in northern Europe with the largest container terminal in Denmark , processing more than 50 % of Denmark 's container traffic and accommodating the largest container vessels in the world . It is a municipal self @-@ governing port with independent finances . The facilities handle some 9 @.@ 5 million tonnes of cargo a year ( 2012 ) . Grain is the principal export , while feedstuffs , stone , cement and coal are among the chief imports . Since 2012 the port has faced increasing competition from the Port of Hamburg and freight volumes have decreased somewhat from the peak in 2008 .
The ferry terminal presents the only alternative to the Great Belt Link for passenger transport between Jutland and Zealand . It has served different ferry companies since the first steamship route to Copenhagen opened in 1830 . Currently Mols @-@ Linien operates the route and annually transports some 2 million passengers and a million vehicles . Additional roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off cargo ferries serve Finland and Kalundborg on a weekly basis and smaller outlying Danish ports at irregular intervals . Since the early 2000s the port has increasingly become a destination for cruise lines operating in the Baltic Sea .
= = = Tourism = = =
The ARoS Art Museum , the Old Town Museum and Tivoli Friheden are among Denmark 's top tourist attractions . With a combined total of almost 1 @.@ 4 million visitors they represent the driving force behind tourism but other venues such as Moesgård Museum and Kvindemuseet are also popular . The city 's extensive shopping facilities are also said to be a major attraction for tourists , as are festivals , especially NorthSide and SPOT . Many visitors arrive on cruise ships : in 2012 , 18 vessels visited the port with over 38 @,@ 000 passengers .
In the 2010s there has been a significant expansion of tourist facilities , culminating in the opening of the 240 @-@ room Comwell Hotel in July 2014 , which increased the number of hotel rooms in the city by 25 % . Some estimates put the number of visitors spending at least one night as high as 750 @,@ 000 a year , most of them Danes from other regions , the remainder coming mainly from Norway , Sweden , northern Germany and the United Kingdom . Overall , they spend about DKK 3 billion ( $ 540 million ) in the city each year . The primary motivation for tourists choosing Aarhus as a destination is experiencing the city and culture , family and couples vacation or as a part of a round trip in Denmark . The average stay is little more than three days on average .
There are more than 30 tourist information spots across the city , some of them staffed , while others are on @-@ line , publicly accessible touch screens . The official tourist information service in Aarhus is organised under VisitAaarhus , a corporate foundation initiated in 1994 by Aarhus Municipality and local commercial interest organisations .
= = = Research parks = = =
Over the past ten years , Aarhus has been one of Denmark 's most rapidly developing centres of research in information technology , energy , media , life sciences , food , architecture and design . Enterprises in the Information and communications technology ( ICT ) sphere work in collaboration with the city 's research institutes . In 2007 the three largest research parks of Forskerpark Aarhus ( Science Park Aarhus ) , Forskerpark Skejby ( Science Park - Skejby ) and IT @-@ Huset Katrinebjerg , merged to form INCUBA Science Park . Forskerpark Skejby , which works in the field of biomedical research , and the Katrinebjerg department - focusing on ICT - has since been expanded and in 2014 the new department of INCUBA Navitas opened on the Aarhus Docklands .
One of the major research companies is Systematic A / S , working in the public sector , healthcare and defence . The IT City Katrinebjerg , fosters collaboration between research , education and industry through the university branches of Department of Computer Science , Department of Aesthetics and Communication and Alexandra Institute . In the clean energy sector , Aarhus is home to leading participants including Vestas , AVK , Amplex and Kamstrup . The Navitas Park at the docklands is a new information and innovation park bringing together players in the energy , environment and building sectors . The centre is sponsored by Aarhus University School of Engineering , Aarhus School of Marine and Technical Engineering ( AAMS ) and INCUBA .
= = Cityscape = =
Aarhus has developed in stages , from the Viking age to modern times , all visible in the city today . Many architectural styles are represented in different parts of the city such as Romanesque , Gothic , Renaissance , Baroque , Rococo , National Romantic , Nordic classicism , Neoclassical , Empire and Functionalism . The city has grown up around the main transport hubs , the harbour and later the railway station and as a result , the oldest parts of the city are also the most central and busiest today .
The streets Volden ( lit Rampart ) and Graven ( lit . Moat ) testify to the defences of the initial Viking settlement and Allégaderingen in Midtbyen roughly follows the boundaries of that settlement . The street network in the inner city formed during the Middle Ages with narrow , curved streets and low , dense housing by the river and coast . Vesterport ( lit . Western Gate ) still bears the name of a medieval city gate and the narrow alleyways Posthussmøgen and Telefonsmøgen are remnants of toll stations from that time . The inner city has the oldest preserved houses , especially the Latin Quarter , with buildings dating back to the early 17th century in Mejlgade and Skolegade . Medieval merchants ' mansions with courtyards can be seen in Klostergade , Studsgade and Skolegade .
= = = Landmarks = = =
Aarhus Cathedral ( Århus Domkirke ) in the centre of Aarhus , is the longest and tallest church in Denmark at 93 m ( 305 ft ) and 96 m ( 315 ft ) in length and height respectively . Originally built as a Romanesque basilica in the 13th century , it was rebuilt and enlarged as a Gothic cathedral in the late 15th and early 16th centuries . Even though the cathedral stood finished around 1300 , it took more than a century to build ; the associated cathedral school of Aarhus Katedralskole was already founded in 1195 and ranks as the 44th oldest school in the world . Another important and historic church in the inner city , is the Church of our Lady ( Vor Frue Kirke ) also from the 13th century in Romanesque and Gothic style . It is smaller and less impressive , but it was the first cathedral of Aarhus and founded on an even older church constructed in 1060 ; the oldest stone church in Scandinavia . Parts of this former church were excavated in the 1950s and can now be experienced as a crypt beneath the nave of Vor Frue Kirke . Langelandsgade Kaserne in National Romantic style from 1889 is the oldest former military barracks left in the country ; home to the university Department of Aesthetics and Communication since 1989 . Marselisborg Palace ( Marselisborg Slot ) , designed by Hack Kampmann in Neoclassical and Art Nouveau styles , was donated by the city to Prince Christian and Princess Alexandrine as a wedding present in 1898 . The Aarhus Custom House ( Toldkammeret ) from 1898 , is said to be Hack Kampmann 's finest work .
Tivoli Friheden ( lit . Tivoli Freedom ) opened in 1903 and has since been the largest amusement park in the city and a tourist attraction . Aarhus Theatre from 1916 in the Art Nouveau style is the largest provincial theatre in Denmark . The early buildings of Aarhus University , especially the main building completed in 1932 , designed by Kay Fisker , Povl Stegmann and by C.F. Møller have gained an international reputation for their contribution to functionalist architecture . The City Hall ( Aarhus Rådhus ) from 1941 with an iconic 60 m ( 200 ft ) tower clad in marble , was designed by Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller in a modern Functionalist style .
= = Culture = =
Aarhus is home to many annual cultural events and festivals , museums , theatres and sports event and presents some of the largest cultural attractions in Denmark . There is a long tradition here in music of all genres and many Danish bands have emerged from Aarhus . Libraries , cultural centres and educational institutions present free or easy opportunities for the citizens to participate in , engage in or be creative with cultural events and productions of all kinds .
Selected as European Capital of Culture in 2017 , Aarhus prides itself on offering a combination of innovation , media and communication together with architecture and design , and has a wide variety of cultural institutions . The city is a member of the ICORN organisation ( International Cities of Refuge Network ) in an effort to provide a safe haven to authors and writers persecuted in their countries of origin . The State Library ( Statsbiblioteket ) at the university campus has status of a national library .
= = = Museums = = =
Aarhus has many museums and two of the largest in the country measured by the number of visitors , Den Gamle By and ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum . Den Gamle By ( The Old Town ) , officially Danmarks Købstadmuseum ( Denmark 's Market Town Museum ) , presents Danish townscapes from the 16th century to the 1970s with individual areas focused on different time periods . 75 historic buildings collected from different parts of the country have been brought here to create a small town in its own right .
ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum , the city 's main art museum is one of the largest art museums in Scandinavia with a collection covering Danish art from the 18th century to the present day as well as paintings , installations and sculptures representing international art movements and artists from all over the world . The iconic glass structure on the roof , Your Rainbow Panorama , was designed by Olafur Eliasson and features a promenade offering a colourful panorama of the city .
The Moesgård Museum specialises in archaeology and ethnography in collaboration with Aarhus University with exhibits on Denmark 's prehistory , including weapon sacrifices from Illerup Ådal and the Grauballe Man . Kvindemuseet , the Women 's Museum , from 1984 contains collections of the lives and works of women in Danish cultural history . The Occupation Museum ( Besættelsesmuseum ) presents exhibits illustrating the German occupation of the city during the Second World War ; the University Park on the campus of Aarhus University includes the Natural History Museum with 5 @
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,@ 000 species of animals , many in their natural surroundings ; and the Steno Museum is a museum of the history of science and medicine with a planetarium . Kunsthal Aarhus ( Aarhus Art Hall ) hosts exhibitions of contemporary art including painting , sculpture , photography , performance art , film and video . Strictly speaking it is not a museum but an arts centre and one of the oldest in Europe , built and founded in 1917 .
= = = Libraries and community centres = = =
Libraries in Denmark are also cultural and community centres . They play an active role in the cultural life and host many events , exhibitions , discussion groups , workshops , educational courses and facilitate everyday cultural activities for and by the citizens . In June 2015 , the large central library and cultural centre of Dokk1 opened at the harbour front . Dokk1 also includes civil administrations and services , commercial office rentals and a large underground robotic car park and aims to be a landmark for the city and a public meeting place . The building of Dokk1 and the associated squares and streetscape is also collectively known as Urban Mediaspace Aarhus and it is the largest construction project Aarhus municipality has ever undertaken . Apart from this large main library , some neighbourhoods in Aarhus have a local library engaged in similar cultural and educational activities , but on a more local scale .
There are also several cultural and community centres scattered throughout the city . This includes Folkestedet in the central Åparken , facilitating events for and by non @-@ commercial associations , organisations and clubs , and activities for the elderly , the nearby Godsbanen at the railway yard , with workshops , events and exhibitions , and Globus1 in Brabrand facilitating sports and various cultural activities .
= = = Performing arts = = =
The city enjoys strong musical traditions , both classical and alternative , underground and popular , with educational and performance institutions such as the concert halls of Musikhuset , the opera of Den Jyske Opera , Aarhus Symfoniorkester ( Aarhus Symphony Orchestra ) and Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium ( Royal Academy of Music , Aarhus / Aalborg ) . Musikhuset is the largest concert hall in Scandinavia , with seating for 3 @,@ 000 people . Other major music venues include VoxHall , rebuilt in 1999 , the recently opened Atlas , Train nightclub at the harbourfront , and Godsbanen , a former railway station .
Since the 1970s , the city has seen major developments on the rock scene , with the arrival of many acclaimed bands such as Kliché , Under Byen , Gnags , TV @-@ 2 , Michael Learns to Rock , Nephew , Carpark North , Spleen United , VETO , Hatesphere and Illdisposed in addition to popular individual performers like Thomas Helmig , Anne Linnet and Medina . Since 2010 the music production centre of PROMUS ( Produktionscentret for Rytmisk Musik ) has supported the rock scene in the city along with the publicly funded ROSA ( Dansk Rock Samråd ) , which promotes Danish rock music in general .
The acting scene in Aarhus is diverse , with many groups and venues including Aarhus Teater , Svalegangen , EntréScenen , Katapult , Gruppe 38 , Godsbanen , Helsingør Teater , Det Andet Teater and Teater Refleksion as well as several dance venues like Bora Bora and Granhøj Dans . The city hosts a biannual international theatre festival , International Living Theatre ( ILT ) , the next event being scheduled for 2017 . The former goods station of Aarhus Godsbanegård has recently been thoroughly renovated , redeveloped and expanded with a new building . Now known as Godsbanen , it functions as a cultural centre , and offers numerous workshops for the artist community and local citizens .
= = = Events and festivals = = =
Aarhus hosts many annual or recurring festivals , concerts and events , with the festival of Aarhus Festuge as the most popular and wide @-@ ranging , along with large sports events . It is the largest multicultural festival in Scandinavia , always based on a special theme and takes place every year for ten days between late August and early September , transforming the inner city with festive activities and decorations of all kinds .
Regarding music , the eight @-@ day Aarhus International Jazz Festival features jazz in many venues across the city . It was founded in 1988 and takes place in either July , August or September every year . There are several annually recurring music festivals for contemporary popular music in Aarhus . NorthSide Festival presents well known bands every year in mid June on large outdoor scenes . It is a new event , founded in 2010 , but grew from a one @-@ day event to a three @-@ day festival in its first three years , now with 35 @,@ 000 paying guests in 2015 . Spot festival is aiming to showcase up @-@ and @-@ coming Danish and Scandinavian talents at selected venues of the inner city . The outdoor Grøn Koncert music festival takes place every year in many cities across Denmark , including Aarhus . Danmarks grimmeste festival ( lit . Denmark 's ugliest Festival ) is a small summer music festival held in Skjoldhøjkilen , Brabrand .
Apart from the Aarhus Festuge , Aarhus also hosts specific recurring events , dedicated to various art genres . Initiated in 2009 , Sculpture by the Sea , Aarhus is a very popular bi @-@ annual month @-@ long outdoor sculpture exhibition on the beaches south of Aarhus . The 2015 event included sculptures from 24 countries and attracted an estimated half a million visitors . International Living theatre ( ILT ) is another bi @-@ annual festival established in 2009 , but with performing arts and stage art on a broad scale . The festival has a vision of showing the best plays and stage art experiences of the world , by presenting the best stage art companies of the world , while at the same time attracting stage art interested people from both Aarhus and Europe at large . The city actively promotes its gay and lesbian community and celebrates the annual Aarhus Pride gay pride festival . Aarhus Festuge usually includes exhibits , concerts and events designed for the LGBT communities . There are several clubs , discos and cafés aimed at gays and lesbians , including Danish D @-@ lite ( sports ) , Gbar ( nightclub ) and Gaia Vandreklub ( hiking club ) .
= = = Parks , nature and recreation = = =
The beech forests of Riis Skov and Marselisborg occupy the hills to the north and south , and apart from the city centre of Midtbyen , sandy beaches forms the coastline of the entire municipality . The public seabath of Den Permanente below Riis Skov and close to the harbour area , offers the only sand beach in the city centre . As in most of Denmark , there are no private beaches in the municipality , but access to the seabath requires a membership , except in the summer .
The relatively mild , temperate marine climate , allows for outdoor recreation year round , including walking , hiking , cycling and outdoor team sports . Mountain biking is usually restricted to marked routes . Watersports like sailing , kayaking , motor boating , etc. are also popular , and since the bay rarely freezes up in winter , they can also be practised most of the year . Recreational and transportational pathways for pedestrians and cyclists , radiate from the city centre to the countryside , providing safety from motorised vehicles and a more tranquil experience . This includes the 30 kilometre long pathway of Brabrandstien , encircling the Brabrand Lake . The long @-@ range hiking route Aarhus @-@ Silkeborg , starts off from Brabrandstien .
Aarhus has an unusually high number of parks , 134 of them , covering a total area of around 550 ha ( 1 @,@ 400 acres ) . The central Botanical Gardens ( Botanisk Have ) from 1875 are a popular destination , as they include The Old Town open @-@ air museum and host a number of events throughout the year . Originally used to cultivate fruit trees and other useful plants for the local citizens , they are now a significant collection of trees and bushes from different habitats and regions of the world , including a section devoted to native Danish plants . Recently renovated tropical and subtropical greenhouses , exhibit exotic plants from throughout the world . Also in the city centre is the undulating University Park , recognised for its unique landscaped design with large old oak trees . The Memorial Park ( Mindeparken ) at the coast below Marselisborg Palace , offers a panoramic view across the Bay of Aarhus and is popular with locals for outings , picnics or events . Other notable parks include the small central City Hall Park ( Rådhusparken ) and Marienlyst Park ( Marienlystparken ) . Marienlyst Park is a relatively new park from 1988 , situated in Hasle out of the inner city and is less crowded , but it is the largest park in Aarhus , including woodlands , large open grasslands and soccer fields .
Marselisborg Forests and Riis Skov , has a long history for recreational activities of all kinds , including several restaurants , hotels and opportunities for green exercise . There are marked routes here for jogging , running and mountain biking and large events are hosted regularly . This includes running events , cycle racing and orienteering , the annual Classic Race Aarhus with historic racing cars and the biennial event Sculpture by the Sea , Aarhus , all attracting thousands of people . A new event will replace Sculpture by the Sea in 2017 . Marselisborg Deer Park ( Marselisborg Dyrehave ) in Marselisborg Forests , comprises 22 ha ( 54 acres ) of fenced woodland pastures with free @-@ roaming sika and roe deer . Below the Moesgård Museum in the southern parts of the Marselisborg Forests , is a large historical landscape of pastures and woodlands , presenting different eras of Denmark 's prehistory . Sections of the forest comprise trees and vegetation representing specific climatic epochs from the last Ice Age to the present . Dotted across the landscape are reconstructed Stone Age and Bronze Age graves , buildings from the Iron Age , Viking Age and medieval times , with grazing goats , sheep and horses in between .
= = = Food , drink and nightlife = = =
Aarhus has a large variety of restaurants and eateries offering food from cultures all over the world , especially Mediterranean and Asian , but also international gourmet cuisine , traditional Danish food and New Nordic Cuisine . Among the oldest restaurants are Rådhuscafeen ( lit . The City Hall Café ) , opened in 1924 , serving a menu of traditional Danish meals and Peter Gift from 1906 , a tavern with a broad beer selection and a menu of smørrebrød and other Danish dishes . Former restaurant Malling & Schmidt was at the forefront of developing the New Nordic Cuisine for several years , but closed in 2012 when the couple relocated their restaurant to Skagen and later became involved with other projects , including cooking for the International Space Station . In Aarhus , New Nordic can currently be experienced at Kähler Villa Dining , Hærværk and Domestic , but local produce can be had at many places , especially at the twice weekly food markets on Frederiksbjerg .
Appraised high @-@ end gourmet restaurants serving an international gourmet cuisine include Frederikshøj , Restaurant Varna , Miró , Nordisk Spisehus , Det Glade Vanvid , La Pyramide , Restaurant ET and Dauphine , all considered among the best places to eat in Denmark . In Denmark , restaurants in Aarhus was the first outside Copenhagen to receive Michelin @-@ stars since 2015 .
Vendors of street food are numerous throughout the centre , often selling from small trailers on permanent locations formally known as Pølsevogne ( lit. sausage wagons ) , traditionally serving a Danish variety of hot dogs , sausages and other fast food . There are increasingly more outlets inspired by other cultural flavours such as sushi , kebab and currywurst . The city centre is packed with cafés , especially along the river and the Latin quarter . Some of them also includes an evening restaurant such as Café Casablanca , Café Carlton , Café Cross and Gyngen .
Aarhus has a robust and diverse nightlife that tends to concentrate in the inner city , but not exclusively . The nightlife offers everything from small joints with cheap alcohol and a homely atmosphere to fashionable night clubs serving champagne and cocktails and small or large music venues with bars , dance floors and lounges . Well established places where you can have a drink and socialise , include the relaxed Ris Ras Filliongongong offering waterpipes and an award winning beer selection , Fatter Eskild where you can experience a broad selection of Danish bands playing mostly blues and rock , the wine and book café of Løve 's in Nørregade , Sherlock Holmes , a British @-@ style pub with live music , the brew pub of Sct . Clemens with A Hereford Beefstouw restaurant and Thorups Kælder , a tavern located in rooms built by Cistercian monks in the 1300s .
The Århus Set ( Danish : Århus Sæt ) is a set of drinks often ordered together , named for the city and consisting of two beverages , one Ceres Top beer and one shot Arnbitter , both originally from Aarhus . Ordering " a set " suffices in most bars and pubs . Aarhus Bryghus is a local microbrewery with a sizeable production . The brewery is located in the southern district of Viby and a large variety of their brews are available there , in most larger well @-@ assorted stores in the city and in some bars and restaurants as well . They also export .
= = = Local dialect = = =
The Aarhus Danish dialect , commonly called Aarhusiansk ( Lit . : Aarhusian ) , is a Jutlandic dialect ( Danish : Jysk ) in the Mid @-@ Eastern Jutland dialect area , traditionally spoken in and around Aarhus . Aarhusian , as most local dialects in Denmark , has diminished in use through the 20th century and most people today speak some version of Standard Danish with regional features although it still has a strong presence in older segments of the population and in areas with high numbers of immigrants .
Common or traditional Aarhusian words are : træls ( tiresome ) , noller ( silly or dumb ) and dælme ( Excl. damn me ) . The dialect is notable for single syllable words ending in " d " being pronounced with stød while the same letter in multiple syllable words is pronounced as " j " , i.e .. Odder is pronounced " Ojjer " . Like other dialects in East Jutland it has two grammatical genders , similar to Standard Danish , but different from West Jutlandic dialects which have only one .
In 2009 the University of Aarhus compiled a list of contemporary public figures , who best exemplify the dialect , including Jacob Haugaard , Thomas Helmig , Steffen Brandt , Stig Tøfting , Flemming Jørgensen , Tina Dickow and Camilla Martin . In popular culture the dialect features prominently in Niels Malmros ' movie Aarhus By Night and 90s comedy sketches by Jacob Haugaard and Finn Nørbygaard .
= = Sports = =
Aarhus has three major men 's professional sports teams : the Superliga team Aarhus Gymnastik Forening ( AGF ) , Danish Handball League 's Aarhus GF Håndbold , and Danish Basketball League 's Bakken Bears . Notable or historic clubs include Aarhus 1900 , Idrætsklubben Skovbakken and Aarhus Sejlklub . NRGi Park has hosted matches in the premiere Danish soccer league since it was formed in 1920 and matches for the national men 's soccer team in 2006 and 2007 . The five sailing clubs routinely win national and international titles in a range of disciplines and the future national watersports stadium will be located on the Aarhus Docklands in the city centre . The Bakken Bears have most recently won the Danish basketball championships in 2011 , 2012 , 2013 and 2014 .
The municipality actively supports sports organisations in and around the city , providing public organisations that aim to attract major sporting events and strengthen professional sports . The National Olympic Committee and Sports Confederation of Denmark counts some 380 sports organisations within the municipality and about one third of the population are members of one . Soccer is by far the most popular sport followed by Gymnastics , Handball and Badminton .
In recent decades , many free and public sports facilities have sprung up across the city , such as street football , basketball , climbing walls , skateboarding and beach volley . Several natural sites also offer green exercise , with exercise equipment installed along the paths and tracks reserved for mountain biking . The newly reconstructed area of Skjoldhøjkilen is a prime example .
Aarhus has hosted many sporting events including the 2010 European Women 's Handball Championship , the 2014 European Men 's Handball Championship , the 2013 Men`s European Volleyball Championships , the 2005 European Table Tennis Championships , the Denmark Open in badminton , the UCI Women 's Road Cycling World Cup , the 2006 World Orienteering Championships , the 2006 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships and the GF World Cup ( women 's handball ) . Aarhus is on average host to one or two international sailing competitions every year and hosted the ISAF Youth Sailing World Championships in 2008 and will in 2018 host the ISAF Sailing World Championships , the world championship for the 12 Olympic sailing disciplines and an important qualifier for the 2020 Olympics .
= = Education = =
Aarhus is the principal centre for education in the Jutland region . It draws students from a large area , especially from the western and southern parts of the peninsula . The relatively large influx of young people and students creates a natural base for cultural activities . Aarhus has the greatest concentration of students in Denmark , fully 12 % of those living there attending short , medium or long courses of study . In addition to around 25 institutions of higher education , several research forums have evolved to assist in the transfer of expertise from education to business . The city is home to more than 55 @,@ 000 students .
On 1 January 2012 Aarhus University ( AU ) was the largest university in Denmark by number of students enrolled . It is ranked among the top 100 universities in the world by several of the most influential and respected rankings . The university has approximately 41 @,@ 500 Bachelor and Master students enrolled as well as about 1 @,@ 500 Ph.D. students . It is possible to engage in higher academic studies in many areas , from the traditional spheres of natural science , humanities and theology to more vocational academic areas like engineering and dentistry . Aarhus Tech is one of the largest business academies in Denmark , teaching undergraduate study programmes in English , including vocational education and training ( VET ) , continuing vocational training ( CVT ) , and human resource development . The Danish School of Media and Journalism ( DMJX ) is the oldest and largest of the colleges , offering journalism courses since 1946 . In 2014 it had approximately 1 @,@ 700 students . In 1974 it became an independent institution conducting research and teaching at undergraduate level . In 2004 , the school collaborated with Aarhus University to establish the Centre for University studies in Journalism , offering master ’ s courses in journalism , and granting degrees through the university .
The Royal Academy of Music in Aarhus ( Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium ) is a conservatoire , established under the auspices of the Danish Ministry of Culture in 1927 . In 2010 , it merged with the Royal Academy of Music in Aalborg , which was founded in 1930 . Under the patronage of His Royal Highness Crown Prince Frederik , it offers graduate level studies in areas such as music teaching , and solo and professional musicianship . VIA University College was established in January 2008 and is one of eight new regional organisations offering bachelor courses of all kinds , throughout the Central Denmark Region . It offers over 50 higher educations , taught in Danish or sometimes in English , with vocational education and it participates in various research and development projects . Aarhus School of Architecture ( Arkitektskolen Aarhus ) was founded in 1965 . Along with the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts of Copenhagen , it is responsible for the education of architects in Denmark . With an enrolment of approximately 900 students , it teaches in five main departments : architecture and aesthetics , urban and landscape , architectonic heritage , design and architectural design . Also of note is KaosPilots and several other higher education centres .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transport = = =
The main railway station in Aarhus is Aarhus Central Station located in the city centre . DSB has connections to destinations throughout Denmark and beyond . Two local railways provide commuter services to Grenaa and Odder . The Aarhus Letbane is a planned tram @-@ train project that will link two railway lines with a new light rail route through the city . Most city bus lines go through the inner city and pass through either Park Allé or Banegårdspladsen ( lit . : The Central Station Square ) or both .
Regional and Inter @-@ city buses terminate at Aarhus Bus Terminal , located 900 metres north @-@ west of Banegårdspladsen , in front of the Radisson SAS Scandinavia hotel at Margrethepladsen . The long @-@ distance buses of linie888 connect Aarhus to other cities in Jutland and Zealand .
Ferries administered by Danish ferry company Mols @-@ Linien transports passengers and motorvehicles between Aarhus and Sjællands Odde on Zealand . The ferries comprises HSC KatExpress 1 and HSC KatExpress 2 , the world 's largest diesel powered catamarans , and HSC Max Mols .
Aarhus Airport , is located on Djursland , 40 km ( 25 mi ) north @-@ east of Aarhus near Tirstrup and provides transport to both Copenhagen and international destinations . The larger Billund Airport is situated 95 km ( 59 mi ) south @-@ west of Aarhus . There has been much discussion about constructing a new airport closer to Aarhus for many years , but so far , no plans have been realised . In August 2014 , the city council officially initiated a process to assert the viability of a new international airport A small seaplane now operates four flights daily between Aarhus harbour and Copenhagen harbour .
Aarhus has a free bike sharing system , Aarhus Bycykler ( Aarhus City Bikes ) . The bicycles are available from 1 April to 30 October at 57 stands throughout the city and can be obtained by placing a DKK 20 coin in the release slot , like caddies in a supermarket . The coin can be retrieved when the bike is returned . Bicycles can also be hired from many shops .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Aarhus is home to Aarhus University Hospital , one of six Danish " Super Hospitals " officially established in 2007 when the regions reformed the Danish healthcare sector . The university hospital is the result of a series of mergers in the 2000s between the former hospitals Skejby Sygehus , the Municipal Hospital , the County Hospital , Marselisborg Hospital and Risskov Psychiatric Hospital . It is today the largest hospital in Denmark with a combined staff of some 10 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 150 patient beds , across five locations . In 2012 construction of Det Nye Universitetshospital ( The New University Hospital ) began which ending in 2019 will centralize all departments by expanding the former Skejby Sygehus to 410 @,@ 000 square metres ( 4 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 sq ft ) with an additional 50 @,@ 000 square metres ( 540 @,@ 000 sq ft ) for a new psychiatric center . The hospital is divided in four clinical centers , a service center and one administrative unit along with twelve research centers . It was ranked the best hospital in Denmark in 2011 , 2012 , 2013 and 2014 .
Private hospitals specialized in different areas from plastic surgery to fertility treatments operate in Aarhus as well . Ciconia Aarhus Private Hospital founded in 1984 is a leading Danish fertility clinic and the first of its kind in Denmark . Ciconia has provided for the birth of 6 @,@ 000 children by artificial insemination and continually conducts research into the field of fertility . Aagaard Clinic , established in 2004 , is another private fertility and gynecology clinic which since 2004 has undertaken fertility treatments that has resulted in 1550 births . Aarhus Municipality also offers a number of specialized services in the areas of nutrition , exercise , sex , smoking and drinking , activities for the elderly , health courses and lifestyle .
= = Media = =
The first daily newspaper to appear in Aarhus was Århus Stiftstidende , established in 1794 as Aarhuus Stifts Adresse @-@ Contoirs Tidender , with a moderately conservative approach . Once one of Denmark 's largest , it was a leading provincial newspaper for a time , but after the Second World War it increasingly faced competition from Demokraten ( 1884 @-@ 1974 ) and Jyllands @-@ Posten , both published in Aarhus . In 1998 , it merged with Randers Amtsavis and is now run by Midtjyske Medier , part of Berlingske Media . The daily newspaper of Jyllandsposten ( today known as Jyllands @-@ Posten ) was established in 1871 in Aarhus , and takes a generally right @-@ wing editorial approach . With a reputation as a serious news publication , the paper has always included news from Jutland in particular , but somewhat less so since its promotion as a national newspaper ( Morgenavisen Jyllands @-@ Posten ) in the 1960s . Today it is one of the three leading serious newspapers in Denmark , the others being Berlingske and Politiken . Jyllands @-@ Posten publishes JP Aarhus , a section dedicated to news in and around Aarhus , and the free cityguide website of Aarhusportalen ( The Aarhus Portal ) . The Copenhagen @-@ based media company of Politiken , also publishes several free local papers once a week in parts of Denmark and Sweden . In Aarhus , they publish a total of five local newspapers ; Aarhus Midt , Aarhus Nord , Aarhus Vest , Aarhus Syd and Aarhus Weekend .
Danmarks Radio has a large department in Aarhus with over 200 employees . It runs the DR Østjylland radio programme , provides local contributions to DR P4 , and produces local regional television programmes . In 1990 , TV 2 established its Jutland headquarters in Randers but moved to Skejby in northern Aarhus in 1999 . The station broadcasts regional news and current affairs television and radio programmes . Since 2012 , it has run its own TV channel , TV 2 Østjylland . Aarhus has its own local TV channel TVAarhus , transmitting since 1984 . After an agreement on 1 July 2014 , TVAarhus can be watched by 130 @,@ 000 households in Aarhus , making it the largest cable transmitted local TV channel in Denmark .
With over 1 @,@ 700 students , the Danish School of Media and Journalism ( Danmarks Medie- og Journalisthøjskole ) is the country 's largest and oldest school of journalism . The school works closely with Aarhus University where the first journalism course was established in 1946 . In 2004 , the two institutions established the Centre for University Studies in Journalism , which offers master 's courses .
= = Twin towns and consulates = =
Aarhus is home to 32 consulates and the city is twinned with seven cities , all co @-@ operating in the spheres of public schools , culture , welfare and commercial interests .
Twin towns / sister cities
Consulates
= = Notable people = =
= Homer Defined =
" Homer Defined " is the fifth episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 17 , 1991 . In the episode , Homer accidentally saves the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant from meltdown by arbitrarily choosing the emergency override button via a counting rhyme . He is honored as a hero and receives praise from his daughter Lisa , but he starts to feel unworthy because he knows that his so @-@ called heroism was just luck . Meanwhile , Bart is downhearted after learning that Milhouse 's mother has forbidden him to spend time with Bart anymore .
The episode was written by freelance writer Howard Gewirtz and directed by Mark Kirkland . Basketball player Magic Johnson of the Los Angeles Lakers made a guest appearance in the episode as himself , becoming the first professional athlete to do so on the show . He appears in two sequences , one of which sees him calling Homer to congratulate him on saving the plant . The second appearance comes later in the episode in a basketball game sequence that Lakers sportscaster Chick Hearn also guest stars in .
The episode has received generally positive reviews from critics , particularly Johnson 's appearance . In its original airing on the Fox network , " Homer Defined " acquired a 12 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating — the equivalent of being watched in approximately 11 @.@ 69 million homes — and finished the week ranked 36th .
= = Plot = =
At the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , Homer is eating doughnuts . One of them splatters onto the nuclear reactor core 's temperature dial , which is nearing the red zone . Homer fails to see the warning and the plant approaches a nuclear meltdown . He seems to be the only person who can stop it , though he has no skills and cannot remember any of his training ( due to being distracted and occupied with a Rubik 's Cube at the time ) . In desperation , he chooses a button at random with a counting rhyme , which miraculously averts the meltdown . Springfield is saved and Homer is hailed as a hero . Mr. Burns names Homer " Employee of the Month " . Homer 's family is also proud of him , especially Lisa , who starts to see him as a role model . Meanwhile , Homer himself is troubled by the fact that his so @-@ called heroism was nothing but luck , and his gloomy mood deepens when he receives a congratulatory phone call from Magic Johnson , who tells Homer " People like that are eventually exposed as the frauds they are " .
Burns introduces Homer to Aristotle Amadopoulos , the owner of the nuclear power plant in Shelbyville , Springfield 's neighbor town . Amadopoulos wants Homer to give a pep talk to his plant 's lackluster workers . Homer is hesitant to accept , but Burns forces him into it . At the Shelbyville plant , he gives a fumbling motivational speech . Suddenly an impending meltdown threatens the Shelbyville plant . Amadopoulos and Homer go to the control room , and Amadopoulos asks Homer to avert the meltdown . In front of everyone , Homer repeats his rhyme and presses a button blindly . By luck , he again manages to avert a meltdown . Amadopoulos thanks Homer for saving the plant , but angrily berates him for his stupidity . Soon the phrase " to pull a Homer " , meaning " to succeed despite idiocy , " becomes widely used and is entered into the dictionary .
In the subplot , the relationship between Bart and his friend Milhouse has changed . On the bus ride to school , Bart is upset to discover that Milhouse had held a birthday party without inviting him . It turns out that Milhouse 's mother , Luann Van Houten , thinks Bart is a bad influence on Milhouse and has banned him from seeing Bart , a decision Milhouse is downbeat about but makes no effort to defy . Suddenly deprived of his friend , a depressed Bart resorts to playing with Maggie . When Marge finds out about the situation , she decides to visit Luann . Marge admits that Bart is a " bit of a handful , " and she explains that he and Milhouse are best friends and only have each other , so she asks Luann to allow the boys to play together . Later , Milhouse invites Bart over to his house , and Bart thanks Marge for standing up for him .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by freelance writer Howard Gewirtz . It was one of many stories he pitched to the producers of the show . According to executive producer Al Jean , Gewirtz 's script ended up featuring one of the longest first acts ( an act being the amount of time between commercial breaks ) in the history of the show when the episode was completed . Gewirtz 's script originally contained two uses of the word " ass " , once from Bart and once from Burns . This was the first time a character in the show had used this word , and it led to problems with the network censors . Eventually , the censors forced the producers to remove one instance , so that Bart 's line was changed to " bad influence , my butt . "
Basketball player Magic Johnson of the Los Angeles Lakers guest stars in the episode as himself . He was the first professional athlete to do so on the show . Johnson appears in two sequences : first in a scene in which he calls to congratulate Homer on saving the plant , and later in the episode during a basketball game when he " pulls a Homer " by accidentally getting the ball into the basket after slipping on the floor . The recording of the episode was done during the National Basketball Association 's regular season , so the producers had a hard time scheduling Johnson 's session . With the deadline approaching , the producers traveled to Johnson 's home to record his lines . According to the San Jose Mercury News , the recording equipment brought to his home did not work at first and " almost doomed the guest spot . " Lakers sportscaster Chick Hearn also guest stars in the episode , commentating on the game that Johnson plays .
Another guest star that appeared in the episode was actor Jon Lovitz , who provided the voice for Aristotle Amadopoulos and a minor character that appears in a soap opera . This was Lovitz 's third appearance on the show . The character Amadopoulos that he played was designed to look like the Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis . The character 's dialogue was written to emulate Lovitz 's comedic style , such as his ability for rapid mood swings . Amadopoulos returned a few episodes later in " Homer at the Bat " , though in that episode he was voiced by cast member Dan Castellaneta rather than Lovitz .
Milhouse 's mother , Luann Van Houten , makes her first appearance in this episode . She was designed to look very similar to Milhouse . Maggie Roswell was assigned to voice the character and she originally based it on Milhouse , who is voiced by Pamela Hayden . The producers felt that her impression sounded out of place so she ended up using a more normal sounding voice . It was Gewirtz who in this episode gave Milhouse his last name , Van Houten , which he got from one of his wife 's friends .
Director Mark Kirkland wanted the Springfield Power Plant to " look the best it had to date " and inserted shadows and back @-@ lighting effects to make the panels in Homer 's control room glow .
= = Reception and analysis = =
In its original airing on the Fox network , the episode acquired a 12 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating and was viewed in approximately 11 @.@ 69 million homes . It finished the week of October 14 – 20 , 1991 , ranked 36th , down from the season 's average rank of 32nd . It ranked second in its timeslot behind The Cosby Show , which finished 24th with a 15 @.@ 5 rating . The episode was tied with In Living Color as the highest rated show on Fox that week .
" Homer Defined " has received generally positive reviews from critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , described it as an excellent episode that added new depth to the show in the scene with Marge trying to convince Luann to let Milhouse play with Bart again . They added that Lisa 's " faith in her heroic father makes a nice change " , and said that the episode 's ending , in which Homer enters the dictionary , " is most satisfying . " Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide commented that after the episode " Bart the Murderer " , this episode marks a regression , saying it was almost inevitable that it would not match up to the previous episode . He went on to say that the subplot with Bart and Milhouse was more entertaining . Nate Meyers of Digitally Obsessed gave the episode a 4 / 5 rating , writing that he enjoyed the Homer story but found the Bart and Milhouse subplot more interesting . He added that " Milhouse 's mom won 't allow him to play with Bart because she thinks Bart is a bad influence . It 's rare for the show to allow Bart to feel genuine emotion , but there is plenty of it in this episode that makes for a nice character oriented story . "
Johnson 's performance has also been praised . In 2004 , ESPN released a list of the top 100 Simpsons sport moments , ranking his appearance at number 27 . Sports Illustrated listed Johnson 's cameo as the fifth best athlete guest appearance on The Simpsons . Meyers wrote that the episode " makes a lot of good points about the public making heroes in a rash , hysterical manner , " and this point is made " with an amusing cameo by Earvin ' Magic ' Johnson " . The San Diego Union 's Fritz Quindt said the animators " did [ Johnson 's ] likeness good , " and noted that in the game the " colors on the Lakers jerseys and the Forum court were correct . Chick Hearn and Stu Lantz were almost lifelike , announcing at courtside in Sunday @-@ color @-@ comics sweaters . And Chick 's play @-@ by @-@ play was so real Stu couldn 't get a word in . " Johnson 's appearance was broadcast on CNN 's Sports Tonight the day before the episode originally aired , and host Fred Hickman stated that he did not find it humorous .
In his book Watching with The Simpsons : Television , Parody , and Intertextuality , Jonathan Gray discusses a scene from " Homer Defined " that shows Homer reading a USA Today with the cover story : " America 's Favorite Pencil – # 2 is # 1 " . Lisa sees this title and criticizes the newspaper as a " flimsy hodge @-@ podge of high @-@ brass factoids and Larry King " , to which Homer responds that it is " the only paper in America that 's not afraid to tell the truth : that everything is just fine . " In the book , Gray says this scene is used by the show 's producers to criticize " how often the news is wholly toothless , sacrificing journalism for sales , and leaving us not with important public information , but with America 's Favorite Pencil . "
= From the Ages =
From the Ages is the third full @-@ length studio album by American rock band Earthless . It was released on October 8 , 2013 by Tee Pee Records . It had been six years since the band ’ s last full @-@ length studio album , Rhythms from a Cosmic Sky , as all three members of Earthless were pre @-@ occupied with other matters , including other bands .
The album comprises four songs , all instrumental , and was recorded in two days . Much of the album ’ s material had existed in the band ’ s live repertoire before – in particular the album 's title track had been released in an early form on the band 's 2008 live album Live at Roadburn – and the rest of it was created during the recording sessions and rehearsals . Despite the band 's preference for analog tape , the title track had to be recorded digitally to accommodate its length .
The album was released to mostly positive critical reaction , with criticisms usually directed at the length of the material ( and of the title track in particular ) amid praises for its composition and depth . A number of publications cited the album as one of the best 2013 releases on year @-@ end lists . Earthless earned two nominations at the San Diego Music Awards , and From the Ages became the band ’ s second album to win the Best Hard Rock Album award there .
= = Background and recording = =
Earthless ' last studio album , Rhythms from a Cosmic Sky , had come out in 2007 , and their live album Live at Roadburn ( on which an early version of " From the Ages " was recorded ) in 2008 ; further releases had been delayed since then as members of Earthless were becoming increasingly pre @-@ occupied with other matters . Constant touring in 2008 and 2009 kept the band out of the studio , drummer Mario Rubalcaba began playing with Off ! and guitarist Isaiah Mitchell became involved with Howlin ' Rain . Mitchell also moved to northern California , which reduced the available time to rehearse with Earthless ( who are based in San Diego ) . After three rehearsals , the band recorded the album in two days , recording much of it live the first day and additional details the following day , in San Francisco with producer Phil Manley in his studio , Lucky Cat Recording .
= = Song information = =
The songs on the album began as " very loose , general ideas " according to Rubalcaba , who also said " Violence of the Red Sea " was the most organized , structured song on the album ( although he later said the same of the title track ) . Eginton wrote the bass lines for " Violence of the Red Sea " , inspired by funk and " prog @-@ psych " bands from the UK and Europe . The song , which had been included in the band 's concert setlist for the last few years prior to recording , was named after the combination of riffs and tempos which " collid [ ed ] together like an angry sea " . The song 's finale was present in the band 's repertoire for almost a decade and was used to close the song for the tension it created , whereas the opening of the song was considered more of a " laid back groove " . After Rubalcaba and Eginton had outlined the song 's bass guitar and drum parts in Mitchell 's absence ( due to now living elsewhere ) , Mitchell was allowed to improvise lead guitar over them when he was able to play with the duo .
" Uluru Rock " was named after the Uluru rock formation in Australia , as an homage to the country , and was written by Mitchell and Eginton through improvisations while they waited for Rubalcaba to get on stage to begin the band 's first show in the country At the time the band had not been to the landmark . As a tribute to the natives , the song was specifically named Uluru as opposed to Ayers Rock , the landmark 's other official name . " Uluru Rock " became the opening song on the band 's setlist for all shows thereafter .
" Equus October " was born out of a song that the band were considering discarding because they were never able to finish it until they entered the studio and changed their minds , wanting more material on the album . They decided to use a riff from it only as an interlude that ran 30 seconds long , but they came up with more ideas about what to do with it during the mixing process , eventually increasing the length of the song . Rubalcaba explained that the bass guitar line remained a constant fixture on jam sessions between himself and Eginton , and they decided to give it a chance by recording it at the album 's sessions . Once Mitchell also began adding material to the song , Rubalcaba felt it started taking on a " strong & majestic yet mournful " sensation , almost as if it were about a ritualistic sacrifice . He later discovered the ritual of the October Horse and based the song 's title on that of the ritual . " It took on the feeling I had about the jam & how it just completely comes crashing down so abruptly at the end , " he explained . Expanding the song in the studio led the group to want to use it as an interlude that leads into the album 's title track .
" From the Ages " was recorded for the band 's live album Live at Roadburn five years before and , being very long , was described by Rubalcaba as " a bastard to play [ and relearn ] " . The band wanted to record it in as few takes as possible in spite of its length , which they addressed by recording the song in Pro Tools as they expected it could be up to forty minutes long ; in the past they used analog tape which only allowed for about twenty minutes of music but , according to Rubalcaba , yielded the best recording quality . Earthless rehearsed " From the Ages " for three days before recording it in about three takes . In the last five minutes of the song , the band very gently ease into the end , to avoid having to end the song abruptly . Although he had said the same of " Violence of the Red Sea " with respect to the album itself in a previous interview , Rubalcaba later described " From the Ages " as the most organized , planned song the band had yet ever recorded , let alone recorded for this album . He described the mixture of influences in the song as " A supreme psycho @-@ delic buffet served up with all the sour Kraut , all the freshest sushi Japan has to offer & what not " . Rubalcaba reiterated the " pre @-@ historic , caveman , dry & mysterious wasteland feel " that inspired the title . The song expanded constantly during rehearsals and evolved after its debut on Live at Roadburn .
= = Release and reception = =
From the Ages was released on October 8 , 2013 , by Tee Pee Records . The artwork was created by artist Alan Forbes , whose work Rubalcaba commended as " captur [ ing ] [ the phrase " From the Ages " ] to a T " .
From the Ages charted at # 25 on the Billboard Heatseekers chart for a week . Critical reaction to the album was largely positive , though the album 's length was commonly cited as a minor flaw . Metacritic reported a score of 84 based on five reviews , indicating " Universal acclaim " . " Though the silence may have been deafening for their small but devoted cadre of fans , the wait was worth every moment , " wrote Erik Highter for PopMatters , who described the chemistry between the band members as " near telepathic connections between the players " and the roles of Eginton and Rubalcaba as " pulling " Mitchell back from potential unrestrained solos . He rated the album 8 out of 10 , his only complaint being that listeners may consider the title track too long . Conversely , Grayson Currin of Pitchfork Media said that the rhythm section did not serve to restrain Mitchell at times , but to " instead follow his ecstatic lead everywhere , fellow travelers on his odyssey of enthusiasms " . He echoed Highter 's opinion with respect to the title track 's length , calling it " the one moment [ on the album ] where the band 's patience might test your own " and asked , regarding the length and repetitive nature of the album as a whole , " is there a need for an hour of three dudes tracing and retracing a melody ? " The length of " From the Ages " was also criticized by Exclaim ! reviewer Trystan MacDonald who cited it as the record 's " only flaw " and rated the album overall 8 out of 10 .
eMusic contributor Dan Epstein rated the album 4 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 and described the interaction between band members similarly to Highter and Currin , saying that , while Mitchell 's guitar leads are prominent , Eginton and Rubalcaba are " locked @-@ in " with him and each other , " never los [ ing ] focus or intensity for a second — not even during the rolling 30 @-@ minute title track . " In his review for NOW Magazine , John Semley said that while inferior to Rhythms from a Cosmic Sky , the high point was the opening track , " Violence of the Red Sea " , and the album is " an essential record for anyone who likes the sound of guitars sounding like guitars " . Karen A. Mann also wrote , for the heavy metal section of About.com , that the opening track was the band 's peak performance on the album , which she rated 4 out of 5 . Rolling Stone referred to the album as one of the 20 best metal albums of 2013 , while Magnet named it the third best of the year 's top ten hard rock releases . Likewise , the Austin Chronicle ranked it ninth in the top ten metal releases of 2013 , and later reviewer Raoul Hernandez gave the album a perfect four @-@ star review . Earthless were again nominated for Best Hard Rock Artist at the 2013 San Diego Music Awards , and the record won the 2014 award for Best Hard Rock Album , becoming the band 's second record to do so ( their debut Sonic Prayer won the award in 2007 ) .
In support of the album , Earthless toured the west coast of the United States in October 2013 , with the Shrine in Australia from December 2013 to January 2014 , and the east coast of the US in August 2014 . They also embarked on a tour of Europe that fall . The band had planned a tour of Japan with Eternal Elysium , but were forced to cancel the engagement to tend to ill family members ; they rescheduled it for January 2015 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Earthless .
" Violence of the Red Sea " – 14 : 46
" Uluru Rock " – 14 : 08
" Equus October " – 5 : 42
" From the Ages " – 30 : 55
= = Personnel = =
= = = Earthless = = =
Isaiah Mitchell – guitar
Mike Eginton – bass guitar
Mario Rubalcaba – drum kit
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Credits taken from the album 's liner notes .
Phil Manley – producer , mixer
Isaiah Mitchell – mixer
Mario Rubalcaba – mixer
Carl Saff – mastering
Alan Forbes – cover art
Mike Eginton – inside art
Ake Arndt – album layout
Operation Mindblow – liquid overlays
= = Chart positions = =
= International System of Units =
The International System of Units ( French : Système international d 'unités , SI ) is the modern form of the metric system , and is the most widely used system of measurement . It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement built on seven base units . It defines twenty @-@ two named units , and includes many more unnamed coherent derived units . The system also establishes a set of twenty prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be used when specifying multiples and fractions of the units .
The system was published in 1960 as the result of an initiative that began in 1948 . It is based on the metre @-@ kilogram @-@ second system of units ( MKS ) rather than any variant of the centimetre @-@ gram @-@ second system ( CGS ) . SI is intended to be an evolving system , so prefixes and units are created and unit definitions are modified through international agreement as the technology of measurement progresses and the precision of measurements improves . The 24th and 25th General Conferences on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) in 2011 and 2014 , for example , discussed a proposal to change the definition of the kilogram , linking it to an invariant of nature rather than to the mass of a material artefact , thereby ensuring long @-@ term stability .
The motivation for the development of the SI was the diversity of units that had sprung up within the CGS systems and the lack of coordination between the various disciplines that used them . The CGPM , which was established by the Metre Convention of 1875 , brought together many international organisations to not only agree on the definitions and standards of the new system but also agree on the rules for writing and presenting measurements in a standardised manner around the world .
The International System of Units has been adopted by most developed countries ; however , the adoption has not been universal in all English @-@ speaking countries . While metrication in the United States is consistent in science , medicine , government , and various fields of technology and engineering , common measurements are mostly performed in United States customary units , although these have officially been defined in terms of SI units . The United Kingdom has officially adopted a policy of partial metrication . Canada has adopted the SI for most governmental , medical and scientific purposes and for such varied uses as grocery weights , weather reports , traffic signs and gasoline sales , but imperial units are still legally permitted and remain in common use throughout many sectors of Canadian society , particularly in the building trade and the railway sector .
= = History = =
The metric system was first implemented during the French Revolution ( 1790s ) with just the metre and kilogram as standards of length and mass respectively . In the 1830s Carl Friedrich Gauss laid the foundations for a coherent system based on length , mass , and time . In the 1860s a group working under the auspices of the British Association for the Advancement of Science formulated the requirement for a coherent system of units with base units and derived units . The inclusion of electrical units into the system was hampered by the customary use of more than one set of units , until 1900 when Giovanni Giorgi identified the need to define one single electrical quantity as a fourth base quantity alongside the original three base quantities .
Meanwhile , in 1875 , the Treaty of the Metre passed responsibility for verification of the kilogram and metre against agreed prototypes from French to international control . In 1921 , the Treaty was extended to include all physical quantities including electrical units originally defined in 1893 .
In 1948 , an overhaul of the metric system was set in motion which resulted in the development of the " Practical system of units " which , on its publication in 1960 , was given the name " The International System of Units " . In 1954 , the 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) identified electric current as the fourth base quantity in the practical system of units and added two more base quantities — temperature and luminous intensity — making six base quantities in all . The units associated with these quantities were the metre , kilogram , second , ampere , kelvin and candela . In 1971 , a seventh base quantity , amount of substance represented by the mole , was added to the definition of SI .
= = = Early development = = =
The metric system was developed from 1791 onwards by a committee of the French Academy of Sciences , commissioned by the National Assembly and Louis XVI to create a unified and rational system of measures . The group , which included Antoine Lavoisier ( the " father of modern chemistry " ) and the mathematicians Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace and Adrien @-@ Marie Legendre , used the same principles for relating length , volume , and mass that had been proposed by the English clergyman John Wilkins in 1668 and the concept of using the Earth 's meridian as the basis of the definition of length , originally proposed in 1670 by the French abbot Mouton .
On 30 March 1791 , the Assembly adopted the committee 's proposed principles for the new decimal system of measure and authorised a survey between Dunkirk and Barcelona to establish the length of the meridian . On 11 July 1792 , the committee proposed the names metre , are , litre and grave for the units of length , area , capacity , and mass , respectively . The committee also proposed that multiples and submultiples of these units were to be denoted by decimal @-@ based prefixes such as centi for a hundredth and kilo for a thousand .
The law of 7 April 1795 ( loi du 18 germinal ) defined the terms gramme and kilogramme , which replaced the former terms gravet ( correctly milligrave ) and grave , and on 22 June 1799 ( after Pierre Méchain and Jean @-@ Baptiste Delambre had completed the meridian survey ) the definitive standard mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives were deposited in the Archives nationales . On 10 December 1799 ( a month after Napoleon 's coup d 'état ) , the law by which the metric system was to be definitively adopted in France ( loi du 19 frimaire ) was passed .
During the first half of the nineteenth century there was little consistency in the choice of preferred multiples of the base units – typically the myriametre ( 10000 metres ) was in widespread use in both France and parts of Germany , while the kilogram ( 1000 grams ) rather than the myriagram was used for mass .
In 1832 , the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss , assisted by Wilhelm Weber , implicitly defined the second as a base unit when he quoted the earth 's magnetic field in terms of millimetres , grams , and seconds . Prior to this , the strength of the earth ’ s magnetic field had only been described in relative terms . The technique used by Gauss was to equate the torque induced on a suspended magnet of known mass by the earth ’ s magnetic field with the torque induced on an equivalent system under gravity . The resultant calculations enabled him to assign dimensions based on mass , length and time to the magnetic field .
In the 1860s , James Clerk Maxwell , William Thomson ( later Lord Kelvin ) and others working under the auspices of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , built on Gauss ' work and formalised the concept of a coherent system of units with base units and derived units . The principle of coherence was successfully used to define a number of units of measure based on the centimetre – gram – second ( CGS ) system of units ( CGS ) , including the erg for energy , the dyne for force , the barye for pressure , the poise for dynamic viscosity and the stokes for kinematic viscosity .
= = = Metre Convention = = =
A French @-@ inspired initiative for international cooperation in metrology led to the signing in 1875 of the Metre Convention . Initially the convention only covered standards for the metre and the kilogram . A set of 30 prototypes of the metre and 40 prototypes of the kilogram , in each case made of a 90 % platinum @-@ 10 % iridium alloy , were manufactured by the British firm Johnson , Matthey & Co and accepted by the CGPM in 1889 . One of each was selected at random to become the International prototype metre and International prototype kilogram that replaced the mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives respectively . Each member state was entitled to one of each of the remaining prototypes to serve as the national prototype for that country .
The treaty established three international organisations to oversee the keeping of international standards of measurement :
General Conference on Weights and Measures ( Conférence générale des poids et mesures or CGPM ) – a meeting every four to six years of delegates from all member states that receives and discusses a report from the CIPM and that endorses new developments in the SI on the advice of the CIPM .
International Committee for Weights and Measures ( Comité international des poids et mesures or CIPM ) – a committee that meets annually at the BIPM and is made up of eighteen individuals of high scientific standing , nominated by the CGPM to advise the CGPM on administrative and technical matters
International Bureau of Weights and Measures ( Bureau international des poids et mesures or BIPM ) – an international metrology centre at Sèvres in France that has custody of the International prototype kilogram , provides metrology services for the CGPM and CIPM , houses the secretariat for these organisations and hosts their formal meetings . Initially its prime metrological purpose was a periodic recalibration of national prototype metres and kilograms against the international prototype .
In 1921 , the Metre Convention was extended to include all physical units , including the ampere and others defined by the Fourth International Conference of Electricians in Chicago in 1893 , thereby enabling the CGPM to address inconsistencies in the way that the metric system had been used .
The official language of the Metre Convention is French and the definitive version of all official documents published by or on behalf of the CGPM is the French @-@ language version .
= = = Towards the SI = = =
At the close of the 19th century three different systems of units of measure existed for electrical measurements : a CGS @-@ based system for electrostatic units , also known as the Gaussian or ESU system , a CGS @-@ based system for electromechanical units ( EMU ) and an MKS @-@ based system ( " international system " ) for electrical distribution systems . Attempts to resolve the electrical units in terms of length , mass , and time using dimensional analysis was beset with difficulties — the dimensions depended on whether one used the ESU or EMU systems . This anomaly was resolved in 1900 when Giovanni Giorgi published a paper in which he advocated using a fourth base unit alongside the existing three base units . The fourth unit could be chosen to be electric current , voltage , or electrical resistance .
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , a number of non @-@ coherent units of measure based on the gram / kilogram , the centimetre / metre , and the second , such as the Pferdestärke ( metric horsepower ) for power , the darcy for permeability and the use of " millimetres of mercury " for the measurement of both barometric and blood pressure were developed or propagated , some of which incorporated standard gravity in their definitions .
At the end of the Second World War , a number of different systems of measurement were in use throughout the world . Some of these systems were metric system variations , whereas others were based on customary systems of measure . In 1948 , after representations by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ( IUPAP ) and by the French Government , the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) asked the International Committee for Weights and Measures ( CIPM ) to conduct an international study of the measurement needs of the scientific , technical , and educational communities and " to make recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement , suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention " .
On the basis of the findings of this study , the 10th CGPM in 1954 decided that an international system should be derived from six base units to provide for the measurement of temperature and optical radiation in addition to mechanical and electromagnetic quantities . Six base units were recommended : the metre , kilogram , second , ampere , degree Kelvin ( later renamed kelvin ) , and candela . In 1960 , the 11th CGPM named the system the International System of Units , abbreviated SI from the French name , Le Système International d 'Unités . The BIPM has also described SI as " the modern metric system " . The seventh base unit , the mole , was added in 1971 by the 14th CGPM .
= = = International System of Quantities = = =
The International System of Quantities ( ISQ ) is a system based on seven base quantities : length , mass , time , electric current , thermodynamic temperature , amount of substance , and luminous intensity . Other quantities such as area , pressure , and electrical resistance are derived from these base quantities by clear non @-@ contradictory equations . The ISQ defines the quantities that are measured with the SI units . The ISQ is defined in the international standard ISO / IEC 80000 , and was finalised in 2009 with the publication of ISO 80000 @-@ 1 .
= = SI Brochure and conversion factors = =
The CGPM publishes a brochure which defines and presents SI . Its official version is in French , in line with the Metre Convention . It leaves some scope for local interpretation , particularly regarding names and terms in different languages , so for example the United States ' National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) has produced a version of the CGPM document ( NIST SP 330 ) which clarifies local interpretation for English @-@ language publications that use American English and another document ( NIST SP 811 ) that gives general guidance for the use of SI in the United States and conversion factors between SI and customary units .
The writing and maintenance of the CGPM brochure is carried out by one of the committees of the International Committee for Weights and Measures ( CIPM ) , the Consultative Committee for Units ( CCU ) . The CIPM nominates the chairman of this committee , but the committee includes representatives of various other international bodies rather than CIPM or CGPM nominees . This committee thus provides a forum for the bodies concerned to provide input to the CIPM in respect of ongoing enhancements to SI .
The definitions of the terms " quantity " , " unit " , " dimension " etc. that are used in the SI Brochure are those given in the International vocabulary of metrology , a publication produced by the Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology ( JCGM ) , a working group consisting of eight international standards organisations under the chairmanship of the director of the BIPM . The quantities and equations that define the SI units are now referred to as the International System of Quantities ( ISQ ) , and are set out in the International Standard ISO / IEC 80000 Quantities and Units .
= = Units and prefixes = =
The International System of Units consists of a set of base units , a set of derived units with special names , and a set of decimal @-@ based multipliers that are used as prefixes . The term SI Units covers all three categories , but the term coherent SI units includes only base units and coherent derived units .
= = = Base units = = =
The SI base units are the building blocks of the system and all other units are derived from them . When Maxwell first introduced the concept of a coherent system , he identified three quantities that could be used as base units : mass , length and time . Giorgi later identified the need for an electrical base unit . Theoretically any one of electric current , potential difference , electrical resistance , electrical charge or a number of other quantities could have provided the base unit , with the remaining units then being defined by the laws of physics . In the event , the unit of electric current was chosen for SI . Another three base units ( for temperature , substance and luminous intensity ) were added later .
= = = Derived units = = =
The derived units in the SI are formed by powers , products or quotients of the base units and are unlimited in number . Derived units are associated with derived quantities , for example velocity is a quantity that is derived from the base quantities of time and length , so in SI the derived unit is metres per second ( symbol m / s ) . The dimensions of derived units can be expressed in terms of the dimensions of the base units .
Coherent units are derived units that contain no numerical factor other than 1 — quantities such as standard gravity and density of water are absent from their definitions . In the example above , one newton is the force required to accelerate a mass of one kilogram by one metre per second squared . Since the SI units of mass and acceleration are kg and m · s − 2 respectively and F ∝ m × a , the units of force ( and hence of newtons ) is formed by multiplication to give kg · m · s − 2 . Since the newton is part of a coherent set of units , the constant of proportionality is 1 .
For the sake of convenience , some derived units have special names and symbols . Such units may themselves be used in combination with the names and symbols for base units and for other derived units to express the units of other derived quantities . For example , the SI unit of force is the newton ( N ) , the SI unit of pressure is the pascal ( Pa ) — and the pascal can be defined as " newtons per square metre " ( N / m2 ) .
= = = Prefixes = = =
Prefixes are added to unit names to produce multiple and sub @-@ multiples of the original unit . All multiples are integer powers of ten , and above a hundred or below a hundredth all are integer powers of a thousand . For example , kilo- denotes a multiple of a thousand and milli- denotes a multiple of a thousandth , so there are one thousand millimetres to the metre and one thousand metres to the kilometre . The prefixes are never combined , so for example a millionth of a metre is a micrometre , not a millimillimetre . Multiples of the kilogram are named as if the gram were the base unit , so a millionth of a kilogram is a milligram , not a microkilogram .
= = = Non @-@ SI units accepted for use with SI = = =
Although , in theory , SI can be used for any physical measurement , the CIPM has recognised that some non @-@ SI units still appear in the scientific , technical , and commercial literature , and will continue to be used for many years to come . In addition , certain other units are so deeply embedded in the history and culture of the human race that they will continue to be used for the foreseeable future . The CIPM has catalogued several such units and published them in the SI Brochure so that their use may be consistent around the world . These units have been grouped as follows :
Non @-@ SI units accepted for use with the SI ( Table 6 ) :
Certain units of time , angle , and legacy non @-@ SI metric units have a long history of consistent use . Most of mankind has used the day and its non @-@ decimal subdivisions as a basis of time and , unlike the foot or the pound , these were the same regardless of where they were being measured . The radian , being 1 / 2π of a revolution , has mathematical advantages but it is cumbersome for navigation , and , as with time , the units used in navigation have a large degree of consistency around the world . The tonne , litre , and hectare were adopted by the CGPM in 1879 and have been retained as units that may be used alongside SI units , having been given unique symbols . The catalogued units are
minute , hour , day , degree of arc , minute of arc , second of arc , hectare , litre , tonne , astronomical unit and [ deci ] bel
Non @-@ SI units whose values in SI units must be obtained experimentally ( Table 7 ) .
Physicists often use units of measure that are based on natural phenomena , particularly when the quantities associated with these phenomena are many orders of magnitude greater than or less than the equivalent SI unit . The most common ones have been catalogued in the SI Brochure together with consistent symbols and accepted values , but with the caveat that their physical values need to be measured.electronvolt , dalton / unified atomic mass unit , Planck constant , and electron mass
Other non @-@ SI units ( Table 8 ) :
A number of non @-@ SI units that had never been formally sanctioned by the CGPM have continued to be used across the globe in many spheres including health care and navigation . As with the units of measure in Tables 6 and 7 , these have been catalogued by the CIPM in the SI Brochure to ensure consistent usage , but with the recommendation that authors who use them should define them wherever they are used .
bar , millimetre of mercury , ångström , nautical mile , barn , knot and neper
Non @-@ SI units associated with the CGS and the CGS @-@ Gaussian system of units ( Table 9 )
The SI manual also catalogues a number of legacy units of measure that are used in specific fields such as geodesy and geophysics or are found in the literature , particularly in classical and relativistic electrodynamics where they have certain advantages : The units that are catalogued are :
erg , dyne , poise , stokes , stilb , phot , gal , maxwell , gauss , and œrsted .
= = Writing unit symbols and the values of quantities = =
Before 1948 , the writing of metric quantities was haphazard . In 1879 , the CIPM published recommendations for writing the symbols for length , area , volume and mass , but it was outside its domain to publish recommendations for other quantities . Beginning in about 1900 , physicists who had been using the symbol " μ " for " micrometre " ( or " micron " ) , " λ " for " microlitre " , and " γ " for " microgram " started to use the symbols " μm " , " μL " and " μg " , but it was only in 1935 , a decade after the revision of the Metre Convention that the CIPM formally adopted this proposal and recommended that the symbol " μ " be used universally as a prefix for 10 − 6 .
In 1948 , the ninth CGPM approved the first formal recommendation for the writing of symbols in the metric system when the basis of the rules as they are now known was laid down . These rules were subsequently extended by International Organization for Standardization ( ISO )
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the Camus cross , was attributed by Maule as being the body of Camus :
Not far thearfra in the bank of Camstone , the zeir of God Im fywe hundrethe nyntie and aught zeiris , thear wos ane greawe fownd withe ane bread stone on eury quarter thearof efter the forme of ane malt cobile , quharin did ly the heale bons of ane man of gryt statwre , the thee bone quharof ves neir als longue as bothe the schank and thee bone of any reasonable man of this age , the harne pan gryte , and vanted the palme bread of ane hand thearof , quhilk had beine the straik as appeirithe of ane sword , it wes thought to heawe beine Cames the chief mans bwriel .
Little information of the burial exists , but goods found in the cist were kept at Brechin Castle . These were sketched by Jervise and are typical of Bronze Age artifacts , found fairly commonly in the area .
= Up All Night Tour =
The Up All Night Tour was the first headlining concert tour by English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction , showcasing their debut album , Up All Night ( 2011 ) . It began in December 2011 and was One Direction 's first solo tour after being formed in the seventh series of The X Factor and being signed to Syco Records . The concert tour was announced in September 2011 by concert producer Nik Tzimas Hatziefstathiou , with the initial British and Irish dates being revealed . The concert tour was managed by Modest ! Management , the shows were backed by a five @-@ piece musical band , and the creative assessments were handled by Caroline Watson and Lou Teasdale , among others . After the initial concert tour concluded in January 2012 , shortly afterwards , the concert tour expanded with legs in Oceania and North America . They ultimately played over 60 shows in Europe , Oceania and North America .
The setlist encompassed songs from One Direction 's debut album and five covers . Commentators commended One Direction 's singing abilities and stage presence , and the production of the show . The Up All Night Tour was a commercial success , with additional matinée and evening shows being performed at several venues . A recording of the Up All Night Tour was filmed during One Direction 's January 2012 show at the International Centre in Bournemouth . Documenting the whole concert with intersperses of backstage footage , a video album , Up All Night : The Live Tour , was released on DVD in May 2012 . The video concert DVD was a global success , topping the charts in twenty @-@ five countries and setting an unprecedented US chart record . By August 2012 , the video album had sold in excess of one million copies worldwide .
= = Background = =
After being formed and finishing third in the seventh series of The X Factor in 2010 , One Direction were signed to Syco Music . The group and nine other contestants from the series participated in The X Factor Live Tour 2011 from February 2011 to April 2011 . The tour saw the group performing for 500 @,@ 000 people throughout the UK . While touring on The X Factor Live Tour 2011 in April 2011 , the group disclosed that they would be embarking on a solo tour " soon " .
One Direction 's debut headline UK concert tour , the Up All Night Tour , was officially announced on 27 September 2011 . Set for December 2011 and January 2012 , the tour would showcase their then @-@ upcoming debut album , and would commence on 18 December 2011 in Watford , England and end 26 January 2012 in Belfast , Northern Ireland . One Direction announced the solo tour shortly after releasing their first single , " What Makes You Beautiful " . Shows in the UK and Ireland were an instant success — many rumoured to have sold out in under 10 seconds . Additional shows were added , including an expansion into Australia and New Zealand . In February 2012 , One Direction announced the Oceania leg , the tour dates set for April 2012 , scheduled to visit cities Sydney , Brisbane , Melbourne , Auckland and Wellington . While promoting the tour , band member Liam Payne stated the group wanted this trek to be a " world tour " . To kick off the tour , the band performed a rehearsal show in Watford . Once the first leg of the tour was complete , the band joined Big Time Rush as the opening act on the Better With U Tour .
During a break from concerts , One Direction promoted their album in the United States . Following an appearance on The Today Show , Up All Night was released in the US and One Direction became the first ever UK group to have their debut album bow atop the Billboard 200 . This led to the group extending the tour into North America . On 21 March 2012 , One Direction announced the North American leg of the tour . The North American leg would start on 24 May 2012 and compromise out of 26 shows . Shortly after the announcement British recording artist Olly Murs was confirmed to be the opening act for select dates on tour .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The concerts in England and Ireland received mixed feedback from critics . Kitty Empire ( The Observer ) was not impressed with the show at Windsor Hall . Empire wrote , " It 's easy to sneer at boy bands , but always worth considering their appeal . It goes without saying that One Direction are slick , and often bland . With the exception of their persuasive No 1 single , " What Makes You Beautiful " , their songs aren 't wildly distinctive " . For the concert at the HMV Hammersmith Apollo in London , James Robertson ( Daily Mirror ) gave the band a positive review . He states , " The room shook with hair raising , ear drum piercing and ( if there had been windows ) glass @-@ shattering screams . Each took a turn walking forward to embrace the cries from the sold @-@ out Hammersmith Apollo while singing the lame @-@ named Na , Na , Na . It was impossible to tell which one of the five boys had the biggest ovation but the loudest cheer came when Niall played acoustic guitar as they sang solo around an artificial camp fire " . Another glowing review was done by Alexandra Ryan ( Evening Herald ) for the concert at Dublin 's The O2 . She says , " THEY came , they saw , they conquered . Dreams came true for thousands of Irish female fans as their pop idols One Direction took to the stage at the O2 . Swarms of screaming girls flocked to the sold @-@ out venue last night as Zayn , Harry , Louis , Liam and Mullingar teen Niall Horan performed for 14 @,@ 000 fans " .
As the tour progressed to Oceania and North America , many commentators remarked on the band 's popularity and their singing abilities . For the concert at Sydney 's Hordern Pavilion , Mike Wass ( Idolator ) felt One Direction 's " surprisingly accomplished effort " of Kings of Leon 's " Use Somebody " proved that One Direction are " more than capable " of evolving their sound . Cameron Adams ( Herald Sun ) wrote a positive review for the concert in Melbourne at the Hisense Arena . He assessed that One Direction represented a " cleverly cast pop band with plenty of personality unleashed at the perfect time and seizing their moment . " He opined that the covers performed showcased " strong pop voices . " Adams concluded as follows : " Who knows if they 'll progress beyond the usual boy band lifespan . But for now they 're making a lot of people very happy . " Reviewing the concert in Fairfax at the Patriot Center , Chris Richards ( The Washington Post ) elaborated on the concert synopsis . He wrote , " Over the course of umpteen songs , its members didn 't work the stage so much as loiter on it . They looked comfortable . No silly choreography , just a few ensemble fist @-@ pumps . No ridiculous costumes , just letterman jackets , cardigans and khakis . A no @-@ nonsense backing band — guitar , bass , keyboards and drums — provided steady renditions of nearly all of the songs on the group 's debut album , " Up All Night " , as well as a few covers , including Kings of Leon 's " Use Somebody " and Natalie Imbruglia 's " Torn . "
Lars Brandle ( Billboard ) reviewed the concert at the BBEC Great Hall in Brisbane . Brandle predominantly noted the band 's popularity : " To say [ 1D ] is the hottest boy @-@ band on the scene , doesn 't quite grasp the situation . " On fire " is closer to the mark . " Brandle commended the show for being " all slick , clean fun " . Erica Futterman ( Rolling Stone ) wrote in a title for the concert at the Beacon Theatre in New York , " U.K. boy band relies on vocal prowess and charisma to keep fan base loyal . " Futterman highlighted their acoustic performances , which " showed off Horan 's ability to play guitar , as well as One Direction 's admirable live vocals " .Futterman concluded that there " was no need to worry about a backing track or a bum note , a pleasant realization at a pop show " . Jane Stevenson ( Canoe.ca ) maintained that the show at the Molson Canadian Amphitheatre in Toronto had " none of that choreographed dance move nonsense " , and complimented the " naturally , classy , low @-@ key " production . Melody Lau ( National Post ) reviewed the same concert . Lau opined , " It 's easy to get lost in inherent appeal of their perfectly coiffed dos and almost @-@ too @-@ put @-@ together preppy style but somewhere in the midst of all the love @-@ struck squeals of teenage girls are guys who can actually sing and , to a certain extent , entertain . " Lau additionally noted One Direction 's lack of original material to perform , " the group falls back on a handful of covers to fill in their set , including Kings of Leon 's " Use Somebody " , Gym Class Heroes ' " Stereo Hearts " and , surprisingly , Natalie Imbruglia 's " Torn " . Not straying too far away from the originals , the mid @-@ show medley definitely felt like the boys randomly belting out songs for the sake of filler but girls didn 't mind . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
When tickets for the shows in the UK and Ireland went on sale , many agencies reported sell @-@ outs within minutes . News site Stuff.co.nz reported nearly 10 @,@ 000 tickets were sold in 10 minutes for the band 's shows in Auckland and Wellington . The sellout success continued in Australia . There , the band 's shows in Sydney , Melbourne and Brisbane sold out in three minutes . Shows in the United States also sold out within minutes .
= = Recording = =
A recording of the Up All Night Tour was filmed during One Direction 's January 2012 show at the International Centre in Bournemouth . Documenting the whole concert with intersperses of backstage footage , a video album , Up All Night : The Live Tour , was released on DVD in May 2012 . The video concert DVD topped the charts in twenty @-@ five countries . In Australia , it debuted at number one on the ARIA DVD chart and was certified six times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 90 @,@ 000 units in its first week of sale . In the United States , it debuted at number one on the Billboard DVD chart , selling 76 @,@ 000 copies , surpassing sales of the Billboard 200 number one album , John Mayer 's Born and Raised , which sold 65 @,@ 000 copies . One Direction made US chart history as the feat marks the first time a music DVD outsold the Billboard 200 number one album . The opening sales also makes it the highest music DVD debut of 2012 and the second highest debut in the past five years behind Adele 's Live at the Royal Albert Hall , which launched at number one in December 2011 , with 96 @,@ 000 copies . As of August 2012 , the video album had sold in excess of 1 million copies worldwide . In the week ending 27 January 2013 , Up All Night : The Live Tour claimed its 30th week on top the Top Music Videos Chart , which is longer than any other title since the chart originated in March 1995 . It surpassed Ray Stevens ' Comedy Video Classics , which logged 29 weeks on top in 1993 – 1994 . The recording was ultimately certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 29 May 2013 , indicating shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Opening acts = =
Boyce Avenue ( United Kingdom & Ireland )
Camryn ( North America , select dates )
Justice Crew ( Australia )
Matt Lonsdale ( United Kingdom & Ireland )
Annah Mac ( New Zealand )
Manika ( North America , select dates )
Olly Murs ( North America , select dates )
Johnny Ruffo ( Australia )
= = Setlist = =
" Na Na Na "
" Stand Up "
" I Wish "
Medley : " I Gotta Feeling " / " Stereo Hearts " / " Valerie " / " Torn "
" Moments "
" Gotta Be You "
" More than This "
" Up All Night "
" Tell Me a Lie "
" Everything About You "
" Use Somebody "
" One Thing "
" Save You Tonight "
" What Makes You Beautiful "
Encore
15 . " I Want "
Sources :
Notes
During the concert at the 1 @-@ 800 @-@ ASK @-@ GARY Amphitheatre in Tampa Florida , Horan performed a cover of Ed Sheeran 's " The A Team " .
During the concert on June 26 the boys sang Michael Jackson 's Man in the Mirror .
= = Tour dates = =
Cancellations and rescheduled shows
= = = Box office score data = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
( Credits taken and adapted from Official Tour Programme . )
Raean Martinez ( Clothing Assistant )
= Bobby Fischer =
Robert James " Bobby " Fischer ( March 9 , 1943 – January 17 , 2008 ) was an American chess grandmaster , the eleventh World Chess Champion . Many consider him the greatest chess player of all time . In 1972 , he captured the World Chess Championship from Boris Spassky of the USSR in a match held in Reykjavík , Iceland , publicized as a Cold War confrontation which attracted more worldwide interest than any chess championship before or since . In 1975 , Fischer refused to defend his title when an agreement could not be reached with FIDE , the game 's international governing body , over one of the conditions for the match . This allowed Soviet GM Anatoly Karpov , who had won the qualifying Candidates ' cycle , to become the new world champion by default under FIDE rules .
Fischer showed skill at an early age . At age 13 he won a " brilliancy " that became known as " The Game of the Century " . Starting at age 14 , Fischer played in eight United States Championships , winning each by at least a one @-@ point margin . At age 15 , Fischer became both the youngest grandmaster up to that time and the youngest candidate for the World Championship .
At age 20 , Fischer won the 1963 – 64 U.S. Championship with 11 / 11 , the only perfect score in the history of the tournament . His book My 60 Memorable Games ( published 1969 ) became an icon of American chess literature and is regarded a masterwork . Fischer won the 1970 Interzonal Tournament by a record 3 ½ -point margin and won 20 consecutive games , including two unprecedented 6 – 0 sweeps in the Candidates Matches . In July 1971 , he became the first official FIDE number @-@ one @-@ rated player .
After losing his title as World Chess Champion , Fischer became reclusive and sometimes erratic , disappearing from both competitive chess and the public eye . In 1992 he reemerged to win an unofficial rematch against Spassky . It was held in Yugoslavia , which was under a United Nations embargo at the time . His participation led to a conflict with the U.S. government , which sought income tax on Fischer 's match winnings , and ultimately issued a warrant for his arrest . After that , he lived his life as an émigré . In the 1990s , Fischer patented a modified chess timing system that added a time increment after each move , now a standard practice in top tournament and match play . He also invented a new variant of chess named Fischerandom Chess . Fischer made many additional contributions to chess .
= = Early years = =
Bobby Fischer was born at Michael Reese Hospital in Chicago , Illinois , on March 9 , 1943 . His birth certificate listed his father as Hans @-@ Gerhardt Fischer , also known as Gerardo Liebscher , a German biophysicist . His mother , Regina Wender Fischer , was a U.S. citizen ; Regina was born in Switzerland , to Jewish parents from Poland and Russia . Raised in St. Louis , Missouri , Regina became a teacher , registered nurse , and later a physician .
After graduating from college in her teens , Regina traveled to Germany to visit her brother . It was there she met geneticist and future Nobel Prize winner , Hermann Joseph Muller , who persuaded Regina to move to Moscow to study medicine . She enrolled at I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University , where she met Hans @-@ Gerhardt , whom she married in November 1933 . In 1938 , Hans and Regina had a daughter , Joan Fischer . The reemergence of anti @-@ Semitism under Joseph Stalin prompted Regina to go with Joan to Paris , France , where Regina became an English teacher . The threat of a German invasion led her and Joan to go to the United States in 1939 . Hans @-@ Gerhardt attempted to follow the pair but his German citizenship barred him from entering the United States . Regina and Hans @-@ Gerhardt had separated in Moscow , although they did not officially divorce until 1945 .
At the time of her son 's birth , Regina was " homeless " and shuttled to different jobs and schools around the country to support her family . She engaged in political activism , and raised both Bobby and Joan as a single parent .
In 1949 , the family moved to Brooklyn , New York , where she studied for her master 's degree in nursing and subsequently began working in that field .
= = = Paul Nemenyi as Fischer 's father = = =
Sources implying that Paul Nemenyi , a Hungarian Jewish physicist and an expert in fluid and applied mechanics , may have been Fischer 's biological father were first made public in a 2002 investigation by Peter Nicholas and Clea Benson of The Philadelphia Inquirer . Throughout the 1950s , the FBI investigated Regina and her circle for her alleged communist sympathies , as well as her previous life in Moscow . The FBI files identify Paul Nemenyi as Bobby Fischer 's biological father , showing that Hans @-@ Gerhardt Fischer never entered the United States , having been refused admission by U.S. immigration officials due to his alleged Communist sympathies . Not only were Regina and Nemenyi reported to have had an affair in 1942 , but Nemenyi made monthly child support payments to Regina and paid for Bobby 's schooling until his own death in 1952 . Nemenyi had lodged complaints with social workers , saying he was concerned about the way that Regina was raising Bobby , to the point that , on at least one occasion , Nemenyi broke down in tears . Later on Bobby told the Hungarian chess player Zita Rajcsányi that Paul Nemenyi would sometimes show up at the family 's Brooklyn apartment and take him on outings . After Paul Nemenyi died in 1952 , Regina Fischer wrote a letter to Paul Nemenyi 's first son ( Peter ) , asking if Paul had left money for Bobby in his will :
Bobby was sick 2 days with fever and sore throat and of course a doctor or medicine was out of the question . I don 't think Paul would have wanted to leave Bobby this way and would ask you most urgently to let me know if Paul left anything for Bobby .
On one occasion , Regina told a social worker that the last time she had ever seen Hans @-@ Gerhardt Fischer was in 1939 , four years before Bobby was born . On another occasion , she told the same social worker she had traveled to Mexico to see Hans @-@ Gerhardt in June 1942 and that Bobby was conceived during that meeting . According to Bobby Fischer 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Russell Targ , who was married to Bobby 's half @-@ sister , Joan , for 40 years , Regina concealed the fact that Nemenyi was Bobby 's father because she wanted to avoid the stigma of an out @-@ of @-@ wedlock birth .
= = = Chess beginnings = = =
= = = = Impoverished childhood = = = =
In March 1949 , 6 @-@ year @-@ old Bobby and his sister Joan learned how to play chess using the instructions from a set bought at a candy store . When Joan lost interest in chess and Regina did not have time to play , it left Fischer to play many of his first games against himself . When the family vacationed at Patchogue , Long Island that summer , Bobby found a book of old chess games and studied it intensely . Fischer biographer Frank Brady describes the family 's move from Manhattan to Brooklyn in 1950 :
In the fall of 1950 , Regina moved the family out of Manhattan and across the bridge to Brooklyn , where she rented an inexpensive apartment near the intersection of Union and Franklin streets . It was only temporary : She was trying to get closer to a better neighborhood . Robbed of her medical degree in Russia because of the war , she was now determined to acquire a nursing diploma . As soon as she enrolled in the Prospect Heights School of Nursing , the peripatetic Fischer family , citizens of nowhere , moved once again — its tenth transit in six years — to a $ 52 @-@ a @-@ month two @-@ bedroom flat at 560 Lincoln Place in Brooklyn .
The family resided in apartment Q , a " small , basic , but habitable " apartment . It was there that " Fischer soon became so engrossed in the game that Regina feared he was spending too much time alone " . As a result , on November 14 , 1950 , Regina sent a postcard to the Brooklyn Eagle newspaper , seeking to place an ad inquiring whether other children of Bobby 's age might be interested in playing chess with him . The paper rejected her ad because no one could figure out how to classify it , but forwarded her inquiry to Hermann Helms , the " Dean of American Chess " , who told her that Master Max Pavey , former Scottish champion , would be giving a simultaneous exhibition on January 17 , 1951 . Fischer played in the exhibition . Although he held on for 15 minutes , even drawing a crowd of onlookers , he eventually lost to the chess master .
One of the spectators was Brooklyn Chess Club President , Carmine Nigro , an American chess expert of near master strength and an instructor . Nigro was so impressed with Fischer 's play that he introduced him to the club and began teaching him . Fischer noted of his time with Nigro : " Mr. Nigro was possibly not the best player in the world , but he was a very good teacher . Meeting him was probably a decisive factor in my going ahead with chess . "
Nigro hosted Fischer 's first chess tournament at his home in 1952 . In the summer of 1955 , Fischer , then 12 years old , joined the Manhattan Chess Club , the strongest chess club in the country . Fischer 's relationship with Nigro lasted until 1956 , when Nigro moved away .
= = = = Mentorship from Lombardy = = = =
Nigro introduced Fischer to future grandmaster William Lombardy , and , starting in September 1954 , Lombardy began coaching Fischer in private . " We spent hours in our sessions , simply playing over quality games , " said Lombardy . " I tried to instill in Bobby the secret of my own speedy rise . Eidetic Imagery and Total Immersion . " Based on a 1956 game Lombardy played against Povilas Vaitonis ( in which he agreed to a draw offer after only 13 moves ) , Lombardy told Fischer : " Do not accept draw offers . For an ambitious and talented player , accepting a draw is death to a top result . Opponents fear an uncompromising opponent and thus make more mistakes . Act as I advise and do not copy my timidity . " Lombardy played a key part in Fischer 's becoming World Champion . He was Fischer 's aide at Portorož where they analyzed Fischer 's games . He was Bobby 's second in Reykjavik , where he analyzed with Fischer , and helped keep Fischer in the match .
= = = The Hawthorne Chess Club = = =
In June 1956 , Fischer began attending the Hawthorne Chess Club , based in master John " Jack " W. Collins ' home . For years it was believed that Collins was Fischer 's teacher and coach , even though Collins stated that he did not teach Fischer . It is now believed that Collins was Fischer 's mentor , not his teacher or coach . A mentor and a friend , Fischer played thousands of blitz and offhand games with Collins and other strong players , studied the books in Collins ' large chess library , and ate almost as many dinners at Collins ' home as his own .
Future grandmaster Arnold Denker was also a mentor to young Bobby , often taking him to watch the New York Rangers play hockey at Madison Square Garden . Bobby enjoyed those treats and never forgot them ; the two became lifelong friends .
= = Young champion = =
In 1956 , Fischer experienced a " meteoric rise " in his playing strength . On the tenth national rating list of the United States Chess Federation ( USCF ) , published on May 20 , 1956 , Fischer 's rating was 1726 , more than 900 points below top @-@ rated Samuel Reshevsky ( 2663 ) .
In March 1956 , the Log Cabin Chess Club of Orange , New Jersey , took Fischer on a tour to Cuba , where he gave a 12 @-@ board simultaneous exhibition at Havana 's Capablanca Chess Club , winning ten games and drawing two . On this tour the club played a series of matches against other clubs . Fischer played second board , behind International Master Norman Whitaker . Whitaker and Fischer were the leading scorers for the club , each scoring 5 ½ points out of 7 games .
In July 1956 , Fischer won the U.S. Junior Chess Championship , scoring 8 ½ / 10 at Philadelphia to become the youngest @-@ ever Junior Champion at age 13 . At the 1956 U.S. Open Chess Championship in Oklahoma City , Bobby scored 8 ½ / 12 to tie for 4 – 8th places , with Arthur Bisguier winning . In the first Canadian Open Chess Championship at Montreal 1956 , Bobby scored 7 / 10 to tie for 8 – 12th places , with Larry Evans winning . In November , Fischer played in the 1956 Eastern States Open Championship in Washington , D.C. , tying for second with William Lombardy , Nicholas Rossolimo , and Arthur Feuerstein , with Hans Berliner taking first by a half @-@ point .
Fischer accepted an invitation to play in the Third Lessing J. Rosenwald Trophy Tournament in New York City ( 1956 ) , a premier tournament limited to the 12 players considered the best in the country . Although Fischer 's rating was not among the top 12 in the country , he received entry by special consideration . Playing against top opposition , the 13 @-@ year @-@ old Fischer could only score 4 ½ / 11 , tying for 8 – 9th place . Yet , Bobby won the brilliancy prize for his ' " immortal " ' game against International Master Donald Byrne , in which Bobby sacrificed his queen to unleash an unstoppable attack . Hans Kmoch called it " The Game of the Century " . Wrote Kmoch , " The following game , a stunning masterpiece of combination play performed by a boy of 13 against a formidable opponent , matches the finest on record in the history of chess prodigies " . " ' The Game of the Century ' has been talked about , analyzed , and admired for more than fifty years , and it will probably be a part of the canon of chess for many years to come . " " In reflecting on his game a while after it occurred , Bobby was refreshingly modest : ' I just made the moves I thought were best . I was just lucky . ' "
In 1957 , Fischer played a two @-@ game match against former World Champion Max Euwe at New York , losing ½ – 1 ½ . On the USCF 's eleventh national rating list , published on May 5 , 1957 , Fischer was rated 2231 — over 500 points higher than his rating a year before . This made him the country 's youngest ever chess master , up to that point . In July , Bobby successfully defended his U.S. Junior title , scoring 8 ½ / 9 at San Francisco . As a result of his strong tournament results , Fischer 's rating went up to 2298 , " making him among the top ten active players in the country " . In August , Fischer scored 10 / 12 at the U.S. Open Chess Championship in Cleveland , winning on tie @-@ breaking points over Arthur Bisguier . This made Bobby the youngest ever U.S. Open Champion . Bobby won the New Jersey Open Championship , scoring 6 ½ / 7 . He then defeated the young Filipino master Rodolfo Tan Cardoso 6 – 2 in a New York match sponsored by Pepsi @-@ Cola .
= = = Wins first U.S. title = = =
Based on Fischer 's rating and strong results , the USCF invited him to play in the 1957 – 58 U.S. Championship . The tournament included such luminaries as six @-@ time U.S. champion Samuel Reshevsky , defending U.S. champion Arthur Bisguier , and William Lombardy , who in August had won the World Junior Championship with the only perfect score ( 11 – 0 ) in the history of the event . Bisguier predicted that Fischer would " finish slightly over the center mark " . Despite all the predictions to the contrary , Fischer scored eight wins and five draws to win the tournament by a one @-@ point margin , with 10 ½ / 13 . Still two months shy of his 15th birthday , Fischer became the youngest ever U.S. Champion . Since the championship that year was also the U.S. Zonal Championship , Fischer 's victory earned him the title of International Master . Fischer 's victory in the U.S. Championship sent his rating up to 2626 , making him the second highest rated player in the United States , behind only Reshevsky ( 2713 ) , and qualified him to participate in the 1958 Portorož Interzonal , the next step toward challenging the World Champion .
= = Grandmaster , candidate , author = =
Bobby wanted to go to Moscow . At his pleading , " Regina wrote directly to the Soviet leader , Nikita Khrushchev , requesting an invitation for Bobby to participate in the World Youth and Student Festival . The reply — affirmative — came too late for him to go . " Regina did not have the money to pay the airfare , but in the following year Fischer was invited onto the game show I 've Got a Secret , where , thanks to Regina 's efforts , the producers of the show arranged two round @-@ trip tickets to Russia .
Once in Russia , Fischer was invited by the Soviet Union to Moscow , where International Master Lev Abramov would serve as a guide to Bobby and his sister , Joan . Upon arrival , Fischer immediately demanded that he be taken to the Moscow Central Chess Club , where he played speed chess with " two young Soviet masters " , Evgeni Vasiukov and Alexander Nikitin , winning every game . Chess author V. I. Linder writes about the impression Fischer gave grandmaster Vladimir Alatortsev when he played blitz against the Soviet masters : " Back in 1958 , in the Central Chess Club , Vladimir Alatortsev saw a tall , angular 15 @-@ year @-@ old youth , who in blitz games , crushed almost everyone who crossed his path ... Alatortsev was no exception , losing all three games . He was astonished by the play of the young American Robert Fischer , his fantastic self @-@ confidence , amazing chess erudition and simply brilliant play ! On arriving home , Vladimir said in admiration to his wife : ' This is the future world champion ! ' "
Fischer demanded to play against Mikhail Botvinnik , the reigning World Champion . When told that this was impossible , Fischer asked to play Keres . " Finally , Tigran Petrosian was , on a semi @-@ official basis , summoned to the club ... " where he played speed games with Fischer , winning the majority . " When Bobby discovered that he wasn 't going to play any formal games ... he went into a not @-@ so @-@ silent rage " , saying he was fed up " with these Russian pigs " , which angered the Soviets who saw Fischer as their honored guest . It was then that the Yugoslavian chess officials offered to take in Fischer and Joan as early guests to the Interzonal . Fischer took them up on the offer , arriving in Yugoslavia to play two short training matches against masters Dragoljub Janošević and Milan Matulović . Fischer drew both games against Janošević and then defeated Matulović in Belgrade by 2 ½ – 1 ½ .
The top six finishers in the Interzonal would qualify for the Candidates Tournament . Most observers doubted that a 15 @-@ year @-@ old with no international experience could finish among the six qualifiers at the Interzonal , but Fischer told journalist Miro Radoicic , " I can draw with the grandmasters , and there are half @-@ a @-@ dozen patzers in the tournament I reckon to beat . " Despite some bumps in the road and a problematic start , Fischer succeeded in his plan : after a strong finish , he ended up with 12 / 20 ( + 6 − 2 = 12 ) to tie for 5 – 6th . The Soviet grandmaster Yuri Averbakh observed ,
In the struggle at the board this youth , almost still a child , showed himself to be a full @-@ fledged fighter , demonstrating amazing composure , precise calculation and devilish resourcefulness . I was especially struck not even by his extensive opening knowledge , but his striving everywhere to seek new paths . In Fischer 's play an enormous talent was noticeable , and in addition one sensed an enormous amount of work on the study of chess .
Soviet grandmaster David Bronstein said of Fischer 's time in Portorož : " It was interesting for me to observe Fischer , but for a long time I couldn 't understand why this 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy played chess so well " . Fischer became the youngest person ever to qualify for the Candidates and the youngest ever grandmaster at 15 years , 6 months , 1 day . " By then everyone knew we had a genius on our hands . "
Before the Candidates ' Tournament , Fischer won the 1958 – 59 U.S. Championship ( scoring 8 ½ / 11 ) . He tied for third ( with Borislav Ivkov ) in Mar del Plata ( scoring 10 / 14 ) , a half @-@ point behind Ludek Pachman and Miguel Najdorf . He tied for 4 – 6th in Santiago ( scoring 7 ½ / 12 ) behind Ivkov , Pachman , and Herman Pilnik .
At the Zürich International Tournament , spring 1959 , Fischer finished a point behind future World Champion Mikhail Tal and a half @-@ point behind Yugoslavian grandmaster Svetozar Gligorić . Tal recalled Fischer 's uncompromising style : " In his game with the oldest competitor , the Hungarian grandmaster Gedeon Barcza , Fischer had no advantage , but , not wishing to let his opponent go in peace , played on to the 103rd move . The game was adjourned three times and the contestants used up two score sheets , but even when there were only the kings left on the board , Fischer made two more moves ! Draw ! Stunned by such a fanatical onslaught , Barcza could barely get up from his chair , but Bobby nonchalantly suggested : ' Let 's have a look at the game from the beginning ... ' Barcza then began pleading : ' Look , I have a wife and children . Who 's going to support them in the event of my untimely death ! ' "
Although Fischer had ended his formal education at age 16 , dropping out of Erasmus Hall High School in Brooklyn , he subsequently taught himself several foreign languages so he could read foreign chess periodicals . According to Latvian chess master Alexander Koblencs , even he and Tal could not match the commitment that Fischer had made to chess . Recalling a conversation from the tournament : " ' Tell me , Bobby , ' Tal continued , ' what do you think of the playing style of Larissa Volpert ? ' ' She 's too cautious . But you have another girl , Dmitrieva . Her games do appeal to me ! ' Here we were left literally open @-@ mouthed in astonishment . Misha and I have looked at thousands of games , but it never even occurred to us to study the games of our women players . How could we find the time for this ? ! Yet Bobby , it turns out , had found the time ! ' "
Until late 1959 , Fischer " had dressed atrociously for a champion , appearing at the most august and distinguished national and international events in sweaters and corduroys . " A director of the Manhattan Chess Club had once banned Fischer for not being " properly accoutered " , forcing Denker to intercede to get him reinstated . Now , encouraged by Pal Benko to dress more smartly , Fischer " began buying suits from all over the world , hand @-@ tailored and made to order . " He told journalist Ralph Ginzburg that he had 17 hand @-@ tailored suits and that all of his shirts and shoes were handmade .
At the age of 16 , Fischer finished equal fifth out of eight ( the top non @-@ Soviet player ) at the 1959 Candidates Tournament in Bled / Zagreb / Belgrade , Yugoslavia , scoring 12 ½ / 28 . He was outclassed by tournament winner Tal , who won all four of their individual games . That year , Fischer released his first book of collected games : Bobby Fischer 's Games of Chess , published by Simon & Schuster .
= = = Drops out of school = = =
Bobby 's interest in chess became more important than schoolwork , to the point that " by the time he reached the fourth grade , he 'd been in and out of six schools . " In 1952 , Regina got Bobby a scholarship ( based on his chess talent and " astronomically high IQ " ) to Brooklyn Community Woodward . Fischer later attended Erasmus Hall High School at the same time as Barbra Streisand and Neil Diamond . In 1959 , its student council awarded him a gold medal for his chess achievements . The same year , Fischer dropped out of high school when he turned age 16 , the earliest he could legally do so . He later explained to Ralph Ginzburg , " You don 't learn anything in school . "
When Fischer was 16 , his mother moved out of their apartment to pursue medical training . Her friend Joan Rodker , who had met Regina when the two were " idealistic communists " living in Moscow in the 1930s , believes that Fischer resented his mother for being mostly absent as a mother , a communist activist and an admirer of the Soviet Union and that this led to his hatred for the Soviet Union . In letters to Rodker , Fischer 's mother states her desire to pursue her own " obsession " of training in medicine and writes that her son would have to live in their Brooklyn apartment without her : " It sounds terrible to leave a 16 @-@ year @-@ old to his own devices , but he is probably happier that way " . The apartment was on the edge of Bedford @-@ Stuyvesant , a neighborhood that had one of the highest homicide and general crime rates in New York City . Despite the alienation from her son , Regina , in 1960 , protested the practices of the American Chess Foundation and staged a five @-@ hour protest in front of the White House , urging President Dwight Eisenhower to send an American team to that year 's chess Olympiad ( set for Leipzig , East Germany , behind the Iron Curtain ) and to help support the team financially .
= = U.S. Championships = =
Fischer played in eight U.S. Championships , winning all of them , by at least a one @-@ point margin . His results were :
Fischer missed the 1961 – 62 Championship ( he was preparing for the 1962 Interzonal ) , and there was no 1964 – 65 event . Out of eight U.S. Chess Championships , Fischer lost only three games ; to Edmar Mednis in the 1962 – 63 event , and in consecutive rounds to Samuel Reshevsky , and Robert Byrne in the 1965 championship , culminating in a total score of 74 / 90 ( 61 wins , 26 draws , 3 losses ) .
= = Olympiads = =
Fischer refused to play in the 1958 Munich Olympiad when his demand to play first board ahead of Samuel Reshevsky was rejected . Some sources claim that 15 @-@ year @-@ old Fischer was unable to arrange leave from attending high school . Fischer would later represent the United States on first board at four Men 's Chess Olympiads , winning two individual Silver and one individual Bronze medals :
Out of four Men 's Chess Olympiads , Fischer scored + 40 − 7 = 18 , for 49 / 65 : 75 @.@ 4 % . In 1966 , Fischer narrowly missed the individual gold medal , scoring 88 @.@ 23 % to World Champion Tigran Petrosian 's 88 @.@ 46 % , even though he played four games more than Petrosian , faced stiffer opposition , and would have won the gold if he had accepted Florin Gheorghiu 's draw offer , rather than declining it and suffering his only loss .
At the 1962 Varna Olympiad , Fischer predicted that he would defeat Argentinian GM Miguel Najdorf in 25 moves . Fischer actually did it in 24 , becoming the only player to beat Najdorf in the tournament . Ironically , Najdorf lost the game whilst employing the very opening variation named after him : the Sicilian Najdorf .
Fischer had planned to play for the U.S. at the 1968 Lugano Olympiad , but backed out when he saw the poor playing conditions . Both former World Champion Tigran Petrosian and Belgian @-@ American International Master George Koltanowski , the " leader of the American team " that year , felt that Fischer was " justified " in not participating in the Olympiad . According to Lombardy , Fischer 's non @-@ participation was due to Reshevsky 's refusal to " yield first board " .
= = 1960 – 61 = =
In 1960 , Fischer tied for first place with Soviet star Boris Spassky at the strong Mar del Plata Tournament in Argentina , winning by a two @-@ point margin , scoring 13 ½ / 15 ( + 13 − 1 = 1 ) , ahead of David Bronstein . Fischer lost only to Spassky ; this was the start of their lifelong friendship .
Fischer experienced the only failure in his competitive career at the Buenos Aires Tournament ( 1960 ) , finishing with 8 ½ / 19 ( + 3 − 5 = 11 ) , far behind winners Viktor Korchnoi and Samuel Reshevsky with 13 / 19 . According to Larry Evans , Fischer 's first sexual experience was with a girl to whom Evans introduced him during the tournament . Pal Benko says that Fischer did horribly in the tournament " because he got caught up in women and sex . Afterwards , Fischer said he 'd never mix women and chess together , and kept the promise . " Fischer concluded 1960 by winning a small tournament in Reykjavík with 4 ½ / 5 , and defeating Klaus Darga in an exhibition game in West Berlin .
In 1961 , Fischer started a 16 @-@ game match with Reshevsky , split between New York and Los Angeles .
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Reshevsky , 32 years Fischer 's senior , was considered the favorite , since he had far more match experience and had never lost a set match . After 11 games and a tie score ( two wins apiece with seven draws ) , the match ended prematurely due to a scheduling dispute between Fischer and match organizer and sponsor Jacqueline Piatigorsky . Reshevsky was declared the winner , by default , and received the winner 's share of the prize fund .
Fischer was second in a super @-@ class field , behind only former World Champion Tal , at Bled , 1961 . Yet , Fischer defeated Tal head @-@ to @-@ head for the first time in their individual game , scored 3 ½ / 4 against the Soviet contingent , and finished as the only unbeaten player , with 13 ½ / 19 ( + 8 − 0 = 11 ) .
= = 1962 : success , setback , accusations of collusion = =
Fischer won the 1962 Stockholm Interzonal by a 2 ½ -point margin , going undefeated , with 17 ½ / 22 ( + 13 − 0 = 9 ) . He was the first non @-@ Soviet player to win an Interzonal since FIDE instituted the tournament in 1948 . Russian grandmaster Alexander Kotov said of Fischer :
I have discussed Fischer 's play with Max Euwe and Gideon Stahlberg . All of us , experienced ' tournament old @-@ timers ' , were surprised by Fischer 's endgame expertise . When a young player is good at attacking or at combinations , this is understandable , but a faultless endgame technique at the age of 19 is something rare . I can recall only one other player who at that age was equally skillful at endgames — Vasily Smyslov .
Fischer 's victory made him a favorite for the Candidates Tournament in Curaçao . Yet , despite his result in the Interzonal , Fischer only finished fourth out of eight with 14 / 27 ( + 8 − 7 = 12 ) , far behind Tigran Petrosian ( 17 ½ / 27 ) , Efim Geller , and Paul Keres ( both 17 / 27 ) . Tal fell very ill during the tournament , and had to withdraw before completion . Fischer , a friend of Tal , was the only contestant who visited him in the hospital .
= = = Accuses Soviets of collusion = = =
Following his failure in the 1962 Candidates , Fischer asserted , in an August 20 , 1962 Sports Illustrated article , entitled " The Russians Have Fixed World Chess " , that three of the five Soviet players ( Tigran Petrosian , Paul Keres , and Efim Geller ) had a prearranged agreement to quickly draw their games against each other in order to conserve their energy for playing against Fischer . It is generally thought that this accusation is correct . Fischer stated that he would never again participate in a Candidates ' tournament , since the format , combined with the alleged collusion , made it impossible for a non @-@ Soviet player to win . Following Fischer 's article , FIDE , in late 1962 , voted to implement a radical reform of the playoff system , replacing the Candidates ' tournament with a format of one @-@ on @-@ one knockout matches ; the format that Fischer would dominate in 1971 .
Fischer defeated Bent Larsen in a summer 1962 exhibition game in Copenhagen for Danish TV . Later that year , Fischer beat Bogdan Śliwa in a team match against Poland in Warsaw .
In the 1962 – 63 U.S. Championship , Fischer experienced his first single @-@ game loss ( to Edmar Mednis ) in round one . Bisguier was in excellent form , and Fischer caught up to him only at the end . Tied at 7 – 3 , the two met in the final round . Bisguier stood well in the middlegame , but blundered , handing Fischer his fifth consecutive U.S. championship .
= = Semi @-@ retirement in the mid @-@ 1960s = =
Influenced by ill will over the aborted 1961 match against Reshevsky , Fischer declined an invitation to play in the 1963 Piatigorsky Cup tournament in Los Angeles , which had a world @-@ class field . He instead played in the Western Open in Bay City , Michigan , which he won with 7 ½ / 8 . In August – September 1963 , Fischer won the New York State Championship at Poughkeepsie , with 7 / 7 , his first perfect score , " ahead of Bisguier and Sherwin " .
In the 1963 – 64 U.S. Championship , Fischer achieved his second perfect score , this time against the top @-@ ranked chess players in the country : " This tournament became , as they say , the stuff of legend . The fact that Fischer won his sixth U.S. title was no surprise . The way he did it was spectacular . " " One by one Fischer mowed down the opposition as he cut an 11 – 0 swathe through the field , to demonstrate convincingly to the opposition that he was now in a class by himself . " This result brought Fischer heightened fame , including a profile in Life magazine . Sports Illustrated diagrammed each of the 11 games in its article , " The Amazing Victory Streak of Bobby Fischer " . Such extensive chess coverage was groundbreaking for the top American sports ' magazine . His 11 – 0 win in the 1963 – 64 Championship is the only perfect score in the history of the tournament , and one of about ten perfect scores in high @-@ level chess tournaments ever . David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld called it " the most remarkable achievement of this kind " . Fischer recalls : " Motivated by my lopsided result ( 11 – 0 ! ) , Dr. [ Hans ] Kmoch congratulated [ Larry ] Evans ( the runner up ) on ' winning ' the tournament ... and then he congratulated me on ' winning the exhibition ' . "
International Master Anthony Saidy recalled his last round encounter with the undefeated Fischer :
Going into the final game I certainly did not expect to upset Fischer . I hardly knew the opening but played simply , and he went along with the scenario , opting for a N @-@ v @-@ B [ i.e. , Knight vs. Bishop ] endgame with a minimal edge . In the corridor , Evans said to me , ' Good . Show him we 're not all children.'
At adjournment , Saidy saw a way to force a draw , yet " sealed a different , wrong move " , and lost . " The rest is history . " " Chess publications around the world wrote of the unparalleled achievement . Only Bent Larsen , always a Fischer detractor , was unimpressed : ' Fischer was playing against children ' " .
Fischer , eligible as U.S. Champion , decided against his participation in the 1964 Amsterdam Interzonal , taking himself out of the 1966 World Championship cycle , even after FIDE changed the format of the eight @-@ player Candidates Tournament from a round @-@ robin to a series of knockout matches , which eliminated the possibility of collusion . Instead , Fischer embarked on a tour of the United States and Canada from February through May , playing a simultaneous exhibition , and giving a lecture in each of more than 40 cities . His 94 % winning percentage over more than 2 @,@ 000 games is one of the best ever achieved . Fischer declined an invitation to play for the U.S. in the 1964 Olympiad in Tel Aviv .
= = Successful return = =
Fischer wanted to play in the Capablanca Memorial Tournament , Havana in August and September 1965 . Since the State Department refused to endorse Fischer 's passport as valid for visiting Cuba , he proposed , and the tournament officials and players accepted , a unique arrangement : Fischer played his moves from a room at the Marshall Chess Club , which were then transmitted by teleprinter to Cuba . Luděk Pachman observed that Fischer " was handicapped by the longer playing session resulting from the time wasted in transmitting the moves , and that is one reason why he lost to three of his chief rivals . " The tournament was an " ordeal " for Fischer , who had to endure eight @-@ hour and sometimes even twelve @-@ hour playing sessions . Despite the handicap , Fischer tied for second through fourth places , with 15 / 21 ( + 12 − 3 = 6 ) , behind former World Champion Vasily Smyslov , whom Fischer defeated in their individual game . The tournament received extensive media coverage .
In December , Fischer won his seventh U.S. Championship ( 1965 ) , with the score of 8 ½ / 11 ( + 8 − 2 = 1 ) , despite losing to Robert Byrne and Reshevsky in the eighth and ninth rounds . Fischer also reconciled with Mrs. Piatigorsky , accepting an invitation to the very strong second Piatigorsky Cup ( 1966 ) tournament in Santa Monica . Fischer began disastrously and after eight rounds was tied for last with 3 / 8 . He then staged " the most sensational comeback in the history of grandmaster chess " , scoring 7 / 8 in the next eight rounds . In the end , World Chess Championship finalist Boris Spassky edged him out by a half point , scoring 11 ½ / 18 to Fischer 's 11 / 18 ( + 7 − 3 = 8 ) . Now aged 23 , Fischer would win every match or tournament he completed for the rest of his life .
Fischer won the U.S. Championship ( 1966 – 67 ) for the eighth and final time , ceding only three draws ( + 8 − 0 = 3 ) , In March – April and August – September , Fischer won strong tournaments at Monte Carlo , with 7 / 9 ( + 6 − 1 = 2 ) , and Skopje , with 13 ½ / 17 ( + 12 − 2 = 3 ) . In the Philippines , Fischer played nine exhibition games against master opponents , scoring 8 ½ / 9 .
= = = Withdrawal while leading Interzonal = = =
Fischer 's win in the 1966 – 67 U.S. Championship qualified him for the next World Championship cycle .
At the 1967 Interzonal , held at Sousse , Tunisia , Fischer scored 8 ½ points in the first 10 games , to lead the field . His observance of the Worldwide Church of God 's seventh @-@ day Sabbath was honored by the organizers , but deprived Fischer of several rest days , which led to a scheduling dispute , causing Fischer to forfeit two games in protest and later withdraw , eliminating himself from the 1969 World Championship cycle . Communications difficulties with the highly inexperienced local organizers were also a significant factor , since Fischer knew no French and the organizers had very limited English . No one in Tunisian chess had previous experience running an event of this stature .
Since Fischer had completed less than half of his scheduled games , all of his results were annulled , meaning players who had played Fischer had those games cancelled , and the scores nullified from the official tournament record .
= = = Second semi @-@ retirement = = =
In 1968 , Fischer won tournaments at Netanya , with 11 ½ / 13 ( + 10 − 0 = 3 ) , and Vinkovci , with 11 / 13 ( + 9 − 0 = 4 ) , by large margins . Fischer then stopped playing for the next 18 months , except for a win against Anthony Saidy in a 1969 New York Metropolitan League team match . That year , Fischer ( assisted by grandmaster Larry Evans ) released his second book of collected games : My 60 Memorable Games , published by Simon & Schuster . The book " was an immediate success " .
= = World Champion = =
In 1970 , Fischer began a new effort to become World Champion . His dramatic march toward the title made him a household name and made chess front @-@ page news for a time . He won the title in 1972 , but forfeited it three years later .
= = = Road to the World Championship = = =
The 1969 U.S. Championship was also a zonal qualifier , with the top three finishers advancing to the Interzonal . Fischer , however , had sat out the U.S. Championship because of disagreements about the tournament 's format and prize fund . Benko , one of the three qualifiers , agreed to give up his spot in the Interzonal in order to give Fischer another shot at the World Championship . " When it was suggested to Fischer that Benko was considering the gesture based on a large sum of money to be paid to him , Bobby replied that Benko would not give up his berth for money alone . It was a matter of honor " . " Lombardy , who was next in line with the right to participate , was queried as to whether he would also step aside . ' I would like to play , ' he answered , ' but Fischer should have the chance . ' "
In 1970 and 1971 , Fischer " dominated his contemporaries to an extent never seen before or since " .
Before the Interzonal , in March and April 1970 , the world 's best players competed in the USSR vs. Rest of the World match in Belgrade , Yugoslavia , often referred to as " the Match of the Century " . There was much surprise when Fischer decided to participate :
Fischer had not played competitive chess for eighteen months , and many thought he would never return . Then , to general surprise and delight , he agreed to participate in the Soviet Union vs. the Rest of the World in 1970 in Belgrade .
With Evans as his second , Fischer flew to Belgrade with the intention of playing board one for the rest of the world . Danish grandmaster Bent Larsen , however , ( due to his recent tournament victories ) demanded to play first board instead of Fischer , even though Fischer had the higher Elo rating . To the surprise of everyone , Fischer agreed . Although the USSR team eked out a 20 ½ – 19 ½ victory , " On the top four boards , the Soviets managed to win only one game out of a possible sixteen . Bobby Fischer was the high scorer for his team , with a 3 – 1 score against Petrosian ( two wins and two draws ) " . " Fischer left no doubt in anyone 's mind that he had put his temporary break from the tournament circuit to good use . Petrosian was almost unrecognizable in the first two games , and by the time he had collected himself , although pressing his opponent , he could do no more than draw the last two games of the four @-@ game set " .
After the USSR versus the Rest of the World Match , the unofficial World Championship of Lightning Chess ( 5 @-@ minute games ) was held at Herceg Novi . " [ The Russians ] figured on teaching Fischer a lesson and on bringing him down a peg or two " . Petrosian and Tal were considered the favorites , but Fischer overwhelmed the super @-@ class field with 19 / 22 ( + 17 − 1 = 4 ) , far ahead of Tal ( 14 ½ ) , Korchnoi ( 14 ) , Petrosian ( 13 ½ ) , and Bronstein ( 13 ) . Fischer lost only one game ( to Korchnoi , who was also the only player to achieve an even score against him in the double round robin tournament ) . Fischer " crushed such blitz kings as Tal , Petrosian and Vasily Smyslov by a clean score " . Tal marveled that , " During the entire tournament he didn 't leave a single pawn en prise ! " , while the other players " blundered knights and bishops galore " . For Lombardy , who had played many blitz games with Fischer , Fischer 's 4 ½ -point margin of victory " came as a pleasant surprise " .
In April – May 1970 , Fischer won at Rovinj / Zagreb with 13 / 17 ( + 10 − 1 = 6 ) , by a two @-@ point margin , ahead of Gligorić , Hort , Korchnoi , Smyslov , and Petrosian . In July – August , Fischer crushed the mostly grandmaster field at Buenos Aires , winning by a 3 ½ -point margin , scoring 15 / 17 ( + 13 − 0 = 4 ) . Fischer then played first board for the U.S. Team in the 19th Chess Olympiad in Siegen , where he won an individual Silver medal , scoring 10 / 13 ( + 8 − 1 = 4 ) , with his only loss being to World Champion Boris Spassky . Right after the Olympiad , Fischer defeated Ulf Andersson in an exhibition game for the Swedish newspaper Expressen . Fischer had taken his game to a new level .
Fischer won the Interzonal ( held in Palma de Mallorca in November and December 1970 ) with 18 ½ / 23 ( + 15 − 1 = 7 ) , far ahead of Larsen , Efim Geller , and Robert Hübner , with 15 / 23 . Fischer finished the tournament with seven consecutive wins . Setting aside the Sousse Interzonal ( which Fischer withdrew from while leading ) , Fischer 's victory gave him a string of eight consecutive first prizes in tournaments . Former World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik was not , however , impressed by Fischer 's results , stating : " Fischer has been declared a genius . I do not agree with this ... In order to rightly be declared a genius in chess , you have to defeat equal opponents by a big margin . As yet he has not done this " . Despite Botvinnik 's remarks , " Fischer began a miraculous year in the history of chess " .
In the 1971 Candidates matches , Fischer was set to play against Soviet grandmaster and concert pianist Mark Taimanov in the quarter @-@ finals . " Their match was to begin in May 1971 in Vancouver , Canada , on the beautiful campus of the University of British Columbia " . " Analysts and players alike predicted that Fischer would win the Candidates , but not without a struggle . Tal predicted that Fischer would win 5 ½ – 4 ½ against Taimanov " . " [ Fischer ] saw himself as the firm favorite in the Taimanov match . He was not alone ; the noncommunist press was of the same mind . Only Taimanov insisted that he could win , dismissing Fischer as a mere computer " . Taimanov had reason to be confident . He was backed by the firm guidance of Botvinnik , who " had thoroughly analysed Fischer 's record and put together a ' dossier ' on him " , from when he was in talks to play Fischer in a match " a couple of years earlier " . After Fischer defeated Taimanov in the second game of the match , Taimanov asked Fischer how he managed to come up with the move 12 . N1c3 , to which Fischer replied " that the idea was not his — he had come across it in the monograph by the Soviet master Alexander Nikitin in a footnote " . Taimanov said of this : " It is staggering that I , an expert on the Sicilian , should have missed this theoretically significant idea by my compatriot , while Fischer had uncovered it in a book in a foreign language ! " With the score at 4 – 0 , in Fischer 's favor , the fifth game adjournment was a sight to behold . Schonberg explains the scene :
Taimanov came to Vancouver with two seconds , both grandmasters . Fischer was alone . He thought that the sight of Taimanov and his seconds was the funniest thing he had ever seen . There Taimanov and his seconds would sit , six hands flying , pocket sets waving in the air , while variations were being spouted all over the place . And there sat Taimanov with a confused look on his face . Just before resuming play [ in the fifth game ] the seconds were giving Taimanov some last @-@ minute advice . When poor Taimanov entered the playing room and sat down to confront Fischer , his head was so full of conflicting continuations that he became rattled , left a Rook en prise and immediately resigned .
Fischer beat Taimanov by the score of 6 – 0 . " The record books showed that the only comparable achievement to the 6 – 0 score against Taimanov was Wilhelm Steinitz 's 7 – 0 win against Joseph Henry Blackburne in 1876 in an era of more primitive defensive technique . " " Who would have imagined that any challenger 's match would ever have been decided by a perfect score , when the participants are all to be ranked among the strongest players in the world ? " " It is difficult to portray to non @-@ chess players the magnitude of such a shutout . A typical result between well @-@ matched players might be , say , six wins to four , with nine draws " . Taimanov later recalled , " When Grand Masters play , they see the logic of their opponent 's moves . One 's moves may be so powerful that the other may not be able to stop him , but the plan behind the moves will be clear . Not so with Fischer . His moves did not make sense ... "
Upon losing the final game of the match , Taimanov shrugged his shoulders , saying sadly to Fischer : " Well , I still have my music . " As a result of his performance , Taimanov " was thrown out of the USSR team and forbidden to travel for two years . He was banned from writing articles , was deprived of his monthly stipend ... [ and ] the authorities prohibited him from performing on the concert platform . " " The crushing loss virtually ended Taimanov 's chess career . "
Fischer was next scheduled to play against Danish grandmaster Bent Larsen . " Spassky predicted a tight struggle : ' Larsen is a little stronger in spirit . ' " Before the match , Botvinnik had told a Soviet television audience :
It is hard to say how their match will end , but it is clear that such an easy victory as in Vancouver [ against Taimanov ] will not be given to Fischer . I think Larsen has unpleasant surprises in store for [ Fischer ] , all the more since having dealt with Taimanov thus , Fischer will want to do just the same to Larsen and this is impossible .
Fischer beat Larsen by the score of 6 – 0 . Robert Byrne writes : " To a certain extent I could grasp the Taimanov match as a kind of curiosity – almost a freak , a strange chess occurrence that would never occur again . But now I am at a loss for anything whatever to say ... So , it is out of the question for me to explain how Bobby , how anyone , could win six games in a row from such a genius of the game as Bent Larsen " . Just a year before , Larsen had played first board for the Rest of the World team ahead of Fischer , and had handed Fischer his only loss at the Interzonal . Garry Kasparov later wrote that no player had ever shown a superiority over his rivals comparable to Fischer 's " incredible " 12 – 0 score in the two matches . Chess statistician Jeff Sonas concludes that the victory over Larsen gave Fischer the " highest single @-@ match performance rating ever " .
On August 8 , 1971 , while preparing for his last Candidates match with former World Champion Tigran Petrosian , Fischer played in the Manhattan Chess Club Rapid Tournament , winning with 21 ½ / 22 against a strong field .
Despite Fischer 's results against Taimanov and Larsen , his upcoming match against Petrosian seemed a daunting task . Nevertheless , the Soviet government was concerned about Fischer . " Reporters asked Petrosian whether the match would last the full twelve games ... ' It might be possible that I win it earlier , ' Petrosian replied " , and then stated : " Fischer 's [ nineteen consecutive ] wins do not impress me . He is a great chess player but no genius " . Petrosian played a strong theoretical novelty in the first game , gaining the advantage , but Fischer eventually won the game after Petrosian faltered . This gave Fischer a run of 20 consecutive wins against the world 's top players ( in the Interzonal and Candidates matches ) , a winning streak topped only by Steinitz 's 25 straight wins in 1873 – 82 . Petrosian won the second game , finally snapping Fischer 's streak . After three consecutive draws , Fischer swept the next four games to win the match 6 ½ – 2 ½ ( + 5 − 1 = 3 ) . Sports Illustrated ran an article on the match , highlighting Fischer 's domination of Petrosian as being due to Petrosian 's outdated system of preparation :
Fischer 's recent record raises the distinct possibility that he has made a breakthrough in modern chess theory . His response to Petrosian 's elaborately plotted 11th move in the first game is an example : Russian experts had worked on the variation for weeks , yet when it was thrown at Fischer suddenly , he faced its consequences alone and won by applying simple , classic principles .
Upon completion of the match , Petrosian remarked : " After the sixth game Fischer really did become a genius . I on the other hand , either had a breakdown or was tired , or something else happened , but the last three games were no longer chess . " " Some experts kept insisting that Petrosian was off form , and that he should have had a plus score at the end of the sixth game ... " to which Fischer replied , " People have been playing against me below strength for fifteen years . " Fischer 's match results befuddled Botvinnik : " It is hard to talk about Fischer 's matches . Since the time that he has been playing them , miracles have begun . " " When Petrosian played like Petrosian , Fischer played like a very strong grandmaster , but when Petrosian began making mistakes , Fischer was transformed into a genius . "
Fischer gained a far higher rating than any player in history up to that time . On the July 1972 FIDE rating list , his Elo rating of 2785 was 125 points above ( World No. 2 ) Spassky 's rating of 2660 . His results put him on the cover of Life magazine , and allowed him to challenge World Champion Boris Spassky , whom he had never beaten ( + 0 − 3 = 2 ) .
= = = World Championship match = = =
Fischer 's career @-@ long stubbornness about match and tournament conditions was again seen in the run @-@ up to his match with Spassky . Of the possible sites , Fischer 's first choice was Belgrade , Yugoslavia , while Spassky 's was Reykjavík , Iceland . For a time it appeared that the dispute would be resolved by splitting the match between the two locations , but that arrangement failed . After that issue was resolved , Fischer refused to appear in Iceland until the prize fund was increased . London financier Jim Slater donated an additional US $ 125 @,@ 000 , bringing the prize fund up to an unprecedented $ 250 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 1 @,@ 414 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , and Fischer finally agreed to play .
Before and during the match , Fischer paid special attention to his physical training and fitness , which was a relatively novel approach for top chess players at that time . He had developed his tennis skills to a good level , and played frequently during off @-@ days in Reykjavík . He had also arranged for exclusive use of his hotel 's swimming pool during specified hours , and swam for extended periods , usually late at night . According to Soviet grandmaster Nikolai Krogius , Fischer " was paying great attention to sport , and that he was swimming and even boxing ... "
The match took place in Reykjavík from July to September 1972 and was the first to receive an American broadcast in prime time . Fischer lost the first two games in strange fashion : the first when he played a risky pawn @-@ grab in a drawn endgame , the second by forfeit when he refused to play the game in a dispute over playing conditions . Fischer would likely have forfeited the entire match , but Spassky , not wanting to win by default , yielded to Fischer 's demands to move the next game to a back room , away from the cameras whose presence had upset Fischer . After that game , the match was moved back to the stage and proceeded without further serious incident . Fischer won seven of the next 19 games , losing only one and drawing eleven , to win the match 12 ½ – 8 ½ and become the 11th World Chess Champion .
The Cold War trappings made the match a media sensation . It was called " The Match of the Century " , and received front @-@ page media coverage in the United States and around the world . Fischer 's win was an American victory in a field that Soviet players had dominated for the previous quarter @-@ century ; players closely identified with , and subsidized by , the Soviet state . Kasparov remarked , " Fischer fits ideologically into the context of the Cold War era : a lone American genius challenges the Soviet chess machine and defeats it " . Dutch grandmaster Jan Timman calls Fischer 's victory " the story of a lonely hero who overcomes an entire empire " . Fischer 's sister observed , " Bobby did all this in a country almost totally without a chess culture . It was as if an Eskimo had cleared a tennis court in the snow and gone on to win the world championship " .
Upon Fischer 's return to New York , a Bobby Fischer Day was held . He was offered numerous product endorsement offers worth " at least $ 5 million " ( all of which he declined ) . He appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with American Olympic swimming champion Mark Spitz . Fischer also made an appearance on a Bob Hope TV special . Membership in the U.S. Chess Federation doubled in 1972 , and peaked in 1974 ; in American chess , these years are commonly referred to as the " Fischer Boom " . Fischer won the ' Chess Oscar ' ( an award , started in 1967 , given to the best chess player , determined through votes from chess media and leading players ) for 1970 , 1971 , and 1972 . This match attracted more worldwide interest than any chess championship before or since .
= = = Forfeiture of title = = =
Fischer was scheduled to defend his title in 1975 against Anatoly Karpov , who emerged as his challenger . Fischer , who had played no competitive games since his World Championship match with Spassky , laid out a proposal for the match in September 1973 , in consultation with FIDE official Fred Cramer . He made three principal ( non @-@ negotiable ) demands :
The match continues until one player wins 10 games , draws not counting .
No limit to the total number of games played .
In case of a 9 – 9 score , the champion ( Fischer ) retains the title , and the prize fund is split equally .
A FIDE Congress was held in 1974 during the Nice Olympiad . The delegates voted in favor of Fischer 's 10 @-@ win proposal , but rejected his other two proposals , and limited the number of games in the match to 36 . In response to FIDE 's ruling , Fischer sent a cable to Euwe on June 27 , 1974 .
As I made clear in my telegram to the FIDE delegates , the match conditions I proposed were non @-@ negotiable . Mr. Cramer informs me that the rules of the winner being the first player to win ten games , draws not counting , unlimited number of games and if nine wins to nine match is drawn with champion regaining title and prize fund split equally were rejected by the FIDE delegates . By so doing FIDE has decided against my participation in the 1975 World Chess Championship . Therefore , I resign my FIDE World Chess Championship title . Sincerely , Bobby Fischer .
The delegates responded by reaffirming their prior decisions , but did not accept Fischer 's resignation and requested that he reconsider . Many observers considered Fischer 's requested 9 – 9 clause unfair because it would require the challenger to win by at least two games ( 10 – 8 ) . Botvinnik called the 9 – 9 clause " unsporting " . Korchnoi , David Bronstein , and Lev Alburt considered the 9 – 9 clause reasonable .
Due to the continued efforts of U.S. Chess Federation officials , a special FIDE Congress was held in March 1975 in Bergen , Netherlands in which it was accepted that the match should be of unlimited duration , but the 9 – 9 clause was once again rejected , by a narrow margin of 35 votes to 32 . FIDE set a deadline of April 1 , 1975 , for Fischer and Karpov to confirm their participation in the match . No reply was received from Fischer by April 3 . Thus , by default , Karpov officially became World Champion . In his 1991 autobiography , Karpov professed regret that the match had not taken place , and claimed that the lost opportunity to challenge Fischer held back his own chess development . Karpov met with Fischer several times after 1975 , in friendly but ultimately unsuccessful attempts to arrange a match since Karpov would never agree to play to 10 .
Brian Carney opined in The Wall Street Journal that Fischer 's victory over Spassky in 1972 left him nothing to prove , except that perhaps someone could someday beat him , and he was not interested in the risk of losing . And that Fischer 's refusal to recognize peers also allowed his paranoia to flower : " The world championship he won ... validated his view of himself as a chess player , but it also insulated him from the humanizing influences of the world around him . He descended into what can only be considered a kind of madness " .
Bronstein felt that Fischer " had the right to play the match with Karpov on his own conditions " . Korchnoi stated :
Was Fischer right in demanding that the world title be protected by a two point handicap – that the challenger would be considered the winner with a 10 – 8 score and that the champion would retain his title in the event of a 9 – 9 draw ? Yes , this was quite natural : the champion deserves this , not to mention the fact that further play to the first win in the event of an even score would be nothing short of a lottery – the winner in that case could not claim to have won a convincing victory .
Soviet grandmaster Lev Alburt felt that the decision to not concede to Fischer 's demands rested on Karpov 's " sober view of what he was capable of " . Years later , in his 1992 match against Spassky , Fischer said that Karpov " refused to play against [ him ] under [ his ] conditions " .
= = Sudden obscurity = =
After the 1972 World Chess Championship , Fischer did not play a competitive game in public for nearly 20 years . In 1977 in Cambridge , Massachusetts , he played three games against the MIT Greenblatt computer program , winning them all .
On May 26 , 1981 , while walking in Pasadena , Fischer was arrested by a police patrolman , allegedly because Fischer matched the description of a man who had just committed a bank robbery in the area . Fischer , who alleged that he was slightly injured during the arrest , said that he was held for two days , subjected to assault and various types of mistreatment , and released on $ 1 @,@ 000 bail . Fischer published a 14 @-@ page pamphlet detailing his alleged experiences and saying that his arrest had been " a frame up and set up " .
In 1981 , Fischer stayed at the home of grandmaster Peter Biyiasas , where , over a period of four months , he beat Biyiasas seventeen times in a series of speed games . In an interview with Sports Illustrated reporter William Nack , Biyiasas assessed Fischer 's play :
He was too good . There was no use in playing him . It wasn 't interesting . I was getting beaten , and it wasn 't clear to me why . It wasn 't like I made this mistake or that mistake . It was like I was being gradually outplayed , from the start . He wasn 't taking any time to think . The most depressing thing about it is that I wasn 't even getting out of the middle game to an endgame . I don 't ever remember an endgame . He honestly believes there is no one for him to play , no one worthy of him . I played him , and I can attest to that .
= = 1992 Spassky rematch = =
Fischer emerged after twenty years of isolation to play Spassky ( then tied for 96th – 102nd on the FIDE rating list ) in a " Revenge Match of the 20th century " in 1992 . This match took place in Sveti Stefan and Belgrade , Yugoslavia , in spite of a United Nations embargo that included sanctions on commercial activities . Fischer demanded that the organizers bill the match as " The World Chess Championship " , although Garry Kasparov was the recognized FIDE World Champion . Fischer insisted he was still the true World Champion , and that for all the games in the FIDE @-@ sanctioned World Championship matches , involving Karpov , Korchnoi , and Kasparov , the outcomes had been prearranged . The purse for the rematch was US $ 5 million , with $ 3 @.@ 35 million of the purse to go to the winner .
According to grandmaster Andrew Soltis :
[ The match games ] were of a fairly high quality , particularly when compared with Kasparov 's championship matches of 1993 , 1995 and 2000 , for example . Yet the games also reminded many fans of how out of place Fischer was in 1992 . He was still playing the openings of a previous generation . He was , moreover , the only strong player in the world who didn 't trust computers and wasn 't surrounded by seconds and supplicants .
Fischer won the match with 10 wins , 5 losses , and 15 draws . Kasparov stated , " Bobby is playing OK , nothing more . Maybe his strength is 2600 or 2650 . It wouldn 't be close between us " . Yasser Seirawan believed that the match proved that Fischer 's playing strength was " somewhere in the top ten in the world " .
Fischer and Spassky gave ten press conferences during the match . Seirawan attended the match and met with Fischer on several occasions ; the two analyzed some match games and had personal discourse . Seirawan later wrote : " After September 23 [ 1992 ] , I threw most of what I 'd ever read about Bobby out of my head . Sheer garbage . Bobby is the most misunderstood , misquoted celebrity walking the face of the earth . " He further wrote that Fischer was not camera shy , smiled and laughed easily , was " a fine wit " and " wholly enjoyable conversationalist " .
The U.S. Department of the Treasury warned Fischer before the start of the match that his participation was illegal , that it would violate President George H. W. Bush 's Executive Order 12810 imposing United Nations Security Council Resolution 757 sanctions against engaging in economic activities in Yugoslavia . In response , during the first scheduled press conference on September 1 , in front of the international press , Fischer spat on the U.S. order , saying " this is my reply " . His violation of the order led U.S. Federal officials to initiate a warrant for his arrest upon completion of the match , citing , in pertinent part , " Title 50 USC § § 1701 , 1702 , and 1705 and Executive Order 12810 " .
Prior to the rematch against Spassky , Fischer had won a training match against Svetozar Gligorić in Sveti Stefan with six wins , one loss and three draws .
= = Life as an émigré = =
After the 1992 match with Spassky , Fischer , now a fugitive , slid back into relative obscurity , taking up residence in Budapest , Hungary , and allegedly having a relationship with young Hungarian chess master Zita Rajcsányi .
Fischer claimed that standard chess was stale and that he now played blitz games of chess variants , such as Chess960 . He visited with the Polgár family in Budapest and analyzed many games with Judit , Zsuzsa , and Zsófia Polgár .
From 2000 to 2002 , Fischer lived in Baguio City in the Philippines , residing in the same compound as the Filipino grandmaster Eugenio Torre , a close friend who acted as his second during his 1992 match with Spassky . Torre introduced Fischer to a 22 @-@ year @-@ old woman named Marilyn Young . On May 21 , 2001 Marilyn Young gave birth to a daughter named Jinky Young . Her mother claimed that Jinky was Fischer 's daughter , citing as evidence Jinky 's birth and baptismal certificates , photographs , a transaction record dated December 4 , 2007 of a bank remittance by Fischer to Jinky , and Jinky 's DNA through her blood samples . On the other hand , Magnús Skúlason , a friend of Fischer 's , said that he was certain that Fischer was not the girl 's father . On August 17 , 2010 , it was reported that a DNA test revealed that Jinky Young was not the daughter of Bobby Fischer .
= = = Anti @-@ semitic statements = = =
Fischer made numerous anti @-@ Jewish statements and professed a general hatred for Jews since at least the early 1960s . Jan Hein Donner wrote that at the time of Bled 1961 , " He idolized Hitler and read everything about him that he could lay his hands on . He also championed a brand of anti @-@ semitism that could only be thought up by a mind completely cut off from reality " . Donner took Fischer to a war museum , which " left a great impression , since [ Fischer ] is not an evil person , and afterwards he was more restrained in his remarks — to me , at least . "
Although Fischer described his mother as Jewish in a 1962 interview , he later denied his Jewish ancestry . In 1984 , Fischer denied being a Jew in a letter to the Encyclopaedia Judaica , insisting that they remove his name and accusing them of " fraudulently misrepresenting me to be a Jew [ ... ] to promote your religion " .
From the 1980s on , Fischer 's comments about Jews were a major theme in his public and private remarks . He openly denied the Holocaust , and called the United States " a farce controlled by dirty , hook @-@ nosed , circumcised Jew bastards " . Between 1999 and 2006 , Fischer 's primary means of communicating with the public was radio interviews . He participated in at least 34 such broadcasts , mostly with radio stations in the Philippines , but also in Hungary , Iceland , Colombia , and Russia . In 1999 , he gave a radio call @-@ in interview to a station in Budapest , Hungary , during which he described himself as the " victim of an international Jewish conspiracy " . In another radio interview , Fischer said that it became clear to him in 1977 , after reading The Secret World Government by Count Cherep @-@ Spiridovich , that Jewish agencies were targeting him . Fischer 's sudden reemergence was apparently triggered when some of his belongings , which had been stored in a Pasadena , California storage unit , were sold by the landlord who claimed it was in response to nonpayment of rent .
Fischer 's library contained anti @-@ semitic and racist literature such as Mein Kampf , The Protocols of the Elders of Zion , and The White Man 's Bible and Nature 's Eternal Religion by Ben Klassen , founder of the World Church of the Creator . A notebook written by Fischer contains sentiments such as " 8 / 24 / 99 Death to the Jews . Just kill the Motherfuckers ! " and " 12 / 13 / 99 It 's time to start randomly killing Jews " . Despite his views , Fischer remained on good terms with Jewish chess players .
= = = Anti @-@ American and anti @-@ Israel statements = = =
Shortly after midnight on September 12 , 2001 , Philippines local time ( approximately four hours after the September 11 , 2001 attacks in the U.S. ) , Fischer was interviewed live by Pablo Mercado on the Baguio City station of the Bombo Radyo network . Fischer stated that he was happy that the airliner attacks had happened , while expressing his view on U.S. and Israeli foreign policy , saying " I applaud the act . Look , nobody gets ... that the U.S. and Israel have been slaughtering the Palestinians ... for years . " He also said " The horrible behavior that the U.S. is committing all over the world ... This just shows you , that what goes around , comes around even for the United States . " Fischer also referenced the movie Seven Days in May and said he hoped for a military coup d 'état in the U.S. , " [ I hope ] the country will be taken over by the military , they 'll close down all the synagogues , arrest all the Jews , execute hundreds of thousands of Jewish ringleaders . " In response to Fischer 's statements about 9 / 11 , the U.S. Chess Federation passed a motion to cancel his right to membership in the organization . Fischer 's right to become a member was reinstated in 2007 .
= = = Detention in Japan = = =
Fischer lived for a time in Japan . On July 13 , 2004 , acting in response to a letter from U.S. officials , he was arrested by Japanese immigration authorities at Narita International Airport near Tokyo for allegedly using a revoked U.S. passport while trying to board a Japan Airlines flight to Ninoy Aquino International Airport in Manila , Philippines . Fischer resisted arrest , claiming to have sustained bruises , cuts and a broken tooth in the process . At the time , Fischer had a passport ( originally issued in 1997 and updated in 2003 to add more pages ) that , according to U.S. officials , had been revoked in November 2003 due to his outstanding arrest warrant for the Yugoslavia sanctions violation . Despite the outstanding arrest warrant in the U.S. , Fischer said that he believed the passport was still valid . The authorities held Fischer at a custody center for 16 days before transferring him to another facility . Fischer claimed that his cell was windowless and he had not seen the light of day during that period , and that the staff had ignored his complaints about constant tobacco smoke in his cell .
Tokyo @-@ based Canadian journalist and consultant John Bosnitch set up the " Committee to Free Bobby Fischer " after meeting Fischer at Narita Airport and offering to assist him . Boris Spassky wrote a letter to U.S. President George H. W. Bush , asking " For mercy , charity " , and , if that was not possible , " to put [ him ] in the same cell with Bobby Fischer " and " to give [ them ] a chess set " . It was reported that Fischer and Miyoko Watai , the President of the Japanese Chess Association ( with whom he had reportedly been living since 2000 ) wanted to become legally married . ( It was also reported that Fischer had been living in the Philippines with Marilyn Young during the same period . ) Fischer applied for German citizenship on the grounds that his father was German . Fischer stated that he wanted to renounce his U.S. citizenship , and appealed to U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell to help him do so , though to no effect . Japan 's Justice Minister rejected Fischer 's request for asylum and ordered him deported .
= = = Asylum in Iceland = = =
Seeking ways to evade deportation to the United States , Fischer wrote a letter to the government of Iceland in early January 2005 , requesting Icelandic citizenship . Sympathetic to Fischer 's plight , but reluctant to grant him the full benefits of citizenship , Icelandic authorities granted him an alien 's passport . When this proved insufficient for the Japanese authorities , Althing ( the Icelandic Parliament ) , at the behest of William Lombardy , agreed unanimously to grant Fischer full citizenship in late March for humanitarian reasons , as they felt he was being unjustly treated by the U.S. and Japanese governments , and also in recognition of his 1972 match , which had " put Iceland on the map " .
After arriving in Reykjavík , Fischer gave a press conference . Fischer lived a reclusive life in Iceland , avoiding entrepreneurs and others who approached him with various proposals . Fischer moved into an apartment in the same building as his close friend and spokesman , Garðar Sverrisson . Garðar 's wife , Kristín Þórarinsdóttir , was a nurse and later looked after Fischer as a terminally ill patient . Garðar 's two children , especially his son , were very close to Fischer . Fischer also developed a friendship with Magnús Skúlason , a psychiatrist and chess player who later recalled long discussions with Fischer on a wide variety of subjects .
On December 10 , 2006 , Fischer telephoned an Icelandic television station and pointed out a winning combination , missed by the players and commentators . In 2005 , some of Fischer 's belongings were auctioned on eBay . Fischer claimed , in 2006 , that those belongings were worth millions of U.S. dollars .
= = Personal life = =
Fischer was eccentric . He made a large number of demands for the playing conditions at his 1972 World Championship match with Spassky . He became more erratic in his years after losing his World Championship title .
= = = Religious affiliation = = =
Although Fischer 's mother was Jewish , Fischer disavowed having Jewish roots . In an interview in the January 1962 issue of Harper 's , Fischer was quoted as saying , " I read a book lately by Nietzsche and he says religion is just to dull the senses of the people . I agree . "
Fischer joined the Worldwide Church of God in the mid @-@ 1960s . The church prescribed Saturday Sabbath , and forbade work ( and competitive chess ) on Sabbath . According to his friend and colleague Larry Evans , in 1968 Fischer felt philosophically that " the world was coming to an end " and he might as well make some money by publishing My 60 Memorable Games ; Fischer thought that the Rapture was coming soon . During the mid 1970s Fischer contributed significant money to the Worldwide Church of God . In 1972 one journalist stated that " Fischer is almost as serious about religion as he is about chess " , and the champion credited his faith with greatly improving his chess . Yet , prophecies by Herbert W. Armstrong went unfulfilled , and the church was rocked by revelations of a series of sex scandals involving Garner Ted Armstrong . Fischer eventually left the church in 1977 , " accusing it of being ' Satanic ' , and vigorously attacking its methods and leadership . "
= = = Death , estate dispute , and exhumation = = =
On January 17 , 2008 , Fischer died from renal failure at the Landspítali Hospital ( National University Hospital of Iceland ) in Reykjavík . He originally had a urinary tract blockage but refused surgery or medications . Magnús Skúlason reported Fischer 's last words as " Nothing is as healing as the human touch . "
On January 21 , Fischer was buried in the small Christian cemetery of Laugardælir church , outside the town of Selfoss , 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) southeast of Reykjavík , after a Catholic funeral presided over by Fr . Jakob Rolland of the diocese of Reykjavík . In accordance with Fischer 's wishes , only Miyoko Watai , Garðar Sverrisson , and Garðar 's family were present .
Fischer 's estate was estimated at 140 million ISK ( about 1 million GBP , or $ 2 million USD ) . It quickly became the object of a legal battle involving claims from four parties , with Miyoko Watai ultimately inheriting what remained of Fischer 's estate after government claims . The four parties were Fischer 's apparent Japanese wife Miyoko Watai , his alleged Filipino daughter Jinky Young and her mother Marilyn Young , his two American nephews Alexander and Nicholas Targ and their father Russell Targ , and the U.S. government ( claiming unpaid taxes ) .
According to a press release issued by Samuel Estimo , an attorney representing Jinky Young , the Supreme Court of Iceland ruled , in December 2009 , that Watai 's claim of marriage to Fischer was invalidated because of her failure to present the original copy of their alleged marriage certificate . On June 16 , 2010 , the Court ruled in favor of a petition on behalf of Jinky Young to have Bobby Fischer 's remains exhumed . The exhumation was performed on July 5 , 2010 , in the presence of a doctor , a priest , and other officials . A DNA sample was taken and Fischer 's body was then reburied . On August 17 , 2010 , the Court announced that based on the DNA sample it was determined that Fischer was not the father of Jinky Young . On March 3 , 2011 , an Icelandic district court ruled that Miyoko Watai and Fischer had married on September 6 , 2004 , and that , as Fischer 's widow and heir , Watai was therefore entitled to inherit Fischer 's estate . Fischer 's nephews were ordered to pay Watai 's legal costs , amounting to ISK 6 @.@ 6 million ( approximately $ 57 @,@ 000 ) .
= = = Psychology = = =
Fischer ’ s views and behavior attracted widespread comment Reuben Fine , psychologist and chess player , who met Fischer many times , said that " Some of Bobby 's behavior is so strange , unpredictable , odd and bizarre that even his most ardent apologists have had a hard time explaining what makes him tick . " and described him as " a troubled human being " with " obvious personal problems " .
Valery Krylov , advisor to Anatoly Karpov and a specialist in the " psycho @-@ physiological rehabilitation of sportsmen " , believed Bobby suffered from schizophrenia . Psychologist Joseph G Ponteretto , from second @-@ hand sources , concludes that " Bobby did not meet all the necessary criteria to reach diagnoses of schizophrenia or Asperger 's Disorder . The evidence is stronger for paranoid personality disorder . "
= = Contributions to chess = =
= = = Opening theory = = =
For most of his career , Fischer was predictable in his use of openings and variations of those openings . Despite this seeming disadvantage , it was very difficult for opponents to exploit this limitation , because Fischer 's knowledge of the openings and variations that he used was extensive .
As Black , Fischer would usually play the Najdorf Sicilian against 1.e4 , and the King 's Indian Defense against 1.d4 , only rarely venturing into the Nimzo @-@ Indian ( 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 ) , Benoni , Grünfeld or Neo @-@ Grünfeld . As White , Fischer almost exclusively played 1.e4 throughout his career .
Fischer was a master of playing with , and against , the Sicilian Defense . The next most common defense against Fischer 's 1.e4 was the Caro @-@ Kann Defense ( 1.e4 c6 ) , against which Fischer had a good record . Fischer 's worst record was against the French Defense ( 1.e4 e6 ) , especially the Winawer Variation ( 1.e4 e6 2.d4 d5 3.Nc3 Bb4 ) . Fischer maintained that the Winawer was unsound because it exposed Black 's kingside , and that , in his view , " Black was trading off his good bishop with 3 ... Bb4 and ... Bxc3 . " Later on Fischer said : " I may yet be forced to admit that the Winawer is sound . But I doubt it ! The defense is anti @-@ positional and weakens the K @-@ side . "
Fischer was renowned for his opening preparation and made numerous contributions to chess opening theory . He was one of the foremost experts on the Ruy Lopez . A line of the Exchange Variation ( 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Bxc6 dxc6 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 ) is sometimes called the " Fischer Variation " after he successfully resurrected it at the 1966 Havana Olympiad . Fischer 's lifetime score with the move 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 in tournament and match games was eight wins , three draws , and no losses : ( 86 @.@ 36 % ) .
Fischer was a recognized expert in the black side of the Najdorf Sicilian and the King 's Indian Defense . He used the Grünfeld Defense and Neo @-@ Grünfeld Defense to win his celebrated games against Donald and Robert Byrne , and played a theoretical novelty in the Grünfeld against reigning World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik , refuting Botvinnik 's prepared analysis over @-@ the @-@ board . In the Nimzo @-@ Indian Defense , the line beginning with 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.e3 b6 5.Ne2 Ba6 was named after him .
Fischer established the viability of the so @-@ called Poison
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4.Nxd4 a6 5.Bd3 Nc6 6.Nxc6 bxc6 7 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 d5 8.c4 Nf6 9.cxd5 cxd5 10.exd5 exd5 11.Nc3 Be7 12.Qa4 + Qd7 13.Re1 Qxa4 14.Nxa4 Be6 15.Be3 0 @-@ 0 16.Bc5 Rfe8 17.Bxe7 Rxe7 18.b4 Kf8 19.Nc5 Bc8 20.f3 Rea7 21.Re5 Bd7 ( see diagram ) 22.Nxd7 + Rxd7 23.Rc1 Rd6 24.Rc7 Nd7 25.Re2 g6 26.Kf2 h5 27.f4 h4 28.Kf3 f5 29.Ke3 d4 + 30.Kd2 Nb6 31.Ree7 Nd5 32.Rf7 + Ke8 33.Rb7 Nxf4 34.Bc4 1 – 0
Fischer – Boris Spassky , World Chess Championship 1972 , 6th match game , Queen 's Gambit Declined , Tartakower ( D59 ) , 1 – 0 Further analysis on the 1972 match page Saidy called this game " [ the ] finest artistic achievement of the whole match " .
Boris Spassky – Fischer , World Chess Championship 1972 , 13th match game , Alekhine Defense : Modern , Alburt Variation ( B04 ) , 0 – 1 Further analysis on the 1972 match page Botvinnik called this game " the highest creative achievement of Fischer " . He resolved a drawish opposite @-@ colored bishops endgame by sacrificing his bishop and trapping his own rook . " Then five passed pawns struggled with the white rook . Nothing similar had been seen before in chess . "
Fischer – Boris Spassky , 1992 , 1st match game , Spanish Game : Morphy Defense . Breyer Defense Zaitsev Hybrid ( C95 ) , 1 – 0 Further analysis on the 1992 match page
= The Boat Race 1993 =
The 139th Boat Race took place on 27 March 1993 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge , using " cleaver blades " for the first time in the history of the race , won by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a victory that was described in The Times as " crushingly conclusive " . The winning time of 17 minutes exactly was the fourth @-@ fastest time in the event . In winning the event , Cambridge prevented Oxford making it seventeen wins from the last eighteen races and levelling the overall score for the first time since the 1929 race .
Oxford 's crew featured two Olympic gold medallists and saw changes in their rowers and cox in the lead @-@ up to the event . The race was umpired by the former Oxford Blue Mark Evans who controversially instigated changes to the start procedure of the race .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie defeated Oxford 's Isis , while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1992 race by one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 69 victories to Oxford 's 68 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Oxford had won 16 of the previous 17 races , a run interrupted by Cambridge 's seven @-@ length victory in the 1986 race .
The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but the event did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race .
Cambridge selected cleaver blades for the first time in the history of the race , following the successful use of the oars in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona . The surface area of the cleaver was approximately 20 % larger than the conventional macon blades . Oxford practised with cleaver blades in some of their outings leading up to the race , and were prepared to use them should the weather conditions be suitable , but on the day itself they opted to remain with the macon blades .
The umpire for the race was the Canadian Olympic gold medallist and former Oxford Blue Mark Evans who had rowed in the 1983 and 1984 races . He caused controversy by instigating a new starting method whereby he would hold the crews for up to ten seconds between the conventional " set " and " go " commands . Evans had umpired the 1991 race in which he had also used his own starting method in preference to the traditional Amateur Rowing Association instructions . In response to any potential delay at the start during which time the boats will be dragged along with the tide , one of the stake @-@ boat men , Bob Hastings , responsible for holding the boats until the " go " command is given stated : " If the boats start to drag I will let go , before I am dragged out of the stake @-@ boat " . Both Alan Inns , former coach and advisor to Cambridge , and Steve Royle , Oxford 's director of rowing , expressed concerns over Evans ' methodology .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of nearly 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 91 kg ) more per rower than their opponents . Oxford 's Matthew Pinsent was the heaviest rower while Cambridge 's Sinclair Gore was the youngest , aged 19 . Cambridge 's crew featured three returning Blues in Dirk Bangert , David Gillard and James Behrens , while Oxford saw five former Boat Race rowers return . Overall , half of the rowers were non @-@ British ( six nationalities representing Oxford , three representing Cambridge ) and the same number were postgraduates . The Cambridge boat club president Behrens claimed : " All our boat are at Cambridge on academic merit . They came for a particular course ... and they also row . " In contrast , an editorial in The Times claimed : " The performers are no longer ingenuous native undergraduates but supercharged , international , professional rowing machines . " Oxford 's Bruce Robertson ( men 's eight ) and Pinsent ( coxless pair ) were both gold medallists at the Barcelona Olympics .
A late change in the Oxford cox saw Samantha Benham replace Gordon Buxton to steer the Dark Blues , becoming the eighth female cox in the history of the race . Oxford 's Royle noted that Buxton 's form had declined in the run @-@ in to the race , while Benham was " handling the pressure a lot better . " Cambridge cox , Martin Haycock , suggested that female coxes were not as accomplished as their male counterparts : " We had one cox who was exceptionally good at giving massages but on the whole ... they 're not aggressive or tough enough . " Oxford also saw a change to their crew in the week preceding the race . Old Etonian undergraduate Ed Haddon ( who had rowed for Isis in 1992 ) was dropped in favour of German Philipp Schuller . Schuller had arrived at Oxford just two months earlier , but rejected suggestions that his late inclusion was symptomatic of the recent influx of " professionals " to the race . Of his selection , he noted : " You can 't have one of the most respected races in the world and then limit it to English people between the ages of 19 and 21 ... on the day we went for whoever would make the boat go fastest . It was done entirely on merit . " Schuller 's compatriot and opponent Dirk Bangert had struggled with the move to cleavers , finding it difficult to adjust his timing : " I nearly didn 't make it . I couldn 't get this rhythm until about three weeks ago and was not sure of my place . "
Oxford 's finishing coach was Mike Spracklen who had assisted the Dark Blues in five victorious races , while Cambridge had New Zealander Harry Mahon in charge for the first time , assisted by John Wilson ( who had helped coach Oxford to a win in the 1991 race ) , and Sean Bowden , who was subsequently credited with " being half of the team which first turned Cambridge round " . Oxford 's head coach Patrick Sweeney noted : " If [ Cambridge ] get away , they will be hard to beat . If they don 't , they 're dead meat . "
= = Race = =
Oxford were strong pre @-@ race favourites , having won 16 of the last 17 races . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Two minutes after the start , and in cold , overcast conditions , Cambridge 's cox Martin Haycock was level with Oxford 's Jo Michels who occupied the number two seat in the Dark Blue boat . Responding to a call to push on , Cambridge were clear upon reaching the Mile Post in record time , and moved in front of Oxford . Further record times were set as the Light Blues passed under Hammersmith Bridge and by Chiswick Steps before they passed the finishing post three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths clear in 17 minutes . It was Cambridge 's first victory since the 1986 race and just their second victory in eighteen years . The winning time was the fourth fastest in the history of the event , surpassed only by Oxford in the 1991 , 1984 and 1976 races , and was Cambridge 's fastest time ever . Cambridge 's victory prevented the overall score from being levelled for the first time since 1929 .
In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie won by nine lengths over Isis , their sixth victory in seven years . Cambridge won the 48th Women 's Boat Race by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 6 minutes and 10 seconds , their fourth victory in five years .
= = Reaction = =
The journalist David Miller , writing for The Times , described Cambridge 's victory as " crushingly conclusive " . Cambridge 's Malcolm Baker said : " We knew we could do it after about 25 strokes . " Behrens explained " Our strength was that we were more uniform than Oxford . We have proved that you do not have to be an Olympic champion to win the Boat Race . " The Oxford Boat Club president Pinsent conceded : " They put right a lot of mistakes they have made in the past , and they rowed outstandingly well . " Spracklen agreed : " Cambridge got too far away . They were a better boat in that race . All credit to them . " Cambridge 's number two , David Gillard , said " there was a lot of revenge out there " .
Writing in The Independent , the journalist Chris Arnot noted that the Cambridge crew had used creatine supplements in order to attempt to enhance their performance . Used extensively at the 1992 Olympics , by athletes including Linford Christie and Sally Gunnell , and given to horses and greyhounds , creatine was believed to provide legal energy @-@ enhancing effects to the crew .
= Alanya =
Alanya ( Turkish pronunciation : [ aˈɫanja ] ) , formerly Alaiye , is a beach resort city and a component district of Antalya Province on the southern coast of Turkey , in the country 's Mediterranean Region , 138 kilometres ( 86 mi ) east of the city of Antalya . As of Turkey 's 2010 Census , the city had a population of 98 @,@ 627 , while the district that includes the city and its built @-@ up region had an area of 1 @,@ 598 @.@ 51 km2 and 248 @,@ 286 inhabitants .
Because of its natural strategic position on a small peninsula into the Mediterranean Sea below the Taurus Mountains , Alanya has been a local stronghold for many Mediterranean @-@ based empires , including the Ptolemaic , Seleucid , Roman , Byzantine , and Ottoman Empires . Alanya 's greatest political importance came in the Middle Ages , with the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm under the rule of Alaeddin Kayqubad I , from whom the city derives its name . His building campaign resulted in many of the city 's landmarks , such as the Kızıl Kule ( Red Tower ) , Tersane ( Shipyard ) , and Alanya Castle .
The Mediterranean climate , natural attractions , and historic heritage make Alanya a popular destination for tourism , and responsible for nine percent of Turkey 's tourism sector and thirty percent of foreign purchases of real estate in Turkey . Tourism has risen since 1958 to become the dominant industry in the city , resulting in a corresponding increase in city population . Warm @-@ weather sporting events and cultural festivals take place annually in Alanya . In 2014 Mayor Adem Murat Yücel , of the Nationalist Movement Party unseated Hasan Sipahioğlu , of the Justice and Development Party , who had previously led the city since 1999 .
= = Names = =
The city has changed hands many times over the centuries , and its name has reflected this . Alanya was known in Latin as Coracesium or in Greek as Korakesion from the Luwian Korakassa meaning " point / protruding city " . The Roman Catholic Church still recognizes the Latin name as a titular see in its hierarchy . Under the Byzantine Empire it become known as Kalonoros or Kalon Oros , meaning " beautiful / fine mountain " in Greek . The Seljuks renamed the city Alaiye ( علائیه ) , a derivative of the Sultan Alaeddin Kayqubad I 's name . In the 13th and 14th centuries , Italian traders called the city Candelore or Cardelloro . In his 1935 visit , Mustafa Kemal Atatürk finalized the name in the new alphabet as Alanya , changing the ' i ' and ' e ' in Alaiye , reportedly because of a misspelled telegram in 1933 .
= = History = =
Finds in the nearby Karain Cave indicate occupation during the Paleolithic era as far back as 20 @,@ 000 BC , and archeological evidence shows a port existed at Syedra , south of the modern city , during the Bronze Age around 3 @,@ 000 BC . A Phoenician language tablet found in the district dates to 625 BC , and the city is specifically mentioned in the 4th @-@ century BC Greek geography manuscript , the periplus of Pseudo @-@ Scylax . The castle rock was likely inhabited under the Hittites and the Achaemenid Empire , and was first fortified in the Hellenistic period following the area 's conquest by Alexander the Great . Alexander 's successors left the area to one of the competing Macedonian generals , Ptolemy I Soter , after Alexander 's death in 323 BC . His dynasty maintained loose control over the mainly Isaurian population , and the port became a popular refuge for Mediterranean pirates . The city resisted Antiochus III the Great of the neighboring Seleucid kingdom in 199 BC , but was loyal to the pirate Diodotus Tryphon when he seized the Seleucid crown from 142 to 138 BC . His rival Antiochus VII Sidetes completed work in 137 BC on a new castle and port , begun under Diodotus .
The Roman Republic fought Cilician pirates in 102 BC , when Marcus Antonius the Orator established a proconsulship in nearby Side , and in 78 BC under Servilius Vatia , who moved to control the Isaurian tribes . The period of piracy in Alanya finally ended after the city 's incorporation into the Pamphylia province by Pompey in 67 BC , with the Battle of Korakesion fought in the city 's harbor . Isaurian banditry remained an issue under the Romans , and the tribes revolted in the fourth and fifth centuries AD , with the largest rebellion being from 404 to 408 .
With the spread of Christianity Coracesium , as it was called , became a bishopric . Its bishop Theodulus took part in the First Council of Constantinople in 381 , Matidianus in the Council of Ephesus in 431 , Obrimus in the Council of Chalcedon in 451 , and Nicephorus ( Nicetas ) in the Third Council of Constantinople in 680 . Coracesium was a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Side , the capital of the Roman province of Pamphylia Prima , to which Coracesium belonged . It continued to be mentioned in the Notitiae Episcopatuum as late as the 12th or 13th century . No longer a residential bishopric , Coracesium is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see .
Islam arrived in the 7th century with Arab raids , which led to the construction of new fortifications . The area fell from Byzantine control after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 to tribes of Seljuk Turks , only to be returned in 1120 by John II Komnenos .
Following the Fourth Crusade 's attack on the Byzantines , the Christian Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia periodically held the port , and it was from an Armenian , Kir Fard , that the Turks took lasting control in 1221 when the Anatolian Seljuk Sultan Alaeddin Kayqubad I captured it , assigning the former ruler , whose daughter he married , to the governance of the city of Akşehir . Seljuk rule saw the golden age of the city , and it can be considered the winter capital of their empire . Building projects , including the twin citadel , city walls , arsenal , and Kızıl Kule , made it an important seaport for western Mediterranean trade , particularly with Ayyubid Egypt and the Italian city @-@ states . Alaeddin Kayqubad I also constructed numerous gardens and pavilions outside the walls , and many of his works can still be found in the city . These were likely financed by his own treasury and by the local emirs , and constructed by the contractor Abu ' Ali al @-@ Kattani al @-@ Halabi . Alaeddin Kayqubad I 's son , Sultan Gıyaseddin Keyhüsrev II , continued the building campaign with a new cistern in 1240 .
At the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1242 , the Mongol hordes broke the Seljuk hegemony in Anatolia . Alanya was then subject to a series of invasions from Anatolian beyliks . Lusignans from Cyprus briefly overturned the then ruling Hamidid dynasty in 1371 . The Karamanids sold the city in 1427 for 5 @,@ 000 gold coins to the Mamluks of Egypt for a period before General Gedik Ahmed Pasha in 1471 incorporated it into the growing Ottoman Empire . The city was made a capital of a local sanjak in the eyalet of Içel . The Ottomans extended their rule in 1477 when they brought the main shipping trade , lumber , then mostly done by Venetians , under the government monopoly . On September 6 , 1608 , the city rebuffed a naval attack by the Order of Saint Stephen from the Republic of Venice .
Trade in the region was negatively impacted by the development of an oceanic route from Europe around Africa to India , and in the tax registers of the late sixteenth century , Alanya failed to qualify as an urban center . In 1571 the Ottomans designated the city as part of the newly conquered province of Cyprus . The conquest further diminished the economic importance of Alanya 's port . Traveler Evliya Çelebi visited the city in 1671 / 1672 , and wrote on the preservation of Alanya Castle , but also on the dilapidation of Alanya 's suburbs . The city was reassigned in 1864 under Konya , and in 1868 under Antalya , as it is today . During the 18th and 19th centuries numerous villas were built in the city by Ottoman nobility , and civil construction continued under the local dynastic Karamanid authorities . Bandits again became common across Antalya Province in the mid @-@ nineteenth century .
After World War I , Alanya was nominally partitioned in the 1917 Agreement of St.-Jean @-@ de @-@ Maurienne to Italy , before returning to the Turkish Republic in 1923 under the Treaty of Lausanne . Like others in this region , the city suffered heavily following the war and the population exchanges that heralded the Turkish Republic , when many of the city 's Christians resettled in Nea Ionia , outside Athens . The Ottoman census of 1893 listed the number of Greeks in the city at 964 out of a total population of 37 @,@ 914 . Tourism in the region started among Turks who came to Alanya in the 1960s for the alleged healing properties of Damlataş Cave , and later the access provided by Antalya Airport in 1998 allowed the town to grow into an international resort . Strong population growth through the 1990s was a result of immigration to the city , and has driven a rapid modernization of the infrastructure .
= = Geography = =
Located on the Gulf of Antalya on the Anatolian coastal plain of Pamphylia , the town is situated between the Taurus Mountains to the north and the Mediterranean Sea , and is part of the Turkish riviera , occupying roughly 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) of coastline . From west to east , the Alanya district is bordered by the Manavgat district along the coast , the mountainous Gündoğmuş inland , Hadim and Taşkent in the Province of Konya , Sarıveliler in the Province of Karaman , and the coastal Gazipaşa district . Manavgat is home to the ancient cities of Side and Selge . East of the city , the Dim River flows from the mountains in Konya on a south @-@ west route into the Mediterranean .
The Pamphylia plain between the sea and the mountains is an isolated example of an Eastern Mediterranean conifer @-@ sclerophyllous @-@ broadleaf forest , which include Lebanon Cedar , evergreen scrub , fig trees , and black pine . The Alanya Massif refers to the area of metamorphic rocks east of Antalya . This formation is divided into three nappes from lowest to highest , the Mahmutlar , the Sugözü , and the Yumrudağ . The similar lithology extends beneath the city in a tectonic window . Bauxite , an aluminum ore , is common to the area north of city , and can be mined .
The town is divided east – west by a rocky peninsula , which is the distinctive feature of the city . The harbor , city center , and Keykubat Beach , named after the Sultan Kayqubad I , are on the east side of the peninsula . Damlataş Beach , named for the famous " dripping caves " , and Kleopatra Beach are to the west . The name " Cleopatra " possibly derives from either the Ptolemaic princess ' visit here or the area 's inclusion in her dowry to Mark Antony . Atatürk Bulvarı , the main boulevard , runs parallel to the sea , and divides the southern , much more touristic side of Alanya from the northern , more indigenous side that extends north into the mountains . Çevre Yolu Caddesi , another major road , encircles the main town to the north .
= = = Climate = = =
Alanya has a typical hot @-@ summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csa ) . Located at the Mediterranean Basin , the subtropical high pressure zone ensures that most rain comes during the winter , leaving the summers long , hot , and dry , prompting the Alanya board of Tourism to use the slogan " where the sun smiles " . Storm cells sometimes bring with them fair weather waterspouts when close to the shore . The presence of the Taurus Mountain in close proximity to the sea causes fog , in turn creating visible rainbows many mornings . The height of the mountains creates an interesting effect as snow can often be seen on them even on hot days in the city below . The sea at Alanya has an average temperature of 21 @.@ 4 ° C ( 71 ° F ) annually , with an average August temperature of 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) .
= = Architecture = =
On the peninsula stands Alanya Castle , a Seljuk era citadel dating from 1226 . Most major landmarks in the city are found inside and around the castle . The current castle was built over existing fortifications and served the double purpose of a palace of local government and as a defensive structure in case of attack . In 2007 , the city began renovating various sections of the castle area , including adapting a Byzantine church for use as a Christian community center . Inside the castle is the Süleymaniye mosque and caravanserai , built by Suleiman the Magnificent . The old city walls surround much of the eastern peninsula , and can be walked . Inside the walls are numerous historic villas , well preserved examples of the classical period of Ottoman architecture , most built in the early 19th century .
The Kızıl Kule ( Red Tower ) is another well @-@ known building in Alanya . The 108 @-@ foot ( 33 m ) high brick building stands at the harbor below the castle , and contains the municipal ethnographic museum . Sultan Kayqubad I brought the accomplished architect Ebu Ali from Aleppo , Syria to Alanya to design the building . The last of Alanya Castle 's 83 towers , the octagonal structure specifically protected the Tersane ( dockyard ) , it remains one of the finest examples of medieval military architecture . The Tersane , a medieval drydock built by the Seljuk Turks in 1221 , 187 by 131 feet ( 57 by 40 m ) , is divided into five vaulted bays with equilateral pointed arches . The Alara Castle and caravanserai near Manavgat , also built under Kayqubad 's authority , has been converted into a museum and heritage center .
Atatürk 's House and Museum , from his short stay in the city on February 18 , 1935 is preserved in its historic state and is a good example of the interior of a traditional Ottoman villa , with artifacts from the 1930s . The house was built between 1880 and 1885 in the " karniyarik " ( stuffed eggplant ) style . Bright colors and red roofs are often mandated by neighborhood councils , and give the modern town a pastel glow . Housed in a 1967 Republican era building , The Alanya Museum is inland from Damlataşh Beach . With its rich architectural heritage , Alanya is a member of the Norwich @-@ based European Association of Historic Towns and Regions . In 2009 , city officials filed to include Alanya Castle and Tersane as UNESCO World Heritage Sites , and were named to the 2009 Tentative List .
= = Demographics = =
From only 87 @,@ 080 in 1985 , the district has surged to hold a population of 384 @,@ 949 in 2007 . This population surge is largely credited to immigration to the city as a result or byproduct of the increased prominence of the real estate sector and the growth of the housing market bubble . The city itself has a population of 134 @,@ 396 , of which 9 @,@ 789 are European expatriates , about half of them from Germany and Denmark . 17 @,@ 850 total foreigners own property in Alanya . The European expatriate population tends to be over fifty years old . During the summer the population increases due to large numbers of tourists , about 1 @.@ 1 million each year pass through the city . Both Turks and Europeans , these vacationers provide income for much of the population .
The city is home to many migrants from the Southeastern Anatolia Region and the Black Sea region . In the first decade of the 21st century , the town has seen a surge in illegal foreign immigrants from the Middle East and South Asia , both to stay and to attempt to enter European Union countries . As of 2006 , 1 @,@ 217 migrants claim residence in Alanya while working abroad . Yörük nomads also live in the Taurus Mountains north of the city on a seasonal basis . Additionally , there is a small African community descendant from imported Ottoman slaves .
The city is nearly 99 % Muslim , and although many ancient churches can be found in the district , there are no weekly Christian services . In 2006 , a German language Protestant church with seasonal service opened with much fanfare , after receiving permission to do so in 2003 , a sign of the growing European population in the city . In 2015 , the town began renovations of the Greek Orthodox Agios Georgios Church in the village of Hacı Mehmetli , and the church has been used for a monthly Russian Orthodox service . Alanya also provides the Atatürk Cultural Center to Christian groups on a regular basis for larger religious ceremonies .
= = Education and health = =
The city has 95 % literacy , with public and private schools , and a roughly 1 : 24 student @-@ teacher ratio . Rural villages are , however , disadvantaged by the limited number of secondary schools outside the city center . Alantur Primary School , which opened in 1987 , was built and is maintained under the Turkish " Build Your Own School " initiative , supported by the foundation of Ayhan Şahenk , the founder of Doğuş Holding .
In 2005 , Akdeniz University of Antalya launched the Alanya Faculty of Business , as a satellite campus that focuses on the tourism industry . The school hosts an International Tourism Conference annually in coordination with Buckinghamshire New University . The city also has plans to open a private university in 2012 . Georgetown University operates an annual study abroad program for American students known as the McGhee Center for Eastern Mediterranean Studies , named for the United States Ambassador to Turkey from 1952 – 53 George C. McGhee , and based in his villa . Başkent University Medical and Research Center of Alanya , a teaching hospital run by Başkent University in Ankara is one of nineteen hospitals in Alanya . Other major hospitals include the 300 @-@ bed Alanya State Hospital and the 90 @-@ bed Private Hayat Hospital .
= = Culture = =
Alanya 's culture is a subculture of the larger Culture of Turkey . The city 's seaside position is central to many annual festivals . These include the Tourism and Arts Festival , which marks the opening of the tourism season from at the end of May or beginning of June . At the opposite end of the season , the Alanya International Culture and Art Festival is held in the last week of May , and is a notable Turkish festival . Other regular festivals include the Alanya Jazz Days , which has been held since 2002 in September or October at the Kızıl Kule , which is otherwise home to the municipal ethnographic museum . The Jazz Festival hosts Turkish and international jazz musicians in a series of five free concerts .
The Alanya Chamber Orchestra , formed of members of the Antalya State Opera and Ballet , gave its inaugural performance on December 7 , 2007 . The International Alanya Stone Sculpture Symposium , begun is 2004 , is held over the month of November . The Alanya Documentary Festival was launched in 2001 by the Alanya Cinémathèque Society and the Association of Documentary Filmmakers in Turkey . Onat Kutlar , Turkish poet and writer , and founder of the Istanbul International Film Festival was born in Alanya , as was actress Sema Önür .
Atatürk 's visit to Alanya is also celebrated on its anniversary each February 18 , centered on Atatürk 's House and Museum . The Alanya Museum is home to archaeology found in and around the city , including a large bronze Hercules statue , ceramics , and Roman limestone ossuaries , as well as historic copies of the Qur 'an . European residents of Alanya also often celebrate their national holidays , such as Norwegian Constitution Day , and the city set up a Christmas market in December 2010 . Iranians also celebrate the Persian New Year , Nevruz , in Alanya .
= = Government = =
Alanya was set up as a municipality in 1872 , electing its first mayor in 1901 . Today , Alanya is governed by a mayor and a municipality council made up of thirty @-@ seven members . Eighteen councilors are from the far @-@ right Nationalist Movement Party , seven are from the center @-@ left Republican People 's Party , and twelve are of the Justice and Development Party ( AK Party ) , which is currently in power in the national government . Mayor Adem Murat Yücel of the Nationalist Movement Party was elected in 2014 by unseating the incumbent Hasan Sipahioğlu , who had previously been mayor since 1999 . Elections are held every five years , with the next to be held in March 2019 . Alanya also has a deputy mayor , who often represents the city at its sporting events , and together the mayor and his team represent Alanya in the provincial assembly in Antalya .
Alanya District is divided up into 17 municipalities , including the city center , and 92 villages . Alanya is greatly influenced by the provincial government in Antalya , and the national government in Ankara , which appoints a governor for the district , currently Dr. Hulusi Doğan . Although Alanya has been part of Antalya Province since the Ottoman Empire , many local politicians have advocated a separate Alanya Province , a position supported by associations of foreign residents .
Nationally , in the 2007 election , the province voted with the Justice and Development Party , who were followed closely by the Republican People 's Party and the True Path Party . Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu , of the Justice and Development Party , is the only native Alanyalilar Member of Parliament representing Antalya Province in the Grand National Assembly , where he chairs the Committee on Migration , Refugees and Population . Çavuşoğlu is the current Turkish Foreign Minister and also served as the president of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe .
= = Economy = =
The tourist industry in Alanya is worth just under 1 @.@ 1 billion euros per year , and is therefore the principal industry . The area is further known for its many fruit farms , particularly lemons and oranges , and large harvests of tomatoes , bananas and cucumbers . About 80 @,@ 000 tonnes of citrus fruits were produced in 2006 across 16 @,@ 840 hectares ( 41 @,@ 600 acres ) . The greengage plum and the avocado are increasingly popular early season fruits where citrus fruits are becoming unprofitable .
Despite the seaside location , few residents make their living on the sea , and fishing is not a major industry . In the early 1970s , when fish stocks ran low , a system of rotating access was developed to preserve this sector . This innovative system was part of Elinor Ostrom 's research on economic governance which led to her 2009 Nobel Prize in Economics . In 2007 , locals protested the establishment of some larger chain supermarkets and clothing stores , which have opened branches in Alanya .
Beginning in 2003 , with the provisional elimination of restrictions on land purchases by non @-@ nationals , the housing industry in the city has become highly profitable with many new private homes and condominiums being built for European and Asian part @-@ time residents . Sixty @-@ nine percent of homes purchased by foreign nationals in the Antalya Province and 29 @.@ 9 % in all of Turkey are in Alanya . Buyers are primarily individuals , rather than investors . This housing boom put pressure on the city 's many gecekondu houses and establishments as property values rise and property sales to locals fall . A height restriction in the city limits most buildings to 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 5 m ) . This keeps high rise hotels to the east and west of the city , preserving the central skyline at the expense of greater tourist potential . The fringes of the city however have seen uncontrolled expansion .
= = = Tourism = = =
Since the first modern motel was built in 1958 , considered the first year of the tourist industry in Alanya , hotels have raced to accommodate the influx of tourists , and the city as of 2007 claims 157 @,@ 000 hotel beds . Damlataş Cave , which originally sparked the arrival of outsiders because of the cave 's microclimate , with an average temperature of 72 ° F ( 22 ° C ) and 95 % humidity , is accessible on the west side of the peninsula with trails from Damlataş Beach . Many tourists , especially Scandinavians , Germans , Russians , and Dutch , regularly vacation in Alanya during the warmer months . They are drawn to the area because of property prices , warm weather , sandy beaches , access to Antalya 's historic sites , and fine cuisine .
Other outdoor tourist activities include wind surfing , parasailing , and banana boating . Attractions include Europe 's largest waterpark , Sealanya , and Turkey 's largest go @-@ kart track . Hunting season also attracts some tourist for wild goat , pig and partridge hunting in area nature reserves .
For various reasons , tourist seasons after 2005 have been disappointing for Alanya 's tourism industry . Among the reasons blamed were increased PKK violence , the H5N1 bird flu found in Van , and the Mohammad cartoon controversy . Alanya officials have responded with a variety of publicity initiatives , including baking the world 's longest cake on April 2
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several films for Shaw Brothers Studio , a successor company of Tianyi , and her performance in Li Han @-@ hsiang 's Rear Door ( Houmen ) won her the Best Actress Award at the Seventh Asian Film Festival held in Tokyo in 1960 . It also won the Best Film Award .
Hu Die retired in 1966 , after a career spanning more than four decades . It was said that in 1967 she married an admirer named Zhu Fangkun ( or Song Kunfang ) , who had given her financial support in the difficult period following Pan Yousheng 's death . She emigrated to Vancouver , Canada in 1975 to join her son . She lived a low @-@ key life and avoided attention by using the name Pan Baojuan . She dictated her memoir in 1986 , which first appeared in Taiwan 's United Daily News in serials , and was published in mainland China in 1987 . She died on 23 April 1989 , after suffering a stroke .
= = Daughter = =
Hu Die had an illegitimate daughter named Hu Ruomei ( 胡若梅 ) , later renamed to Hu Yousong ( 胡友松 ) , who was born in 1939 . The identity of her father is unknown . She was raised by a foster mother and stayed in mainland China while Hu Die moved to Hong Kong . In 1966 , Hu Yousong married Li Zongren , who had briefly served as president of the Republic of China , and was 49 years her senior . After Li Zongren died in 1969 , she was persecuted during the Cultural Revolution , and later became a Buddhist nun .
= Maya stelae =
Maya stelae ( singular stela ) are monuments that were fashioned by the Maya civilization of ancient Mesoamerica . They consist of tall sculpted stone shafts and are often associated with low circular stones referred to as altars , although their actual function is uncertain . Many stelae were sculpted in low relief , although plain monuments are found throughout the Maya region . The sculpting of these monuments spread throughout the Maya area during the Classic Period ( 250 – 900 AD ) , and these pairings of sculpted stelae and circular altars are considered a hallmark of Classic Maya civilization . The earliest dated stela to have been found in situ in the Maya lowlands was recovered from the great city of Tikal in Guatemala . During the Classic Period almost every Maya kingdom in the southern lowlands raised stelae in its ceremonial centre .
Stelae became closely associated with the concept of divine kingship and declined at the same time as this institution . The production of stelae by the Maya had its origin around 400 BC and continued through to the end of the Classic Period , around 900 , although some monuments were reused in the Postclassic ( c . 900 – 1521 ) . The major city of Calakmul in Mexico raised the greatest number of stelae known from any Maya city , at least 166 , although they are very poorly preserved .
Hundreds of stelae have been recorded in the Maya region , displaying a wide stylistic variation . Many are upright slabs of limestone sculpted on one or more faces , with available surfaces sculpted with figures carved in relief and with hieroglyphic text . Stelae in a few sites display a much more three @-@ dimensional appearance where locally available stone permits , such as at Copán and Toniná . Plain stelae do not appear to have been painted nor overlaid with stucco decoration , but most Maya stelae were probably brightly painted in red , yellow , black , blue and other colours .
Stelae were essentially stone banners raised to glorify the king and record his deeds , although the earliest examples depict mythological scenes . Imagery developed throughout the Classic Period , with Early Classic stelae ( c . 250 – 600 ) displaying non @-@ Maya characteristics from the 4th century onwards , with the introduction of imagery linked to the central Mexican metropolis of Teotihuacan . This influence receded in the 5th century although some minor Teotihuacan references continued to be used . In the late 5th century , Maya kings began to use stelae to mark the end of calendrical cycles . In the Late Classic ( c . 600 – 900 ) , imagery linked to the Mesoamerican ballgame was introduced , once again displaying influence from central Mexico . By the Terminal Classic , the institution of divine kingship declined , and Maya kings began to be depicted with their subordinate lords . As the Classic Period came to an end , stelae ceased to be erected , with the last known examples being raised in 909 – 910 .
= = Function = =
The function of the Maya stela was central to the ideology of Maya kingship from the very beginning of the Classic Period through to the very end of the Terminal Classic ( 800 – 900 ) . The hieroglyphic inscriptions on the stelae of the Classic period site of Piedras Negras played a key part in the decipherment of the script , with stelae being grouped around seven different structures and each group appearing to chart the life of a particular individual , with key dates being celebrated , such as birth , marriage and military victories . From these stelae , epigrapher Tatiana Proskouriakoff was able to identify that they contained details of royal rulers and their associates , rather than priests and gods as had previously been theorised .
Epigrapher David Stuart first proposed that the Maya regarded their stelae as te tun , " stone trees " , although he later revised his reading to lakamtun , meaning " banner stone " , from lakam meaning " banner " in several Mayan languages and tun meaning " stone " . According to Stuart this may refer to the stelae as stone versions of vertical standards that once stood in prominent places in Maya city centres , as depicted in ancient Maya graffiti . The name of the modern Lacandon Maya is likely to be a Colonial corruption of this word .
Maya stelae were often arranged to impress the viewer , forming lines or other arrangements within the ceremonial centre of the city . Maya cities with a history of stonecarving that extended back into the Early Classic preferred to pair their stelae with a circular altar , which may have represented a cut tree trunk and have been used to perform human sacrifice , given the prevalence of sacrificial imagery on such monuments . An alternative interpretation of these " altars " is that they were in fact thrones that were used by rulers during ceremonial events . Archaeologists believe that they probably also served as ritual pedestals for incense burners , ceremonial fires and other offerings .
The core purpose of a stela was to glorify the king . Many Maya stelae depict only the king of the city , and describe his actions with hieroglyphic script . Even when the individual depicted is not the king himself , the text or scene usually relates the subject to the king . Openly declaring the importance and power of the king to the community , the stela portrayed his wealth , prestige and ancestry , and depicted him wielding the symbols of military and divine power . Stelae were raised to commemorate important events , especially at the end of a k 'atun 20 @-@ year cycle of the Maya calendar , or to mark a quarter or a half k 'atun . The stela did not just mark off a period of time ; it has been argued that it physically embodied that period of time . The hieroglyphic texts on the stelae describe how some of the calendrical ceremonies required the king to perform ritual dance and bloodletting . At Tikal , the twin pyramid groups were built to celebrate the k 'atun ending and reflected Maya cosmology . These groups possessed pyramids on the east and west sides that represented the birth and death of the sun . On the south side , a nine @-@ doored building was situated in order to represent the underworld . On the north side was a walled enclosure that represented the celestial region ; it was left open to the sky . It was in this celestial enclosure that a stela @-@ altar pair was placed , the altar being a fitting throne for the divine king . Calakmul practised a tradition that was unusual in the Maya area , that of raising twin stelae depicting both the king and his wife .
The iconography of stelae remained reasonably stable during the Classic Period , since the effectiveness of the propaganda message of the monument relied upon its symbolism being clearly recognisable to the viewer . However , at times a shift in the sociopolitical climate induced a change in iconography . Stelae were an ideal format for public propaganda since , unlike earlier architectural sculpture , they were personalised to a specific king , could be arranged in public spaces and were portable , allowing them to be moved and reset in a new location . An important feature of stelae was that they were able to survive different phases of architectural construction , unlike architectural sculpture itself . With the ability to portray an identifiable ruler bearing elite goods , accompanied by hieroglyphic text and carrying out actions in service of the kingdom , stelae became one of the most effective ways of delivering public propaganda in the Maya lowlands . In 7th @-@ century Copán , king Chan Imix K 'awiil raised a series of seven stelae that marked the boundary of the most fertile land in the Copán valley , an area of approximately 25 to 30 square kilometres ( 9 @.@ 7 to 11 @.@ 6 sq mi ) . As well as marking the boundary , they defined the sacred geometry of the city and referred to important seats of deities in the ceremonial centre of the Copán .
= = = Ritual significance = = =
Stelae were considered to be invested with holiness and , perhaps , even to contain a divine soul @-@ like essence that almost made them living beings . Some were apparently given individual names in hieroglyphic texts and were considered to be participants in rituals conducted at their location . Such rituals in the Classic Period appear to have included a k 'altun binding ritual , in which the stela was wrapped in bands of tied cloth . This ritual was closely tied to the k 'atun @-@ ending calendrical ceremony . A k 'altun ritual is depicted carved onto a peccary skull deposited as a funerary offering at Copán , the scene shows two nobles flanking a stela @-@ altar pair where the stela seems to have been bound with cloth . The act of wrapping or binding a sacred object was of considerable religious importance across Mesoamerica , and is well attested among the Maya right up to the present day . The precise meaning of the act is not clear , but may be to protect the bound object or to contain its sacred essence . The binding of stelae may be linked to the modern K 'iche ' Maya practice of wrapping small divinatory stones in a bundle .
A stela was not just considered a neutral portrait , it was considered to be ' owned ' by the subject , whether that subject was a person or a god . Stela 3 from El Zapote in Guatemala is a small monument dating from the Early Classic period , the front of the stela bears a portrait of the rain god Yaxhal Chaak , " Clear Water Chaak " . The accompanying text describes how the deity Yaxhal Chaak himself was dedicated , not just his image on the stela . This could be taken to imply that the stela was seen as the embodiment of the deity and is also true of those stelae bearing royal portraits , which were seen to be the supernatural embodiment of the ruler they represented . The stela , combined with any accompanying altar , was a perpetual enactment of royal ceremony in stone . David Stuart has stated that stelae " do not simply commemorate past events and royal ceremonies but serve to perpetuate the ritual act into eternity " , thus ascribing a magical effectiveness to stela depictions . In the same vein , stelae bearing royal portraits may have been magically loaded extensions of the royal person ( uba ' his self ' ) , extremely powerful confirmations of political and religious authority . Stelae bearing images of multiple people , for instance of several nobles performing a ritual or of a king with his war captives , were likely to be exceptions to this idea of the stela as sacred embodiment of the subject .
At times , when a new king came to power , old stelae would be respectfully buried and replaced with new ones , or they might be broken . When a Maya city was invaded by a rival , it was pillaged by the victors . One of the most striking archaeological markers of such an invasion is the destruction of the defeated city 's stelae , which were broken and cast down . At the end of the Preclassic , around 150 AD , this fate appears to have befallen the important city of El Mirador , where most of the stelae were found smashed .
= = Manufacture = =
Royal artisans were sometimes responsible for sculpting stelae ; in some cases these sculptors were actually the sons of kings . In other cases it is likely that captive artisans from defeated cities were put to work raising stelae for the victors , as evidenced by the sculptural style of one city appearing upon monuments of its conqueror soon after its defeat . This appears to have been the case in Piedras Negras where Stela 12 depicting war captives submitting to the victorious king is carved in the style of Pomoná , the defeated city . Archaeologists believe that this may also have been the case with Quiriguá after its surprise defeat of its overlord Copán .
Stelae were usually crafted from quarried limestone , although in the Southern Maya area other types of stone were preferred . Volcanic tuff was used at Copán to craft their stelae in three dimensions . Both limestone and tuff were easily worked when first quarried and hardened with exposure to the elements . At Quiriguá a hard red sandstone was used that was unable to reproduce the three @-@ dimensionality of Copán but was of sufficient strength that the kings of the city were able to raise the tallest free @-@ standing stone monuments in the Americas . The Maya lacked beasts of burden and did not employ the wheel ; therefore the freshly quarried blocks of stone had to be transported on rollers along the Maya causeways . Evidence of this has been found on the causeways themselves , where rollers have been recovered . The blocks were sculpted to their final form while still soft and they then hardened naturally with time . Stone was usually quarried locally but was occasionally transported over great distances . Calakmul in Mexico was one of two powerful cities that shaped the political landscape of the Classic Period , the other being Tikal . It imported black slate for one stela from the Maya Mountains , more than 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) away . Although Calakmul raised the greatest number of stelae known from any Maya city , they were sculpted from poor quality limestone and have suffered severe erosion , rendering most of them illegible . Stelae could be of substantial size ; Quiriguá Stela E measures 10 @.@ 6 metres ( 35 ft ) from the base to the top , including the 3 @-@ metre ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) buried portion holding it in place . This particular monument has a claim to being the largest free @-@ standing stone monument in the New World and weighs about 59 tonnes ( 65 short tons ) . Stela 1 at Ixkun is one of the tallest monuments in the Petén Basin , measuring 4 @.@ 13 metres ( 13 @.@ 5 ft ) high , not including the buried portion , and is roughly 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide and 0 @.@ 39 metres ( 1 @.@ 3 ft ) thick .
Maya stelae were worked with stone chisels and probably with wooden mallets . Hammerstones were fashioned from flint and basalt and were used for shaping the softer rocks used to make stelae , while fine detail was completed with smaller chisels . Originally most were probably brightly painted in red , yellow , black , blue and other colours using mineral and organic pigments . At Copán and some other Maya cities , some traces of these pigments were found upon the monuments .
Generally all sides of a stela were sculpted with human figures and hieroglyphic text , with each side forming a part of a single composition . Undecorated stelae in the form of plain slabs or columns of stone are found throughout the Maya region . These appear never to have been painted or to have been decorated with overlaid stucco sculpture .
= = History = =
= = = Preclassic origins = = =
The Maya sculptural tradition that produced the stelae emerged fully formed and had probably been preceded by sculpted wooden monuments . However the tradition of raising stelae had its origin elsewhere in Mesoamerica , among the Olmecs of the Gulf Coast of Mexico . In the Late Preclassic it then spread into the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and southwards along the Pacific Coast to sites such as Chiapa de Corzo , Izapa and Takalik Abaj where Mesoamerican Long Count calendar dates began to be carved onto the stelae . Although at Izapa the stelae depicted mythological scenes , at Takalik Abaj they began to show rulers in Early Classic Maya posture accompanied by calendrical dates and hieroglyphic texts . It was also at Takalik Abaj and Izapa that these stelae began to be paired with circular altars . By approximately 400 BC , near the end of the Middle Preclassic Period , early Maya rulers were raising stelae that celebrated their achievements and validated their right to rule . At El Portón in the Salamá Valley of highland Guatemala a carved schist stela ( Monument 1 ) was erected , the badly eroded hieroglyphs appear to be a very early form of Maya writing and may even be the earliest known example of Maya script . It was associated with a plain altar in a typical stela @-@ altar pairing that would become common across the Maya area . Stela 11 from Kaminaljuyu , a major Preclassic highland city , dates to the Middle Preclassic and is the earliest stela to depict a standing ruler . The sculpted Preclassic stelae from Kaminaljuyu and other cities in the region , such as Chalchuapa in El Salvador and Chocolá in the Pacific lowlands , tend to depict political succession , sacrifice and warfare .
These early stelae depicted rulers as warriors or wearing the masks and headdresses of Maya deities , accompanied by texts that recorded dates and achievements during their reigns , as well as recording their relationships with their ancestors . Stelae came to be displayed in large ceremonial plazas designed to display these monuments to maximum effect . The raising of stelae spread from the Pacific Coast and adjacent highlands throughout the Maya area . The development of Maya stelae coincides with the development of divine kingship among the Classic Maya . In the southern Maya area , the Late Preclassic stelae impressed upon the viewer the achievements of the king and his right to rule , thus reinforcing both his political and religious power .
At the Middle Preclassic city of Nakbe in the central lowlands , Maya sculptors were producing some of the earliest lowland Maya stelae , depicting richly dressed individuals . Nakbe Stela 1 has been dated to around 400 BC . It was broken into pieces , but originally represented two elaborately dressed figures facing each other , and perhaps represents the transference of power from one ruler to his successor , however it also has features that recall the myth of the Maya Hero Twins , and would be the earliest known presentation of them . Around 200 BC the enormous nearby city of El Mirador had started to erect stela @-@ like monuments , bearing inscriptions that appear to be glyphs but that are so far unreadable . A stela has also been discovered at El Tintal , another major Preclassic city in the Mirador Basin .
On the Pacific Coast El Baúl Stela 1 features a date in its hieroglyphic text that equates to 36 AD . It depicts a ruler bearing a sceptre or a spear with a double column of hieroglyphic text before him . At Takalik Abaj are two stelae ( Stela 2 and Stela 5 ) depicting the transfer of power from one ruler to another ; they both show two elaborately dressed figures facing each other with a column of hieroglyphic text between them . The Long Count date on Stela 2 dates it to the 1st century BC at the latest , while Stela 5 has two dates , the latest of which is 126 AD . The stela was associated with the burial of a human sacrifice and other offerings . Stela 13 at Takalik Abaj also dates to the Late Preclassic ; a massive offering of more than 600 ceramic vessels was found at its base , together with 33 obsidian prismatic blades and other artefacts . Both the stela and the offering were associated with a nearby Late Preclassic royal tomb . At Cuello in Belize , a plain stela was raised around 100 AD in an open plaza .
At the very end of the Preclassic Period , around 100 – 300 AD , cities in the highlands and along the Pacific Coast ceased to raise sculpted stelae bearing hieroglyphic texts . This cessation in the production of stelae was the most dramatic symptom of a general decline in the region at this time . This decline has been linked to the intrusion of peoples from the western highlands combined with the disastrous eruption of the Ilopango Volcano that severely affected the entire region .
= = = Early Classic = = =
In the central Petén lowlands , the rise of individual rule at cities like Tikal required the development of new forms of public imagery . Preclassic imagery had involved largely anonymous , impersonal sculpture as an architectural element . The existing Preclassic Petén styles of architectural sculpture were combined with features of the highland and Pacific Coast tradition to produce the Early Classic Maya stela . Features formerly found on architectural sculpture , such as the giant masks adorning Preclassic pyramids , were adapted for use on stelae . For example , the so @-@ called " Jester God " was transferred to the headdress of the ruler portrayed on Tikal Stela 29 , which bears the oldest Long Count date yet found in the Maya lowlands – equating to 292 AD . At some Maya cities the first appearance of stelae corresponded with the foundation of dynastic rule .
The standard form of the Maya stela incorporating art , calendrical dates and hieroglyphic text onto a royal monument only began to be erected in the Maya lowlands after 250 AD . The late 4th century saw the introduction of non @-@ Maya imagery linked to the giant metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico . This foreign influence is seen at Tikal , Uaxactun , Río Azul and El Zapote , all in the Petén Department of Guatemala . At Tikal this was initiated by the king Yax Nuun Ayiin I , from there it spread to his vassal cities . In the 5th century , this strongly Teotihuacan @-@ linked imagery was abandoned by Yax Nuun Ayiin I 's son Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II , who reintroduced imagery associated with the Pacific Coast and adjacent highlands . Minor references to Teotihuacan continued , for example in the form of Teotihuacan war emblems . His Stela 31 was originally erected in 445 but was later broken from its butt and was found buried in the city centre , almost directly above his tomb . It depicts the crowning of Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II , with his father hovering above him as a supernatural being and is executed in traditional Maya style . On the sides of the stela are carved two portraits of his father in a non @-@ Maya style , dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior , bearing the central Mexican atlatl spear @-@ thrower not adopted by the Maya , and carrying a shield adorned with the face of the Mexican god Tlaloc . The reverse of the stela bears a lengthy hieroglyphic inscription detailing the history of Tikal , including the Teotihuacan invasion that established Yax Nuun Ayiin I and his dynasty .
In the Early Classic period the Maya kings began to dedicate a new stela , or other monument , to mark the end of each k 'atun cycle ( representing 7 @,@ 200 days , just under 20 sidereal years ) . At Tikal , the first to do so was king Kan Chitam who ruled in the late 5th century . Stela 9 from the city is the first dated monument raised to mark off a period of time , it was raised in 475 .
= = = Late Classic = = =
In the Late Classic the sculpted images of rulers on stelae remained much the same as in the Early Classic , appearing in profile in the foreground and filling almost the entire available space , which is delimited by a frame . Imagery associated with the Mesoamerican ballgame started to appear in the Maya lowlands in the Late Classic Period . Maya kings are depicted as warriors wearing costume from the Mexican highlands , including elements such as the foreign god Tlaloc and the Teotihacan serpent . Such imagery appears in the Late Classic on stelae from Naranjo , Piedras Negras and the Petexbatún cities of Dos Pilas and Aguateca . At Dos Pilas , a pair of stelae represent the king of the city in costume forming a jaguar and eagle pairing , characteristic of the Mexican warrior cult . Stelae were being erected by the Maya across the entire central and southern Maya lowlands by 790 , an area that encompassed 150 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 58 @,@ 000 sq mi ) .
In the north , Coba on the eastern side of the Yucatán Peninsula raised at least 23 large stelae . Although badly eroded their style and texts link them to cities from the Petén Basin . At the southern periphery of the Maya region , Copán developed a new high @-@ relief style of stelae and in 652 the twelfth king Chan Imix K 'awiil arranged a series of these stelae to define the sacred geometry of the city , and to celebrate his royal rule and his ancestors . His son and successor Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil further developed this new high @-@ relief style of sculpture and erected a series of intricately decorated stelae in the city 's Great Plaza that brought the carving of stelae close to full in @-@ the @-@ round three @-@ dimensional sculpture . Both of these kings focused on their own images on their stelae and emphasised their place in the dynastic sequence to justify their rule , possibly linked to a break in the dynastic sequence with the death of the eleventh king of Copán .
After Quiriguá defeated its overlord Copán in 738 , it brought massive blocks of red sandstone from quarries 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) from the city and sculpted a series of enormous stelae that were the biggest monolithic monuments ever raised by the Maya . Stela E stands over 10 metres ( 33 ft ) high and weighs more than 60 tons . These stelae were shaped into a square cross @-@ section and were decorated on all four faces . These stelae usually bear two images of the Quiriguá king , on the front and the back , in a lower relief than that found at Copán . They feature highly complex panels of hieroglyphic text that are among the most skillfully executed of all Maya inscriptions in stone . The stelae have weathered well and display fine precision on the part of the sculptors .
= = = Terminal Classic = = =
The decline in the erection of stelae is linked to the decline in the institution of divine kingship , which began in the Late Preclassic . Originally the stelae depicted the king with symbols of power , sometimes standing over defeated enemies and occasionally accompanied by his wives or his heir . By the Terminal Classic , kings were sharing stelae with subordinate lords , who also played a prominent role in the events depicted . This reflected a decentralisation of power and the bargaining between high @-@ ranking nobles so that the king could maintain power , but led to a progressive weakening of the king 's rule . As the position of the king became weaker and that of his vassals and subordinates became stronger , the latter began to erect their own stelae , a function that was formerly the exclusive preserve of the king himself . Some of these subordinates broke away to form their own petty states , but even this did not last and they also ceased to erect monuments .
In the Pasión River region of Petén , rulers began to be portrayed as ballplayers on stelae . Seibal was the first site in the region to depict its rulers thus . Seventeen stelae were erected at Seibal between 849 and 889 , and show a mix of Maya and foreign styles , including a lord wearing the beaked mask of Ehecatl , the central Mexican wind god , with a Mexican @-@ style speech scroll emerging from the mouth . Some of these have a stylistic affinity with the painted murals at Cacaxtla , a non @-@ Maya site in the central Mexican state of Tlaxcala . This hybrid style seems to indicate that the kings of Seibal were Maya lords adapting to changing political conditions by adopting a mix of symbols originating from both lowland Maya and central Mexican sources . Some of the more foreign @-@ looking stelae even bear non @-@ Maya calendrical glyphs . Stelae at Oxkintok , to the north in the Puuc region of the Yucatán Peninsula , divided the face of the stela into up to three levels , each of which contained a different scene , usually of a lone figure that could be either male or female . The representation of the human figure differed from the formal treatment in the south , and were simplified , coarse representations lacking individuality amongst sociopolitical and religious symbols .
As the Classic Maya collapse swept across the Maya region , city after city ceased to erect stelae recording its dynastic achievements . At the important city of Calakmul , two stelae were raised in 800 and three more in 810 , but these were the last and the city fell into silence . At Oxkintok the last stela was raised in 859 . Stela 11 , dated to 869 , was the last monument to ever be erected at the once great city of Tikal . The last known Maya stelae bearing a Long Count calendrical date are Toniná Monument 101 , which was erected in 909 to mark the k 'atun ending that year , and Stela 6 from Itzimté , dated to 910 .
= = = Postclassic = = =
At Copán ritual offerings were deposited around the city 's stelae until at least 1000 , which may represent the offerings of a surviving elite that still remembered its ancestors , or may be due to highland Maya still regarding the city as a place of pilgrimage long after it had fallen into ruin . At Lamanai in Belize , Classic period stelae were repositioned upon two small Postclassic platforms dating to the 15th or 16th century . At La Milpa , also in Belize , at around the time of Spanish contact in the late 16th century a tiny remnant Maya population started to make offerings of Conquest @-@ period pottery to stelae , perhaps in an effort to invoke the ancestors to help resist the Spanish onslaught . A plain stela in Twin Pyramid Group R at Tikal was removed by the local inhabitants some time during the Postclassic ; its accompanying altar was also moved but abandoned some distance from its original location . Some plain stelae were raised at Topoxté in the Petén Lakes region of Guatemala in the Postclassic ; these were perhaps covered in stucco and painted . This may represent a revival of the katun @-@ ending ceremonies that occurred in the Classic Period , and reflected ties with the northern Yucatán .
= = Discovery = =
One of the earliest accounts of Maya stelae comes from Diego Garcia de Palacio , a Spanish colonial official who described six of the stelae at Copán in a letter to king Philip II of Spain written in 1576 . Juan Galindo , governor of Petén , visited Copán in 1834 and noted the sculpted high @-@ relief stelae there . Five years later , American diplomat John Lloyd Stephens and British artist Frederick Catherwood arrived in war @-@ torn Central America and set out for Copán , describing fifteen stelae in Stephens ' Incidents of Travel in Central America , Chiapas and Yucatán , published in 1841 . Stephens and Catherwood noticed the presence of red pigment on some of the Copán stelae . Stephens unsuccessfully attempted to buy the ruins of Quiriguá , and purchased Copán for US $ 50 ( $ 1 @,@ 100 in 2016 ) with the idea of shipping the stelae to New York for display in a new museum . In the event , he was prevented from shipping the monuments down the Copán River by the discovery of impassable rapids and all the stelae remained at the site . While Stephens was engaged on business elsewhere , Catherwood carried out a brief investigation of the stelae at Quiriguá but found them very difficult to draw without a camera lucida due to their great height . Ambrosio Tut , governor of Petén , and colonel Modesto Méndez , the chief magistrate , visited the ruins of Tikal in 1848 accompanied by Eusebio Lara , who drew some of the monuments there . In 1852 Modesto Méndez went on to discover Stela 1 and Stela 5 at Ixkun . English explorer Alfred Maudslay arrived at Quiriguá in 1881 and cleared the vegetation from the stelae , then travelled on to see the stelae at Copán . In the early 20th century , an expedition by the Carnegie Institution led by American Mayanist Sylvanus Morley discovered a stela at Uaxactun . This period marked a change from the efforts of individual explorers to those of institutions that funded archaeological exploration , excavation and restoration .
= = Collections = =
Notable collections of stelae on public display include an impressive series of 8th @-@ century monuments at Quiriguá and 21 stelae collected in the sculpture museum at Tikal National Park , both of which are World Heritage Sites in Guatemala . Calakmul , in Mexico , is another World Heritage site that also includes many stelae regarded as outstanding examples of Maya art . Copán in Honduras , also a World Heritage Site , possesses over 10 finely carved stelae in the site core alone .
The Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología ( " National Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology " ) in Guatemala City displays a number of fine stelae , including three 9th @-@ century stelae from Machaquilá , an 8th @-@ century stela from Naranjo and other stelae from Ixtutz , Kaminaljuyu , La Amelia , Piedras Negras , Seibal , Tikal , Uaxactun and Ucanal . The Museo Nacional de Antropología ( " National Museum of Anthropology " ) in Mexico City has a small number of Maya stelae on display . The San Diego Museum of Man in California contains replicas of the stelae from Quiriguá that were made in 1915 for the Pacific @-@ California Exhibition .
Many Maya archaeological sites have stelae on display in their original locations , in Guatemala these include , but are not limited to , Aguateca , Dos Pilas , El Chal , Ixkun , Nakum , Seibal , Takalik Abaj , Uaxactun , and Yaxha . In Mexico , stelae may be seen at Yaxchilan , and the site museum at Toniná .
= = Looting = =
Stelae have become threatened in modern times by plundering for sale on the international art market . Many stelae are found in remote areas and their size and weight prevents them from being removed intact . Various methods are used to cut or break a stela for easier transport , including power saws , chisels , acid and heat . When a monument is well preserved , the looters attempt to cut off its face for transport . Even when successful , this results in damage to inscriptions on the sides of the stela . At worst , this method results in complete fragmentation of the stela face with any recoverable sculpture removed for sale . Traceable fragments of well known monuments have been purchased by American museums and private collectors in the past . When such monuments are removed from their original context , their historical meaning is lost . Although museums have justified their acquisition of stelae fragments with the argument that such objects are better preserved in an institution , no stela has been sold in as good a condition as it was in its original location . After 1970 there was a sharp drop in Maya stelae available on the New York art market due to the ratification of a treaty with Mexico that guarantees the return of stolen pre @-@ Columbian sculpture that was removed from the country after the ratification date . In the early 1970s some museums , such as that of the University of Pennsylvania , responded to international criticism by no longer purchasing archaeological artefacts that lack a legally documented history , including place of origin , previous owners and an export license . Harvard University also instituted a similar policy in the early 1970s .
In 1972 , the initially well preserved Stela 5 at Ixkun was smashed into pieces by looters , who heated it until it shattered and then stole various pieces . A number of remaining fragments of the monument were rescued by archaeologist Ian Graham and transferred to the mayor 's office in Dolores , Petén , where they were eventually used as construction material before once again being recovered , this time by the Atlas Arqueológico de Guatemala in 1989 , and moved to their archaeological laboratory . At the nearby site of Ixtonton , 7 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) from Ixkun , most of the stelae were robbed before the site 's existence was reported to the Guatemalan authorities . By the time archaeologists visited the site in 1985 only 2 stelae remained .
In 1974 , a dealer in pre @-@ Columbian artefacts by the name of Hollinshead arranged for the illegal removal of Machaquilá Stela 2 from the Guatemalan jungle . He and his co @-@ conspirators were prosecuted in the United States under the National Stolen Property Act and they were the first people to be convicted under this act with reference to national patrimony laws . The act states :
" whoever transports , transmits , or transfers in interstate or foreign commerce any goods ... of the value of $ 5 @,@ 000 or more , knowing the same to have been stolen , converted or taken by fraud ... [ s ] hall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than ten years , or both ... " [ w ] hoever receives , possesses , conceals , stores , barters , sells , or disposes of any goods .. . which have crossed a State or United States boundary after being stolen , unlawfully converted , or taken , knowing the same to have been stolen , unlawfully converted , or taken ( is subject to fine or imprisonment ) . "
The act was originally intended to discourage the handling of stolen property but several courts have judged that the National Stolen Property Act is sufficiently broad in scope to apply to goods crossing into the United States from a foreign nation , and is therefore applicable in the case of stolen cultural property .
Under Guatemalan law , Maya stelae and other archaeological artefacts are property of the Guatemalan government and may not be removed from the country without its permission . In the case of Machaquilá Stela 2 , the monument was well known before it was stolen and its illegal removal was easy to prove . The stela itself was cut into pieces , with the face being sawn off and moved to a fish packing factory in Belize , where it was packed into boxes and shipped to California . There it was seized by the Federal Bureau of Investigation after being offered for sale to various institutions . The stolen portion of the stela was returned to Guatemala and is now in storage at the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City .
Looting has been linked to the economic and political stability of the possessing nation , with levels of looting increasing during times of crisis . It also appears that art collectors have stelae , or portions of them , stolen to order by browsing archaeological books and catalogues for desirable pieces . Examples of this may be found at Aguateca and El Perú , both in Guatemala 's Petén department , where only the better preserved hieroglyphs and human faces were cut away .
= Alone ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Alone " is the nineteenth episode of the eight season and the 180th episode overall of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on May 6 , 2001 on Fox , and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on June 14 , 2001 . It was written and directed by executive producer Frank Spotnitz . " Alone " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 5 and was viewed by 12 @.@ 7 million viewers . It received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) — as well as ex @-@ FBI agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Doggett is paired with an enthusiastic young agent named Leyla Harrison who knows everything about the X @-@ Files , when Scully goes on maternity leave . Harrison 's apotheosis of Mulder and Scully leads to Doggett learning a thing or two . But when Harrison and Doggett disappear , Mulder defies orders in an attempt to find them .
" Alone " marked the directorial debut of Spotnitz , who had been a writer on the show for several years . In addition , the episode would be the last Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week episode to feature an appearance by David Duchovny as Fox Mulder . The character of Leyla Harrison was named after an X @-@ Files fan who died of cancer in 2001 .
= = Plot = =
In Ellicott , New York , Arlen Sacks is killed by an unknown creature that sprays venom on its victims , and his son Gary goes missing . In the meantime , at the FBI headquarters , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , preparing for maternity leave , packs up her belongings at the X @-@ Files office . Scully finds a medallion commemorating the Apollo 11 space flight that was given to her for her birthday by Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) . Scully gives John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) the medallion , explaining that it symbolizes teamwork . After Scully leaves , Special Agent Leyla Harrison arrives and tells Doggett that she is his new partner . The two are soon assigned to investigate Sacks ' bizarre murder .
At the crime scene , Doggett and Harrison search for clues . Doggett finds evidence of the venom , which is sent to an FBI lab for analysis . Harrison explains to Doggett that in her previous job she processed Mulder and Scully 's travel expenses during their time on the X @-@ Files , and has thus gained an encyclopedic knowledge of their investigations . Following a wooded trail from the crime scene , Doggett and Harrison stumble upon an upscale mansion and make their way inside . A strange creature clinging to the wall secretly observes their every move . Doggett discovers a study full of biology journals and a copy of the anthropologist Richard Leakey 's book The Sixth Extinction . Doggett pulls out his gun , sensing that something is amiss , and finds Harrison in the hallway . He then instructs Harrison to position herself outside while he tries to flush the creature out of the house . Moments after Doggett instructs Harrison to stand guard he hears gun shots being fired . Rushing outside , he cannot find Harrison anywhere in the yard . He walks farther to the edge and falls through a trap door at the edge of the front lawn .
During an autopsy , Scully correctly deduces that Arlen was blinded by reptile venom . Meanwhile , Doggett and Harrison , having fallen into old bootlegger tunnels below the mansion grounds , encounter the creature and are sprayed with venom , temporarily blinding them . The two find Gary Sacks in dire need of medical attention nearby . Noting Doggett and Harrison 's absence , Mulder searches the area around the mansion for clues and encounters the owner , Herman Stites , who identifies himself as a biologist . Mulder soon leaves the area as Stites notices Doggett about to escape the tunnels and knocks him back in . Mulder waits in his car in Stites ' driveway until dark , telling Scully that he found the Apollo medallion near Stites ' estate and is convinced Doggett is somewhere nearby . He spots the creature and chases it to the mansion where it climbs up to a second floor . Mulder follows the creature into the house and down into the tunnels , where he encounters Harrison and Doggett . With the creature approaching , Mulder tells the still @-@ blinded Doggett to open fire at him on his command . The blinded Doggett then shoots the creature as it leaps at Mulder ; the deceased creature then turns into Stites .
Later , Scully and Mulder meet Doggett , who has now fully recovered , at the hospital . He tells them that Harrison will make a full recovery as well but that she is transferring herself off of the X @-@ Files . Mulder attempts to give Doggett the Apollo medallion , but Doggett insists that it be given to Harrison instead . Mulder and Scully then present it to Harrison together , who accepts it in awe .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and directing = = =
The episode was written by executive producer Frank Spotnitz , and marked his directorial debut . Because of his position as both the writer of the episode and the director , Spotnitz later noted that it was hard to achieve perfection when filming the episode . However , he did note that , as both the writer and director , he had more creative control than usual . Originally Spotnitz did not have plans to direct the episode but was encouraged to do so by David Duchovny ; Duchovny reminded Spotnitz that it would be the last Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week ( stand alone ) episode to feature his character , Fox Mulder . After production and shooting was finalized , the rough cut of " Alone " was nine minutes over time and in order to compensate for the time , various sections were cut during final editing . Robert Patrick was very pleased with Spotnitz 's work , stating , " You 're talking about some incredibly intelligent individuals , and they were very willing to let you , as an artist , discover what they were trying to do with the role . That 's a wonderful environment to work in . "
For the episode , Gillian Anderson 's character Dana Scully was written off as a member of The X @-@ Files office , since the next season would mark the creation of the " new " X @-@ Files with Robert Patrick and Annabeth Gish taking over for Duchovny and Anderson . Because of this change , Spotnitz called " Alone " the last of the " old " X @-@ Files stand @-@ alone episodes . As with many other episodes , Duchovny did not want his character to have all the answers , giving the reason that it looked too easy for him . Duchovny and Spotnitz later had a long discussion on how to remove the scenes or tweak them . Unfortunately , because the episode was the last stand @-@ alone episode to feature the character of Fox Mulder , Duchovny did not care as much as " usual " about creating a " mystery " for the episode .
= = = Casting = = =
Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) appeared in the episode only because Spotnitz did not want to miss the opportunity to direct an episode of The X @-@ Files that featured his character . However , because the episode was over time , Spotnitz ended up editing a large majority of his more " prominent " scenes out . In addition , another section that was scripted but ultimately cut was a scene between Anderson and Duchovny . Jolie Jenkins ' character , Leyla Harrison , was created and named in memory of a The X @-@ Files internet fan and prolific writer of fan fiction of the same name , who died of cancer on February 10 , 2001 . Jenkins ' characterization , according to Spotnitz , brought out the " Clint [ Eastwood ] " of Robert Patrick 's character John Doggett and her performance was called " near perfection " by Spotnitz during the audio commentary for this episode .
Due to Harrison 's extensive knowledge of the X @-@ Files , the episode contains several references to previous episodes . While looking through her desk drawer , Scully finds the merged coin from the sixth season entry " Dreamland " ; the Apollo 11 space flight medallion , which was given to her by Mulder in the fourth season episode " Tempus Fugit " ; and her dog Queequeg 's name tag , which she was given in the third season episode " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " . While investigating , Harrison mentions a liver @-@ eating mutant that produced bile and died under an escalator , a reference to Eugene Victor Tooms , who appeared in the first season episodes " Squeeze " and " Tooms " ; aliens that shed their skin and leave behind a residue similar to mucus , a reference to the alien from " The Beginning " ; and subterranean men in Florida who took people underground , as featured in " Detour " . While searching through Stites ' house , Doggett finds a book entitled The Sixth Extinction , a potential reference to the seventh season episode of the same name . In the episode 's final scene , Harrison asks Mulder how he and Scully managed to return to America after escaping from a spaceship in Antarctica , a reference to an event that took place at the end of the 1998 X @-@ Files feature film .
= = Reception = =
" Alone " debuted on Fox on May 6 , 2001 in the United States . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 5 , meaning that it was seen by 7 @.@ 5 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 56 million households , and 12 @.@ 7 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 35th most @-@ watched episode for the week ending May 6 . On June 14 , 2001 , the episode premiered in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 and received 480 @,@ 000 viewers making it the sixth most watched episode that week , behind Star Trek : Voyager and The Simpsons . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Don 't watch alone . "
The episode was met with mixed to positive reviews . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " , applauded Duchovny 's apparent energy to be acting on the series once again . However , he felt that the " overtness " of the episode resulted in many scenes coming off as too on @-@ the @-@ nose or strained . Television Without Pity gave the episode a B – rating but slightly criticized the way Fox was using Duchovny , sardonically writing , " I don 't know if you 're aware of this , but David Duchovny stars in The X @-@ Files . Did you know that ? Because they 've really been keeping it under wraps at Fox . " John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a 7 out of 10 rating . Keegan called the episode a " homage to fandom " and described the tone as " warm [ and ] fuzzy . " Because of this , he concluded that " [ o ] verall , this was an episode that dealt with the emotional needs of the audience in a way that was less effective than it might have been . "
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three and a half stars out of five and called it " an exercise in nostalgia " . The two called the episode " touching " and noted that many of the in @-@ jokes in the script , such as Harrison asking the agents how they got back from Antarctica , were " very funny " . Shearman and Pearson , however , did slightly critique the way the X @-@ Files were presented noting that the case was comparatively a " rather low @-@ key humdrum affair " . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a positive review , writing , " The future of The X @-@ Files is unsettled , but ' Alone ' served as a pleasant reminder of what has come before and why the journey to this point has , for the most part , been so wonderful . "
Not all reviews were positive . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it one star out of four . She derided the plot , writing " Why ? Who knows ? Who cares ? " Vitaris further criticized the episode incorporation of the fandom and suggested that some of the questions asked by Harrison were meant to be " making fun " of " fannish questions " .
= Quiriguá =
Quiriguá ( Spanish pronunciation : [ kiɾiˈɣwa ] ) is an ancient Maya archaeological site in the department of Izabal in south @-@ eastern Guatemala . It is a medium @-@ sized site covering approximately 3 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 sq mi ) along the lower Motagua River , with the ceremonial center about 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) from the north bank . During the Maya Classic Period ( AD 200 – 900 ) , Quiriguá was situated at the juncture of several important trade routes . The site was occupied by 200 , construction on the acropolis had begun by about 550 , and an explosion of grander construction started in the 8th century . All construction had halted by about 850 , except for a brief period of reoccupation in the Early Postclassic ( c . 900 – c . 1200 ) . Quiriguá shares its architectural and sculptural styles with the nearby Classic Period city of Copán , with whose history it is closely entwined .
Quiriguá 's rapid expansion in the 8th century was tied to king K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat 's military victory over Copán in 738 . When the greatest king of Copán , Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil or " 18 @-@ Rabbit " , was defeated , he was captured and then sacrificed in the Great Plaza at Quiriguá . Before this , Quiriguá had been a vassal state of Copán , but it maintained its independence afterwards . The ceremonial architecture at Quiriguá is quite modest , but the site 's importance lies in its wealth of sculpture , including the tallest stone monumental sculpture ever erected in the New World .
= = Name and location = =
The archaeological site of Quiriguá is named after the nearby village of the same name , and is located a little over 200 km ( 120 mi ) northeast of Guatemala City ; it lies in the municipality of Los Amates in the department of Izabal and has an elevation of 75 m ( 246 ft ) above mean sea level .
Positioned on the north bank of the lower reaches of the Motagua River , Quiriguá is situated at the point where the valley broadens into a flood plain , which has exposed the site to periodic flooding over the centuries . Although the river passed close to the site during the period of the city 's occupation , it has since changed course and now flows 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) south of the ceremonial centre . Quiriguá is 48 km ( 30 mi ) north of Copán , and is located 15 @.@ 7 km ( 9 @.@ 8 mi ) north @-@ west of the international border with Honduras .
The local bedrock is a hard red sandstone , which the inhabitants used in the construction of monuments and architecture . This local sandstone is very strong and not prone to shearing or fracturing , allowing the sculptors at Quiriguá to erect the tallest freestanding stone monuments in the Americas . Quiriguá was built directly over the Motagua Fault and the city suffered damage in ancient times as a result of major earthquakes .
= = Population = =
Although the Quiriguá elite were clearly Maya in ethnicity , the site lies on the southern periphery of the Mesoamerican area and the population was at least bi @-@ ethnic , with ethnic Maya in a minority . The majority of the population belonged ethnically to the less complex Intermediate Area lying beyond the eastern border of Mesoamerica . The population density of the site has been estimated at 400 to 500 per square kilometer ( 1040 to 1300 per square mile ) in the centre of the city during the Late Classic with an estimated peak population of 1200 – 1600 ; surveys have revealed an average of 130 structures per square kilometer ( 338 per square mile ) at the site , compared with 1449 structures / km2 ( 3767 per square mile ) in central Copán . The low population density indicates that Quiriguá served as the focus for a dispersed rural population .
The population levels of the Quiriguá valley increased rapidly after the successful rebellion against Copán in 738 , although it was never a heavily populated site . In the 9th century there was a severe decline in population , culminating in the abandonment of the city .
= = Economy = =
The Motagua River flows down from the western Guatemalan highlands , and Quiriguá was ideally positioned to control the trade of uncut jade , the majority of which was found in the middle reaches of the Motagua Valley , as well as controlling the flow of other important commodities up and down the river such as cacao , which was produced as a local cash crop . Although cacao was produced for trade , maize remained the primary local crop due to its central role in the Maya diet . In addition , maize probably formed an important component in the site 's tribute payments to its overlords at Copán , a city that was exhausting its own local resources . Although little jade has been recovered from the site , there is evidence for trade in obsidian originating from the Ixtepeque source situated near the upper reaches of the Motagua .
In the Classic Period , the location of the site would have placed Quiriguá on a crossroads between the trading route from the highlands to the Caribbean coast and the route from Copán to the major cities of the Petén Basin .
= = Known rulers = =
As recorded on hieroglyphic inscriptions at Quiriguá , all dates are AD . Maya inscriptions for rulers sometimes include reference to a number ( " hel @-@ number " or count , named after its main glyph ) that are believed to specify the position of that ruler in the sequence of dynastic succession to the rulership of the site . Thus a hel @-@ number of five indicates the ruler was fifth in the line of dynastic succession .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
There is evidence that Quiriguá was occupied as early as the Late Preclassic ( 400 BC – AD 200 ) . Although no structures have been securely dated to this period , a number of Late Preclassic artifacts have been recovered , including 63 figurines and a chert blade . Early Classic ceramics from Quiriguá are similar to finds at both Copán and Chalchuapa in El Salvador , while jade hunchback figurines from the same period resemble those found in central Honduras and in the Guatemalan highlands . These early finds demonstrate the participation of Quiriguá in the wider southeastern Maya region from the Late Preclassic onwards .
A combination of hieroglyphic texts from Tikal , Copán and Quiriguá , together with architectural styles and chemical tests of the bones of the founder of the Copán dynasty all suggest that Quiriguá and Copán were founded by elite colonists from the great city of Tikal as a part of its expansion into the southeastern border area of the Maya region . The recorded history of Quiriguá starts in 426 , in the Early Classic ( c . 200 – c . 600 ) ; according to hieroglyphic inscriptions at other sites , on 5 September of that year K 'inich Yax K 'uk ' Mo ' was enthroned as king of Copán . Just three days later he installed " Tok Casper " , the first known king of Quiriguá , upon the throne . From this it is evident that right from the beginning of its recorded history Quiriguá was subservient to its southern neighbour , and was founded to bring the lucrative trade route of the Motagua River under the control of Copán and , indirectly , of Tikal . During the next few centuries , about which little is known , the ceremonial architecture at Quiriguá was limited to the hilltop Group A and a broad earthen platform on the valley floor . It is recorded that a stela , as yet undiscovered , was erected in 455 by Tutuum Yohl K 'inich , the second king of Quiriguá . An early monument records the supervision of a ritual in 480 by the then overlord from Copán , demonstrating Quiriguá 's continued status as a vassal of that city . A hieroglyphic text dating to 493 mentions two further kings of Quiriguá , but interruptions in the text make the reading and decipherment of their names particularly difficult .
There are close parallels between the 5th @-@ century architecture and monuments of Quiriguá and Uaxactun in the northern Petén , a site that fell under the domination of Tikal in the late 4th century . The similarities show that Quiriguá remained strongly aligned with the great Tikal alliance network .
= = = Hiatus and recovery = = =
Quiriguá suffered a hiatus from the turn of the 6th century that lasted through to the middle of the 7th century . This may be linked to the Tikal hiatus of the Middle Classic caused by Tikal 's defeat by Calakmul . There is evidence that Quiriguá suffered an attack by unknown enemies in this period , as demonstrated by the apparently deliberate defacement of Stela U and Monument 26 , characteristic of damage inflicted by invading warriors . No monuments were erected during this hiatus , which lasted from 495 to 653 .
In the 6th or early 7th century a natural disaster caused a devastating flood of the Motagua Valley and buried the surface of the site under a deep layer of silt , completely changing the landscape . Only those buildings that stood above the mud continued in use , including group A , saved by its hilltop location . The earthen platform on the valley floor also continued in use , at least those parts of it that stood above the silt , and it was one of the site 's smaller complexes that grew to become the new centre of Quiriguá , as represented by the monuments visible to this day .
A revival can be identified by the dedication of the first new monument in a century and a half , raised by the otherwise unknown king , K 'awiil Yopaat , in 653 . Continued contact with Copán is evident , as well as longer distance contacts , possibly with Caracol in Belize . At about the same time major construction work was undertaken in the acropolis , including the building of the site 's first ballcourt .
= = = Apogee = = =
Quiriguá traditionally had been subordinate to its southern neighbour , Copán , and in 724 Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil , king of Copán , installed K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat upon Quiriguá 's throne as his vassal . As early as 734 , however , K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat had shown that he was no longer an obedient subordinate of Copán when he started to refer to himself as k 'ul ahaw , holy lord , instead of using the lesser term ahaw , subordinate lord ; at the same time he began to use his own Quiriguá emblem glyph . These early assertions of independence can only have been made if Qu
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iriguá had managed to form an external alliance .
Indeed , this local act of rebellion appears to have been part of the larger political struggle between the two Maya " superpowers " , the great cities of Tikal and Calakmul . In 736 , only two years later , K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat received a visit from Wamaw K 'awiil , the high king of distant Calakmul , while Copán was one of Tikal 's oldest allies . The timing of this visit by the king of Calakmul is highly significant , falling between the accession of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat to the throne of Quiriguá as a vassal of Copán and the outright rebellion that was to follow . This strongly suggests that Calakmul sponsored Quiriguá 's rebellion in order to weaken Tikal and to gain access to the rich trade route of the Motagua Valley . It is likely that contact with Calakmul had been initiated soon after K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat acceded to the throne , since Quiriguá experienced rapid growth soon after , suggesting that Quiriguá already was receiving external support .
In 738 the interlinked fortunes of Quiriguá and Copán took a stunning change of direction when K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , reigning lord of Quiriguá , captured the powerful , but elderly 13th king of Copán , Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil , who had installed him on his throne in 725 . This coup does not seem to have affected either Copán or Quiriguá physically , there is no evidence that either city was attacked at this time and the victor seems not to have received any detectable tribute . Quiriguá seems rather to have gained its independence and the control of important trade routes . An inscription at Quiriguá , although difficult to interpret , suggests that the capture took place on 27 April 738 , when Quiriguá seized and burned the wooden images of Copán 's patron deities . All of this seems to imply that K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat managed to somehow ambush Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil , rather than to have defeated him in outright battle . In the Classic Period the statues of Maya deities often were carried into battle on palanquins , facilitating their capture in the event of defeat . It has been suggested that the king of Copán was attempting to attack another site in order to secure captives for sacrifice , and was ambushed by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat and his Quiriguá warriors .
The captured lord was taken back to Quiriguá and on 3 May 738 he was decapitated in a public ritual . The sacrificial offering of the blood of such a powerful overlord greatly enhanced the standing of Quiriguá and its royal family throughout the region and it proclaimed Quiriguá as the new capital of the south @-@ eastern Maya region . After this , Quiriguá engaged in a major monument @-@ building programme , closely mimicking the sculptural style of Copán , possibly using captured Copán sculptors to carry out the work . The population of Quiriguá and of other sites in the valley rapidly increased after the events of 738 , although Quiriguá was always a small centre and its total population probably never exceeded 2 @,@ 000 .
In the Late Classic ( c . 600 – c . 900 ) , alliance with Calakmul frequently was associated with the promise of military support . The fact that Copán , a much more powerful city than Quiriguá , failed to retaliate against its former vassal implies that it feared the military intervention of Calakmul . Calakmul itself was far enough away from Quiriguá that K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat was not afraid of falling directly under its power as a full vassal state , even though it is likely that Calakmul sent warriors to help in the defeat of Copán . The alliance instead seems to have been one of mutual advantage , Calakmul managed to weaken a powerful ally of Tikal while Quiriguá gained its independence .
In 718 , the city of Xkuy – an as yet undiscovered site – was attacked and burned by Copán under the leadership of king Uaxaclajuun Ub 'aah K 'awiil . After the king of Copán was sacrificed in 738 , Xkuy seems to have become a loyal vassal of Quiriguá and in 762 K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat supervised the accession of " Sunraiser Jaguar " to the subservient city 's throne .
K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , who had so dramatically changed the destiny of his city , died on 27 July 785 . Zoomorph G is his memorial stone and it describes how he was buried 10 days later in the 13 Kawak House , a building that has not been identified . The great king was succeeded by " Sky Xul " , a king whose name has not been properly identified . " Sky Xul " became the reigning lord of Quiriguá 78 days after the death of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , who is thought to have been his father . His reign lasted from 10 to 15 years and was a period of continued activity . In most of the Maya region cities already were suffering terminal decline , engulfed by the Classic Maya collapse , but in Quiriguá " Sky Xul " dedicated three great zoomorph sculptures and two altars , considered marvels of Maya stoneworking . " Sky Xul " died some time between 795 and 800 .
= = = Decline and collapse = = =
Little is known of " Jade Sky " , who succeeded " Sky Xul " and was the last recorded ruler of Quiriguá . The city 's power already was waning , as evidenced by the two stunted stelae erected during his reign , which indicate that the kingdom no longer had access to the kind of resources needed to produce monuments of a similar quality to those of his predecessors . " Jade Sky " did build two of the largest structures in the acropolis , however .
Quiriguá apparently retained its independence from Copán and continued to flourish until the beginning of the 9th century . Relations between the two cities had improved somewhat by 810 , when king Yax Pasaj Chan Yopaat of Copán visited Quiriguá in order to carry out a k 'atun @-@ ending ritual . However , 810 was also the year when the last hieroglyphic texts were raised at Quiriguá , although a reduced level of construction continued in the city centre . After this , Quiriguá falls into silence , engulfed by the greater phenomenon of the Classic Maya collapse – it had lost its reason for existence when trade no longer flowed along the Motagua ; within a few years Quiriguá was all but deserted and sites throughout the Motagua Valley suffered severe decline or abandonment .
= = = Postclassic = = =
In the early Postclassic Period ( c . 900 – c . 1200 ) , Quiriguá was occupied by peoples closely linked to the Caribbean coastal areas of the Yucatán Peninsula and Belize , perhaps due to Chontal Maya control of a trade network that included the Yucatán coast and the Motagua Valley . During their brief reoccupation of the site they made substantial additions to the acropolis complex . Finds associated with their occupation include a reclining chacmool sculpture and ceramics from the east coast of Yucatán , artifacts that demonstrate a close link with the distant city of Chichen Itza . Some copper bells and ornaments were recovered from Quiriguá , they are among the earliest finds of metal artifacts in the Maya area . They have been dated to either the Terminal Classic ( c . 800 – c . 950 ) or the Early Postclassic .
= = = Modern history = = =
The first European visitor to publish an account of Quiriguá was English architect and artist Frederick Catherwood , who reached the ruins in 1840 . The previous landowner , by the surname of Payés , had related the existence of the ruins to his sons and to Carlos Meiney , a Jamaican Englishman resident in Guatemala . The elder Payés had recently died and passed the land to his sons and , since neither Meiney nor Payés ' sons had visited the land containing the ruins , they invited John Lloyd Stephens and Catherwood to join them on their first trip to the site . Stephens had other duties to attend to , but Catherwood was able to accompany the Payés brothers to Quiriguá . Due to adverse conditions he was only able to stay a short time at the ruins , but made drawings of two of the stelae , which were published with a short account of Catherwood 's visit in John Lloyd Stephens 's book Incidents of Travel in Central America , Chiapas , and Yucatan in 1841 . Quiriguá was the first site that Stephens and Catherwood could claim to have discovered themselves . A longer account of the ruins was made in 1854 by Dr. Karl Scherzer .
Explorer and archaeologist Alfred Maudslay visited Quiriguá for three days in 1881 ; they were the first pre @-@ Columbian ruins that he saw and they were sufficiently impressive to inspire him to take up a permanent interest in Central American archaeology . He was able to return on three further occasions , the last being in 1894 , and he made the first efforts to clear the monuments before recording them . He carried out a very thorough examination and made a photographic record of all visible monuments , carried out some minor excavations , made paper and plaster molds of the hieroglyphic inscriptions and surveyed the principal sculptures ; these molds were then shipped to the Victoria and Albert Museum , with casts being transferred to the British Museum .
In 1910 , the United Fruit Company bought Quiriguá and all the land for a great distance around the site for banana production ; they set aside 75 acres ( 30 ha ) around the ceremonial centre as an archaeological park , leaving an island of jungle among the plantations . More archaeological work was carried out from 1910 to 1914 by Edgar Lee Hewett and Sylvanus Morley for the School of American Archaeology in Santa Fe . Duplicates of the stelae of Quiriguá made from Hewitt 's plaster casts of the originals were exhibited at the Panama @-@ California Exposition in San Diego , California , in 1915 . The casts are still on display at the San Diego Museum of Man in their " Maya : Heart of Sky , Heart of Earth " exhibition . The Carnegie Institution conducted several intermittent projects at Quiriguá from 1915 through 1934 . Aldous Huxley , writing after visiting the site in the early 1930s , noted that Quiriguá 's stelae commemorated " man 's triumph over time and matter and the triumph of time and matter over man . " Quiriguá was among the first Maya archaeological sites to be studied intensively , although little restoration was carried out and the ruins once again became overgrown with jungle .
Quiriguá was declared a National Monument in 1970 under Ministerial Accord 1210 , this was followed on 19 June 1974 by its declaration as an Archaeological Park under Governmental Accord 35 @-@ 74 .
From 1974 through 1979 , an extensive archaeological project was conducted at Quiriguá sponsored by the University of Pennsylvania , the National Geographic Society , and the Guatemalan Instituto de Antropología e Historia . Directed by Robert Sharer and William R. Coe , the project excavated the acropolis , cleaned the monuments , and studied outlying groups . It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1981 , and in 1999 UNESCO approved one @-@ off funding of US $ 27 @,@ 248 for " emergency assistance for the rehabilitation of the archaeological site of Quiriguá " . One of the site 's stelae is depicted on the Guatemalan 10 centavo coin .
The 34 @-@ hectare ( 84 @-@ acre ) area included within the Archaeological Park of Quiriguá has been developed for tourism with the construction of a car park , site museum , and sanitation facilities and is open to the public on a daily basis .
= = The site = =
= = = Architecture = = =
After Quiriguá 's pivotal victory over Copán in 738 , K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat rebuilt the main group in the image of Copán itself . Thus , the acropolis , palace , and ballcourt all lie at the southern end of the Great Plaza . The ceremonial centre is laid out around three plazas , the northernmost is the Great Plaza . This plaza measures 325 m ( 1 @,@ 066 ft ) from north to south and is the largest plaza in the whole Maya region . At the southern end of the Great Plaza is the Ballcourt Plaza , surrounded on three sides by structures associated with the acropolis . The Acropolis Plaza is a fully enclosed plaza within the acropolis itself . The area to the west of the Ballcourt Plaza was probably the riverside docking area and there is evidence that the southern part of the Great Plaza was a marketplace . A number of ceramic @-@ lined wells have been excavated close to the site core , these were all built in the 8th century and although some continued in use into the 9th century , none are known to have been built that late .
1A @-@ 1 is an enormous platform forming the northern part of the Great Plaza . It measures 100 by 85 metres ( 328 by 279 ft ) and rises 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 20 in ) above the level of the southern part of the plaza . It forms the northern portion of the Great Plaza , being built by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat when he extended the plaza northward . The platform was built from river cobbles and was paved with stone slabs . Platform 1A @-@ 1 supported the stelae A , C , D , E and F and Zoomorph B. The platform was built in two phases over about 20 years .
1A @-@ 3 is a large mound marking the northern edge of the Great Plaza . It originally measured 82 @.@ 5 by 20 metres ( 271 by 66 ft ) and was 7 metres ( 23 ft ) high . A 63 @-@ metre ( 207 ft ) wide stairway climbed the southern face of the structure from the plaza . The structure was later extended to the north but this second phase of construction was never finished .
The acropolis is the largest architectural complex at Quiriguá , it lies at the southern limit of the ceremonial centre of the city . It is a complex construction , with new buildings and features being added over time . Construction of the acropolis began in 550 and continued through to 810 when the site was abandoned . The acropolis was a palace complex used primarily as an elite residence and for administrative purposes . The acropolis complex includes structures 1B @-@ 1 , 1B @-@ 2 , 1B @-@ 3 , 1B @-@ 4 , 1B @-@ 5 and 1B @-@ 6 . Excavations of the acropolis encountered the fallen remains of corbel arches , but none are still standing .
1B @-@ sub.1 is also known as the K 'inich Ahau Wall . It was a free @-@ standing wall over 23 metres ( 75 ft ) long and 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 5 ft ) thick , it stood on top of the western platform of the acropolis . The western side of the wall overlooked the river and bore five alternating mosaic masks representing solar deities and serpents with human arms . These masks were supported by a frieze consisting of two concentric ovals flanked by serpent heads . The wall was completed around 750 , during the reign of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat .
1B @-@ sub.4 Excavations at the acropolis discovered a completely buried ballcourt under the structures on the western side of the Acropolis Plaza , a rare example of a ballcourt having been built over by subsequent construction , in this case by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . This was the first ballcourt at the site and dates to the middle of the 7th century . It was built with blocks of rhyolite . This ballcourt is a close copy of the ballcourts at Copán , being built in the same style , to the same dimensions , and with the same orientation . The ballcourt was buried when K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat built the massive western platform to restrict access to the acropolis .
1B @-@ 1 is a structure which forms the southern limit of the Acropolis Plaza , a broad stairway leads down to the plaza from the northern side of the building . The lower walls of the structure are still standing and it has three entrances , each of which opens onto a small chamber . Each of the three chambers has a hieroglyphic step on the back wall leading to another small chamber . Originally the building had an external band of hieroglyphs . Both the exterior and internal glyphs bear the last known date recorded at Quiriguá , falling in June 810 . This building was built during the reign of " Jade Sky " .
1B @-@ 2 also lies south of the Acropolis Plaza , in the southwest corner . It is smaller than structure 1B @-@ 1 , which it adjoins , and its lower walls also are still standing . It was a small residential building that was elaborately decorated with sculptured stonework . This structure was probably the residence of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat .
1B @-@ 3 and 1B @-@ 4 are structures on the west side of the Acropolis Plaza , only the lower walls remain . Between these two structures is an older free @-@ standing wall . This wall has a westward facing mosaic frieze that bears damaged and now headless depictions of Kinich Ahau , the sun god .
1B @-@ 5 lies to the north of the Acropolis Plaza , at the south @-@ eastern corner of the Ballcourt Plaza . This structure was accessed via a broad stairway from the Acropolis Plaza to the south , which rises to a single entrance opening onto seven interconnected chambers . This is the largest building at Quiriguá and its walls are still standing . It was built during the reign of " Jade Sky " .
1B @-@ 6 lies to the east of the Acropolis Plaza and contained an ancestral shrine , reflecting a long established tradition first seen at Tikal . Located under the building was a tomb lined with slabs of schist , which contained an elite burial . The remains probably belonged to a male , the teeth were inlaid with jade , and a bead of the same material had been placed in the mouth . Associated ceramic offerings date this tomb to the Early Classic .
1B @-@ 7 is a ballcourt , built by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat to replace the ballcourt buried under his expansion of the acropolis . The ballcourt lies in the Ballcourt Plaza , to which it gives its name , to the northwest of the acropolis . The ballcourt has an east – west orientation that is unusual in the Maya region , where ballcourts traditionally are aligned north – south .
3C @-@ 1 is a broad earthen platform on the valley floor , it dates to the middle of the Classic Period and is one of the earlier constructions at the site , parts of it continuing in use after a catastrophic flood .
3C @-@ 7 is a group dating to the Early Classic . It is on the floodplain some distance to the north of the acropolis .
3C @-@ 8 is another Early Classic group located to the north of the acropolis .
Locus 011 and Locus 057 may have been watchposts , they were situated at the points where the Quiriguá and the Jubuco rivers entered the Motagua Valley and may have been used to control passing traffic on these routes . Locus 057 was situated on one of the most probable routes to Copán and may have been a watchpost to look out for enemy warriors after the defeat of Copán by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat .
Locus 122 and Locus 123 are groups located on the floodplain south of the river . Locus 122 , although unexcavated , is a compound consisting of a pyramidal mound and a NE – SW oriented plaza , similar to some Preclassic complexes in the highlands , for which reason it is presumed to date from that period .
Groups A , B and C lie at a distance of one to three miles from the site core .
Group A is a hilltop complex roughly dating to the early Classic Period . A stela found in this group dates to 493 .
Group B , also known as Group 7A @-@ 1 , is to the north of the site core . It is the location of the badly eroded Stela S , which was moved here from the Great Plaza in ancient times .
Group C has an unsculptured stela .
= = = Monuments = = =
The monuments at Quiriguá include unusually large stelae elaborately carved from single blocks of red sandstone , brought from quarries 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) away . The characteristics of this hard rock allowed the local sculptors to produce low @-@ relief sculptures enhanced by three @-@ dimensional faces , in contrast with the contemporary two @-@ dimensional sculpture of the Petén region . After the defeat and execution of the king of Copán in 738 , the sculptural style of Quiriguá closely resembled that of its former overlord . The enormous stelae at Quirigá originally would have been visible from the Motagua River , which once flowed past the west side of the Great Plaza , announcing the new @-@ found power of the city to passing traders . The monuments include long panels of glyphic text that are considered among the most complex and beautiful of all Maya stone inscriptions . A characteristic of these texts is the use of full @-@ figure glyphs in which the normal bar and dot number glyphs of Maya script are replaced with exquisitely carved representations of the deities . However , by the latter part of the 8th century Quiriguá had developed an original style with the production of boulders elaborately sculpted into the forms of composite mythological animals bearing elements of toads , jaguars , crocodiles , and birds of prey ; these sculptures are referred to as zoomorphs and were completed by two later kings after the death of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat in 785 .
There also are various altars and sculptures used as decoration in the facades of buildings ; most Quiriguá monuments have a grand formal monumentality that is rather stiff compared to the naturalistic grace of the art of some other Maya sites . Traces of red pigment have been found on some of the monuments and most of the monuments were likely to have been painted red , the colour of birth , sacrifice , and renewal .
Stela A was erected in 775 by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . Stela A and Stela C form a pair and were both dedicated on 29 December 775 .
Zoomorph B was dedicated in 780 by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , it is a multi @-@ ton boulder sculptured into a half @-@ crocodile half @-@ mountain beast . The hieroglyphic text on this monument consists entirely of full @-@ figure glyphs . Traces of red pigment have been found on this zoomorph , which is 4 metres ( 13 ft ) long . A dedication cache was found buried in a pit under Zoomorph B , it included seven flint blades between 14 and 46 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 and 18 @.@ 1 in ) in length .
Stela C was erected in 775 by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . The hieroglyphic text contains references to 455 and Tutuum Yohl K 'inich , an early king . The stela also bears a reference to the date 13 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 4 Ahaw 8 Kumk 'u ( 13 August 3114 BC ) . This date is recorded throughout the entire Maya area as the beginning of the current creation , when the deities were placed in order . Stela C forms a pair with Stela A and was dedicated on the same date .
Stela D dates to 766 , during the reign of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . It is distinguished by the relatively rare , extravagant , full @-@ figure anthropomorphic versions of Maya hieroglyphics on the upper parts of its sides , which are particularly well preserved . Stela D is roughly 6 metres ( 20 ft ) in height .
Stela E stands in the northern half of the Great Plaza . This stela was dedicated on 24 January 771 by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . Its total shaft measures 10 @.@ 6 metres ( 35 ft ) in height , including the buried portion holding it in place , which measures just under 3 metres ( 10 ft ) . This enormous monolith is the largest stone ever quarried by the ancient Maya and weighs approximately 65 tons , it may even be the largest free @-@ standing worked monolith in the New World . In 1917 this stela , already tilting away from vertical , finally fell over completely after heavy rains , although it remained unbroken . In 1934 an attempt was made to raise the stela using a winch and steel cables , during which the cables snapped and the monolith fell and was broken into two pieces , which have since been joined back together using concrete . This stela bears portraits of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat on its front and back .
Stela F is an enormous 7 @.@ 3 @-@ metre ( 24 ft ) high monolith carved from sandstone . It bears representations of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat on its north and south sides and hieroglyphic inscriptions on its east and west sides . It dates to 761 and when it was raised it was the tallest monument ever erected by the Maya ; it was only surpassed when Stela E was erected 10 years later .
Zoomorph G is the memorial monument to K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , dedicated during the reign of " Sky Xul " . It shows the face of the dead king emerging from the maw of an enormous jaguar . The text of this monument describes the death and burial of Quiriguá 's greatest king .
Stela H dates to 751 , during the reign of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . Its glyphs are arranged in a rare mat pattern , copied from Copán . The stela is executed in the wrap @-@ around style . A flint blade was found buried under the stela butt , buried as an offering when the stela was dedicated . The hieroglyphic inscriptions on Stela H are badly damaged .
Stela J was erected by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat in 756 and is carved in the wrap @-@ around style . It stands 5 metres ( 16 ft ) high and is located in the southern part of the Great Plaza . The dedicatory cache consisted of a house @-@ shaped clay box with unknown contents .
Altar L is fairly crudely worked and dates to 653 . The text bears the name of king K 'awiil Yopaat and also mentions " Smoke Imix " , the 12th king of Copán . The altar is a rhyolite disk 1 metre ( 39 in ) in diameter and 0 @.@ 25 metres ( 10 in ) thick . The sculptural style of this altar is unique , and shows affinities with the distant site of Caracol in Belize .
Altar M this modest monument is the earliest known monument dedicated by K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat . The importance of this monument lies in its text , in which this preeminent king of Quiriguá claimed the title of k 'uhul ajaw , holy lord , and began his bid for independence from Copán . This rhyolite sculpture was dedicated on 15 September 734 and has the form of a monstrous head , possibly that of a crocodilian .
Altar N is another small rhyolite sculpture stylistically similar to Altar M. This sculpture has the form of a turtle shell with a skeletal head with a mirror on its forehead emerging sideways from one end and an elderly figure from the other . This is a representation of the bicephalic deity Pawatun ( God N ) , a prominent underworld deity .
Zoomorph O is a crocodile @-@ mountain hybrid monster , dedicated in 790 by king " Sky Xul " . It is accompanied by an altar depicting a lightning god . It is located in the Ballcourt Plaza , just south of the ballcourt itself .
Zoomorph P ( which explorer Maudslay nicknamed The Great Turtle ) was dedicated in 795 by " Sky Xul " and is a masterpiece of Mesoamerican art . It weighs around 20 tons . On one side it depicts a larger @-@ than @-@ life portrait of " Sky Xul " himself seated cross @-@ legged in the open jaws of an enormous crocodile @-@ mountain hybrid monster . The design of this zoomorph is incredibly intricate and the whole monument is covered with skilfully executed sculpture . It is located in the Ballcourt Plaza , just south of the ballcourt . Zoomorph P is accompanied by an altar depicting an unidentified deity leaping from a split in the earth . A hieroglyphic text on the zoomorph describes the founding of Quiriguá under the supervision of the king of Copán . Traces of red pigment have been found on this monument , suggesting that it was originally painted red .
Altar Q and Altar R are two small rhyolite disks that probably served as ballcourt markers for the earliest ballcourt , the buried Structure 1B @-@ sub.4. Together with a third stone they would have marked the central axis of the ballcourt . They both bear seated cross @-@ legged figures carved in shallow relief .
Stela S is the earliest surviving monument of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat , it dates to 746 . It was originally located in the northern half of the Great Plaza but was moved to an outlying group in ancient times . It is heavily eroded , some of the damage may have been inflicted by the process of moving it . It was fashioned from sandstone and bears the figure of K 'ak ' Tiliw Chan Yopaat on the front , the other three sides being covered by hieroglyphic text . Unfortunately , due to the heavy erosion most of the text is illegible . Stela S is 2 @.@ 8 metres ( 9 ft ) high ( not including the part of the stela buried in the ground ) and the dimensions of the base are 1 @.@ 6 metres ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) by 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) , making it the earliest of the huge stelae that were to characterise Quiriguá , although it is significantly smaller than those that were to follow .
Stela T was dedicated in 692 by an unknown ruler . It is a badly eroded schist sculpture bearing mostly unreadable glyphs accompanying a poorly preserved figure . The stela is conservative in style , being similar to the much older Stela U.
Stela U comes from Group A and bears a heavily eroded portrait of a king in wrap @-@ around style ( extending over three sides of the stela ) . This style originated in Tikal and indicates contact with the central Petén region . This stela has an identifiable date , corresponding to 18 April 480 , and a reference to a ritual taking place that was supervised by the king of Copán . This stela is carved from schist and is broken in two pieces , being snapped off at the knees – apparently deliberately during an attack by unknown enemies . It was originally 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 9 ft ) in height .
Monument 25 is a plain round column carved from schist . It is about 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft ) long and 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 ft ) in diameter . It was found in Locus 011 .
Monument 26 is a stela in wrap @-@ around style found close to structure 3C @-@ 1 . A date corresponding to 493 is contained in the hieroglyphic text on its back , this text mentions the third and fourth rulers of Quiriguá but their names are currently unreadable . It is carved from schist and was originally 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high but the stela was broken in ancient times , apparently deliberately . It was broken off at the knees and the left eye of the ruler 's portrait was scratched away , damage characteristic of that inflicted by invading warriors . Only two pieces have been recovered , an upper section measuring 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) and a lower section measuring 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 ft ) .
Monument 29 and Monument 30 are heavily eroded columnar sculptures fashioned from schist , each measuring a little over 1 m in length . They were found together in a modern drainage ditch to the north and northwest of the ceremonial centre of Quiriguá . They apparently were sculptures of anthropomorphs or monkeys standing on pedestals with their hands clasped on their chests . It is thought on stylistic grounds that these two monuments date to the Late Preclassic .
= Ohio State Route 365 =
State Route 365 ( SR 365 ) is a very short two @-@ lane east – west state highway in western Ohio . Its western terminus is at a T @-@ intersection with the SR 235 / SR 366 concurrency one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the village of Lakeview . After running east and south for less than 980 feet ( 300 m ) , the highway arrives at its eastern terminus in Indian Lake State Park , serving a boat launch on the western shore of Indian Lake .
This spur route was created in 1934 , and runs exclusively in Logan County . At a length of just 0 @.@ 16 miles ( 260 m ) , SR 365 is one of the shortest state highways in Ohio .
= = Route description = =
All of SR 365 exists within Stokes Township in northwestern Logan County . The short spur route is not a part of the National Highway System . Around 230 vehicles use the route on average each day . SR 365 is one of the shortest state routes in Ohio , and there are no reassurance markers directly on SR 365 . There is only one location marker on the route , at the beginning of the road . All of SR 365 is paved in asphalt concrete .
SR 365 begins at a T @-@ intersection with the concurrency of SR 235 and SR 366 about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Lakeview . The highway travels amidst a neighborhood of cottages as it heads east , with side streets radiating from it . After several jaunts , SR 365 proceeds south . The highway then arrives at its endpoint at a parking lot for a boat launch serving Indian Lake State Park on the west side of Indian Lake . A small driveway at SR 365 's terminus leads back to SR 235 / 366 . Due to the lack of reassurance markers on SR 365 , there are no markers marking the end of the route .
= = History = =
The spur route was designated in 1934 along the short path that it currently runs ; no significant changes have taken place to SR 365 since its inception .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Stokes Township , Logan County .
= William D. Boyce =
William Dickson " W. D. " Boyce ( June 16 , 1858 – June 11 , 1929 ) was an American newspaper man , entrepreneur , magazine publisher , and explorer . He was the founder of the Boy Scouts of America ( BSA ) and the short @-@ lived Lone Scouts of America ( LSA ) . Born in Allegheny County , Pennsylvania , he acquired a love for the outdoors early in his life . After working as a schoolteacher and a coal miner , Boyce attended Wooster Academy in Ohio before moving to the Midwest and Canada . An astute businessman , Boyce successfully established several newspapers , such as The Commercial in Winnipeg , Manitoba and the Lisbon Clipper in Lisbon , North Dakota . With his first wife , Mary Jane Beacom , he moved to Chicago to pursue his entrepreneurial ambitions . There he established the Mutual Newspaper Publishing Company and the weekly Saturday Blade , which catered to a rural audience and was distributed by thousands of newspaper boys . With his novel employment of newsboys to boost newspaper sales , Boyce 's namesake publishing company maintained a circulation of 500 @,@ 000 copies per week by 1894 . Boyce strongly supported worker rights , as demonstrated by his businesses ' support of labor unions and his concern for his newsboys ' well @-@ being .
By the early years of the 20th century , Boyce had become a multi @-@ millionaire and had taken a step back from his businesses to pursue his interests in civic affairs , devoting more time to traveling and participating in expeditions . In 1909 , he embarked on a two @-@ month trip to Europe and a large photographic expedition to Africa with photographer George R. Lawrence and cartoonist John T. McCutcheon . Over the next two decades , Boyce led expeditions to South America , Europe , and North Africa , where he visited the newly discovered tomb of King Tutankhamun .
Boyce learned about Scouting while passing through London during his first expedition to Africa in 1909 . According to somewhat fictionalized legend , Boyce had become lost in the dense London fog , but was guided back to his destination by a young boy , who told him that he was merely doing his duty as a Boy Scout . Boyce then read printed material on Scouting , and on his return to the United States , he formed the B.S.A. From its start , Boyce focused the Scouting program on teaching self @-@ reliance , citizenship , resourcefulness , patriotism , obedience , cheerfulness , courage , and courtesy in order " to make men " . After clashing over the Scouting program with the first Chief Scout Executive James E. West , he left the B.S.A. and founded the L.S.A. in January 1915 , which catered to rural boys who had limited opportunities to form a troop or a patrol . In June 1924 , five years before Boyce 's death , a merger was completed between the B.S.A. and the struggling L.S.A. Boyce received many awards and memorials for his efforts in the U.S. Scouting movement , including the famed " Silver Buffalo Award " .
= = Personal life = =
Boyce was born on June 16 , 1858 in New Texas , Pennsylvania — now Plum Borough — to a Presbyterian farm couple , David and Margaret Jane Bratton Boyce . The Boyces had three children : William Dickson , Mary , and John . During his rural childhood , Boyce acquired a love for the outdoors . He began teaching school at the age of 16 and then worked briefly as a coal miner . He returned to teaching before joining his sister at Wooster Academy in Ohio , which — according to school records — he attended from 1880 to 1881 . It is uncertain if he graduated or was expelled . He then worked as a teacher , lumberjack , secretary , and salesman in the Midwest and Canada before settling in Chicago , where he quickly became known as a persuasive and shrewd salesman and learned business quickly . His books on business , travel , and expeditions often used the phrase " We pushed on . " On January 1 , 1884 , Boyce married Mary Jane Beacom ( 1865 – 1959 ) , whom he had known since his Pennsylvania childhood . Boyce called her Betsy , but to many her nickname was " Rattlesnake Jane " because she matched his skill in poker , was an expert shot , and rode horses cross saddle . They had one son and two daughters : Benjamin Stevens ( 1884 – 1928 ) , Happy ( 1886 – 1976 ) and Sydney ( 1889 – 1950 ) . Boyce 's personal activities included hunting , yachting , Odd Fellows , Freemasonry , Shriners , golf , country clubs and the Chicago Hussars — an independent equestrian military organization .
In 1903 , Boyce purchased a four @-@ story mansion on 38 acres ( 15 ha ) in Ottawa , Illinois , which became the center of his family and social activities . Thereafter , he showed little interest in Chicago and its social activities ; he would only go there on business . Boyce and Mary led increasingly separate lives and eventually divorced , which was reported on the front page of the Chicago Tribune because of the prominence he had attained by that time . The divorce was finalized in a Campbell County , South Dakota court in September 1908 ; his wife 's property settlement was close to $ 1 million ( USD ) .
After the divorce was finalized , Boyce courted Virginia Dorcas Lee , a vocalist from Oak Park , Illinois , who was 23 years his junior and the eldest child of Virginia and John Adams Lee , a former Lieutenant Governor of Missouri . Both Virginia 's parents and Boyce 's son Ben opposed the relationship . In May 1910 , after the planned marriage was announced , an infuriated Ben scuffled with his father outside the Blackstone Hotel and Boyce sustained a facial wound . Ben was arrested for disorderly conduct and fined $ 5 and court costs . Two days later , Boyce and Virginia married and went to Europe on an extended honeymoon . Almost immediately , there was speculation amongst family members and in newspapers about problems within the marriage . On April 9 , 1911 , Boyce and Virginia had a daughter , whom they named Virginia . A few months later , in December 1911 , Boyce signed an agreement to support and educate their infant daughter . After Boyce 's wife filed for divorce in March 1912 , she moved to Santa Barbara , California , with their daughter and her parents . Boyce did not contest the divorce and arranged for a $ 100 @,@ 000 settlement . Years later , the elder Virginia married Richard Roberts , a New York banker , and moved with her and Boyce 's daughter to Greenwich , Connecticut . The younger Virginia took the surname Roberts . She did not meet her natural father , Boyce , until she was eight years old .
Ben married Miriam Patterson of Omaha , Nebraska , on June 11 , 1912 . Both Boyce and his first wife attended the ceremony . At this time Boyce 's first wife , Mary , exchanged some of her Chicago property for the home in Ottawa , which sparked speculation that she and Boyce might reconcile . The next year they remarried on June 14 , 1913 , in Ottawa . They then departed on a honeymoon to Alaska , Hawaii , the Philippines , Panama , and Cuba , with their daughter Happy , son Ben , and his wife Miriam .
= = Business enterprises = =
As Boyce traveled , he often started a newspaper wherever he went . His first venture into commercial publishing was compiling a city directory . He also worked briefly for a publisher in Columbus , Ohio , and a newspaper publisher in Kensington , Pennsylvania , part of Philadelphia . He then boarded a train for Chicago and worked as a secretary and salesman for " Western " magazine . Restless again , he moved to Saint Paul , Minnesota , and sold advertisements for a publisher for a short time and then spent a month in Fargo , North Dakota , and Grand Forks , North Dakota . Further north in Canada , in Winnipeg , Manitoba , he and local resident James W. Steen co @-@ founded " The Commercial " in 1881 , a newspaper that lasted for 70 years . He sold his share of " The Commercial " to his partner in 1882 and returned to Fargo where he became a reporter . In December 1882 , Boyce moved to Lisbon , North Dakota , where he bought the Dakota Clipper .
Beginning in December 1884 , Boyce managed reporters and news releases at the " Bureau of Correspondence " at the six @-@ month @-@ long World 's Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition in New Orleans , Louisiana . Countries from all over the world sent displays . Boyce was responsible for providing news stories on events and displays to over 1 @,@ 200 newspapers around the country . He returned to North Dakota after the Exposition concluded , but by early 1886 he had moved back to Chicago . He often returned in North Dakota for publishing business deals and deer- and duck @-@ hunting vacations .
In Chicago , he founded the Mutual Newspaper Publishing Company in 1886 which provided advertisements and articles to over 200 newspapers . In 1887 , he established the weekly " Saturday Blade " , an illustrated newspaper aimed at rural audiences and sold by thousands of newsboys — an innovation at the time . By 1892 , the Saturday Blade had the largest circulation of any weekly newspaper in the United States . Boyce 's detailed reports of his foreign travels provided articles for the " Saturday Blade " and were reprinted in books by atlas / map publisher Rand McNally . The success of the " Saturday Blade " spawned the W. D. Boyce Publishing Company , which Boyce used to buy or start several newspapers and magazines . In 1892 , Boyce bought out the " Chicago Ledger " , a fiction weekly publication . In January 1903 he founded the international " Boyce 's Weekly " , which advocated worker 's rights . Boyce 's prominence as a supporter of labor attracted labor / union leaders such as John Mitchell of the United Mine Workers and Henry Demarest Lloyd as writers and editors for " Boyce 's Weekly " . Eight months later , " Boyce 's Weekly " was consolidated with the " Saturday Blade . " Boyce also established the selected subject / topical newspapers " Farm Business " in 1914 and " Home Folks Magazine " in 1922 . Dwindling sales led to the 1925 merger of the " Blade " and " Ledger " into the monthly " Chicago Blade & Ledger " , which was published until 1937 . As Boyce 's enterprises grew , he insisted on looking after the welfare of about 30 @,@ 000 delivery boys , who were key to his financial success . Working with them may have helped him gain an understanding of America 's youth . Boyce felt that delivering and selling newspapers taught a youth important responsibilities such as being polite , reading human nature , and handling money . Boyce 's focused determination was evident in the advice he gave to young men : " There are many obstacles to overcome , but toil , grit and endurance will help you to overcome them all . Help yourself and others will help you . " and " whatever trade you have selected ; never swerve from that purpose a single moment until it is accomplished " .
In 1891 , Boyce began working on his own 12 @-@ story office building at 30 North Dearborn Street , known as the " Boyce Building " , it was designed by architect Henry Ives Cobb . Even 20 years later , this building was recognized as the most expensive building ( in terms of dollars per cubic foot ) in Chicago . In 1907 , Boyce consolidated his business operations into another office building , also known as the Boyce Building , at 500 – 510 North
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a Taiwanese military airplane . Philippine Sea was ordered into the area as part of a search mission to recover some of the 19 on board . While engaged in the search mission , a flight of the ship 's Douglas AD Skyraiders was attacked by two Chinese fighter aircraft . The Skyraiders returned fire and shot down the airplanes . Later this came to be known unofficially as the " Hainan Incident " .
Following this duty , the ship sailed for Hawaii , where she was used as a prop in the movie Mister Roberts . The ship returned to San Diego in November . Remaining in the area for four months , Philippine Sea conducted several training operations off the California coast . She then began her fifth cruise of the Far East on 1 April 1955 en route to Yokosuka . She operated in waters of Japan , Okinawa , and Taiwan for most of 1955 , with Air Task Group 2 consisting of VF @-@ 123 , VF @-@ 143 and VA @-@ 55 , VF @-@ 123 flying the F9F @-@ 2 Panther jet fighter @-@ bomber , VF @-@ 143 flying the Grumman F9F @-@ 6 Cougar jet fighter , and VA @-@ 55 flying the AD @-@ 6 Skyraider propellor attack bomber . During this time , she made trips to Hong Kong , Keelung and Formosa . On 23 November , she was redesignated as a CVS , or an anti @-@ submarine warfare carrier . Her aircraft complement was replaced with several dozen S2F Tracker anti @-@ submarine aircraft and HSS @-@ 1 Seabat helicopters . She returned to San Diego on 23 November 1955 . Throughout 1956 she saw little activity as crew went on leave and she was docked for upkeep , and only conducted several routine training operations off the coast of southern California . In late 1956 she moved to Hawaii for more training operations .
In March 1957 , she sailed for the western Pacific on a sixth tour to the area with the HSS @-@ 1s and S2Fs of VS @-@ 21 , VS @-@ 23 , and VS @-@ 37 . She was there for two months before returning to San Diego and resuming training missions off the west coast in summer 1957 . In November 1957 , she found some debris of Pan Am Flight 7 , an airline flight that disappeared en route to Hawaii . In January 1958 , she steamed west on her last 7th Fleet deployment . Remaining six months , she returned to San Diego on 15 July and commenced inactivation . She was decommissioned 28 December 1958 and berthed with the United States Reserve Fleet at Long Beach , California . She was redesignated AVT @-@ 11 , an auxiliary aircraft transport and landing training ship , on 15 May 1959 . After 10 years docked at the reserve fleet , she was struck from the Naval Vessel Registry on 1 December 1969 and sold for scrapping on 23 March 1971 to Zidell Explorations Corporation in Portland , Oregon .
Philippine Sea received nine battle stars for Korean War service . During her career , she logged 82 @,@ 000 launches , including 33 @,@ 575 catapult shots , and 82 @,@ 813 landings . In April 1987 , a new USS Philippine Sea ( CG @-@ 58 ) was launched , a Ticonderoga @-@ class guided missile cruiser . An organization was also formed of veterans who had served aboard the ship , the Philippine Sea Association .
= Battle of Quebec ( 1775 ) =
The Battle of Quebec ( French : Bataille de Québec ) was fought on December 31 , 1775 , between American Continental Army forces and the British defenders of Quebec City early in the American Revolutionary War . The battle was the first major defeat of the war for the Americans , and it came with heavy losses . General Richard Montgomery was killed , Benedict Arnold was wounded , and Daniel Morgan and more than 400 men were taken prisoner . The city 's garrison , a motley assortment of regular troops and militia led by Quebec 's provincial governor , General Guy Carleton , suffered a small number of casualties .
Montgomery 's army had captured Montreal on November 13 , and early in December they joined a force led by Arnold , whose men had made an arduous trek through the wilderness of northern New England . Governor Carleton had escaped from Montreal to Quebec , the Americans ' next objective , and last @-@ minute reinforcements arrived to bolster the city 's limited defenses before the attacking force 's arrival . Concerned that expiring enlistments would reduce his force , Montgomery made the end @-@ of @-@ year attack in a blinding snowstorm to conceal his army 's movements . The plan was for separate forces led by Montgomery and Arnold to converge in the lower city before scaling the walls protecting the upper city . Montgomery 's force turned back after he was killed by cannon fire early in the battle , but Arnold 's force penetrated further into the lower city . Arnold was injured early in the attack , and Morgan led the assault in his place before he became trapped in the lower city and was forced to surrender . Arnold and the Americans maintained an ineffectual blockade of the city until spring , when British reinforcements arrived .
In the battle and the following siege , French @-@ speaking Canadians were active on both sides of the conflict . The American forces received supplies and logistical support from local residents , and the city 's defenders included locally raised militia . When the Americans retreated , they were accompanied by a number of their supporters ; those who remained behind were subjected to a variety of punishments after the British re @-@ established control over the province .
= = Background = =
Shortly after the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775 , a small enterprising force led by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured the key fortress at Ticonderoga on May 10 . Arnold followed up the capture with a raid on Fort Saint @-@ Jean not far from Montreal , alarming the British leadership there . These actions stimulated both British and rebel leaders to consider the possibility of an invasion of the Province of Quebec by the rebellious forces of the Second Continental Congress , and Quebec 's governor , General Guy Carleton , began mobilizing the provincial defenses . After first rejecting the idea of an attack on Quebec , the Congress authorized the Continental Army 's commander of its Northern Department , Major General Philip Schuyler , to invade the province if he felt it necessary . As part of an American propaganda offensive , letters from Congress and the New York Provincial Assembly were circulated throughout the province , promising liberation from their oppressive government . Benedict Arnold , passed over for command of the expedition , convinced General George Washington to authorize a second expedition through the wilderness of what is now the state of Maine directly to Quebec City , capital of the province .
The Continental Army began moving into Quebec in September 1775 . Its goal , as stated in a proclamation by General Schuyler , was to " drive away , if possible , the troops of Great Britain " that " under the orders of a despotic ministry ... aim to subject their fellow @-@ citizens and brethren to the yoke of a hard slavery . " Brigadier General Richard Montgomery led the force from Ticonderoga and Crown Point up Lake Champlain , successfully besieging Fort St. Jean , and capturing Montreal on November 13 . Arnold led a force of 1 @,@ 100 men from Cambridge , Massachusetts on the expedition through Maine towards Quebec shortly after Montgomery 's departure from Ticonderoga .
One significant expectation of the American advance into Quebec was that the large French Catholic Canadian population of the province and city would rise against British rule . Since the British took control of the province , during the French and Indian War in 1760 , there had been difficulties and disagreements between the local French Catholics and the Protestant English @-@ speaking British military and civilian administrations . However , these tensions had been eased by the passage of the Quebec Act of 1774 , which restored land and many civil rights to the Canadians ( an act which had been condemned by the thirteen rebelling colonies ) . The majority of Quebec 's French inhabitants chose not to play an active role in the American campaign , in large part because , encouraged by their clergy , they had come to accept British rule with its backing of the Catholic Church and preservation of French culture .
= = British preparations = =
= = = Defense of the province = = =
General Carleton had begun preparing the province 's defenses immediately on learning of Arnold 's raid on St. Jean . Although Carleton concentrated most of his modest force at Fort St. Jean , he left small garrisons of British regular army troops at Montreal and Quebec . Carleton followed the American invasion 's progress , occasionally receiving intercepted communications between Montgomery and Arnold . Lieutenant Governor Hector Cramahé , in charge of Quebec 's defenses while Carleton was in Montreal , organized a militia force of several hundred to defend the town in September . He pessimistically thought they were " not much to be depended on " , estimating that only half were reliable . Cramahé also made numerous requests for military reinforcements to the military leadership in Boston , but each of these came to nought . Several troop ships were blown off course and ended up in New York , and Vice Admiral Samuel Graves , the commander of the fleet in Boston , refused to release ships to transport troops from there to Quebec because the approaching winter would close the Saint Lawrence River .
When definitive word reached Quebec on November 3 that Arnold 's march had succeeded and that he was approaching the city , Cramahé began tightening the guard and had all boats removed from the south shore of the Saint Lawrence . Word of Arnold 's approach resulted in further militia enlistments , increasing the ranks to 1 @,@ 200 or more . Two ships arrived on November 3 , followed by a third the next day , carrying militia volunteers from St. John 's Island and Newfoundland that added about 120 men to the defense . A small convoy under the command of the frigate HMS Lizard also arrived that day , from which a number of marines were added to the town 's defenses .
On November 10 , Lieutenant Colonel Allen Maclean , who had been involved in an attempt to lift the siege at St. Jean , arrived with 200 men of his Royal Highland Emigrants . They had intercepted communications from Arnold to Montgomery near Trois @-@ Rivières , and hurried to Quebec to help with its defense . The arrival of this experienced force boosted the morale of the town militia , and Maclean immediately took charge of the defenses .
= = = Carleton arrives at Quebec = = =
In the wake of the fall of Fort St. Jean , Carleton abandoned Montreal and returned to Quebec City by ship , narrowly escaping capture . Upon his arrival on November 19 , he immediately took command . Three days later , he issued a proclamation that any able @-@ bodied man in the town who did not take up arms would be assumed to be a rebel or a spy , and would be treated as such . Men not taking up arms were given four days to leave . As a result , about 500 inhabitants ( including 200 British and 300 Canadians ) joined the defense .
Carleton addressed the weak points of the town 's defensive fortifications : he had two log barricades and palisades erected along the Saint Lawrence shoreline , within the area covered by his cannons ; he assigned his forces to defensive positions along the walls and the inner defenses ; and he made sure his inexperienced militia were under strong leadership .
= = Arnold 's arrival = =
The men Arnold chose for his expedition were volunteers drawn from New England companies serving in the Siege of Boston . They were formed into two battalions for the expedition ; a third battalion was composed of riflemen from Pennsylvania and Virginia under Lieutenant Colonel Daniel Morgan 's command . The trek through the wilderness of Maine was long and difficult . The conditions were wet and cold , and the journey took much longer than either Arnold or Washington had expected . Bad weather and wrecked boats spoiled much of the expedition 's food stores , and about 500 men of the original 1 @,@ 100 turned back or died . Those who turned back , including one of the New England battalions , took many of the remaining provisions with them . The men who continued on were starving by the time they reached the first French settlements in early November . On November 9 , the 600 survivors of Arnold 's march from Boston to Quebec arrived at Point Levis , on the south shore of the Saint Lawrence opposite Quebec City . Despite the condition of his troops , Arnold immediately began to gather boats to make a crossing . He was prepared to do so on the night of November 10 , but a storm delayed him for three days . Once on the other side of the Saint Lawrence , Arnold moved his troops onto the Plains of Abraham , about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 km ) from the city walls .
The troops approaching Quebec 's walls were significantly under @-@ equipped . Arnold had no artillery , each of his men carried only five cartridges , more than 100 muskets were unserviceable , and the men 's clothing had been reduced to rags . Despite being outnumbered two to one , Arnold demanded the city 's surrender . Both envoys sent were shot at by British cannons , signifying that the demand had been rebuked . Arnold concluded that he could not take the city by force , so he blockaded the city on its west side . On November 18 , the Americans heard a ( false ) rumour that the British were planning to attack them with 800 men . At a council of war , they decided that the blockade could not be maintained , and Arnold began to move his men 20 miles ( 32 km ) upriver to Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Trembles ( " Aspen Point " ) to wait for Montgomery , who had just taken Montreal . Henry Dearborn , who later became U.S. Secretary of War under President Thomas Jefferson was present at the battle and wrote his famous journal , The Quebec Expedition , which outlined the long and difficult march to the battle and the events that occurred there .
= = Montgomery 's arrival = =
On December 1 , Montgomery arrived at Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Trembles . His force consisted of 300 men from the 1st , 2nd , and 3rd New York regiments , a company of artillery raised by John Lamb , about 200 men recruited by James Livingston for the 1st Canadian Regiment , and another 160 men led by Jacob Brown who were remnants of regiments disbanded due to expiring enlistments . These were supplemented several days later by a few companies detached by Major General David Wooster , whom Montgomery had left in command at Montreal . The artillery Montgomery brought included four cannons and six mortars , and he also brought winter clothing and other supplies for Arnold 's men ; the clothing and supplies were a prize taken when most of the British ships fleeing Montreal were captured . The commanders quickly turned towards Quebec , and put the city under siege on December 6 . Montgomery sent a personal letter to Carleton demanding the city 's surrender , employing a woman as the messenger . Carleton declined the request and burned the letter unread . Montgomery tried again ten days later , with the same result . The besiegers continued to send messages , primarily intended for the populace in the city , describing the situation there as hopeless , and suggesting that conditions would improve if they rose to assist the Americans .
On December 10 , the Americans set up their largest battery of artillery 700 yards ( 640 m ) from the walls . The frozen ground prevented the Americans from entrenching the artillery , so they fashioned a wall out of snow blocks . This battery was used to fire on the city , but the damage it did was of little consequence . Montgomery realized he was in a very difficult position , because the frozen ground prevented the digging of trenches , and his lack of heavy weapons made it impossible to breach the city 's defenses . The enlistments of Arnold 's men were expiring at the end of the year , and no ammunition was on the way from the colonies . Furthermore , it was very likely that British reinforcements would arrive in the spring , meaning he would either have to act or withdraw . Montgomery believed his only chance to take the city was during a snowstorm at night , when his men could scale the walls undetected .
While Montgomery planned the attack on the city , Christophe Pélissier , a Frenchman living near Trois @-@ Rivières , came to see him . Pélissier was a political supporter of the American cause who operated the St. Maurice Ironworks . He and Montgomery discussed the idea of holding a provincial convention to elect representatives to Congress . Pélissier recommended against this until after Quebec City had been taken , as the habitants would not feel free to act in that way until their security was better assured . The two agreed that Pélissier 's ironworks would provide munitions ( ammunition , cannonballs , and the like ) for the siege . This Pélissier did until the Americans retreated in May 1776 , at which time he also fled , eventually returning to France .
A snowstorm arrived on the night of December 27 , prompting Montgomery to prepare the troops for the attack . However , the storm subsided , and Montgomery called off the assault . That night , a sergeant from Rhode Island deserted , carrying the plan of attack to the British . Montgomery consequently drafted a new plan ; this one called for two feints against Quebec 's western walls , to be led by Jacob Brown and James Livingston , while two attacks would be mounted against the lower town . Arnold would lead one attack to smash through the defenses at the north end of the lower town , and Montgomery would follow along the Saint Lawrence south of the town . The two forces would meet in the lower town and then launch a combined assault on the upper town by scaling its walls . The new plan was revealed only to the senior officers .
= = Battle = =
= = = Montgomery 's attack = = =
A storm broke out on December 30 , and Montgomery once again gave orders for the attack . Brown and Livingston led their militia companies to their assigned positions that night : Brown by the Cape Diamond bastion , and Livingston outside St. John 's Gate . When Brown reached his position between 4 am and 5 am , he fired flares to signal the other forces , and his men and Livingston 's began to fire on their respective targets . Montgomery and Arnold , seeing the flares , set off for the lower town .
Montgomery led his men down the steep , snow @-@ heaped path towards the outer defenses . The storm had turned into a blizzard , making the advance a struggle . Montgomery 's men eventually arrived at the palisade of the outer defenses , where an advance party of carpenters sawed their way though the wall . Montgomery himself helped saw through the second palisade , and led 50 men down a street towards a two @-@ story building . The building formed part of the city 's defenses , and was in fact a blockhouse occupied by 15 Quebec militia armed with muskets and cannons . The defenders opened fire at close range , and Montgomery was killed instantly , shot through the head by a burst of grapeshot . The few men of the advance party who survived fled back towards the palisade ; only Aaron Burr and a few others escaped unhurt . Many of Montgomery 's officers were injured in the attack ; one of the few remaining uninjured officers led the survivors back to the Plains of Abraham , leaving Montgomery 's body behind .
= = = Arnold 's attack = = =
While Montgomery was making his advance , Arnold advanced with his main body towards the barricades of the Sault @-@ au @-@ Matelot at the northern end of the lower town . They passed the outer gates and some British gun batteries undetected . However , as the advance party moved around the Palace Gate , heavy fire broke out from the city walls above them . The height of the walls made it impossible to return the defenders ' fire , therefore Arnold ordered his men to run forward . They advanced down a narrow street , where they once again came under fire as they approached a barricade . Arnold received a shot in the ankle as he was organizing his men in an attempt to take the barricade and was carried to the rear , after transferring command of his detachment to Daniel Morgan . Under Morgan 's command , they captured the barricade , but had difficulty advancing further because of the narrow twisting streets and damp gunpowder , which prevented their muskets from firing . Morgan and his men holed up in some buildings to dry out their powder and rearm , but they eventually came under increasing fire ; Carleton had realized the attacks on the northern gates were feints and began concentrating his forces in the lower town . A British force of 500 sallied from the Palace Gate and reoccupied the first barricade , trapping Morgan and his men in the city . With no avenue of retreat and under heavy fire , Morgan and his men surrendered . The battle was over by 10 am .
This was the first defeat suffered by the Continental Army . Carleton reported 30 Americans killed and 431 taken prisoner , including about two @-@ thirds of Arnold 's force . He also wrote that " many perished on the River " attempting to get away . Allan Maclean reported that 20 bodies were recovered in the spring thaw the following May . Arnold reported about 400 missing or captured , and his official report to Congress claimed 60 killed and 300 captured . British casualties were comparatively light . Carleton 's initial report to General William Howe mentioned only five killed or wounded , but other witness reports ranged as high as 50 . Carleton 's official report listed five killed and 14 wounded .
General Montgomery 's body was recovered by the British on New Year 's Day 1776 and was given a simple military funeral on January 4 , paid for by Lieutenant Governor Cramahé . The body was returned to New York in 1818 .
= = Siege = =
Arnold refused to retreat ; despite being outnumbered three to one , the sub @-@ freezing temperature of the winter and the mass departure of his men after their enlistments expired , he laid siege to Quebec . The siege had relatively little effect on the city , which Carleton claimed had enough supplies stockpiled to last until May . Immediately after the battle , Arnold sent Moses Hazen and Edward Antill to Montreal , where they informed General Wooster of the defeat . They then travelled on to Philadelphia to report the defeat to Congress and request support . ( Both Hazen and Antill , English @-@ speakers originally from the Thirteen Colonies who had settled in Quebec , went on to serve in the Continental Army for the rest of the war . ) In response to their report , Congress ordered reinforcements to be raised and sent north . During the winter months , small companies of men from hastily recruited regiments in New Hampshire , Massachusetts , and Connecticut made their way north to supplement the Continental garrisons at Quebec and Montreal . The presence of disease in the camp outside Quebec , especially smallpox , took a significant toll on the besiegers , as did a general lack of provisions . Smallpox ravaged Montgomery and Arnold 's forces largely due to exposure to infected civilians released from Quebec . Governor Carleton condoned this practice , realizing it would severely weaken the American siege effort . In early April , Arnold was replaced by General Wooster , who was himself replaced in late April by General John Thomas .
Governor Carleton , despite appearing to have a significant advantage in manpower , chose not to attack the American camp , and remained within Quebec 's walls . Montgomery , in analysing the situation before the battle , had observed that Carleton served under James Wolfe during the 1759 Siege of Quebec , and knew that the French General Louis @-@ Joseph de Montcalm had paid a heavy price for leaving the city 's defenses , ultimately losing the city and his life in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham . British General James Murray had also lost a battle outside the city in 1760 ; Montgomery judged that Carleton was unlikely to repeat their mistakes . On March 14 , Jean @-@ Baptiste Chasseur , a miller from the southern shore of the Saint Lawrence , reached Quebec City and informed Carleton there were 200 men on the south side of the river ready to act against the Americans . These men and more were mobilized to make an attack on an American gun battery at Point Levis , but an advance guard of this Loyalist militia was defeated in the March 1776 Battle of Saint @-@ Pierre by a detachment of pro @-@ American local militia .
When General Thomas arrived , the conditions in the camp led him to conclude that the siege was impossible to maintain , and he began preparing to retreat . The arrival on May 6 of a small British fleet carrying 200 regulars ( the vanguard of a much larger invasion force ) , accelerated the American preparations to depart . The retreat was turned into a near rout when Carleton marched these fresh forces , along with most of his existing garrison , out of the city to face the disorganized Americans . The American forces , ravaged by smallpox ( which claimed General Thomas during the retreat ) , eventually retreated all the way back to Fort Ticonderoga . Carleton then launched a counteroffensive to regain the forts on Lake Champlain . Although he defeated the American fleet in the Battle of Valcour Island and regained control of the lake , the rear guard defense managed by Benedict Arnold prevented further action to capture Ticonderoga or Crown Point in 1776 .
= = Aftermath = =
On May 22 , even before the Americans had been completely driven from the province , Carleton ordered a survey to identify the Canadians who had helped the American expedition in and around Quebec City . François Baby , Gabriel @-@ Elzéar Taschereau , and Jenkin Williams travelled the province and counted the Canadians who actively provided such help ; they determined that 757 had done so . Carleton was somewhat lenient with minor offenders , and even freed a number of more serious offenders on the promise of good behavior ; however , once the Americans had been driven from the province , measures against supporters of the American cause became harsher , with forced labor to repair American destruction of infrastructure during the army 's retreat being a frequent punishment . These measures had the effect of minimizing the public expression of support for the Americans for the rest of the war .
Between May 6 and June 1 , 1776 , nearly 40 British ships arrived at Quebec City . They carried more than 9 @,@ 000 soldiers under the command of General John Burgoyne , including about 4 @,@ 000 German soldiers ; so @-@ called Hessians from Brunswick and Hanau under the command of Baron Friedrich Adolf Riedesel . These forces , some of which having participated in Carleton 's counteroffensive , spent the winter of 1776 – 77 in the province , putting a significant strain on the population , which numbered only about 80 @,@ 000 . Many of these troops were deployed in 1777 for Burgoyne 's campaign for the Hudson Valley .
Three current United States Army National Guard units ( Company A of the 69th Infantry Regiment , the 181st Infantry Regiment , and the 182nd Infantry ) trace their lineage to American units that participated in the Battle of Quebec .
= Carpenter House ( Norwich , Connecticut ) =
The Carpenter House , also known as the Gardiner ( Gardner ) Carpenter House and the Red House , is a Georgian style house in Norwichtown area of Norwich , Connecticut . A house was previously on the site , but it was removed by Gardner Carpenter to construct the house in 1793 . The three @-@ story Flemish bond Georgian house 's front facade consists of five bays with a gabled porch over the main entrance and supported by round columns . The gambrel roof and third story addition were added around 1816 by Joseph Huntington . In 1958 , a modern one @-@ story rear wing was added to the back of the house . The interior of the house is a center hall plan with 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high ceilings and has been renovated , but retains much of its original molding , paneling and wrought iron hardware . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 and added to the Norwichtown Historic District in 1973 .
= = History = =
Historical records for Gardner Carpenter 's life are sparse in detail , but the Vital records of Norwich , 1659 @-@ 1848 Part II provide some information . Gardner Carpenter married Mary Huntington , daughter of Benjamin Huntington Jr . , on October 29 , 1791 . Carpenter was a local business man who operated his mercantile business in a shop that was shared with his brother , Joseph Carpenter , the silversmith . The Carpenters ' shared shop is historically significant and is known as the Joseph Carpenter Silversmith Shop . A 1906 paper titled Norwich : early homes and history identified Gardner Carpenter as the builder of the store and noted that Gardner Carpenter was one of the first traders of Norwich . In 1793 , the house which is now known as the Carpenter House was constructed on the property after a previous house on the land was removed . Gardner and Mary Carpenter would have six children together ; their first son , George , was born in 1795 and their first and only daughter , Mary Elizabeth , in 1797 . Another son , Gardner Carpenter , was born in 1802 and was followed by Henry in 1804 , John in 1807 and Charles in 1810 . Gardiner Carpenter served as a pay master in the 17th Connecticut Regiment in the American Revolutionary War and he was the postmaster of Norwich from 1799 to 1814 , shortly before his death in 1815 . His wife , Mary Carpenter , died in 1838 . The house was sold to Joseph Huntington after Carpenter 's death , who would add a third story around 1816 . The house was sold again to Reverend Hiram P. Arms in 1841 .
= = Design = =
The Georgian house is built on the north end of the Norwichtown green and faces East Town Street . The walls of the three @-@ story house are made of brick laid in Flemish bond and painted a cranberry red . The front facade consist of five bays with a gabled porch over the main entrance and supported by round columns . The doorway is not original , but has a transom of six lights on top . The windows of the house are double hung six @-@ over @-@ six sash with the windows on the first floor have flat splayed lintels mimicking the gabled porch . The third story is also the attack and has an oversized gambrel roof that over hangs the two stories , the roof was covered with asphalt shingles at the time of its nomination in 1970 . This addition of the third story was done about 1816 when the house was owned by Joseph Huntington . A modern one @-@ story rear wing is at the back of the house , the last addition dating to 1958 . Four chimneys arise from the roof of the house , with two interior chimneys and a rear chimney on the main house with a smaller fourth chimney on the one @-@ story rear addition . The interior of the house is a typical center hall plan which retains much of its original moldings , paneling and wrought iron hardware . The 1958 addition added a 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) by 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) family room .
The interior of the house comprises 3 @,@ 200 square feet ( 300 m2 ) and was renovated sometime after its addition to the National Register of Historic Places in 1970 . Circa 1980 , the home was purchased by the Chassanoff family and underwent a historical restoration . The Chassanoffs ' restoration included removing the wallpaper , applying historic paint colors and stripping and refinishing the original floor 's wooden planks . The renovations also included using wood shingles to preserve the authenticity of the house . The interior consists of 11 rooms and includes 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high ceilings . Four rooms are on the second floor , including a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) by 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) master bedroom . The house has a total of six known fireplaces with another two likely concealed under plaster . The floors were restored and some planks had to be replaced in the process .
= = Importance = =
The house was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 6 , 1970 . It was made a part of the Norwichtown Historic District on January 17 , 1973 , but was unaccredited as a separately listed property at the time . On the district nomination the house is spelled alternatively as the " Gardner House " . Luyster writes , " This is a good example of Georgian housing of the colonial period . Its value is increased because of the historical and architectural value of the buildings which surround it since it is located next to the Norwich town green which is the focal point of the historic district in that area . " The home was featured as part of a historic house tour in 1993 's " More Reflections on the Past . " In 2002 , the house was available for purchase and remains a private residence as of 2014 .
= Deep Space Homer =
" Deep Space Homer " is the fifteenth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 24 , 1994 . It was directed by Carlos Baeza and was the only episode of The Simpsons written by David Mirkin , who was also the executive producer at the time . In the episode , NASA is concerned by the decline in public interest in space exploration , and therefore decides to send an ordinary person into space . Homer is selected and chaos ensues when the navigation system on his space shuttle is destroyed . Buzz Aldrin and James Taylor both guest starred as themselves . The critically acclaimed episode became the source of the Overlord meme , and features numerous film parodies , mostly of The Right Stuff and 2001 : A Space Odyssey . A copy of the episode is available for astronauts to watch at the International Space Station .
= = Plot = =
At the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , it is time for the ceremony for the " Worker of the Week " award and Homer , the only employee who has never won the award , is confident he will win . However , Mr. Burns gives the award to an ' inanimate carbon rod ' . The dejected Homer , feeling that no one respects him , turns to TV for solace and comes across a live space shuttle launch , which he finds dull . Meanwhile , NASA , frustrated over its drop in the Nielsen ratings , decides to send an " average shmoe " into space as the solution . At that moment , Homer telephones NASA to complain about their " boring space launches " , as well as asking if they know where he can find some Tang , and NASA chiefs realize they have found their man . When they arrive at Moe 's Tavern in search of Homer , who is currently calling Bill Clinton to ask about Tang , he believes he is in trouble for making a prank call to NASA and blames Barney for the incident . The NASA employees ask Barney to be an astronaut , and when Homer realizes what the proposal entails , he steps in and takes credit for the call .
NASA takes both Homer and Barney to Cape Canaveral for training . As only one of them can go into space , they soon find themselves in competition . Under NASA 's alcohol ban , the newly sober Barney quickly develops superior skills and is selected to fly with astronauts Buzz Aldrin and Race Banyon . However , when Barney toasts his victory with non @-@ alcoholic champagne , he inexplicably reverts to his normal alcoholic self and escapes , stealing a jetpack and crashing into a nearby pillow factory . Homer wins by default and is selected for space flight , but after watching an episode of Itchy and Scratchy involving space exploration , he becomes very nervous about going . Just as they prepare to take off in the Corvair space shuttle , Homer runs away . He talks with Marge on the phone , and she says that he ought to take advantage of the opportunity . He agrees , and the launch , which is also a Nielsen ratings smash , proceeds .
Finally in space , Homer reveals he has smuggled potato chips on board . He opens the bag , but is unaware that , due to the effects of weightlessness , they will spread around and clog the instruments . His appetite seems to save the day as he floats after the chips , eating them , but he manages to fly into an experimental ant farm , letting the ants loose in the shuttle . James Taylor comes in over the radio to sing " You 've Got a Friend " , but the disaster continues on board as the ants destroy the navigation system . James Taylor suggests that they blow the bugs out the front hatch , which the astronauts do , but Homer fails to put on his harness and is nearly blown out of the open hatch before grabbing its handle and clinging for life . Buzz pulls him inside , but due to the vacuum 's sheer force , Homer bends the hatch handle , preventing the door from closing and potentially resulting in the shuttle 's destruction on re @-@ entry . When Race declares he will attack Homer in frustration , Homer pulls a rod out of the wall to defend himself , and he inadvertently uses it to seal the door shut . With the problems solved , the shuttle successfully returns to Earth , making a convenient crash @-@ landing through the roof of a press reporters ' convention .
Although Buzz Aldrin declares Homer a hero , the press only have eyes for the inanimate carbon rod he used . The rod is featured on magazine covers with the headline " In Rod We Trust " and is given its own ticker @-@ tape parade . Back at home , Homer is disappointed that he did not get as much respect as he had hoped , but the family still honors him for his achievement .
= = Production = =
" Deep Space Homer " was written by then @-@ executive producer David Mirkin . Mirkin had worked on the idea for the episode for a long time , basing the story on NASA 's Teacher in Space Project scheme to send ordinary civilians into space in order to spark interest amongst the general public . There was some controversy amongst the show 's writing staff during production . Some of the writers felt that having Homer go into space was too large an idea . Matt Groening felt that the idea was so big that it gave the writers " nowhere to go " . Several silly gags were therefore toned down to make the episode feel more realistic , including an idea that everyone at NASA was as stupid as Homer . The writers focused more upon the relationship between Homer and his family and Homer 's attempts to be a hero .
Buzz Aldrin , the second man to walk on the Moon , and musician James Taylor both guest star as themselves in this episode . Some of the writers were concerned about Aldrin 's line , " second comes right after first " , feeling it was insulting to Aldrin . An alternative line was written : " first to take a soil sample " , but Aldrin had no problem with saying the original line . A version of James Taylor 's " Fire and Rain " was recorded specifically for the episode containing some altered lyrics . Taylor 's original recording session was included as an extra on the DVD .
Although the episode was directed by Carlos Baeza , the potato chip sequence was directed by David Silverman . Some computer animation created using an Amiga was used in the sequence in order to make the potato chip rotation as smooth as possible .
= = Cultural references = =
The two blue collar TV shows the people at NASA watch are Home Improvement and Married ... with Children . In the scene where the family arrives at Cape Canaveral , the car is a parody of The Beverly Hillbillies , with Marge sitting in Granny 's position . Homer and Barney 's duel is a reference to the classic Star Trek episode " The Gamesters of Triskelion " , complete with one of Star Trek 's fight themes ( originally from the episode " Amok Time " ) and the NASA administrators betting on the combatants in " quatloos " . Homer running while lying on the floor and trying to read the back of his head is a homage to the Three Stooges , particularly Curly . The TV anchor is a parody of Tom Brokaw , and is voiced by Harry Shearer . A lot of words containing the letter L were intentionally written into the dialogue because the writers " enjoy the way Tom says them " . Astronaut Race Banyon is a parody of Jonny Quest character Race Bannon .
The music at the start of the episode of the Itchy & Scratchy cartoon parodies the theme from the original Star Trek series . Itchy bursts out of Scratchy 's stomach in a parody of the creature from the Alien films . Homer hopes that his crew will not be sent to " that terrible Planet of the Apes " , only to suddenly figure out the film 's ending ; he then unwittingly performs Charlton Heston 's final scene in the film . Much of the episode parodies The Right Stuff , with sequences such as Barney and Homer 's training , Homer 's walk to the shuttle and the shuttle 's re @-@ entry paying homage to the film . Barney sings the first part of the Major @-@ General 's Song from Gilbert and Sullivan 's The Pirates of Penzance while doing flips to show how fit he is , while Homer responds with cartwheels , reciting " There once was a man from Nantucket ... " .
The episode also contains numerous other references to Stanley Kubrick 's 1968 film 2001 : A Space Odyssey : in the space shuttle , Homer floats in zero gravity , eating potato chips ( this echoes the docking scene in 2001 , with the use of the music piece The Blue Danube ) ; Itchy comes out to torture Scratchy in an EVA pod much like those aboard the Discovery craft ; and at the end of the episode , Bart throws a marker into the air - in slow motion , it rotates in mid @-@ air , before a match cut replaces it with a cylindrical satellite ( this parodies a similar transition scene between " The Dawn of Man " and the future sequence in the film , including the use of the famous Richard Strauss piece Also sprach Zarathustra ) .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Deep Space Homer " finished 32nd in ratings for the week of February 21 – 27 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 1 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 3 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Living Single .
NASA loved the episode , and astronaut Edward Lu asked for a copy of it to be sent on a supply ship to the International Space Station . The DVD remains there for astronauts to view . " Deep Space Homer " is MSNBC 's fourth favorite episode , citing Homer 's realization that Planet of the Apes is set on Earth as " pure genius " . Empire magazine named it a " contender for greatest ever episode " , and listed it as the third best movie parody in the show . In his book , Planet Simpson , Chris Turner names the episode as being one of his five favorites , saying it is " second to none " , despite listing " Last Exit to Springfield " as his favorite episode . He described the long sequence that begins with Homer eating potato chips in the space shuttle and ends with Kent Brockman 's dramatic speech as being " simply among the finest comedic moments in the history of television " . The Daily Telegraph also named the episode among their ten favorites .
Both Buzz Aldrin and James Taylor received praise for their guest performances . IGN ranked James Taylor as being the twenty @-@ first best guest appearance in the show 's history . The Phoenix.com published their own list of " Top 20 guest stars " and Taylor placed eighteenth . Among The Simpsons staff , the episode is a favorite of David Silverman . On the other hand , it also contains one of Matt Groening 's least favorite jokes , when Homer 's face changes into Popeye and Richard Nixon while exposed to G @-@ force .
" Deep Space Homer " is the source of the " Overlord meme " , which is lifted from Kent Brockman 's line and is commonly used on Internet forums to express mock submission , usually for the purpose of humor or when a " participant vastly overstates the degree of oppression or social control expected to arise from the topic in question " . The term was used by New Scientist magazine , and was referenced on the February 16 , 2011 episode of Jeopardy ! by Ken Jennings in acknowledgment of the accomplishments of the computer Watson .
In 2014 , 20 years after the production of this episode , NASA did indeed send ants to the International Space Station to conduct behavioral experiments about collective search in microgravity . The results of this experiment were published in the journal Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution .
= Typhoon Rusa =
Typhoon Rusa was the most powerful typhoon to strike South Korea in 43 years . It was the 21st JTWC tropical depression , the 15th named storm , and the 10th typhoon of the 2002 Pacific typhoon season . It developed on August 22 from the monsoon trough in the northwestern Pacific Ocean , well to the southeast of Japan . For several days , Rusa moved to the northwest , eventually intensifying into a powerful typhoon . On August 26 , the storm moved across the Amami Islands of Japan , where Rusa left 20 @,@ 000 people without power and caused two fatalities . Across Japan , the typhoon dropped torrential rainfall peaking at 902 mm ( 35 @.@ 5 in ) in Tokushima Prefecture .
After weakening slightly , Rusa made landfall on Goheung , South Korea with winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph 10 minute sustained ) . It was able to maintain much of its intensity due to warm air and instability from a nearby cold front . Rusa weakened while moving through the country , dropping heavy rainfall that peaked at 897 @.@ 5 mm ( 35 @.@ 33 in ) in Gangneung . A 24 @-@ hour total of 880 mm ( 35 in ) in the city broke the record for the highest daily precipitation in the country ; however , the heaviest rainfall was localized . Over 17 @,@ 000 houses were damaged , and large areas of crop fields were flooded . In South Korea , Rusa killed at least 233 people , making it the deadliest typhoon there in over 43 years , and caused $ 4 @.@ 2 billion in damage . The typhoon also dropped heavy rainfall in neighboring North Korea , leaving 26 @,@ 000 people homeless and killing three . Rusa also destroyed large areas of crops in the country already affected by ongoing famine conditions . The typhoon later became extratropical over eastern Russia on September 1 , dissipating three days later .
= = Meteorological history = =
The monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression on August 22 north of Bikini Atoll and southwest of Wake Island . It moved to the west @-@ northwest , a movement it would maintain for much of its duration . Early on August 23 , it intensified into Tropical Storm Rusa , about 1 @,@ 800 km ( 1 @,@ 100 mi ) east of Guam . At 1800 UTC on August 25 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) upgraded Rusa to a typhoon while the system was northeast of the Northern Marianas Islands . The next day , the agency estimated that the typhoon attained peak winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph 10 minute sustained ) . Around the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated peak winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph 1 minute sustained ) .
While at peak intensity , Rusa struck the Japanese island of Amami Ōshima . After maintaining the peak winds for about 12 hours , Rusa weakened slightly as it continued to the west @-@ northwest , but on August 28 the JMA again reported the typhoon attained winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph 10 minute sustained ) . Despite forecasts that it would weaken , Rusa maintained its intensity while passing south of Japan , due to minimal wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures of up to 29 ° C ( 84 ° F ) . The typhoon again weakened slightly on August 29 while passing between the Amami Islands and Japan . Thereafter , Rusa turned to the north toward the Korean Peninsula . Warm , moist air blew across the peninsula ahead of the storm , which prevented significant weakening , and an approaching cold front contributed to atmospheric instability . At around 0800 UTC on August 31 , Rusa made landfall on Goheung , South Korea , with winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph 10 minute sustained ) . According to the JTWC , Rusa was the most powerful typhoon to hit the country since 1959 . The typhoon rapidly weakened while crossing the country , deteriorating into a tropical depression early on September 1 . Around that time , the JTWC issued its last advisory on the system . The depression turned to the northeast , and after moving through the Sea of Japan , Rusa became extratropical over Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East late on September 1 . The extratropical remnants continued northeast and dissipated on September 4 over the Kamchatka Peninsula .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Although damage was heaviest in South Korea , Typhoon Rusa first affected Japan . The threat from the storm prompted the Okinawa government to cancel a disaster drill for the island . On the island , high seas from Rusa left two United States marines missing ; a later news report included the two missing as storm @-@ related fatalities . In the Anami Islands , Rusa destroyed six houses , forcing 38 people to evacuate . The storm left 20 @,@ 000 people without power and cancelled several flights . Winds reached 104 km / h ( 65 mph ) in Nomozaki , Nagasaki . Rains fell for seven days in the country , peaking at 902 mm ( 35 @.@ 5 in ) in Tokushima Prefecture . The heaviest of the precipitation fell in Nara Prefecture , where a station reported 84 mm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) in one hour . At least 275 houses were flooded , and 137 houses were damaged . During its passage , Rusa injured 12 people , 4 seriously . The typhoon also produced light rain and high seas along the coast of Taiwan .
Before Rusa affected South Korea , the Korea Meteorological Administration ( KMA ) issued high sea warnings on August 29 . Airports were closed in the southern portion of the country , and dams let out water to prevent excessive flooding . Typhoon Rusa affected much of South Korea with heavy rainfall and high winds . Jeju Island off the country 's southern coast reported 660 mm ( 26 in ) of rainfall , producing flash flooding that flooded cars . On the island , high winds downed trees and left 60 @,@ 000 people without power . All lower and middle schools on the island were closed , and residents were stranded after officials halted ferry and airline service . On the South Korean mainland , winds reached as high as 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . High amounts of rainfall were reported on Jeju Province and along the country 's southern coast , although the heaviest rainfall was only reported in a small region . In Gangneung , located in the eastern portion of the country , severe thunderstorms developed due to high instability resulting from humid air from the east interacting with the Taebaek Mountains , producing high amounts of precipitation . The city reported the highest rainfall total in the country with 897 @.@ 5 mm ( 35 @.@ 33 in ) , of which 880 mm ( 35 in ) was observed in one day . The total represented 62 % of Gangneung 's average yearly rainfall , and became the highest daily rainfall in the country 's history , exceeding the previous record set in 1981 by 300 mm ( 12 in ) . In the South Korea interior , rainfall rates were considered a 1 in 200 year event .
Damage in South Korea was estimated at $ 4 @.@ 2 billion ( ₩ 5 @.@ 15 trillion KRW ) . Damage was heaviest in Gangneung , where about 36 @,@ 000 homes and 622 military buildings were flooded . At the airbase in Gangneung , floods submerged 16 jet fighters . Along the coast , high winds damaged 640 boats and about 200 @,@ 000 marine buildings , and 265 industrial buildings were also damaged . The heavy rainfall left mudslides in the country , one of which covered ten cars in Gangneung . Flooding and the landslides disrupted the country 's infrastructure ; the storm destroyed 274 bridges and damaged roads and rails at 164 locations . Rusa killed 300 @,@ 000 livestock and flooded 85 @,@ 000 hectares ( 210 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields , representing 6 % of the country 's agricultural lands , mostly affecting fruit and vegetables . The storm caused the Vana H Cup KBC Augusta golf tournament to end early , and a stadium to be used for the 2002 Asian Games was damaged . Across the country , 88 @,@ 625 people were forced to evacuate due to the typhoon , and 17 @,@ 046 houses were damaged . High winds left 1 @.@ 25 million people after blowing down 24 @,@ 000 power lines . There were 213 deaths in the country , and another 33 were missing and presumed dead ; This made Rusa the deadliest typhoon in the country in more than 43 years .
In neighboring North Korea , Rusa produced winds of 72 km / h ( 45 mph ) and heavy rainfall reaching 700 mm ( 28 in ) in mountainous areas of Kangwon Province ; rainfall totaled 530 mm ( 21 in ) in the county of Kosong . The rains caused flash flooding and increased surface runoff . This occurred about a month after similarly heavy rains caused severe damage in the country . The rains from Rusa damaged and flooded thousands of houses and many public buildings , and destroyed 86 @,@ 000 tonnes of crop fields ; the latter was most significant due to the country 's ongoing famine conditions . Damage was heaviest in Kangwon Province , and the typhoon affected four provinces and one administrative city . More than 26 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the country , although advance warning allowed for evacuations . Rusa disrupted transportation by destroying 25 km ( 16 mi ) of roads and 24 bridges ; however , most of the damage was isolated to a small region . There were three deaths in North Korea .
The typhoon also affected the Russian Far East . On Sakhalin island , Rusa 's remnants dropped heavy rainfall , the equivalence of two months average precipitation . The rains flooded 350 houses , but there were no deaths in the region .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , damaged buildings polluted rivers in South Korea with chemicals and heavy metals . The country utilized 30 @,@ 000 soldiers to assist in cleaning up and repairing storm damage . President Kim Dae @-@ jung authorized emergency funding for disaster aid . Much of Gangneung lost power and water ; as a result , relief supplies were sent to the affected citizens . By ten days after Rusa struck the country , power lines were restored and transportation returned to normal . After an appeal to other residents in the country , the South Korea Red Cross chapter received $ 49 million in donations ( ₩ 58 billion won ) , mostly from the country 's northwest portion . The agency provided 50 @,@ 680 meals to 16 @,@ 919 families , as well as clothing and cooking supplies . Residents in the country raised about $ 60 million ( ₩ 72 @.@ 1 billion won ) in disaster relief , the highest such total for a disaster in the nation . The Chinese Red Cross sent $ 20 @,@ 000 to the South Korean Red Cross in the weeks after the storm . On September 13 , the South Korean government declared 203 cities and counties as disaster zones , which entitled 8 @,@ 714 families who sustained storm damage to receive government loans . The combined storm damage and floods preceding the storm caused the nation 's economy to contract during the third quarter of 2002 . The 2003 fiscal year reported a $ 300 million deficit for non @-@ life insurance companies , mostly due to losses from the typhoon . Crop damage from Rusa caused the price of rice to increase to their highest levels since 1980 . In the year after the storm , the South Korean government worked to reconstruct damaged roads and provided monthly assistance payments to families who lost their homes . However , many residents remained homeless and were residing in temporary shelters . The country 's Habitat for Humanity built 69 houses for storm victims in 2003 , although that was only for a small portion of the overall number of people affected . About a year after Rusa hit , Typhoon Maemi also struck South Korea with stronger winds , causing $ 3 @.@ 74 billion in damage and 117 deaths . The damage total was less than from Rusa but was more significant to industrial areas .
In North Korea , the Red Cross provided relief supplies to residents affected by flooding . The agency 's international disaster relief fund provided FR75,000 ( 2002 CHF ( $ 50 @,@ 000 USD ) .. Soldiers were used to assist in search and rescue missions and to repair damaged infrastructure . Due to storm damage , the Red Cross in North Korea distributed over 2 @.@ 1 million water purification tablets and over 11 @,@ 000 water containers . The agency also provided 32 @,@ 753 blankets and 4 @,@ 931 kitchen units . After the storm , people left homeless by the storm sought shelter with neighbors or in shelters . A South Korean dairy company donated 42 @,@ 000 cans of baby formula to North Korea .
The name Rusa was retired after its usage in
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. The video commences with a shot of Cyrus holding a guitar and a suitcase as she begins to walk down a long path extending through a valley . At the end of the valley , the sun breaks out over a distant mountain . The entire scene is enhanced with computer @-@ generated imagery . Cyrus has her hair tied in a bun and wears a traveling jacket , a gray tank top and cowboy boots . In a separate setting , Cyrus , wearing a gray short sleeve shirt and her hair loose , begins to sing " The Climb " beneath a blue spotlight in a purple room . The two settings alternate throughout the video . A vignetted scene from Hannah Montana : The Movie appears in front of Cyrus as she walks on the path . The video zooms into the scene and a montage of film clips plays , featuring Cyrus 's character and her love interest , Travis Brody ( played by Lucas Till ) horseback riding . The video returns to Cyrus walking ; she picks up a rose fallen on the path , then throws it behind her . As the video progresses , she also sees things such as a herd of horses and a shooting star cross her path . A new setting enters the video in which Cyrus dances in a purple room with a countdown or , occasionally , film clips projected on the wall behind her . Rain begins to pour in the path setting . Cyrus puts down her jacket , guitar case , suitcase and boots , and continues onwards with only her guitar strapped to her shoulder . More film clip montages play in the same manner as the first . As the last montage ends , Cyrus finally reaches the summit of a reddish , CGI mountain and triumphantly looks over the cliff 's edge to watch the sun shining over a shimmering lake . An alternate version of the music video excluding the Hannah Montana : The Movie clips exists and was sent to several channels , including VH1 .
Todd Martens of The Los Angeles Times wrote that while he enjoyed the song , he was unsure about the video . He commented that while the video was an improvement since Cyrus 's video for " 7 Things " ( 2008 ) , the settings in " The Climb " music video looked as though they had been painted by Thomas Kinkade and Cyrus 's dancing appeared off @-@ beat . Travis of MTV described the video as " beautifully shot ( although heavily digitized ) " . Lyndsey Parker of Yahoo ! Music remarked that the summit setting was similar to that of the music video for Britney Spears ' " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " . Parker also felt the scene in which Cyrus looks out over the cliff , shot using large sweeps with an aerial camera , had been " lifted straight out of an ' 80s Bon Jovi video " . In 2009 , the video received a MuchMusic Video nomination for Best International Artist Video , but lost to Lady Gaga 's music video for " Poker Face " .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus opened the Kids ' Inaugural : " We Are the Future " event with the premiere of " The Climb " . The event was held on January 19 , 2009 , in Washington D.C. at the Verizon Center to celebrate the inauguration of Barack Obama as President of the United States . Cyrus , dressed in an embroidered red ball gown made by Reem Acra , dedicated the song to Obama 's daughters , Sasha and Malia Obama . Following the song 's official release in March 2009 , Cyrus resumed promotion for " The Climb " , performing live for shows including American Idol , The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , the 44th annual Academy of Country Music Awards , Good Morning America , and Live with Regis and Kelly throughout April . On April 13 , Cyrus performed " The Climb " as part of her set for the AOL Sessions . On April 24 , Cyrus sang " The Climb " and other songs in a London Apple Store . The performances were recorded and sold exclusively by the United Kingdom iTunes Store as a live extended play titled iTunes Live from London . On June 7 , 2009 , Cyrus performed the song at the 20th annual A Time for Heroes Celebrity Carnival , an outdoor carnival supporting the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation . Cyrus also sang " The Climb " on The Today Show on August 28 and at the first D23 Expo on September 11 , 2009 .
To promote the Hannah Montana : The Movie soundtrack , Cyrus performed " The Climb " on a six @-@ day , five @-@ city acoustic radio promo tour that reached over 250 radio shows . The song was also used as the closing number of Cyrus ' 2009 Wonder World Tour , her first world tour . During the tour performances , Cyrus performed in a white tank top and shorts , boots , and a metallic vest , while giant overhead video screens displayed sunsets . After finishing , Cyrus exited through a passageway in the stage while the images of shooting stars and the earth in space appeared on the screen . Melinda M. Thompson of The Oregonian described the performance as " really a moment to remember — Miley 's soulful and touching rendition of ' The Climb ' " , while Jim Harrington of The Oakland Tribune said the performance was a " tender closer " that drew a large response at the September 18 concert in Oakland , California , at the Oracle Arena . Cyrus later performed the song at the Rock in Rio concert in Lisbon , Portugal and the London , England nightclubs Heaven and G @-@ A @-@ Y.
Cyrus performed the song during the Gypsy Heart Tour . She also performed this song on CNN Heroes on December 11 , 2011 .
= = Release history = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Cover versions = =
" The Climb " has been covered by several amateurs and established acts . Mirror Image Records ' indie rock group HelenaMaria covered the song and released it as a digital single in March 2009 . At auditions for the ninth season of the television singing competition American Idol , " The Climb " was the most popular choice of song amongst contestants . Mandi Bierly , writing for Entertainment Weekly , commented , " it sounds like we could get an Idol whose voice actually suits the inspirational tune that he or she will be forced to record as a first single . ( Though the odds of that song being anywhere as good as ' The Climb ' ... ) " . While informing Cyrus of its popularity on American Idol , the series ' host Ryan Seacrest commented that the contestants " believe [ it is ] a song that will make an impression and [ ... ] will get them into that next level " . Cyrus said she was pleased because the song was about " following your dreams and not giving up " .
= = Joe McElderry version = =
= = = Background and composition = = =
In the same year of " The Climb " ' s original release , British executive Simon Cowell chose for Joe McElderry , Olly Murs , and Stacey Solomon , the three finalists of the sixth series of the British television talent contest The X Factor , to record the song in preparation for a single release as soon as the winner was announced . After Solomon 's elimination , Murs and McElderry sang the song on December 13 , 2009 , as their final performance in the competition . Upon winning the competition , McElderry 's version of " The Climb " , produced by Quiz & Larossi , was released on December 14 , 2009 by Syco Music as the first single from his debut studio album Wide Awake ( 2010 ) .
McElderry said that the lyrics to " The Climb " meant a lot to him : " It 's an emotional song because it 's what 's been happening in the last few months . It all feels very , very surreal . " According to Peter Robinson of The Guardian , the cover has a " plinky " piano in its introduction . In regards to lyrics , Robinson interpreted , " lines about ' uphill battles ' and ' having to lose ' do seem to talk of Joe 's probable future . "
= = = Reception = = =
Peter Robinson of The Guardian described " The Climb " as a " controversially uncontroversial choice " for a cover and continued , " While ' The Climb ' might be a suitable choice for a winner 's single , the fact that it 's a cover of such a recent song means that it 's still slightly odd . "
On the week ending 26 December 2009 , " The Climb " debuted at number two on the UK Singles Chart ; its debut position was influenced by a campaign composed of Facebook group members , aimed at getting Rage Against the Machine 's 1992 single " Killing in the Name " to the top position during Christmas week . In the following week , the song reached number one , becoming the final number one of the 2000s decade , where it maintained for a week . The single was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipments exceeding 600 @,@ 000 copies . The song has sold 810 @,@ 000 copies in the UK as of January 2015 .
" The Climb " debuted at number one on the Irish Singles Chart on the week ending December 17 , 2009 , where it maintained in the top position for four consecutive weeks . In mainland Europe , the song charted in the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles at number four on the week ending January 9 , 2010 .
= = = Music video = = =
The video was shot on 16 December 2009 , in London , England . The video begins with footage from The X Factor and then transitions to a close @-@ up shot of McElderry in the main setting , a flooded cityscape — the scene was shot in a flooded set with a cityscape backdrop . McElderry is clothed by a grey vest and a grey shirt , as he stands in the setting and performs . Throughout the entire video , scenes alternate between the flooded cityscape setting and recycled footage from The X Factor , which are in black and white until it shows him in the live shows in colour . The video concludes with McElderry being informed he won the competition , hugging his peers .
= = = Track listings = = =
Digital download
" The Climb " – 3 : 36
CD single
" The Climb " – 3 : 36
" Somebody to Love " – 2 : 38
" Don 't Let the Sun Go Down on Me " – 2 : 27
= = = Charts and certifications = = =
= Philippine Idol =
Philippine Idol is the first version of the Idol series in the Philippines , the 35th country in the world to air a local Idol adaptation and the sixth in Asia . The franchise was first awarded by FremantleMedia , 19 Entertainment and CKX , Inc. to ABC Development Corporation ( ABC now TV5 ) in 2006 and then to GMA Network in 2008 . Just like the premise of original show Pop Idol , Philippine Idol aims to find the best singer in the country who can be defined as the " national " singer . Local television personality Ryan Agoncillo hosted the program . Ryan Cayabyab ( musical composer ) , Pilita Corrales ( singer , known as Asia 's Queen of Songs ) and Francis Magalona ( rapper and producer ) were also judges of the show . Agoncillo , Corrales and Magalona auditioned to be part of the program , while Cayabyab was chosen by the program 's producers . Meanwhile , actress Heart Evangelista hosted the daily updates program I ♥ Philippine Idol : Exclusive . Composer Mel Villena was the show 's musical director .
Mau Marcelo , an aspiring singer from Lucena City , defeated two other contenders on the show 's Finale to become the first Philippine Idol . FremantleMedia subsequently awarded the franchise to GMA Network and their version of the program was named Pinoy Idol , which does not recognize the results of ABC 's franchise .
= = Production = =
ABC started negotiating with FremantleMedia in order to acquire a Philippine franchise of Idol in 2004 , when Filipino @-@ American Jasmine Trias placed third in American Idol 's third season . It reportedly cost millions of dollars . During the program 's development stage , notable personalities in music and recording industries tried out to become Idol judges , including former Eraserheads vocalist Ely Buendia , singer @-@ actress Pinky Marquez , and talent manager Wyngard Tracy . The chosen judges were addressed according to their agreed @-@ upon nicknames : Cayabyab was called " Mr. C " , Corrales called " Mamita " , and Magalona , " Kiko " .
Before it was launched , there was skepticism among the local entertainment press about Philippine Idol as singing contests are common in local television , with recent ones branded as Idol knockoffs . The Filipino culture of " westernized conservatism " was also noted , as Pinoys tend to shy away from direct criticism especially in front of cameras . Promotion began during the Finale of American Idol season 5 . One of its taglines reads , " Hindi lang STAR , hindi lang SUPERSTAR , kundi PHILIPPINE IDOL " ( Not just a STAR , not just a SUPERSTAR , but a PHILIPPINE IDOL ) . This was in reference to two singing contests being held during that time — Search for the Star in a Million on ABS @-@ CBN and Pinoy Pop Superstar on GMA Network . Initially , the program was scheduled to begin on July 29 , 2006 , but ABC moved it to July 30 , 2006 . On its premiere , Philippine Idol registered a 7 @.@ 7 % rating according to an independent survey , in contrast to GMA Network 's Mel and Joey at 21 % and ABS @-@ CBN 's Rated K at 26 @.@ 7 % . ABC officials , however , were overwhelmed at the results , considering they were up against " giant networks " . They also noted that ratings for Philippine Idol increased to as much as 12 % towards the final 30 minutes of first episode .
Early reviews compared the show with American Idol , which was shown locally on ABC . Entertainment writers said that the local Idol franchise was not as glossy as its American counterpart , but it was able to succeed because of promising elements such as human interest , talent , and proper casting of judges and host . Meanwhile , reviews during the Finale were mixed , with Nestor Torre of the Philippine Daily Inquirer commenting that the Performance Show was phlegmatic and anticlimactic as the Final Three failed to rise up to the challenge and instead played safe , while Results Show was stretched out with one unspectacular number after another . He also noticed sound glitches , which he blamed on faulty equipment and lax personnel . In contrast , Billy Balbastro of Abante Tonite wrote that he was impressed with the show 's " flow " , song choices , pacing , and camera shots . He also noted that the Finale did not have melodrama and lingering shots for the sake of effects .
= = Auditions = =
The main auditions were held in three cities , each representing a major island group : Pasay ( advertised as Manila ) for Luzon , on June 3 , 2006 , in Philippine International Convention Center ; Davao for Mindanao , on June 23 , 2006 , in Waterfront Insular Hotel ; and Cebu for Visayas , on July 4 , 2006 , in Bigfoot Entertainment ’ s International Academy of Film and Television . Meanwhile , Fast @-@ Track Screenings were also held in SM Supermalls located in Baguio , Lucena , Batangas , Iloilo , and Cagayan de Oro between May and June 2006 . Screenings were also held in cities without an SM Mall such as Dagupan , Ilagan in Isabela , Tacloban , and Zamboanga . Applicants were asked to fill out necessary forms and perform two songs before a set of judges , usually from local radio and music industries . Successful applicants were given a pass for the Main Auditions . ABC and its media partners Radio Mindanao Network and Manila Broadcasting Company provided free transportation , food and lodging to those who were eligible for Theater Eliminations .
The Luzon Main Auditions and Fast @-@ Tracks yielded over 10 @,@ 000 registrants , with Contestant no . 0001 arriving at the audition venue at 1 : 00 a.m. , auditions starting at 9 : 00 a.m. The Main Auditions were composed of three stages — passing the first two stages gave the participant a blue form , allowing them to face the Idol judges about a week later . The Idol judges were so overwhelmed with the amount of talent presented to them that it was difficult for them to say " no " to hopefuls who did not pass their standards . Cayabyab exasperatedly stated during the Luzon Main Auditions ,
He admitted becoming angry at times and felt like he was the anti @-@ hero because of intense reactions from rejects who viewed the competition as a ticket out of poverty . The judges even allowed candidates to sing up to five " redemption songs " after saying " no " for the first time . After seeing the auditions , FremantleMedia supervising producer Sheldon Bailey said that she was amazed at the abundance of musical talent in the Philippines as well as the amount of touching human stories .
= = Theater round = =
The Theater Round was held between August 1 and August 3 , 2006 at the Cultural Center of the Philippines . A total of 169 competitors received the Gold Pass from the three main judges , 119 from Luzon and Metro Manila , 17 from Davao , and 33 from Cebu . However , only 157 showed up for the Theater Round as other Gold Passers either backed out or were allegedly " pirated " to join rival talent search Pinoy Dream Academy . They were billeted at the Bayview Park Hotel , where Gold Passers from outside Luzon arrived after a first @-@ class trip in Super Ferry , while the Luzon contenders were picked up in selected SM Malls . The contestants were divided into 11 groups with 15 members . Each contestant performed an a cappella , after which the judges selected who would go home and advance to the next round . From 157 contestants , 84 were chosen to proceed to the group performance , with each group having three members . The list was trimmed down further to 40 contestants , each of which sang solo with a piano accompaniment . Eventually the judges selected the 24 contestants who would compete in the Semi @-@ Final Round . The Top 24 was officially announced on August 27 , 2006 .
= = Semifinal round = =
The Semi @-@ Finalists were then divided by gender , with the two groups performing alternately at SM Megamall Cinema 3 on a stage built specifically for the live shows . The viewers voted for their favorites by dialing a toll @-@ free telephone number or sending an SMS as often as possible from the end of the show until 8 : 30 p.m. the following day . The four contestants of each group who received the highest number of votes entered the Finals . Ten of the remaining 16 semi @-@ finalists then performed in a Wildcard round , with four contestants with the highest number of votes completing the Top 12 Finalists . Candidates for the Wildcard were announced after the second Semi @-@ Finals Results Show , although it was shown on television a day later in Philippine Idol : Exclusive .
= = Final round = =
The Final Round started on September 30 , 2006 , in which each finalist sang one to three songs within a specified theme and received comments from each of the judges . The viewers continued to vote for their favorites until 8 : 30 p.m. the following day , which was shortened to two hours from the Fifth Finals Week . The finalist with the lowest number of votes was eliminated during the Results Show every week . However , there were special circumstances that did not result in eliminations during the Results Show , but then the votes were carried over the week after and eventually eliminated two finalists . The 12 Finalists also recorded a compilation album entitled Philippine Idol : The Final 12 , consisting of Original Pilipino Music songs they have performed during the first Finals Week . The remaining three contenders , namely Gian Magdangal , Jan Nieto , and Mau Marcelo , competed in the Finale , instead of the usual two contestants in most Idol shows , held on December 9 and December 10 , 2006 , at the Araneta Coliseum in Quezon City .
= = = Weekly themes = = =
September 30 – OPM songs dedicated to a special someone
October 7 – Soul / R & B
October 14 – Songs from the Metropop Song Festival
October 21 – Contemporary Filipino rock
October 29 – Personal theme songs
November 5 – Dance music
November 12 – Radio hits
November 19 – Movie themes , and Broadway show tunes
November 26 – Big band
December 9 – Personal choice , Judges ' and Musical director 's choice , and Record company 's choice
= = = Guest judges = = =
A guest judge was enlisted each week for five weeks beginning on October 14 while resident judge Magalona was away on a tour in Europe . Additionally , a sixth guest judge supplemented the panel on the week of Magalona 's return . Each guest judge generally had expertise relating to that week 's theme .
October 14 – Hajji Alejandro ( interpreter of the first winning song of the Metropop Song Festival )
October 21 – Wency Cornejo ( songwriter and front man of AfterImage )
October 29 – Luke Mejares ( solo artist and former vocalist of South Border )
November 5 – Regine Tolentino ( professional dancer , former MTV VJ and TV personality )
November 12 – Mo Twister ( radio DJ and talk show host )
November 19 – Lea Salonga ( Tony Award @-@ winning singer and musical theatre performer )
= = = Notable events = = =
On the first Finals Week , no contestants were eliminated due to disrupted telephone and mobile phone services in many areas of Luzon , caused by Typhoon Xangsane . In the results show , finalists still went through a familiar elimination routine . Agoncillo called three contestants to an area dubbed the " Hot Spot " before revealing that no one would be eliminated and the votes would be carried over to the succeeding week . This was done because there were no official results to be announced . According to sources from the network , the votes were not yet counted at the time . ABC @-@ 5 Director for Creative and Entertainment Production Perci Intalan stated that the three finalists who were put in the " Hot Spot " ( Marcelo , Armarie Cruz and Jelli Mateo ) were not necessarily the Bottom Three . Intalan said , " We were not allowed to announce who the Bottom Three were because the votes will be carried over next week and it might affect the voting if people knew who the Bottom Three were . " As a result , two contenders — Stef Lazaro and Drae Ybañez — were eliminated the following week . Another non @-@ elimination occurred on the fourth Finals Week due to reports of disrupted voting ( among Sun Cellular and Smart subscribers ) . The votes amassed for this week were carried over to Week 5 . Through the rest of the results night , each of the judges picked one finalist to give an encore performance : Cornejo picked Cruz , Corrales chose Marcelo , and Cayabyab picked Magdangal .
Schedules were changed starting the Fifth Finals Week , with performances held on Sundays while elimination nights were on Mondays , as opposed to the previous arrangement of Saturday performances and Sunday eliminations . The voting time was also shortened from 21 to 2 hours . Agoncillo explained that this change was adopted ( partly due to public clamor ) from the voting period of American Idol . Mateo and Cruz were eliminated because of the non @-@ elimination on the previous week .
On the Seventh Finals Week , each finalist sang a song chosen for them by a fellow Idol based on these assigned pairings : Magdangal and Nieto , Marcelo and Mendoza , Chavez and Dingle . After the night 's performances , guest judge Mo Twister confidently said that Dingle would be eliminated the next night and even wagered that he would go to work in a dress for a week if his prediction proved wrong . Dingle was indeed eliminated the following night . The Big Band Week became a " mini @-@ concert " , as each of the remaining four finalists performed two song numbers with a short spiel to the audience in between . The following week featured special segments about the final three contenders : Marcelo , Magdangal , and Nieto .
= = = Finale = = =
Philippine Idol held its Performance Night Finale on December 9 , 2006 , at the Araneta Coliseum , which was dubbed The Big 3 at the Big Dome . Each of the three remaining contenders performed three songs , one personally chosen by the contestant , one by the judges and one by Sony BMG Music Philippines . Agoncillo hosted the performance night alone ; he was joined the next night by Heart Evangelista . Each song was performed with Villena 's " mega band " and the San Miguel Philharmonic Orchestra . The next night at the same venue , the star @-@ studded results show was held , headlined by Magdangal , Marcelo , and Nieto together with the rest of the Final 12 . The show also included performances from Cueshé , Aiza Seguerra , the SexBomb Girls , G Toengi , Hajji Alejandro , and Gary Valenciano , as well as resident judges Francis Magalona and Pilita Corrales . Ryan Cayabyab also performed his compositions by joining the finalists through his piano accompaniment . In what can be regarded as the climax of the show , the Final 12 and resident judges Corrales and Cayabyab performed a medley of songs composed by Cayabyab , including an original one which he made with finalist Miguel Mendoza entitled " Here I Am " .
Marcelo was voted as the first Philippine Idol , amassing about 35 @.@ 26 % of the vote . The vote was a hotly contested one with the runners @-@ up earning about 33 @.@ 84 % and 30 @.@ 90 % of the votes . It was not revealed , however , which runner @-@ up garnered which percentage , but they each received ₱ 250 @,@ 000 . Aside from the title , Marcelo also earned a contract with Sony BMG Music Philippines , a management contract with an agency of FremantleMedia 's choice , a ₱ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 non @-@ exclusive contract with ABC , and ₱ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cash prize .
= = Elimination chart = =
1 Due to the power interruptions and network problems , no elimination was held on October 1 . All votes cast for the week were carried over to the following week.2 Two contestants were eliminated this week in lieu of the non @-@ elimination the week before.3 Due to network problems , no contestant was eliminated . All votes caat for the week were carried over to the following week . This serves as Philippine Idol 's Second Non @-@ elimination week.4 Two contestants were eliminated this week in lieu of the non = elimination the week before . This also marks the first Monday elimination , as performance nights were moved to Sundays , with eliminations moved to Mondays .
= = Kakaibang Idol = =
Kakaibang Idol was a special episode of Philippine Idol held on September 23 , 2006 , a week after the Top 12 Finalists have been named . It was an interactive reality singing competition consisting of notable auditionees who either did not pass or failed to make it through Semifinals . The program was named Kakaibang Idol ( A Different Kind of Idol ) because the seven contestants made an impact among viewers . The twelve finalists were present that night , but only performed at the beginning and end of the show . Likewise , Magalona , Corrales , and Cayabyab took a back seat , appearing in clips taking their " times off " . Taking over jury duties that night were comedic performers Ethel Booba , Arnell Ignacio , and Tuesday Vargas . Although the event served as a breather , voting was still active , involving viewers picking the performer who should be proclaimed Kakaibang Idol . The next night , with finalists and judges present , Kenneth Paul " Yova " Alonzo — a transgender call center agent from Cebu City — was chosen by viewers as Kakaibang Idol .
= = I ♥ Philippine Idol : Exclusive = =
I ♥ Philippine Idol : Exclusive , originally Philippine Idol : Exclusive , is a thirty @-@ minute daily program that features updates , news and behind @-@ the @-@ scene footages of the show . Since its premiere on August 14 , 2006 , a male voice talent ( who also voices the plugs for ABC programs ) has been facilitating the program , with appearances by Jmie Mempin who is also a production associate of Philippine Idol . Actress Heart Evangelista took over on September 4 , 2006 . Accordingly , Philippine Idol : Exclusive was renamed I Love Philippine Idol : Exclusive with a heart shape reflecting the new host .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Auditions = = =
A Fast @-@ Track audition that was to be held at SM City Sta . Mesa was canceled , leading to complaints from hopefuls and their parents . After hours of waiting , a representative of ABC arrived and relocated each of the 160 frustrated applicants to other scheduled screening . Meanwhile , Filipinos living in Mindanao reacted negatively to what Philippine Idol judges said after a low Gold Pass turnout at the Davao Main Auditions , with Corrales ( a Cebuana herself ) saying that " Davao is not the place to look for an Idol " and " all the good ones are in Cebu " . Corrales later clarified in the Wildcard Round that she said such a statement because of the low turnout in the Davao auditions and the even lower Gold Pass output . She added that " Davao 's best talents " might have probably auditioned earlier in Manila .
= = = Talent piracy = = =
ABC confirmed that a Gold Passer ( later identified in the show 's official website as Czarina Rose Rosales ) was pirated by ABS @-@ CBN 's Pinoy Dream Academy , the Philippine franchise of Star Academy . Sources said that representatives of ABS @-@ CBN even approached a judge to " just let ( some of ) the contestants go " . This came after news that ABS @-@ CBN wanted to co @-@ produce Philippine Idol with ABC , but was denied . ABS @-@ CBN sent a letter to the Philippine Daily Inquirer , which published the said report denying the allegations . The network added that they successfully staged competitions without taking contestants from other contests and would fully respect a contestant 's choice as to which competition they would join . Auditions for Pinoy Dream Academy were being held before the Theater eliminations . ABC then sent a formal letter of complaint to ABS @-@ CBN , alleging that three Gold Passers of Philippine Idol became contestants of Pinoy Dream Academy . The latter did not comment on the letter , as neither of the three talents questioned became a finalist of that show .
= = = Vote padding = = =
Upon the announcement of the first four male finalists , there were viewers of the show who had negative reactions regarding its format . They were shocked , disappointed , and were left complaining as two of the contestants that were favored by the judges based on their performances failed to make the cut . Instead , two others who had rather bad reviews from the jurors took the spots . Viewers critical to the program concluded that it was just another " popularity contest " rather than a singing competition . Cayabyab mentioned that people should not be complacent regarding the contestants ' status on the show , and advised them to keep on voting for their favorites because of the show 's uncertainty . This criticism was also reflected during the Women 's Semi @-@ finals , as talent critics believed two contenders that failed to make the cut should have become finalists . Critics also noted that viewers did not take heed to the judges ' remarks about performance . Torre stated in his article that the results of Philippine Idol Semi @-@ finals revealed that viewers were not yet knowledgeable or objective enough to pick the first Idol , and pointed to the compromised voting based on " subjective campaigns " from some of the semi @-@ finalists ' backers . He later commented that the show did not affirm a contestant 's popularity but " the determination and deep pockets of his supporters . " This was supported on a report published by the Manila Bulletin about contestants who " buy their way to the top " . Cayabyab divulged that he did not expect the way people voted and would see if that trend would continue in the coming weeks . However , he admitted that such campaigns were part of the game .
= = = Looks over talent = = =
During the Results Show of the Wildcard Round , Marcelo jokingly said that Philippine Idol is not a singing contest but a " pagandahan " ( beauty contest ) , which received a thunderous applause and laughter ( especially from Cayabyab ) . Her statement was interpreted in two ways : as a way of venting out her frustrations in the voting process or as a means of sarcasm . She later made it to the Finals . In a later interview in I ♥ Philippine Idol : Exclusive , she said that she did not mean anything . Marcelo later apologized for her remarks during the Finale 's post @-@ results show press conference . The judges were also scored by viewers for their constant comments about contestants who should lose weight , especially Marcelo . Marcelo admitted getting hurt by comments on so @-@ called physical flaws , adding that she entered a " singing contest " not a " dancing competition " . Cayabyab said that he avoids commenting on the singer 's physical attributes .
= = = Cayabyab losing cool = = =
Cayabyab had shown signs of frustration during Results Shows where the best performers of the previous night got eliminated . He finally expressed his disgust over the results after Sajor 's elimination , calling it " dreadful " . He also appeared to have surrendered the prospect of finding the best singer in the contest , predicting that it would be a " lightweight competition " with contestants singing nursery rhymes .
= = Transition to Pinoy Idol = =
Although it had previously announced that it would , ABC did not produce a second season of Philippine Idol ' Sources stated that ABC had incurred large losses producing the first season due to lower than expected advertising revenue .
On September 16 , 2007 , FremantleMedia officially announced that the Idol franchise would be given to GMA Network under the name Pinoy Idol . FremantleMedia representative Geraldine Bravo said that it was " very fortunate " to find a new partner , while GMA Network 's Senior Vice President for Entertainment Wilma Galvante added that both parties agreed that the network " has the experience , the resources , and the people to mount talent @-@ search programs " . Reports said that GMA was planning to treat Pinoy Idol as a completely different show , without referring to Philippine Idol as its " first season " and not recognizing Marcelo as the " first winner " . Agoncillo and Cayabyab would not reprise their roles in the new Idol show as they appeared in the second season of Pinoy Dream Academy .
In an article published before Pinoy Idol 's premiere , Torre gave the lapses in Philippine Idol which he hoped Pinoy Idol should not replicate , such as Agoncillo 's less than effective hosting style and the somewhat scripted and less wise comments of Magalona and Corrales .
= Båtsfjord Airport =
Båtsfjord Airport ( Norwegian : Båtsfjord lufthavn , IATA : BJF , ICAO : ENBS ) is a regional airport serving Båtsfjord in Finnmark , Norway . It consists of a 1 @,@ 000 by 30 meters ( 3 @,@ 281 by 98 ft ) runway and served 12 @,@ 363 passengers in 2014 . Scheduled services are provided by Widerøe using the Dash 8 to Kirkenes , Hammerfest and other communities in Finnmark . The airport is owned and operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor .
It is the second airport in Båtsfjord . The first was built in 1973 , but only had a gravel runway . When Widerøe replaced their smaller de Havilland Canada Twin Otters with the Dash 8 , a new airport was needed to serve Båtsfjord . The new airport cost 178 million Norwegian krone and opened on 9 September 1999 .
= = History = =
The first airline to operate to Båtsfjord was Varangfly , later renamed Norving , who flew seaplane taxi and ambulance flights in the early 1960s . Construction of an airfield in Båtsfjorddalen was started by the aviation club Båtsfjord Flyklubb in 1972 and completed in May 1973 . It consisted of an 800 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) gravel runway and was served with regular flights by Norving . The municipality took over ownership of the airport in 1976 . Norving remained the sole operator until 1990 , when the routes were taken over by Widerøe using the Twin Otter .
The Ministry of Transport and Communications announced in February 1993 that they were considering taking over ownership and operations of the airport through the Civil Aviation Administration ( CAA , later renamed Avinor ) . In December , Widerøe articulated that Båtsfjord Airport did not meet the demands for future operation as it lacked proper navigational aids and an asphalt runway . Widerøe stated that with the introduction of the Dash 8 , which would be phased in between 1993 and 1995 , they would no longer be able to serve the airport . The CAA stated , instead , that the new airport should be built , estimated to cost between 70 and 80 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . The main reason was that the former airport was poorly located in relation to the terrain , being located in a valley . In April 1994 the ministry stated that they were considering closing many of the smallest regional airports , including Båtsfjord .
In April 1995 , when Parliament decided to nationalize twenty @-@ six regional airports owned by their respective municipalities , they also debated a proposal to build a new airport in Båtsfjord . At the time Widerøe was obliged to operate routes to the airport until 31 March 1997 . In December 1995 , Widerøe took delivery of their fifteenth Dash 8 and thus their only need for a Twin Otter was to serve Båtsfjord . From 1994 to 1997 , the cost estimates for the new airport increased from NOK 95 to 125 million . By June 1998 , Parliament approved additional funding which brought the cost to NOK 178 million , including a new county road for NOK 8 million . The airport opened on 9 September 1999 . From the opening Widerøe used the Twin Otter until 1 April 2000 , when the route was taken over by larger Dash 8 aircraft . Airport security was introduced on 1 January 2005 .
= = Facilities = =
The terminal consists of a single building , with an integrated control tower , capable of handling
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a sandbar off Ormond Beach , Florida . Rescue attempts led to the drowning of volunteer Ferd Waterhouse , whose body was never recovered , but no other crew members were lost . A plaque commemorates Ferd Waterhouse ’ s rescue efforts . The Cobb Cottage , a structure built using materials salvaged from the ship , is part of Ormond Beach ’ s Historic Trail .
= = History = =
Nathan F. Cobb of Rockland , Maine was a three @-@ masted , square rigged schooner constructed in 1890 . Information related to many ships built in Rockland between the years of 1837 and 1920 is generally sparse . In his six volume set titled Merchant Sail , William Armstrong Fairburn describes the landscape regarding construction and registration information for ships built in Rockland during the aforementioned era :
It is to be regretted that the desired data covering construction and registration at most Maine ports have not been preserved , recorded , and made available for inspection locally ; that the records still in existence — and that have not been destroyed or lost — are scattered ; the tabulations of the data on hand attempted during recent years by the P.W.A. ( Pemaquid Watershed Association ) are incomplete ; and that such records as have been made available are for vessels catalogued alphabetically instead of chronologically .
Fairburn cites Customhouse Records with recording information about 275 vessels registered as built in Rockland between 1837 and 1920 . Among the vessels listed is the Nathan F. Cobb , which ranged 167 @.@ 2 feet ( 51 m ) in length , weighed 656 tons , drafted 12 @.@ 7 feet ( 4 m ) of water and had a beam width of 35 @.@ 1 feet ( 11 m ) .
= = Final voyage = =
On its last voyage the Cobb was scheduled to transport a cargo of timber and cross ties from Brunswick , Georgia to New York . On Tuesday , 1 December 1896 , after leaving port from Brunswick , the schooner fell victim to the strong winds and high seas associated with Nor 'easters . Gale force winds ripped the vessel 's sails from their masts and rough seas capsized the ship to its beam ends . The crew was able to right the distressed vessel by removing the main and mizzen masts , but this left the Cobb vulnerable since it was powerless and waterlogged . Despite the cabin being swept away by the sea , the ship 's hull was kept relatively intact during this sequence of events . Unfortunately , both a cook and a shipmate drowned in the violent seas . On the morning of 5 December 1896 the Nathan F. Cobb ran aground on a near shore sandbar roughly 1000 feet off the coast of Ormond Beach , Florida .
= = Rescue efforts = =
J.D. Price and John Anderson built the Ormond Hotel in 1888 and sold it to Henry Flagler in 1891 . While Flagler took over ownership responsibilities , he retained Price as the hotel 's manager . On the morning of 5 December 1896 , then Ormond Hotel manager J.D. Price , noticed the stranded vessel in the surf and gathered a group of people to assist in the rescue efforts . After learning of the disaster , Superintendent Hiram B. Shaw of the United States Life @-@ Saving Service 's Seventh Life @-@ Saving District , hastened to the scene to assess the situation . Shaw quickly telegraphed for permission to have a life saving beach apparatus sent to him by train from Jupiter , Florida where the Jupiter Inlet Life Saving Station was located , approximately 180 miles south of Ormond Beach . This was quickly granted by General Superintendent Sumner Increase Kimball . Because of the proximity and travel time from the Jupiter Inlet Station to Ormond Beach , Shaw had his small surf boat wheeled down to the beach on a man @-@ drawn wagon . He then went into town to procure necessary equipment and rope lines for the rescue .
In total , about fifty people came together on the beach . Due to the tumultuous conditions , it was decided that no rescue attempts would be made until low tide at 11 : 00 a.m. The first rescue boat set out at nearly low tide . With a rope attached to its stern from shore , hotel painter Edward DeCourcy and another hotel staff member manned Shaw 's small rowboat . Although they successfully made it beyond the breakers , the rowboat succumbed to the strong southerly current ; missing the float line thrown from the schooner by five feet . They were forced to come in . Five more unsuccessful attempts were made to reach the grounded vessel .
Next , a small metallic dingy , known as an iron yawl , was carried down to the beach . Tom Fagen and Freed Waterhouse manned the yawl , in another attempt to reach the grounded schooner . Through skilled seamanship , they made it to the second set of breakers , only a short distance from the vessel . When they tried to reach the float line , a large wave struck them leaving their boat filled with water . The two men abandoned their yawl . Fagen managed to swim ashore and was met by volunteers close to the beach half @-@ drowned . Waterhouse decided against swimming to shore . When he saw that the yawl had flipped , he swam back to it and straddled the hull . The men on the shore began pulling the flipped boat in , but another wave broke on top of it throwing Waterhouse into the water and righting the yawl . Waterhouse climbed back into the boat and began getting pulled in again , only to be capsized shortly thereafter . This time Waterhouse surfaced , appearing dazed and grasping onto an oar . Shaw 's rescue boat was put back in the water , but Waterhouse had already gone under and presumably drowned to death a short time later . F Waterhouse 's body was never recovered , despite several searches .
Hiram B. Shaw had just returned to the beach when this casualty occurred . After supplying his small rescue boat with more rope lines , he and Edward DeCourcy removed their outer clothing and prepared to embark . The men on the Cobb , who had just witnessed Waterhouse 's drowning , prompted the captain of the schooner to give an impassioned address in which he said , " They have sacrificed one man in their efforts to save us ; now I 'll risk my life in an attempt to get ashore . " The captain tied a rope around his waist and jumped into the water , just as the rescue boat had set out from shore . After battling against the current and waves , he was met by Shaw 's rescue boat and clung to its stern until they reached land . Making use of the captain 's line , the men on shore tied a life preserver to it . One at a time , the five stranded crewmen pulled the flotation device out to the schooner , fastened it to their bodies and were pulled to safety by the people on the shore . After receiving a cup of hot coffee , a drink of whiskey and a blanket , the Cobb 's crew were taken to Coquina , Ormond Beach 's area hospital .
Upon hearing the story , General Superintendent Sumner Increase Kimball of the United States Life @-@ Saving Service wrote a letter of praise to Edward DeCourcy for his selflessness and bravery ; also acknowledging the many others involved .
= = Cobb Cottage = =
The Cobb Cottage was built using materials salvaged from the ship . William " Billy " C. Fagen was given permission to use the material to aid in the construction of the three bedroom cottage . Materials used from the wreck included railroad ties to form the exterior and railings for porch decorations . The schooner 's wooden name plate , with " Nathan F. Cobb " engraved into it , hangs over the fireplace . The house is now part of Ormond Beach 's Historic Trail .
= = Location = =
The location of Nathan F. Cobb 's wreck is designated by a sign to warn swimmers . It is anchored in or near the water 's edge depending on the tide . The hull of the ship became visible for brief period in May 2004 after shifting sands and a very low tide coincided simultaneously . The sign is located at 29 ° 16 ′ 38 ″ N 81 ° 1 ′ 53 ″ W on Ormond Beach . Previously , a large boulder had been sent from Freed Waterhouse 's hometown of Cape Elizabeth , Maine , decorated with a bronze plaque commemorating his brave rescue efforts . This monument was prominently placed in the sand dunes near the site where the ship ran aground , but in July 1972 the plaque was vandalized and broken off . After the plaque was reattached to the boulder , it was relocated to the east side of the Casa Del Mar Beach Resort , where it currently sits . The sign is on the wall north of the steps leading up to the pool .
= = Newspaper coverage = =
Despite limited information about its service routes and construction , the Nathan F. Cobb was the subject of two separate New York Times articles during its short career . One article reported the wreck the day after it occurred , the other article came from 20 June 1892 and chronicled a disturbance between mates . The Cobb was still in tow only three miles outside Mobile Bay , beginning its route from Mobile , Alabama to New York , when mate Henry Shaffer jumped over board to avoid a beating . Another mate , J. Trott had already used a belaying pin to half kill another seaman on the schooner and Shaffer was fearful for his life . Shaffer began swimming towards a nearby light house and was picked up nearly five miles from where he jumped over board . The captain of the towboat reported that Captain Cookson of the Cobb , mentioned incidentally they had lost a crewman . Both Cookson and Trott already had pending charges against them for cruelty and marooning of sailors , stemming from an incident in May 1891 at Calcasieu Pass , Louisiana .
= = Forerunner of the United States Life @-@ Saving Service = =
Nathan F. Cobb was named after a ship builder , born in 1797 from Eastham , Massachusetts on Cape Cod . Cobb and his family moved from Eastham to Northampton County , Virginia before purchasing Sand Shoal Island , which later became Cobb Island . It was on Cobb Island , in 1839 , that Nathan founded Cobb 's Salvaging Company with his sons . They specialized in wrecking and salvaging stranded vessels along the shallow Mid @-@ Atlantic coastline . The Cobbs had a remarkable record ; not one person drowned in any of the rescue efforts for the 37 or more ships stranded off their island . The success of the salvaging company earned them the sobriquet " Rothschilds among the toilers of the sea " . Despite the company 's notable prosperity , the Cobbs were often praised for their humanity and general regard for human life , " Often a crew of ten or twenty would be landed on the island from stranded vessels without a penny , and they were tenderly cared for as though they were millionaires . " This practice was a rare creed among wreckers in the 19th century . The Cobbs and others like them transformed the act of salvaging which led way to the forming of the United States Life @-@ Saving Service ; this later merged into what is now the United States Coast Guard .
= Amanita ceciliae =
Amanita ceciliae , commonly called snakeskin grisette and strangulated amanita , is a basidiomycete fungus in the genus Amanita . First described in 1854 by Miles Joseph Berkeley and Christopher Edmund Broome , it was given its current name by Cornelis Bas in 1984 . It is characterized by bearing a large fruit body with a brown cap 5 – 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) across . The cap has charcoal @-@ grey patches , which are easily removable . The stipe is 7 – 18 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , white in colour , and there is no ring on it . It is slightly tapered to the top , and has irregular cottony bands girdling the base . The universal veil is grey . Spores are white , spherical in shape , non @-@ amyloid , and measure 10 @.@ 2 – 11 @.@ 7 micrometres . The mushrooms are considered edible , but field guides typically advise caution in selecting them for consumption , due to risks of confusion with similar toxic species . A. ceciliae is found in woods throughout Europe and North America , where it fruits during summer and autumn .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
Amanita ceciliae was first described by Miles Joseph Berkeley , an English cryptogamist and clergyman , and Christopher Edmund Broome , a British mycologist , in 1854 . It is placed in the genus Amanita and section Vaginatae . Section Vaginatae consists of mushrooms with special characteristics – such as the absence of a ring , and very few clamp connections at the bases of the basidia .
The name Amanita inaurata , given by Swiss mycologist Louis Secretan in 1833 , has also been used for this species . In 1978 , the name was declared nomenclaturally incorrect according to the rules of International Code of Botanical Nomenclature . Other synonyms are Agaricus ceciliae , Amanitopsis inaurata and Amanitopsis ceciliae . The present name , Amanita ceciliae , was given by Cornelis Bas , a Dutch mycologist , in 1984 .
The species is commonly called " snakeskin grisette " . Another common name is " strangulated amanita " , referring to the tightly clasping volva . It is also called Cecilia 's ringless amanita after Cecilia Berkeley , the wife of M. J. Berkeley . The name was meant " to record the services which have been rendered to Mycology by many excellent illustrations and in other ways " .
= = Description = =
Amanita ceciliae is characterized by bearing a large fruit body with a brown cap 5 – 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) across . The cap has charcoal @-@ grey patches , which are easily removable . The stipe is 7 – 18 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , white in colour , and there is no ring on it . It is slightly tapered to the top , and has irregular cottony bands girdling the base .
The universal veil is grey . Spores are white , spherical in shape , non @-@ amyloid , and measure 10 @.@ 2 – 11 @.@ 7 micrometres .
The cap is 5 – 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) across , shape ranging from convex to flat . It is upturned , and has a deep @-@ coloured margin . There is a low umbo . It is grey to a brownish black in colour , darkest in the center and paler towards the margin . Generally smooth , the cap surface is slightly sticky when moist . The cap surface is characterized by having loose , fleecy , charcoal @-@ grey patches of volval remnants scattered across it . The patches are easily removed . The margin is strongly striated . The cap colour may vary , and pale forms are known to exist , for example , as in the types A. c. f. decolora and A. c. var. pallida . A. c. var. royeri , first described by mycologist L. Maire in 2008 and occurring in France , is a cinder black @-@ capped variation .
Gills are free and closely spaced , and white in colour . They can be thick , and are often forked . The stem is 7 – 18 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 1 in ) long , and 120 – 200 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) x 20 – 40 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 57 in ) thick . It is lightly stuffed ( filled with a cottony tissue ) and then hollow , and there is a slight tapering to the top . It is white in colour , with flat grey hairs , often in a zig @-@ zag pattern . It does not bear a ring and has fragile , cottony , brownish or charcoal @-@ coloured oblique girdles of volval remnants around the stem base and lower stem . The volva is white to grey , powdery and delicate . The flesh is white and does not change colour when cut . Although it lacks any distinctive odor , it tastes sweet .
Spores are white in colour , spherical and are not amyloid . They measure 10 @.@ 2 – 11 @.@ 7 µm . A few large @-@ sized spores are commonly found in a mount of gill tissue . Clamps are not found at bases of basidia .
= = = Lookalikes = = =
Amanita sinicoflava ( occurring in North America ) looks quite similar , but it has a sack @-@ like volva , unlike A. ceciliae . A. antillana , of the Antilles islands , is somewhat the same , but it has ellipsoid spores unlike the spherical ones of A. ceciliae . A. ceciliae is often used as a misnomer for A. borealisorora , which largely occurs in North America . A. borealisorora is a provisional name , and the species has not yet been validly published . The spores of A. ceciliae highly resemble those of A. cinctipes ( mainly found in Singapore ) , though the former has larger spores . The discolouration in the volva of A. colombiana ( from Colombia , as its name states ) probably shows a relationship between the mushroom and A. ceciliae . A. sorocula is another lookalike . This Colombian and Mesoamerican species is often mistaken for A. ceciliae , as both mushrooms have a volva with a weak structure and greying gills . The notable difference is the strong yellow colour of the cap in immature A. ceciliae mushrooms . A. sorocula is not yet validly published , and currently is a newly accepted name . The Chinese species A. liquii is similar but the yellow @-@ brown , red @-@ brown or green @-@ brown coloured cap of A. ceciliae are much different from the brown @-@ black cap of A. liquii . Also , the volval remnants of A. ceciliae converge at the base to form a ring @-@ like zone , unlike A. liquii . Apart from this , the cellular pigments in the sterile strip around the gills and volval remnants are much darker in colour compared to A. ceciliae .
= = = Edibility = = =
Amanita ceciliae is considered an edible mushroom and used as food , although many field guides recommend to avoid eating it . A study of 16 edible mushrooms was done to learn about their chemical compositions and antioxidant activities . Among these species , A. ceciliae and Pleurotus ostreatus were the two mushrooms that showed most powerful radical scavenging activities .
= = Ecology and habitat = =
Europe
In Europe , Amanita ceciliae is widespread everywhere , though infrequently encountered . It often inhabits deciduous forests with hornbeam ( Carpinus ) , oak ( Quercus ) , beech ( Fagus ) and birch ( Betula ) , but it can also rarely occur with conifers : pine ( Pinus ) , fir ( Abies ) , spruce ( Picea ) and cedar ( Cedrus ) . It has a preference for neutral to calcareous soils .
North America
In North America , it is found mainly in areas east of the Mississippi River , but similar mushrooms also occur in the Pacific Northwest , the Southwest , and Texas . Its range also stretches south into Mexico . They are ecologically mycorrhizal , and habitats include hardwood forests and coniferous forests . The mushroom grows alone , scattered , or in groups during summer and autumn . It is primarily eastern in distribution but also reported in the Pacific Northwest , the Southwest , and Texas ( with an apparent association with pecan trees ) .
= = = Introduced species = = =
Apart from its native area , A. ceciliae has also been reported from Asia . These regions include Japan , Azad Kashmir and Iran . There is speculation that North American collections could possibly be an undescribed species differing from the European A. ceciliae .
= Pre @-@ dreadnought battleship =
Pre @-@ dreadnought battleships are sea @-@ going battleships built between the mid- to late 1880s and 1905 , before the launch of HMS Dreadnought . Pre @-@ dreadnoughts replaced the ironclad battleships of the 1870s and 1880s . Built from steel , and protected by hardened steel armour , pre @-@ dreadnought battleships carried a main battery of very heavy guns in barbettes ( open or with armored gunhouses ) supported by one or more secondary batteries of lighter weapons . They were powered by coal @-@ fuelled triple @-@ expansion steam engines .
In contrast to the chaotic development of ironclad warships in preceding decades , the 1890s saw navies worldwide start to build battleships to a common design as dozens of ships essentially followed the design of the British Majestic class . The similarity in appearance of battleships in the 1890s was underlined by the increasing number of ships being built . New naval powers such as Germany , Japan , the United States , and – to a lesser extent – Italy and Austria @-@ Hungary , began to establish themselves with fleets of pre @-@ dreadnoughts , while the navies of Britain , France , and Russia expanded to meet these new threats . The decisive clash of pre @-@ dreadnought fleets was between the Imperial Russian Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy during the Battle of Tsushima on 27 May 1905 .
These battleships were abruptly made obsolete by the arrival of HMS Dreadnought in 1906 . Dreadnought followed the trend in battleship design to heavier , longer @-@ ranged guns by adopting an " all @-@ big @-@ gun " armament scheme of ten 12 @-@ inch guns . Her innovative steam turbine engines also made her faster . The existing pre @-@ dreadnoughts were decisively outclassed , and new and more powerful battleships were from then on known as dreadnoughts while the ships that had been laid down before were designated pre @-@ dreadnoughts .
= = Evolution = =
The pre @-@ dreadnought developed from the ironclad battleship . The first ironclads — the French Gloire and HMS Warrior — looked much like sailing frigates , with three tall masts and broadside batteries , when they were commissioned at the start of the 1860s . Only eight years later HMVS Cerberus , the first breastwork monitor , was launched . Only three years later followed HMS Devastation , a turreted ironclad which more resembled a pre @-@ dreadnought than previous and contemporary turretless ironclads . Each ship lacked masts and carried four heavy guns in two turrets fore and aft . Devastation was the first ocean @-@ worthy breastwork monitor , built to attack enemy coasts and harbours ; because of her very low freeboard , she could not fight on the high seas as her decks would be swept by water and spray , interfering with the working of her guns . Navies worldwide continued to build masted , turretless battleships which had sufficient freeboard and were seaworthy enough to fight on the high seas .
The distinction between coast @-@ assault battleship and cruising battleship became blurred with the Admiral class , ordered in 1880 . These ships reflected developments in ironclad design , being protected by iron @-@ and @-@ steel compound armour rather than wrought iron . Equipped with breech @-@ loading guns of between 12 @-@ inch and 16 ¼ -inch ( 305 mm and 413 mm ) calibre , the Admirals continued the trend of ironclad warships towards gigantic weapons . The guns were mounted in open barbettes to save weight . Some historians see these ships as a vital step towards pre @-@ dreadnoughts ; others view them as a confused and unsuccessful design .
The subsequent Royal Sovereign class of 1889 retained barbettes but were uniformly armed with 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) guns ; they were also significantly larger ( at 14 @,@ 000 tons displacement ) and faster ( due to triple @-@ expansion steam engines ) than the Admirals . Just as importantly , the Royal Sovereigns had a higher freeboard , making them unequivocally capable of the high @-@ seas battleship role .
The pre @-@ dreadnought design reached maturity in 1895 with the Majestic class . These ships were built and armoured entirely of steel , and their guns were mounted in fully enclosed barbettes , inevitably referred to as turrets . They also adopted a 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) main gun , which , due to advances in casting and propellant , was lighter and more powerful than the previous guns of larger calibre . The Majestics provided the model for battleship building in the Royal Navy and many other navies for years to come .
= = Armament = =
Pre @-@ dreadnoughts carried guns of several different calibres , for different roles in ship @-@ to @-@ ship combat . The main armament was four heavy guns , mounted in two centre @-@ line turrets fore and aft . Very few pre @-@ dreadnoughts deviated from this arrangement . These guns were slow @-@ firing , and initially of limited accuracy ; but they were the only guns heavy enough to penetrate the thick armour which protected the engines , magazines , and main guns of enemy battleships .
The most common calibre for the main armament was 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) s , although some ships used smaller guns because they could attain higher rates of fire ; British battleships from the Majestic class onwards carried this calibre , as did French ships from the Charlemagne class ( laid down in 1894 ) . Japan , importing most of its guns from Britain , used 12 @-@ inch guns . The United States used both 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) and 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) guns for most of the 1890s until the Maine class ( not to be confused with the earlier Maine of Spanish – American War notoriety ) , laid down in 1899 , after which the 12 in. gun was universal . The Russians used both 12 and 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) as their main armament ; the Petropavlovsk class , Retvizan , Tsesarevich , and Borodino class had 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) main batteries while the Peresvet class mounted 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns . The first German pre @-@ dreadnought class used an 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) gun but decreased to a 9 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 239 mm ) gun for the two following classes and returned to 11 @-@ inch guns with the Braunschweig class .
While the calibre of the main battery remained quite constant , the performance of the guns improved as longer barrels were introduced . The introduction of slow @-@ burning nitrocellulose and cordite propellant allowed the employment of a longer barrel , and therefore higher muzzle velocity — giving greater range and penetrating power for the same calibre of shell . Between the Majestic class and Dreadnought , the length of the British 12 @-@ inch gun increased from 35 calibres to 45 and muzzle velocity increased from 706 metres ( 2 @,@ 317 ft ) per second to 770 metres ( 2 @,@ 525 ft ) per second .
Pre @-@ dreadnoughts also carried a secondary battery . This consisted of smaller guns , typically 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) , though any calibre from 4 to 9 @.@ 4 inches ( 100 to 240 mm ) could be used . Virtually all secondary guns were " quick firing " , employing a number of innovations to increase the rate of fire . The propellant was provided in a brass cartridge , and both the breech mechanism and the mounting were suitable for rapid aiming and reloading . The role of the secondary battery was to damage the less well @-@ armoured parts of an enemy battleship ; while unable to penetrate the main armour belt , it might score hits on lightly armoured areas like the bridge , or start fires . Equally important , the secondary armament was to be used against enemy cruisers , destroyers , and even torpedo boats . A medium @-@ calibre gun could expect to penetrate the light armour of smaller ships , while the rate of fire of the secondary battery was important in scoring a hit against a small , manoeuvrable target . Secondary guns were mounted in a variety of ways ; sometimes carried in turrets , they were just as often positioned in fixed armoured casemates in the side of the hull , or in unarmoured positions on upper decks .
Some of the pre @-@ dreadnoughts carried an " intermediate " battery , typically of 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) to 10 @-@ inch calibre . The intermediate battery was a method of packing more heavy firepower into the same battleship , principally of use against battleships or at long ranges . The United States Navy pioneered the intermediate battery concept in the Indiana , Iowa , and Kearsarge classes , but not in the battleships laid down between 1897 and 1901 . Shortly after the USN re @-@ adopted the intermediate battery , the British , Italian , Russian , French , and Japanese navies laid down intermediate @-@ battery ships . This later generation of intermediate @-@ battery ships almost without exception finished building after Dreadnought , and hence were obsolete before completion .
During the ironclad age , the range of engagements increased ; in the Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 5 battles were fought at around 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 5 km ) , while in the Battle of the Yellow Sea in 1904 , the Russian and Japanese fleets fought at ranges at 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) . The increase in engagement range was due in part to the longer range of torpedoes , and in part to improved gunnery and fire control . In consequence , shipbuilders tended towards heavier secondary armament , of the same calibre that the " intermediate " battery had been ; the Royal Navy 's last pre @-@ dreadnought class , the Lord Nelson class , carried ten 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch guns as secondary armament . Ships with a uniform , heavy secondary battery are often referred to as " semi @-@ dreadnoughts " .
The pre @-@ dreadnought 's armament was completed by a tertiary battery of light , rapid @-@ fire guns . These could be of any calibre from 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) down to machine guns . Their role was to give short @-@ range protection against torpedo boats , or to rake the deck and superstructure of a battleship .
In addition to their gun armament , many pre @-@ dreadnought battleships were armed with torpedoes , fired from fixed tubes located either above or below the waterline . By the pre @-@ dreadnought era the torpedo was typically 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) in diameter and had an effective range of several thousand meters . However , it was virtually unknown for a battleship to score a hit with a torpedo .
= = Protection = =
Pre @-@ dreadnought battleships carried a considerable weight of steel armour . Experience showed that rather than giving the ship uniform armour protection , it was best to concentrate armour over critical areas . The central section of the hull , which housed the boilers and engines , was protected by the main belt , which ran from just below the waterline to some distance above it . This " central citadel " was intended to protect the engines from even the most powerful shells . The main armament and the magazines were protected by projections of thick armour from the main belt . The beginning of the pre @-@ dreadnought era was marked by a move from mounting the main armament in open barbettes to an all @-@ enclosed , turret mounting .
The main belt armour would normally taper to a lesser thickness along the side of the hull towards bow and stern ; it might also taper up from the central citadel towards the superstructure . The deck was typically lightly armoured with 2 to 4 inches of steel . This lighter armour was to prevent high @-@ explosive shells from wrecking the superstructure of the ship .
The battleships of the late 1880s , for instance the Royal Sovereign class , were armoured with iron and steel compound armour . This was soon replaced with more effective case @-@ hardened steel armour made using the Harvey process developed in the United States . First tested in 1891 , Harvey armour was commonplace in ships laid down in 1893 – 5 . However , its reign was brief ; in 1895 , the German Kaiser Friedrich III pioneered the even better Krupp armour . Europe adopted Krupp plate within five years , and only the United States persisted in using Harvey steel into the 20th century . The improving quality of armour plate meant that new ships could have better protection from a thinner and lighter armour belt ; 12 inches ( 305 mm ) of compound armour provided the same protection as just 7 @.@ 5 inches ( 190 mm ) of Harvey or 5 @.@ 75 inches ( 133 mm ) of Krupp .
= = Propulsion = =
Almost all pre @-@ dreadnoughts were powered by reciprocating steam engines . Most were capable of top speeds between 16 and 18 knots ( 21 mph ; 33 km / h ) . The ironclads of the 1880s used compound engines , and by the end of the 1880s the even @-@ more efficient triple expansion compound engine was in use . Some fleets , though not the British , adopted the quadruple @-@ expansion steam engine .
The main improvement in engine performance during the pre @-@ dreadnought period came from the adoption of increasingly higher pressure steam from the boiler . Scotch marine boilers were superseded by more compact water @-@ tube boilers , allowing higher @-@ pressure steam to be produced with less fuel consumption . Water @-@ tube boilers were also safer , with less risk of explosion , and more flexible than fire @-@ tube types . The Belleville @-@ type water @-@ tube boiler had been introduced in the French fleet as early as 1879 , but it took until 1894 for the Royal Navy to adopt it for armoured cruisers and pre @-@ dreadnoughts ; other water @-@ tube boilers followed in navies worldwide .
The engines drove either two or three screw propellers . France and Germany preferred the three @-@ screw approach , which allowed the engines to be shorter and hence more easily protected ; they were also more maneuverable and had better resistance to accidental damage . Triple screws were , however , generally larger and heavier than the twin @-@ screw arrangements preferred by most other navies . The French also built the only class of turbine powered pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , the Danton class of 1907 .
Coal was the almost exclusive fuel for the pre @-@ dreadnought period , though navies made the first experiments with oil propulsion in the late 1890s . An extra knot or two of speed could be gained by applying a ' forced draught ' to the furnaces , where air was pumped into the furnaces , but this risked damage to the boilers .
= = Pre @-@ dreadnought fleets and battles = =
The pre @-@ dreadnought battleship in its heyday was the core of a very diverse navy . Many older ironclads were still in service . Battleships served alongside cruisers of many descriptions : modern armoured cruisers which were essentially cut @-@ down battleships , lighter protected cruisers , and even older unarmoured cruisers , sloops and frigates whether built out of steel , iron or wood . The battleships were threatened by torpedo boats ; it was during the pre @-@ dreadnought era that the first destroyers were constructed to deal with the torpedo @-@ boat threat , though at the same time the first effective submarines were being constructed .
The pre @-@ dreadnought age saw the beginning of the end of the 19th century naval balance of power in which France and Russia vied for competition against the massive British Royal Navy , and saw the start of the rise of the ' new naval powers ' of Germany , Japan and the USA . The new ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy and to a lesser extent the U.S. Navy supported those powers ' colonial expansion .
While pre @-@ dreadnoughts were adopted worldwide , there were no clashes between pre @-@ dreadnought battleships until the very end of their period of dominance . The First Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1894 – 95 influenced pre @-@ dreadnought development , but this had been a clash between Chinese battleships and a Japanese fleet consisting of mostly cruisers . The Spanish – American War of 1898 was also a mismatch , with the American pre @-@ dreadnought fleet engaging Spanish cruisers . Not until the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 did pre @-@ dreadnoughts engage on an equal footing . This happened in three battles : the Russian tactical victory during the Battle of Port Arthur on 8 – 9 February 1904 , the indecisive Battle of the Yellow Sea on 10 August 1904 , and the decisive Japanese victory at the Battle of Tsushima on 27 May 1905 . These battles upended prevailing theories of how naval battles would be fought , as the fleets began firing at one another at much greater distances than before ; naval architects realized that plunging fire ( explosive shells falling on their targets largely from above , instead of from a trajectory close to horizontal ) was a much greater threat than had been thought .
Gunboat diplomacy was typically conducted by cruisers or smaller warships . A British squadron of three protected cruisers and two gunboats brought about the capitulation of Zanzibar in 1896 ; and while battleships participated in the combined fleet Western powers deployed during the Boxer rebellion , the naval part of the action was performed by gunboats , destroyers and sloops .
= = = Europe = = =
European navies remained dominant in the pre @-@ dreadnought era . The British Royal Navy remained the world 's largest fleet , though both Britain 's traditional naval rivals and the new European powers increasingly asserted themselves against its supremacy .
In 1889 , Britain formally adopted a ' Two Power Standard ' committing it to building enough battleships to exceed the two largest other navies combined ; at the time , this meant France and Russia , who became formally allied in the early 1890s . The Royal Sovereign class and Majestic class were followed by a regular programme of construction at a much quicker pace than in previous years . The Canopus , Formidable , Duncan and King Edward VII classes appeared in rapid succession from 1897 to 1905 . Counting two ships ordered by Chile but taken over by the British , the Royal Navy had 39 pre @-@ dreadnought battleships ready or building by 1904 , starting the count from the Majestics . Over two dozen older battleships remained in service . The last British pre @-@ dreadnoughts , the Lord Nelson class , appeared after Dreadnought herself .
France , Britain 's traditional naval rival , had paused its battleship building during the 1880s because of the influence of the Jeune Ecole doctrine , which favoured torpedo boats to battleships . After the Jeune Ecole 's influence faded , the first French battleship laid down was Brennus , in 1889 . Brennus and the ships which followed her were individual , as opposed to the large classes of British ships ; they also carried an idiosyncratic arrangement of heavy guns , with Brennus carrying three 13 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns and the ships which followed carrying two 12 @-@ inch and two 10 @.@ 8 @-@ inch in single turrets . The Charlemagne class , laid down 1894 – 96 , were the first to adopt the standard four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) gun heavy armament . The Jeune Ecole retained a strong influence on French naval strategy , and by the end of the 19th century France had abandoned competition with Britain in battleship numbers . The French suffered the most from the Dreadnought revolution , with four ships of the Liberté class still building when Dreadnought launched , and a further six of the Danton class begun afterwards .
Germany 's first pre @-@ dreadnoughts , the Brandenburg class , were laid down in 1890 . By 1905 , a further 19 battleships were built or under construction , thanks to the sharp increase in naval expenditure justified by the 1898 and 1900 Navy Laws . This increase was due to the determination of the navy chief Alfred von Tirpitz and the growing sense of national rivalry with the UK . Besides the Brandenburg class , German pre @-@ dreadnoughts include the ships of the Kaiser Friedrich III , Wittelsbach , and Braunschweig classes — culminating in the Deutschland class , which served in both World Wars . On the whole , the German ships were less powerful than their British equivalents but equally robust .
Russia equally entered into a programme of naval expansion in the 1890s ; one of Russia 's main objectives was to maintain its interests against Japanese expansion in the Far East . The Petropavlovsk class begun in 1892 took after the British Royal Sovereigns ; later ships showed more French influence on their design , such as the Borodino class . The weakness of Russian shipbuilding meant that many ships were built overseas for Russia ; the best ship , the Retvizan , being largely constructed in America . The Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 was a disaster for the Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts ; of the 15 battleships completed since Petropavlovsk , eleven were sunk or captured during the war . One of these , the famous Potemkin , mutinied and was scuttled , however she was later raised and recommissioned . After the war , Russia completed four more pre @-@ dreadnoughts after 1905 .
Between 1893 and 1904 , Italy laid down eight battleships ; the later two classes of ship were remarkably fast , though the Regina Margherita class was poorly protected and the Regina Elena class lightly armed . In some ways , these ships presaged the concept of the battlecruiser . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire also saw a naval renaissance during the 1890s , though of the nine pre @-@ dreadnought battleships ordered only the three of the Habsburg class arrived before Dreadnought herself made them obsolete .
= = = America and the Pacific = = =
The United States started building its first battleships in 1891 . These ships were short @-@ range coast @-@ defence battleships that were similar to the British HMS Hood except for an innovative intermediate battery of 8 @-@ inch guns . The US Navy continued to build ships that were relatively short @-@ range and poor in heavy seas , until the Virginia class laid down in 1901 – 02 . Nevertheless , it was these earlier ships that ensured American naval dominance against the antiquated Spanish fleet — which included no pre @-@ dreadnoughts — in the Spanish – American War , most notably at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba . The final two classes of American pre @-@ dreadnoughts ( the Connecticuts and Mississippis ) were completed after the completion of the Dreadnought and after the start of design work on the USN 's own initial class of dreadnoughts . The US Great White Fleet of 16 pre @-@ dreadnought battleships circumnavigated the world from 16 December 1907 , to 22 February 1909 .
Japan was involved in two of the three major naval wars of the pre @-@ dreadnought era . The first Japanese pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , the Fuji class , were still being built at the outbreak of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 , which saw Japanese armoured cruisers and protected cruisers defeat the Chinese Beiyang Fleet , composed of a mixture of old ironclad battleships and cruisers , at the Battle of the Yalu River . Following their victory , and facing Russian pressure in the region , the Japanese placed orders for four more pre @-@ dreadnoughts ; along with the two Fujis these battleships formed the core of the fleet which twice engaged the numerically superior Russian fleets at the Battle of the Yellow Sea and the Battle of Tsushima . After capturing eight Russian battleships of various ages , Japan built several more classes of pre @-@ dreadnought after the Russo @-@ Japanese War .
= = Obsolescence = =
In 1906 , the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought brought about the obsolescence of all existing battleships . Dreadnought , by scrapping the secondary battery , was able to carry ten 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns rather than four . She could fire eight heavy guns broadside , as opposed to four from a pre @-@ dreadnought ; and six guns ahead , as opposed to two . The move to an ' all @-@ big @-@ gun ' design was a logical conclusion of the increasingly long engagement ranges and heavier secondary batteries of the last pre @-@ dreadnoughts ; Japan and the United States had designed ships with a similar armament before Dreadnought , but were unable to complete them before the British ship . It was felt that because of the longer distances at which battles could be fought , only the largest guns were effective in battle , and by mounting more 12 @-@ inch guns Dreadnought was two to three times more effective in combat than an existing battleship .
The armament of the new breed of ships was not their only crucial advantage . Dreadnought used steam turbines for propulsion , giving her a top speed of 21 knots , against the 18 knots typical of the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships . Able both to outgun and outmaneuver their opponents , the dreadnought battleships decisively outclassed earlier battleship designs .
Nevertheless , pre @-@ dreadnoughts continued in active service and saw significant combat use even when obsolete . Dreadnoughts and battlecruisers were believed vital for the decisive naval battles which at the time all nations expected , hence they were jealously guarded against the risk of damage by mines or submarine attack , and kept close to home as much as possible . The obsolescence and consequent expendability of the pre @-@ dreadnoughts meant that they could be deployed into more dangerous situations and more far @-@ flung areas .
= = = World War I = = =
During World War I , a large number of pre @-@ dreadnoughts remained in service . The advances in machinery and armament meant that a pre @-@ dreadnought was not necessarily the equal of even a modern armoured cruiser , and was totally outclassed by a modern dreadnought battleship or battlecruiser . Nevertheless , the pre @-@ dreadnought played a major role in the War .
This was first illustrated in the skirmishes between British and German navies around South America in 1914 . While two German cruisers menaced British shipping , the Admiralty insisted that no battlecruisers could be spared from the main fleet and sent to the other side of the world to deal with them . Instead the British dispatched a pre @-@ dreadnought
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On December 1 , 2001 , Colón defeated González to win the Universal Heavyweight Championship , restarting the formula of bringing foreign wrestlers to challenge him .
His next feud was against Vampiro , winning the first encounters between them , but losing the title in a no @-@ disqualification contest . A rematch ended in a double disqualification , with the belt being held @-@ up after both assaulted the designated referee . To close this rivalry , Colón defeated Vampiro to regain the Universal Heavyweight Championship . On March 16 , 2002 , he teamed with his bother to defeat Thunder and Lightning and win the WWC World Tag Team Championship . Their reign only lasted a day , losing a rematch the following date . He subsequently formed an alliance with Konnan , winning the belts again on March 26 , 2002 , and holding them for nearly three months . After losing the titles back to Thunder and Lightning , Konnan turned on Colón by attacking his sister , Stacy Colón , with a guitar . He dropped the title in the ensuing feud , recovering it back on November 23 , 2002 . To open 2003 , Colón lost the belt to José " Chicky Starr " Laureano , winning it back the following month . On March 15 , 2003 , he lost the championship to Sabu , before recovering it two weeks later . In May 2003 , Colón wrestled in two tryout matches for World Wrestling Entertainment . His opponents were Tommy Dreamer and Jamie Noble , with both contests ending in a loss . Three different reports scouted his performance in a positive manner , with an official offer being made days after the initial appearances .
On June 2 , 2003 , Colón signed a developmental contract with WWE , being assigned to Ohio Valley Wrestling . He made a final appearance in WWC , winning a match over Mike Awesome at Aniversario 2003 . Following this performance , Colón addressed the crowd and vacated the Universal Heavyweight Championship , with the next titleholder being decided in a tournament following his departure . The staff of WWC 's main rival , the International Wrestling Association ( IWA ) , was surprised by the event due to the promotion 's previous association with WWE . They expected the tryout to conclude with the same outcome that the ones that WWE held with their talents ( Germán Figueroa , Ricky Banderas and Andy Anderson ) without any offer being made , deciding to counter the signing 's impact with a storyline that benefited from it . The following month in the tour to promote the Summer Attitude 2003 event , the IWA began announcing the arrival of the " son of a former world champion " and " legend that is universally recognized " to the promotion , which was heavily implied to be Colón , but actually served as a plot device to introduce David Flair . Before the identity was revealed , his music was played over the sound system , only for the crowd to be told by Savio Vega ( Juan Rivera ) that they should avoid " acting like morons " .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = = =
Upon joining OVW , Colón performed under his nickname of " Carly " . On July 5 , 2003 , he debuted by teaming with Luther Reigns and John Hennigan in a loss to Tank Toland , Johnny Jeter , and Matt Cappotelli . In his first singles appearances , Colón defeated Rob Begeley and Mike Mondo . He teamed with Henningan in a loss to Damien Sandow and Simon Dean , after which the team was dissolved . Hennigan then teamed with Cappotelli winning against Colón and his new partner , Joey Mercury . This team scored a win over Carl Lafon & Mondo , before being dissolved itself . Shortly afterwards , his ring name was changed as to the more formal " Carlos Colón , Jr . " , his actual name . His performance in OVW was intercalated by appearances in dark matches that took place before WWE 's main shows . On October 14 , 2003 , he teamed with Dean in a dark match loss to Sean O 'Haire and Matt Morgan that preceded WWE Velocity . In February 2004 , Colón performed as a heel for the first time in his career by joining Bolin Services , a faction led by Kenny Bolin and completed by Shad Gaspard , Jerome Crony , Demond Thompson , Mike Mondo and fellow Puerto Rican Lourdes Guenard . He was paired with several members of the faction , with his team with Mondo trading wins against the team of Mac Johnson & Seth Skyfire and defeating Adrenaline ( a team composed by Chris Cage and Toland ) twice . His teams with Shad Gaspard and Chris Masters did not meet the same success , losing three consecutive matches , two against Adrenaline and one to The British Knights respectively . Individually , Colón defeated Micah Taylor , but lost to Cappotelli .
A trio formed by him , Mondo and Gaspard won a couple of matches over the trios of Skyfire , Mac Johnson , & Demond Thompson and Mike Taylor , Rob Begley & Steve Lewington . However , it also lost to Rod Steele , Mike Taylor & Rob Begley and Mac Johnson , Seth Skyfire , & Big Bad John . The trio wrestled the team of Adrenaline and Wavell Starr to a no contest . While working in OVW , Colón continued to appear in various World Wrestling Council events . Towards the year 's end , he made sporadic appearances and feuded with the " Dominican Boy " Julio César López over the Universal Heavyweight Championship . Colón won a November encounter by disqualification , which prevented the title from changing hands . He won a rematch on December 20 , 2003 , and held on to the Universal Heavyweight Championship for two weeks , losing it to Abdullah the Butcher at WWC 's Three Kings Weekend . During this timeframe , Colón also participated in several dark matches prior to Velocity and Sunday Night Heat , in the first teaming with Brent Dail in a loss to Jim Steele & Mike Barton and on the second losing to Johnny Jeter in singles . WWC scheduled him to wrestle Abyss on April 10 , 2004 , but WWE did not grant the permission to perform at the event , considering that it could be promoted as an interpromotional match against its rival , Total Nonstop Action Wrestling . Throughout March and May , Colón wrestled in dark matches for both the RAW and SmackDown ! brands . The outcome of these unofficial presentations were wins over Paul London , Ruffy Silverstein , Wavell Starr and Ricky Reyes , also including losses to Hardcore Holly , Shoichi Funaki , Shannon Moore and Billy Kidman .
His work in OVW was a key plot device in WWC 's main storyline of the year . On May 15 , 2004 , the promotion began a backstage angle where Enrique Cruz told Eddie Colón that Carly Colón was wrestling as a heel in OVW , only for José Rivera , Jr. to dismiss it as " internet gossip " . A subsequent phone conversation between brothers concluded without a direct response on the matter . On June 13 , 2004 , Carly Colón 's role as a heel was made official in a segment where he told his sister that he was no longer interested in his father or the people of Puerto Rico . Consequently , Eddie Colón traveled to the United States to meet with his brother . Upon arriving to the hotel where Carly Colón was staying , he asked to contact him , but the clerk refused to attend him after receiving the response that " Mr. Colón says that he has no brother " and receiving no response upon knocking on the room door .
Eddie Colón was expelled from the hotel and tried to attend his brother 's training , but he received the same response and was denied access , buying a ticket for an OVW show held that night . After the event 's start , Carly Colón was shown arriving late and being scolded by Jim Cornette . This skit reflected real conflicts between both . Cornette has stated that during Colón 's stay in OVW he considered him a very talented performer , capable of doing " great stuff " but only did it when he " was on " due to being used to be treated as " wrestling royalty " in his role of " the boss ' son " . Cornette went on to explain the limited role , saying that : " I didn 't feature Carlito , because he thought that he was more advanced than the rest of the guys and was cruising ... But that wasn 't what I wanted to see " . Colón rebuffed this by saying that " they could have done more " with him in OVW and that the reason no to do it was because " Jim Cornette [ doesn 't ] like " him .
After noticing the hostile fan reaction and witnessing Carly 's heel tactics from the public , Eddie Colón sneaked and waited by the locker rooms and confronted him , which resulted in a faceoff that concluded with the heel locker jumping him . Upon learning this , Colón Sr. travelled to Kentucky and interrupted an OVW scrimmage , which resulted in Carly Colón asking for his expulsion from the building . This served as setup for a feud between brothers , which saw Carly Colón return to Puerto Rico and mock the fans by stating that they would be " buying PPVs to see [ him ] " and using the recent Puerto Rico national basketball team 's 19 @-@ point victory over the United States national basketball team to claim that they were " conformists " for celebrating a single win . The first match between brothers headlined Aniversario on August 21 , 2004 . Carly Colón won the match by faking a knee injury and then shoving his sister into Eddie Colón when she entered the ring to help , using the distraction to score the pinfall . Two rematches were held the following month at Fase 3 , the first of which ended in a time limit draw . He lost the rubber match , which concluded with the heel factions assaulting both brothers and Colón , Sr. futilely asking them to join forces .
In response to this angle , the IWA began hinting that Colón would be joining a heel stable known as " Capitol Sports " ( borrowing the name that WWC used during the 1970s @-@ 90s ) , which in storyline was being covertly operated by González in cooperation with his " business partners " ( a reference to Colón , Sr. and Jovica ) with the intention of taking over the promotion . In a segment of their television show , the company ran a script where a surprise arrival was announced , which was promoted as " a young wrestler [ ... ] with a tremendous future in the United States [ ... ] who has Capitol flowing trough his veins " and with whom González had differences in the past that were overcome when he opened his eyes ( in reference to WWC 's heel turn ) so that he could " complete " an unspecified task in the invasion . The IWA further mocked Colón in a skit where Savio Vega dismissed this revelation , citing that he had video evidence of a match where Flash Flanagan ( who was active in the promotion performing as " Slash Venom " ) pinned him at OVW . This angle was concluded in a segment where González berated an unknown individual during a call for being unable to appear in a card , claiming that " he [ was ] as mediocre as [ his ] father and brother " .
= = = = United States Champion ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = = =
In preparation for his debut , the WWE 's creative team began testing different characters for him to use . The first attempt involved the promotion filing copyrights for the use of " Carlitos Colón " , which is the nickname commonly associated with his father in Puerto Rico . On June 7 , 2004 , Colón wrestled under this name in a dark match , this time losing to Sean Morley . However , later than month the name was modified to " Carlito Colón " and he was given the gimmick of a metrosexual man , originally intending to team him with Rico Constantino upon being promoted . However , this idea was dropped when Constantino was legitimately injured in a match . An afro was introduced to his gimmick during the last week of June , when he lost to Shane Helms in another dark match . As his promotion drew nearer , his team with Mondo lost to Capotelli and alternate partners Nick Dinsmore and Flash Flanagan . However , it also won a match over Capotelli and Steve Lewington . In singles , he was defeated by Elijah Burke . On September 19 , 2004 , he wrestled under the name of " Carlito Caribbean Cool " in a SmackDown ! house show and defeated Scotty 2 Hotty . The creative team settled on this character and he wrestled under it in two more dark matches prior to Velocity , where he was booked in wins over Moore and Chris Cage .
On October 7 , 2004 , Colón made his debut as a heel on SmackDown ! as " Carlito Caribbean Cool " ( though later shortened to simply " Carlito " ) , whose gimmick was an apple toting big mouth who would spit apple " in the face of people who don 't want to be cool " . Carlito defeated John Cena for the United States Championship in his first match on the main roster by using a steel chain to knock out Cena . He immediately entered an undefeated streak of 14 contests , during which he successfully defended the title against Rob Van Dam , Rey Mysterio , Eddie Guerrero and Hardcore Holly , also defeating Shannon Moore in a non @-@ title match . Carlito was then involved in a storyline where his bodyguard Jesús stabbed Cena in a nightclub . Carlito held the United States Championship for forty @-@ two days , losing it back to Cena after suffering a legitimate injury . Carlito made his pay @-@ per @-@ view debut at the 2004 Survivor Series , where he represented Team Angle in an eight @-@ man tag team match against Team Guerrero , but did not actually participate in the event after being chased out of the building by Cena .
While Carlito was recovering from an injury , he was involved in a comical angle with SmackDown ! ' s general manager , Theodore Long . The storyline consisted of Carlito being forced to do demeaning chores around the arena , such as selling hot dogs , removing snow from parking lots with a shovel and mopping floors . As a result of these actions , Carlito created a petition in support of Long ’ s destitution , but was unsuccessful . On March 26 , 2005 , Colón performed for the first time in six months as Carlito , in a match against his younger brother Eddie Colón during an event in Caguas , Puerto Rico arriving to the stadium in a helicopter and under a massive standing ovation of the thousands of fans gather that night . Carlito made his WrestleMania debut in a non @-@ wrestling role at WrestleMania 21 , in which he interrupted an edition of Rowdy Roddy Piper 's Piper 's Pit , with Stone Cold Steve Austin as the special guest . This event led to an angle in the World Wrestling Council , where Piper and Carlito were booked to wrestle a match on Friday Madness , a special event presented by the company , which Piper won . Following WrestleMania , Carlito created an interview segment entitled Carlito ’ s Cabana . Carlito then entered a feud with The Big Show after a spot where Show refused an offer to work in an enforcer role for Carlito . This feud involved Carlito tricking Show into eating a poisoned apple , and Matt Morgan becoming Carlito 's enforcer . This feud ended with Carlito defeating Show at Judgment Day .
= = = = Intercontinental Champion ( 2005 – 2008 ) = = = =
Carlito was drafted to the Raw brand in the 2005 WWE Draft Lottery , where he defeated Shelton Benjamin for the Intercontinental Championship in his debut match for the brand . He then lost the Intercontinental title to Ric Flair at Unforgiven . Towards the end of 2005 , Carlito was involved in a brand rivalry which led to him discontinuing Carlito 's Cabana . The angle concluded with Carlito wrestling for Team Raw against Team SmackDown ! in a ten @-@ man tag team match at the Survivor Series .
In late 2005 , Carlito was added to angles involving the WWE Championship . After defeating Shelton Benjamin in a qualifying match , Carlito was added to the main event at New Year 's Revolution in early 2006 , the Elimination Chamber match . He was one of the final two wrestlers remaining , after eliminating Kane , Chris Masters and Shawn Michaels . He then lost the match to John Cena .
Carlito appeared in another World Wrestling Council show that took place on March 15 , 2006 in Carolina , Puerto Rico . He defeated Tyson Tomko , and he hosted an edition of Carlito 's Cabana with Victor Jovica and Carlos Colón .
Following New Year 's Revolution , Carlito and Chris Masters joined forces as a tag team . Together they competed against Big Show and Kane for the World Tag Team Championship at WrestleMania 22 . Carlito and Masters lost when Masters accidentally attacked Carlito . Following the match , Carlito confronted Masters , igniting a feud between them . Carlito began showing signs of a face turn when he attacked Chris Masters after his " Masterlock Challenge " the next night on Raw . This storyline came to a conclusion at Backlash , where Carlito defeated Masters via an illegal assist from the ropes .
At Vengeance , Carlito fought in a Triple Threat match against Shelton Benjamin and Johnny Nitro for Benjamin 's Intercontinental title . Nitro won the match after pulling Carlito outside of the ring and pinning him . Following Vengeance , Carlito began an on @-@ screen relationship with Trish Stratus , turning face as a result . He also engaged in a short feud with Johnny Nitro and Melina , which ended after Carlito and Stratus defeated Nitro and Melina in a mixed tag team match at Saturday Night 's Main Event . Carlito next feuded with Randy Orton , following a spot where Orton attempted to attack Stratus during a backstage segment . The two wrestlers were booked for a match at Unforgiven and a rematch on Raw ; Orton won both matches . The feud concluded in a match at WWE ’ s annual Tribute to the Troops event , where Carlito won by pinfall . The angle involving Carlito 's relationship with Trish Stratus lasted until Stratus ' retirement from wrestling following Unforgiven .
In the final months of 2006 , Carlito competed in several matches involving the Intercontinental Championship . His involvement in this angle ended at Cyber Sunday 2006 , after being elected by the fans to face Jeff Hardy for the championship . Carlito , however , lost the match . During this time period Carlito 's gimmick underwent a slight change and was sold as a " ladies man " , eventually getting involved in another fictional relationship with Torrie Wilson . During this time , Colón was present at Lockout , a special event presented by the World Wrestling Council that took place on December 16 , 2006 . At this event , he defeated Jon Heidenreich to become Universal Heavyweight Champion , but was stripped of the championship minutes later . Carlito participated in the 2007 Royal Rumble , where he was eliminated by The Great Khali . Following the Royal Rumble , Carlito started a feud with Ric Flair , in which Flair insulted Carlito for leaving a show early by claiming that he had no heart , no passion and was undeserving of his spot on the roster . After Carlito challenged and lost to Flair in a match , they were booked as a tag team , with Flair serving as a mentor to Carlito . The team was involved in a Money in the Bank qualifying match which was declared a " no contest " after The Great Khali interfered . This led to a triple threat match the following week which included and was won by Randy Orton .
Prior to the WrestleMania 23 , Colón expressed dissatisfaction with WWE management in an interview for not having plans to book him to appear at the pay @-@ per @-@ view and criticized their methods for selecting performers to push , making reference to backstage politics . Carlito , however , did participate in a dark match at WrestleMania , winning in a tag team match with Flair as his partner against the team of Chavo Guerrero and Gregory Helms . The team also lost a number one contender 's match for the World Tag Team Championship against Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch . Carlito turned on Flair after the loss , which turned him heel again . Their feud ended with a match at Judgment Day , where Carlito lost to Flair by submission . Colón appeared in the World Wrestling Council 's Aniversario 2007 event where he faced Scott Hall , who retook his WWE gimmick , Razor Ramon , for the first time since leaving the promotion in 1996 . As a way to promote the match , Hall claimed that the " Carlito Caribbean Cool " character was an imitation of him , giving it the nickname " Mini Razor " . Colón defeated Ramon with his Back Stabber finisher , in a match that included interference by the then @-@ Universal Heavyweight Champion Apolo . All three were involved in a three @-@ way match for the title the following day , which concluded with Ramon pinning Apolo .
Following his feud with Flair he was involved in angles with The Sandman and Triple H. He then lost to Triple H at Unforgiven 2007 in a no disqualification match where the no disqualification rule only applied to Carlito . In late 2007 , Colón requested his release from the WWE as he was unhappy with the direction of his character . Following a meeting with Vince McMahon , however , he was convinced to stay . On December 10 , 2007 , he was featured in a ladder match at the Raw 15th Anniversary against Jeff Hardy for the WWE Intercontinental Championship , which Hardy won . Carlito defeated Cody Rhodes to qualify for the money in the bank ladder match at Wrestlemania 24 . He failed to win at the event . Carlito then formed a tag team with Santino Marella . The team was placed in several matches involving the World Tag Team Championship , twice being named the number one contenders ; however , they lost the relevant championship matches .
= = = = The Colóns ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =
As part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft , Carlito was drafted back to the SmackDown brand . After the draft , he asked for a vacation , using this time to attend his father 's official retirement ceremonies at Aniversario 2008 , where he also wrestled against Ray Gonzalez .
On September 12 , he re @-@ debuted on the brand turning face , forming a tag team with his brother , Primo . They defeated WWE Tag Team Champions Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder in the match to gain their first victory as a team . Two weeks later , both teams competed in a title match , with The Colóns winning to become tag team champions . Subsequently , Carlito and Primo entered a feud with World Tag Team Champions John Morrison and The Miz . At WrestleMania XXV , The Colóns defeated Miz and Morrison in a tag team unification match , becoming the first team to simultaneously hold both sets of the company 's Tag Team Championships since their creation .
On April 15 , 2009 , both Carlito and Primo were drafted back to the Raw brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . At The Bash , the duo dropped the Unified Tag Team Titles to Edge and Chris Jericho in a Triple Threat Tag Team Match also involving Ted DiBiase and Cody Rhodes . Carlito and Primo invoked their rematch clause the next night on Raw , but were unsuccessful .
On the July 6 episode of Raw , following their loss to Edge and Jericho , Carlito turned heel by attacking Primo . At Night of Champions , Carlito challenged for the United States Championship in a Six @-@ Pack Challenge , which also involved Primo , but neither of them were able to win the title . On the August 3 episode of Raw , Carlito defeated Primo to end their feud . On the August 13 episode of WWE Superstars , Carlito teamed with Rosa Mendes to defeat Kofi Kingston and Mickie James . Mendes would then become Carlito 's manager until she was traded to the ECW brand in September .
After a two @-@ month hiatus , on the November 30 episode of Raw , Carlito returned to confront John Cena , after Cena challenged Sheamus to come out to the ring , telling him everyone on the roster were tired of him and that Sheamus was their representative of what the roster believed and then tried to spit apple in Cena 's face , which led to him getting hit with Cena 's finisher , the Attitude Adjustment . The following week , Carlito was defeated by Cena .
In February 2010 , Carlito was announced as one of the eight WWE Pros for the first season of WWE NXT . On the February 22 episode of Raw , Carlito was defeated by Christian in a Money in the Bank Qualifying match . The next night on WWE NXT , Carlito teamed with his NXT Rookie Michael Tarver in a losing effort against Christian and his NXT Rookie Heath Slater . On the May 2 episode of WWE Superstars , during his match with Primo , Carlito would stop the match and told Primo they shouldn 't fight when the crowd cheers for two brothers to fight each other . Primo would agree and reunite with his brother , turning heel in the process . On the May 10 episode of Raw , Carlito and Primo attacked R @-@ Truth for Ted DiBiase , who paid them afterwards . On May 21 , Colón was released due to a violation of the WWE Wellness Program and refusal to attend a rehabilitation facility for a reported addiction to pain killers .
= = = International and independent circuit ( 2010 ) = = =
Following his release , Colón began accepting dates to work for independent promotions . The first promotion to include him in its roster was World Wrestling Today . Colón challenged for the heavyweight titles of Big Time Wrestling , Coastal Championship Wrestling , Canadian Wrestling 's Elite , International Wrestling Cartel and Crossfire Wrestling , but either lost these matches or won by count out . He made short tours for promotions such as Pro Wrestling Syndicate , NWA Southwest , World Wrestling Association , Border City Wrestling , National Wrestling Superstars , Vendetta Pro Wrestling and the Canadian National Wrestling Alliance , scoring wins over the likes of Shane Douglas and Gangrel . On August 7 , 2010 , he made his debut in Lucha Libre USA 's live shows , wrestling as " Carlitos " . On December 2010 , Carlito participated in Inoki Genome Federation in Japan , where he was pinned by Japanese superstar Kendo Kashin . In February 2011 , NWA Southwest in Texas booked Carlito in a match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against Adam Pearce . On March 4 , 2011 , Colón , billed as Carlito Caribbean Cool , made his debut for the Mexican promotion Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) , defeating Decnnis , Jack Evans and Ozz in a four – way match to advance to the Rey de Reyes tournament finals at the Rey de Reyes pay @-@ per @-@ view . In the finals of the tournament , Carlito was defeated by Extreme Tiger . On October 31 , 2011 , he was booked for the Halloween Lucha Tour event held in Matamoros , Tamaulipas , in which he tagged with Chavo Guerrero and Rikishi Phatu to face Mil Mascaras , Dos Caras and Cassandro . They repeated the match the following two days in different locations , but replaced Cassandro with El Hijo de Canek . On February 4 , 2012 , Colón continued his international tour by appeareing on the World Wrestling Fan Xperience ( WWFX ) Champions Showcase Tour in Manila , Philippines , where he wrestled under his LLUSA name in a win over Snitsky .
Colón won Family Wrestling Entertainment 's Heavyweight Championship on October 6 , 2012 , in main event of House of Hardcore 's first show , defeating previous champions Tommy Dreamer and Mike Knox in a three @-@ way match . On October 26 , 2012 , he made a one @-@ night appearance for Wrestling New Classic ( WNC ) in Japan , losing to Tajiri in the first round of the WNC Championship tournament . In March 2013 , Colón won the Millennium Wrestling Federation 's Undisputed Championship . He had previously performed for the promotion , mostly in matches involving Benny Jux ( David Bentubo ) between 2011 and 2012 . On June 21 , 2013 , he dropped the FWE Heavyweight Championship to John Hennigan . The following day , Colón defeated Mike Bennett in the House of Hardcore . In July 2013 , he made a one @-@ night appearance for All American Wrestling by headlining the promotion 's Scars and Stripes event , in which Keith Walker was booked as the winner
On October 12 , 2013 , Colón lost to Dreamer in the first round of the FWE Open Weight Grand Prix . On September 6 , 2013 , he made his debut for the World Wrestling League marking the first time that he performed for another Puerto Rico @-@ based promotion . In his first appearance , Colón defeated established Mexican performers Blue Demon , Jr. and La Parka II . Two days later , he lost a rematch by submission . Colón was one of the first wrestlers to perform in Qatar Pro Wrestling , the first promotion in this Arabian state . On November 9 , 2013 , he and Rosita defeated Tara and Stevie Richards at House of Hardcore 3 . At Wrestling Alliance Revolution 's Super Leyendas del Ring , Colón won a three @-@ way match for the WAR World Heavyweight Championship . On November 30 , 2013 , at WrestleCade , Carlito was defeated by Matt Hardy for the WrestleCade championship . On December 7 , 2013 , he wrestled at First Wrestling Society 's Amo Del Hexágono winning the 1WS World Heavyweight Championship . Moments later , his first contender was confirmed to be Ken Shamrock , who was abandoning a four @-@ year retirement . On March 7 , 2014 , Colón returned to WWL , joining Chavo Guerrero and Fuerza Guerrera in a 3 @-@ on @-@ 3 match against Juventud Guerrera , Octagon and Ricky Marvin , where his team lost by disqualification . Two days later , he participated in a three @-@ way match for José " Monster Pain " Torres 's WWL World Heavyweight Championship , but was not involved in the outcome after the champion pinned Guerrero . Colón was a member of the International Wrestling Federation 's inaugural roster , where he debuted with a win over Willie Mack . He lost the WAR World Heavyweight Championship to Pablo Marquez on April 19 , 2014 , as part of CCW 's Spring Breakout .
= = = Return to WWC ( 2010 – present ) = = =
On July 11 , 2010 , Colón was booked in a match called " The Three Faces of Fear " at WWC 's Aniversario 2010 which also involved Booker T. The concept of this contest was that he would face three unknown adversaries successively . Colón also performed on a second date of this event , working under a " tweener " concept , representing a morally ambiguous team without clear allegiance . He returned to WWC on September 25 , 2010 at the " Septiembre Negro " event , where he defeated " El Triple Mega Campeón " Ricky Banderas . On November 27 , 2010 , Colón defeated Shelton Benjamin to win the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship at the Crossfire event . He made his first title defense against Banderas at WWC 's last show of the year — Lockout . On January 8 , 2011 , Colón lost the Universal Heavyweight Championship to Banderas , following interference from Shane Sewell . On June 4 , 2011 , Carlito returned to WWC and defeated Steve Corino to win the WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship for the thirteenth time . On July 17 , 2011 at Aniversario 2011 Carlito made his first defense of the title against Abyss . In this event , Savio Vega cut a promo pursuing a feud as part of the first interpromotional angle between WWC and the International Wrestling Association . However , this cooperation was stalled due to differences between the administration of both promotions , remaining fruitless for the rest of the year .
On October 28 , 2011 , Colón returned to WWC first to join his brother and wrestled Gilbert Cruz and his cousin Orlando Colón , before successfully defending the Universal Heavyweight Championship against Masters the following night . On November 11 , 2011 , he won a rematch . At WWC 's Euphoria 2012 , he wrestled in a rematch against Banderas , which was left inconclusive when a video depicting Vega was shown in the titantron , draining the time limit . Colón dropped the Universal Heavyweight Championship to Gilbert at Noche de Campeones 2012 , failing to win it back in a rematch held at Camino a la Gloria . In this event , he also aided Ray González , which resulted in both receiving an invitation to join La Nueva Familia , a recreation of La Familia del Milenio , proposed by Félix " Barrabás " López . González refused this approach , claiming that it was returning to the past . On May 12 , 2012 , Colón also declined the invitation by spitting an apple in López 's face , who countered by ordering Thunder and Lightning to ambush both him and González during a number one contendership match . At Aniversario 2012 , Colón and González defeated Thunder and Lightning , unmasking them for the first time in their career . They teamed once again , but lost a rematch by disqualification . At Septiembre Negro , a third and final encounter was set in a liberation match . Colón was the one to be handcuffed to the ring apron , turning on González upon being released and assaulting Carlos Colón , Sr. when he tried to interfere .
During the following weeks , vignettes aired where he berated members of his own family , eventually being confronted by José Huertas González . On October 7 , 2012 , Savio Vega reappeared in Superestrellas de la Lucha Libre , issuing yet another challenge . However , this time Colón backfired with a challenge of his own , inviting Vega to a special edition of Carlito 's Cabana . The edition of Carlito 's Cabana that featured Vega took place on October 14 , 2012 . In the segment , both traded insults and it finished with the security removing Vega when he tried to assault Colón after the former spat an apple in his face . At Halloween Wrestling Xtravaganza he was disqualified , assaulting his opponent after his father , who served as special referee , did not allow Huertas González to use his finisher . At Honor vs. Traición , Colón unsuccessfully challenged Ray González for the Universal Heavyweight Championship . A Hair vs. Hair rematch was immediately scheduled for Lockout , which will feature a guest referee elected by popular vote between Vega and Huertas González . The following night marked the first time that Colón participated in a match where his father was among his opponents , but he avoided facing him directly , instead requesting a tag and only entering later to pin González .
During this time frame , an angle began in which Colón began pursuing the ownership of WWC . This led to the creation of the Carlito Caribbean Company ( CCC ) , which acquired power when Rivera defeated Victor Jovica following a Huertas González heel turn to force him to sell WWC 's stocks . Despite Rivera 's involvement as a favored heel , Colón was booked in a spot where the new CCC management turned on him . The ownership of WWC was to be decided in a match between Huertas González and Colón , Sr. held on June 29 , 2013 , at Summer Madness in which CCC lost its bid . In the same event , Colón faced Rivera for the first time , dominating throughout the match but losing after being sprayed in the face with " green mist " . On July 13 , 2013 , he won a rematch by countering this same tactic . On August 18 , 2013 , Colón issued an open challenge for Aniversario 40 , calling himself a " Puerto Rican icon " . The following week the challenge was accepted by Sting , a former WCW and TNA world heavyweight champion commonly known as " The Icon " . When Colón was preparing to finish the match with the Back Stabber , a masked wrestler known as Rey Fénix intervened and costed him the match . Since that mask was usually worn by Ray González , he began pursuing a match against him . On November 16 , 2013 , Colón defeated Fénix in a Hair vs. Mask match that served as the main event of Crossfire . However , when Rey Fénix unmasked , he was Ricky Santana instead of González .
At Lockout 2013 , Colón defeated Germán Figueroa but lost to Rivera , who was now wrestling under a character known as " TNT " . After losing two consecutive matches to Ray González , he was able to win a tag team match where he joined Huertas González . However , after the event was over his partner turned on him , forcing a face switch and beginning a new feud . He joined Ray González to win the first match of this storyline . Afterwards , Huertas González challenged Colón to place his hair on the line , but was ignored on several occasions . The wager became official following the outcome of a match that made it mandatory . On March 30 , 2014 , Colón defeated Huertas González in a one @-@ sided bet match , remaining undefeated in matches where his hair was at risk . After Carlos Colón , Sr. was announced as a member of the 2014 WWE Hall of Fame Class , he participated in two homages held by WWC . On April 6 , 2014 , Colón joined the other members of the family during the official induction ceremony . On July 19 , 2014 , Carlito defeated TNT to win his first WWC Puerto Rico Heavyweight Championship . On October 10 , 2014 , Colón lost the title against Gilbert . On January 24 , 2015 , at Hora de la Verdad , Carly Colón defeated Mighty Ursus and Ray González to win the WWC Universal Championship .
On March 5 , 2016 , Carlito defeated Mr. 450 to win
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to pay the dowries of both of Siegmund III 's wives : Anna and Konstance . Additionally the son of Władysław and Cecilia Renata was to obtain the duchy of Opole and Racibórz in Silesia ( Duchy of Opole and Racibórz ) . However , before everything was confirmed and signed Ferdinand II died and Ferdinand III backed from giving the Silesian duchy to the son of Władysław . Instead a dowry was awarded to be secured by the Bohemian estates of Třeboň ( Trebon ) . On 16 March 1637 a " family alliance " was signed between the Habsburgs and the Polish branch of the House of Vasa . Władysław promised not to sign any pacts against the Habsburgs , and to transfer his rights to the Swedish throne in case of his line 's extinction ; in return , Habsburg promised to support his efforts to regain the Swedish crown , and to transfer to him some territory in case of gains in a war against the Ottomans . The marriage took place in 1637 , on 12 September .
The next few years were similarly unsuccessful with regards to his plans . Eventually , he tried to bypass the opposition in the Sejm with secret alliances , dealings , and intrigues , but did not prove successful . Those plans included schemes such as supporting the Holy Roman Emperor 's raid on Inflanty in 1639 , which he hoped would lead to a war ; an attempted alliance with Spain against France in 1640 – 1641 , and in 1641 – 1643 , with Denmark against Sweden . On the international scene , he attempted to mediate between various religious factions of Christianity , using the tolerant image of the Commonwealth to portray himself as the neutral mediator . He organized a conference in Toruń ( Thorn ) that begun on 28 January 1645 , but it failed to reach any meaningful conclusions .
After Cecilia 's death in 1644 , the ties between Władysław and the Habsburgs were somewhat loosened . In turn , the relations with France improved , and eventually Władysław married the French princess Ludwika Maria Gonzaga de Nevers , daughter of Karol I Gonzaga , prince de Nevers , in 1646 .
Władysław 's last plan was to orchestrate a major war between the European powers and the Ottoman Empire . The border with the Empire was in a near constant state of low @-@ level warfare ; some historians estimate that in the first half of the 17th century , Ottoman raids and wars resulted in the loss ( death or enslavement ) of about 300 @,@ 000 Commonwealth citizens in the borderlands . The war , Władysław hoped , would also solve the problem of unrest among the Cossacks , a militant group living in the Ukraine , near the Ottoman border , who could find worth in such a campaign , and turn their attention to fighting for the Commonwealth , instead of against it . As usual , he failed to inspire the nobility , rarely willing to consider sponsoring another war , to agree to this plan . He received more support from foreign powers , from Rome , Venice and Muscovy . With the promise of funds for the war , Władysław started recruiting troops among the Cossacks in 1646 . The opposition of the Sejm , demanding that he dismiss the troops , coupled with Władysław 's worsening health , crippled that plan as well . Władysław still did not give up , and attempted to resurrect the plan in 1647 , and with support of magnate Jeremi Wiśniowiecki ( who organized military exercises near Ottoman border ) , attempted unsuccessfully to provoke the Ottomans to attack .
On 9 August 1647 , his young son , then seven years old , fell suddenly ill and died ; the death of his only legitimate heir to the throne was a major blow to the king , who even did not have the courage to attend the funeral held in Kraków .
= = = = Death = = = =
While hunting near Merkinė ( Merecz ) in early 1648 , Władysław suffered from a case of gallstone or kidney stone . His condition worsened due to an incorrect medication . He was conscious that those are his final days , and had time to dictate his last will and receive last rites . Władysław died around 2 am on the night from 19 to 20 May 1648 .
His heart and viscera were interred in the Chapel of St. Casimir of Vilnius Cathedral . He had no legitimate male heirs . He was succeeded by his half brother John II Casimir Vasa .
= = = = Character = = = =
Władysław has been described as outgoing and friendly , with a sense of humor , optimistic , a " people 's person " , able to charm many of those who interacted with him . On the other hand , he had a short temper and when angered , could act without considering all consequences .
Władysław was criticized for being a spendthrift ; he lived lavishly , spending more than his royal court treasury could afford . He also dispensed much wealth among his courtiers , who were seen by people farther from the court as taking advantage of the king . He has also been known to maintain several mistresses throughout his life , including during his married period .
= = Assessment = =
Władysław had many plans ( dynastic , about wars , territorial gains : regaining Silesia , Inflanty ( Livonia ) , incorporation of Ducal Prussia , creation of his hereditary dukedom etc . ) , some of them with real chances of success , but for various reasons , most of them ended in failure during his 16 @-@ year reign . Though his grand international political plans failed , he did improve the Commonwealth foreign policy , supporting the establishment of a network of permanent diplomatic agents in important European countries .
Throughout his life , Władysław successfully defended Poland against foreign invasions . He was recognized as a good tactician and strategist , who did much to modernize the Polish Army . Władysław ensured that the officer corps was significantly large so that the army could be expanded ; introduced foreign ( Western ) infantry to the Polish Army , with its pikes and early firearms , and supported the expansion of the artillery . His attempt to create a Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy resulted in the creation of a new port village , Władysławowo . Despite promising beginnings , Władysław failed to secure enough funds for the fleet creation ; the ships were gone – sunk , or stolen – by the 1640s .
The king , while Catholic , was very tolerant and did not support the more aggressive policies of the Counter @-@ Reformation . When he took power , the Senate of Poland had 6 Protestant members ; at the time of his death , it had 11 . Despite his support for religious tolerance , he did fail , however , to resolve the conflict stemming from the Union of Brest split . Despite his support for the Protestants , he did not stop the growing tide of intolerance , either in Poland or abroad , as shown by the fate of the Racovian Academy , or an international disagreement between the faiths . Neither did he get involved with the disagreement about the Orthodox Cossacks , a group that he respected and counted on in his plans .
In internal politics he attempted to strengthen the power of the monarchy , but this was mostly thwarted by the szlachta , who valued their independence and democratic powers . Władysław suffered continuing difficulties caused by the efforts of the Polish Sejm ( parliament ) to check the King 's power and limit his dynastic ambitions . Władysław was fed up with the weak position of the king in the Commonwealth ; his politics included attempting to secure a small , preferably hereditary territory – like a duchy – where his position would be much stronger .
Władysław used the title of the King of Sweden , although he had no control over Sweden whatsoever and never set foot in that country . However , he continued his attempts to regain the Swedish throne , with similar lack of results as his father . He might have been willing to trade his claim away , but the offer was never put down in the negotiations .
Some historians see Władysław as a dreamer who could not stick to one policy , and upon running into first difficulties , ditched it and looked for another opportunity . Perhaps it was due to this lukewarmness that Władysław was never able to inspire those he ruled to support , at least in any significant manner , any of his plans . Władysław Czapliński in his biography of the king is more understanding , noting the short period of his reign ( 16 years ) and the weakness of the royal position he was forced to deal with .
Several years after his death , a diplomatic mission from Muscovy demanded that publications about Władysław 's victories in the Smolensk War of 1633 – 1634 be collected and burned . Eventually , to much controversy , their demand was met . Polish historian Maciej Rosalak noted : " under the reign of Władysław IV , such a shameful event would have never been allowed . "
= = = Patronage = = =
One of the king 's most substantial achievements was in the cultural sphere ; he became a notable patron of the arts . Władysław was a connoisseur of the arts , in particular , theater and music . He spoke several languages , enjoyed reading historical literature and poetry . He collected paintings and created a notable gallery of paintings in the Warsaw castle . Władysław assembled an important collection of Italian and Flemish Baroque paintings , much of which were lost in the wars after his death . He sponsored many musicians and in 1637 created the first amphitheater in the palace , the first theater in Poland , where during his reign dozens of operas and ballets were performed . He is credited with bringing the very genre of opera to Poland . Władysław 's attention to theater contributed to the spread of this art form in Poland . He was also interested in poetry , as well as in cartography and historical and scientific works ; he corresponded with Galileo .
Notable painters and engravers Władysław supported and who attended his royal court included Peter Paul Rubens , Tommaso Dolabella Peter Danckerts de Rij , Wilhelm Hondius , Bartłomiej Strobel , and Christian Melich . His royal orchestra was headed by kapellmeister Marco Scacchi , seconded by Bartłomiej Pękiel .
One of the most renowned works he ordered was the raising of the Sigismund 's Column in Warsaw . The column , dedicated to his father , was designed by the Italian @-@ born architect Constantino Tencalla and the sculptor Clemente Molli , and cast by Daniel Tym . He was less interested in decorative architecture ; he supported the construction of two palaces in Warsaw – Kazanowski Palace and Villa Regia . Among other works sponsored by or dedicated to him is Guido Reni 's The Rape of Europa .
= = Ancestry = =
= Fund accounting =
Fund accounting is an accounting system emphasizing accountability rather than profitability , used by non @-@ profit organizations and governments . In this system , a fund is a self @-@ balancing set of accounts , segregated for specific purposes in accordance with laws and regulations or special restrictions and limitations .
The label , fund accounting , has also been applied to investment accounting , portfolio accounting or securities accounting – all synonyms describing the process of accounting for a portfolio of investments such as securities , commodities and / or real estate held in an investment fund such as a mutual fund or hedge fund . Investment accounting , however , is a different system , unrelated to government and nonprofit fund accounting .
= = Overview = =
Nonprofit organizations and government agencies have special requirements to show , in financial statements and reports , how money is spent , rather than how much profit was earned . Unlike profit oriented businesses , which use a single set of self @-@ balancing accounts ( or general ledger ) , nonprofits can have more than one general ledger ( or fund ) , depending on their financial reporting requirements . An accountant for such an entity must be able to produce reports detailing the expenditures and revenues for each of the organization 's individual funds , and reports that summarize the organization 's financial activities across all of its funds .
A school system , for example , receives a grant from the state to support a new special education initiative , another grant from the federal government for a school lunch program , and an annuity to award teachers working on research projects . At periodic intervals , the school system issues a report to the state about the special education program , a report to a federal agency about the school lunch program , and a report to another authority about the research program . Each of these programs has its own unique reporting requirements , so the school system needs a method to separately identify the related revenues and expenditures . This is done by establishing separate funds , each with its own chart of accounts .
= = State and local government funds = =
State and local governments use three broad categories of funds : governmental funds , proprietary funds and fiduciary funds .
Governmental funds include the following .
General fund . This fund is used to account for general operations and activities not requiring the use of other funds .
Special revenue ( or special ) funds are required to account for the use of revenue earmarked by law for a particular purpose . State and federal fuel tax revenues require special revenue funds , because federal and state laws restrict these taxes to transportation uses .
Capital projects funds are used to account for the construction or acquisition of fixed assets , such as buildings , equipment and roads . Depending on its use , a fixed asset may instead be financed by a special revenue fund or a proprietary fund . A capital project fund exists only until completion of the project . Fixed assets acquired and long @-@ term debts incurred by a capital project are assigned to the government 's General Fixed Assets and Long @-@ Term Debts .
Debt service funds are used to account for money that will be used to pay the interest and principal of long @-@ term debts . Bonds used by a government to finance major construction projects , to be paid by tax levies over a period of years , require a debt service fund to account for their repayment . The debts of permanent and proprietary funds are serviced within those funds , rather than by a separate debt service fund .
Permanent funds should be used to report resources that are legally restricted to the extent that only earnings , and not principal , may be used for purposes that support the reporting government ’ s programs — that is , for the benefit of the government or its citizenry .
Proprietary funds include the following .
Internal service funds are used for operations serving other funds or departments within a government on a cost @-@ reimbursement basis . A printing shop , which takes orders for booklets and forms from other offices and is reimbursed for the cost of each order , would be a suitable application for an internal service fund .
Enterprise funds are used for services provided to the public on a user charge basis , similar to the operation of a commercial enterprise . Water and sewage utilities are common examples of government enterprises .
Fiduciary funds are used to account for assets held in trust by the government for the benefit of individuals or other entities . The employee pension fund , created by the State of Maryland to provide retirement benefits for its employees , is an example of a fiduciary fund . Financial statements may further distinguish fiduciary funds as either trust or agency funds ; a trust fund generally exists for a longer period of time than an agency fund .
= = = Fixed assets and long @-@ term debts = = =
State and local governments have two other groups of self @-@ balancing accounts which are not considered funds : general fixed assets and general long @-@ term debts . These assets and liabilities belong to the government entity as a whole , rather than any specific fund . Although general fixed assets would be part of government @-@ wide financial statements ( reporting the entity as a whole ) , they are not reported in governmental fund statements . Fixed assets and long @-@ term liabilities assigned to a specific enterprise fund are referred to as fund fixed assets and fund long @-@ term liabilities .
= = = Basis of accounting = = =
The accrual basis of accounting used by most businesses requires revenue to be recognized when it is earned and expenses to be recognized when the related benefit is received . Revenues may actually be received during a later period , while expenses may be paid during an earlier or later period . ( Cash basis accounting , used by some small businesses , recognizes revenue when received and expenses when paid . )
Governmental funds , which are not concerned about profitability , usually rely on a modified accrual basis . This involves recognizing revenue when it becomes both available and measurable , rather than when it is earned . Expenditures , a term preferred over expenses for modified accrual accounting , are recognized when the related liability is incurred .
Proprietary funds , used for business @-@ like activities , usually operate on an accrual basis . Governmental accountants sometimes refer to the accrual basis as " full accrual " to distinguish it from modified accrual basis accounting .
The accounting basis applied to fiduciary funds depends upon the needs of a specific fund . If the trust involves a business @-@ like operation , accrual basis accounting would be appropriate to show the fund 's profitability . Accrual basis is also appropriate for trust funds using interest and dividends from invested principle amounts to pay for supported programs , because the profitability of those investments would be important .
= = = Financial reporting = = =
State and local governments report the results of their annual operations in a comprehensive annual financial report ( CAFR ) , the equivalent of a business 's financial statements . A CAFR includes a single set of government @-@ wide statements , for the government entity as a whole , and individual fund statements . The Governmental Accounting Standards Board establishes standards for CAFR preparation .
Governments do not use the terms profit and loss to describe the net results of their operations . The difference between revenues and expenditures during a year is either a surplus or a deficit . Since making a profit is not the purpose of a government , a significant surplus generally means a choice between tax cuts or spending increases . A significant deficit will result in spending cuts or borrowing . Ideally , surpluses and deficits should be small .
= = Federal government funds = =
Federal government accounting uses two broad groups of funds : the federal funds group and the trust funds group .
= = = Federal funds group = = =
General fund . Technically , there is just one general fund , under the control of the United States Treasury Department . However , each federal agency maintains its own self @-@ balancing set of accounts . The general fund is used to account for receipts and payments that do not belong to another fund .
Special funds are similar to the special revenue funds used by state and local governments , earmarked for a specific purpose ( other than business @-@ like activities ) .
Revolving funds are similar to the Proprietary funds used by state and local governments for business @-@ like activities . The term , revolving , means that it conducts a continuing cycle of activity . There are two types of revolving funds in the Federal Funds Group : public enterprise funds and intragovernmental revolving funds.Public enterprise funds are similar to the enterprise funds used by state and local governments for business @-@ like activities conducted primarily with the public . The Postal Service Fund is an example of a public enterprise fund .
Intragovernmental revolving funds are similar to the internal service funds used by state and local governments for business @-@ like activities conducted within the federal government .
= = = Trust funds group = = =
Trust funds are earmarked for specific programs and purposes in accordance with a statute that designates the fund as a trust . Its statutory designation distinguishes the fund as a trust rather than a special fund . The Highway Trust Fund is an example of trust funds .
Trust Revolving Funds are business @-@ like activities , designated by statute as trust funds . They are , otherwise , identical to public enterprise revolving funds .
Deposit funds are similar to the agency funds used by state and local governments for assets belonging to individuals and other entities , held temporarily by the government . State income taxes withheld from a federal government employee 's pay , not yet paid to the state , are an example of deposit funds .
= = = Accounting basis and financial reporting = = =
The United States government uses accrual basis accounting for all of its funds . Its consolidated annual financial report uses two indicators to measure financial health : unified budget deficit and net operating ( cost ) / revenue .
The unified budget deficit , a cash @-@ basis measurement , is the equivalent of a checkbook balance . This indicator does not consider long @-@ term consequences , but has historically been the focus of budget reporting by the media . Except for the unified budget deficit , the federal government 's financial statements rely on accrual basis accounting .
Net operating ( cost ) / revenue , an accrual basis measurement , is calculated in the " Statements of Operations and Changes in Net Position " by comparing revenues with costs . The federal government 's net operating ( cost ) / revenue is comparable with the net income / ( loss ) reported on an income statement by a business , or the surplus / ( deficit ) reported by state and local governments .
= = Nonprofit organizations = =
Nonprofit organizations generally use the following five categories of funds .
Current fund – unrestricted . This fund is used to account for current assets that can be used at the discretion of the organization 's governing board .
Current funds – restricted use current assets subject to restrictions assigned by donors or grantors .
Land , building and equipment fund . Cash and investments reserved specifically to acquire these assets , and related liabilities , should also be recorded in this fund .
Endowment funds are used to account for the principal amount of gifts the organization is required , by agreement with the donor , to maintain intact in perpetuity or until a specific future date or event .
Custodian funds are held and disbursed according to the donor 's instructions .
= = = Basis of accounting and financial reporting = = =
The Report of Consolidated Financial Statements , used for annual financial reporting by nonprofit organizations , is similar to the CAFR used by state and local governments . However , nonprofit organizations use accrual basis accounting for their funds . A nonprofit 's financial statements generally include the following .
Statement of financial position or balance sheet . Similar to the balance sheet of a business , this statement lists the value of assets held and debts owed by the organization at the end of the reporting period .
Statement of activities or statement of support , revenue and expenses . This statement resembles the income statement of a business , but uses the terms excess or deficit rather than profit or loss . It shows the net results , by each fund , of the organization 's activities during the fiscal year reported . The excess or deficit is applied as a change in fund balances , rather than an increase or decrease in owner 's equity .
Statement of functional expenses distributes each expense of the organization into amounts related to the organization 's various functions . These functions are segregated into two broad categories : program services and supporting services . Program services are the mission @-@ related activities performed by the organization . Non @-@ program supporting services include the costs of fund @-@ raising events , management and general administration .
Statement of Cash Flows identifies the sources of cash flowing into the organization and the uses of cash flowing out during the reported fiscal year .
Standards for nonprofit financial statements are set by the Financial Accounting Standards Board . The Board 's most recent proposal , announced to the public on April 22 , 2015 , could establish new standards for financial performance and liquidity information available to donors and lenders .
= = Fund accounting fiscal cycle ( fictitious example ) = =
The following is a simplified example of the fiscal cycle for the general fund of the City of Tuscany , a fictitious city government .
= = = Opening entries = = =
The fiscal cycle begins with the approval of a budget by the mayor and city council of the City of Tuscany . For Fiscal Year 2009 , which began on July 1 , 2008 , the Mayor 's Office estimated general fund revenues of $ 35 million from property taxes , state grants , parking fines and other sources . The estimate was recorded in the fund 's general ledger with a debit to Estimated Revenues and a credit to Fund Balance .
An appropriation was approved by the city council , authorizing the city to spend $ 34 million from the general fund . The appropriation was recorded in fund 's general ledger with a debit to Fund Balance and a credit to Appropriations .
In subsidiary ledgers , the appropriation would be divided into smaller amounts authorized for various departments and programs , such as :
The complexity of an appropriation depends upon the city council 's preferences ; real @-@ world appropriations can list hundreds of line item amounts . An appropriation is the legal authority for spending given by the city council to the various agencies of the city government . In the example above , the city can spend as much as $ 34 million , but smaller appropriation limits have also been established for individual programs and departments .
= = = Recording revenues = = =
During Fiscal Year 2009 , the city assessed property owners a total of $ 37 million for property taxes . However , the Mayor 's Office expects $ 1 million of this assessment to be difficult or impossible to collect . Revenues of $ 36 million were recognized , because this portion of the assessment was available and measurable within the current period .
= = = Payroll expenditures = = =
The city spent a total of $ 30 million on its employee payroll , including various taxes , benefits and employee withholding . A portion of the payroll taxes will be paid in the next fiscal period , but modified accrual accounting requires the expenditure to be recorded during the period the liability was incurred .
= = = Other expenditures = = =
The Public Works Department spent $ 1 million on supplies and services for maintaining city streets .
= = = Closing entries = = =
At the end of the fiscal year , the actual revenues of $ 36 million were compared with the estimate of $ 35 million . The $ 1 million difference was recorded as a credit to the fund balance .
The city spent $ 31 million of its $ 34 million appropriation . A credit of $ 3 million was applied to the fund balance for the unspent amount .
When the current fiscal period ended , its appropriation expired . The balance remaining in the general fund at that time is considered unexpended . City government agencies are not allowed to spend the unexpended balance , even if their expenditures during the now @-@ ended fiscal period were less than their share of the expired appropriation . A new appropriation is necessary to authorize spending in the next fiscal period . ( Liabilities incurred at the end of the fiscal period for goods and services ordered , but not yet received , are usually considered expended , allowing payment at a later date under the current appropriation . Some jurisdictions , however , require the amounts to be included in the following period 's budget . )
Instead of re @-@ applying the unspent balance from the general fund to the same programs , the city council may choose to spend the money on other programs . Alternatively , they may use the balance to cut taxes or pay off a long @-@ term debt . With a large surplus , reducing the tax burden will normally be the preferred choice .
= Without ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Without " is the second episode of the eighth season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States and Canada on November 12 , 2000 on Fox and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom on February 18 , 2001 . It was written by executive producer Chris Carter and directed by Kim Manners . The episode helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology and continues from the seventh season finale , " Requiem " , and season eight premiere , " Within " , in which Fox Mulder was abducted by aliens who are planning to colonize Earth . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 0 in the United States and was seen by 15 @.@ 1 million viewers . As with the previous episode , " Within , " it was generally well received by critics , although some detractors criticized various plot points .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) continues his search for Mulder , and attempts to uncover an alien bounty hunter within their ranks . After the task force is called off , Scully is surprised to learn that Doggett , the leader of the team , has been assigned to the X @-@ Files .
" Without " heavily featured elements of Mulder 's abduction by aliens , and as such , new sets were designed to create the alien ship Mulder was imprisoned in . The production crew of The X @-@ Files designed the set in a decidedly " low @-@ tech " and " interesting " manner . In addition , unusual filming techniques were used , such as special lenses and motion control , in order to achieve the desired footage .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
FBI special agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) is currently missing , having been abducted by aliens in the seventh season finale , " Requiem . " His partner Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) has been working with Agent John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) in order to locate him . After consulting with The Lone Gunmen , a trio of conspiracy theorists made up of John Byers ( Bruce Harwood ) , Melvin Frohike ( Tom Braidwood ) and Richard Langly ( Dean Haglund ) , Scully finds evidence that Mulder may be in Arizona . Doggett receives news that Gibson Praise ( Jeff Gulka ) , a boy with potentially extraterrestrial DNA , may be in hiding in Arizona as well . The two , along with Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and a task force of FBI agents arrive and , after searching , find Mulder and Praise on the corner of a mountain .
= = = Events = = =
As the episode begins , " Mulder " and Gibson Praise are cornered at the edge of a mountain by pursuing agent John Doggett . Suddenly , " Mulder " walks off the edge of the cliff and appears to fall to his death ; however , when the FBI agents are sent down to retrieve his body , they find that it has disappeared . Dana Scully realizes that what appeared to be her partner was actually an Alien Bounty Hunter sent to retrieve Praise . The Bounty Hunter , who has returned to the school , continues his search for Praise . Meanwhile , Scully follows a girl , Thea ( Christine Firkins ) , she had previously observed to be Praise 's friend throughout the desert until she is able to locate Praise . After Doggett explains the events on the clifftop to Alvin Kersh , Walter Skinner tells him that Kersh is setting him up to fail . Shortly afterwards , the Bounty Hunter ( now disguised as agent Scully ) attacks Agent Landau . Skinner and the real Scully eventually manage to drive the alien away .
After Skinner and Scully find and retrieve Praise , Skinner takes him to the nearest hospital , where his friend Thea visits him , closing the door behind her . In search for Mulder in the desert , Scully sees a bright light in the sky which she thinks is a spaceship , but is later revealed to be a helicopter . The helicopter lands and Doggett insists Scully travel with him to the hospital ; she reluctantly accepts . At the hospital , two other FBI agents assure the two agents that nothing has happened to Praise ; however , they soon discover that he has vanished . Scully leaves to search for Praise , while Doggett stays in an attempt to catch the intruder . He checks the ceiling space , where he finds Skinner badly injured . Meanwhile , Scully finds Praise , along with Skinner , who claims to be protecting the boy . Skinner , who is actually the Alien Bounty Hunter , attempts to kill her but Scully grabs her gun and shoots him in the neck , killing the Bounty Hunter . After Doggett reports the case to Kersh , he is assigned to the X @-@ File division with Scully . The episode ends showing Mulder still held in captivity as six Alien Bounty Hunters look on .
= = Production = =
Fox Mulder 's abduction was devised by Chris Carter towards the end of seventh season as a way of allowing the actor to leave the series . Duchovny fulfilled his contractual obligations after the seventh season and felt that there was not much else to do with the character following the previous seven years .
Production designer Cory Kaplan explains how she was attracted to the idea of using primitive materials when she states , " We all see super @-@ tech now , but the idea of low @-@ tech was much more interesting to me , much more visual . So , you take elements of rock and steel and chisel them into interesting shapes . " She also describes the creation of the set by stating , " I found the backdrop from Alien , and Bill Roe lit it very dimly and put it behind . And it was just this rotating platform with this humongous dental piece that could rotate around as well and pull his face apart . " According to Makeup Supervisor Cheri Montasanto @-@ Medcalf , Matthew Mungle helped in the creation of the alien torture machine by making the cheeks and putting the hooks in . The makeup supervisor adds that the hooks would actually stretch out and that David Duchovny " sat pretty good through all that . "
Unusual filming techniques were also used . Visual Effects Supervisor John Wash recalls , " We devised a laser effect where a device is going into his mouth and some other weird lens effects that were going over the scene to give it an alien , other @-@ world @-@ like quality . " On the subject of using not only a challengingly minuscule method of filming but also additional sound effects , supervising producer Paul Rabwin recounts , " I had to set up a very , very highly magnified lens to try to get this little device coming right at us . It was very , very scary . We ended up putting some really cool sound effects in there , little servos and motors . "
The sequence in which multiple Alien Bounty Hunters appear involved the use of motion control , a method in which a motion @-@ control camera on a computerized module is repeatedly run through the same motion while elements are continually added . The shot , according to John Wash , was one of the few times in the series in which the production crew was able to use motion control and therefore presented a slight challenge . In the filming of the sequence , both a blank plate , for just the set , and lighting elements , that were in the set , were shot before the production crew filmed five different passes , each one with the Alien Bounty Hunter in a different position . The production crew were finally able to clone the Bounty Hunter by blending all the passes together .
= = Reception = =
" Without " premiered on American television on November 12 , 2000 on Fox . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 0 , meaning that it was seen by 9 @.@ 0 % of the nation 's estimated households , and was viewed by 9 @.@ 07 million households , and 15 @.@ 1 million viewers . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Once in a great while a story takes a turn that you never expect ... Tonight this is one of them . " The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
The episode was met with relatively positive reviews from critics . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode five stars out of five . The two praised the episode 's plot , citing the abduction and search for Mulder as components to the arcs " brilliance " . Shearman and Pearson noted that the final scene , featuring Mulder surrounded by the alien bounty hunter was created with " beauty , emotion , and horror which in collision make The X @-@ Files one of the best shows on TV . "
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club wrote that both " Without " and " Within " form " a great way to pick up after the cliffhanger ending of the previous season " and that " the pair of episodes [ ... ] work well as an introduction to the new narrative status quo . " He awarded both entries a " B + " but noted , however , that " Without " nearly came across as " strained or stalling " , but " manages to get by with the general freakiness of the alien bounty hunter " . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode a rare " A + " . The previous episode , " Within " , also received an " A + " grade , making them the only two episodes of The X @-@ Files to receive this rating from the site .
Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly was positive towards both this episode and the season premiere , " Within , " awarding the episodes an " A- " . George Avalos and Michael Liedtke from the Contra Costa Times praised the episode and noted that the Scully / Dogget dynamic and the hunt for Fox Mulder worked towards the show 's strengths . Tom Janulewicz from Space.com positively commented on Scully 's conversion from skeptic to believer , writing , " Regardless of whether it 's aliens , flukemen , or pizza delivering vampires , The X @-@ Files is all about phenomena that don 't stand in the face of ' rational ' explanations . It took her a long time , but like Mulder before her , Scully eventually came to accept that there are more things in heaven and earth than are dreamt of in her philosophy . "
Not all reviews were positive . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a more mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris criticized both Scully becoming the believer as well as the " sky turning out to be a helicopter gimmick " , which she notes " has gotten way too old . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations wrote a relatively negative review of the episode . He noted , " All [ ' Without ' ] did was remind me why the show is a hollow shell of what it once was as long as Fox Mulder is strapped to an alien table and why The Doggett and Pony Show holds absolutely no appeal to me whatsoever . "
= The Portopia Serial Murder Case =
Portopia Renzoku Satsujin Jiken ( ポートピア連続殺人事件 , literally The Portopia Serial Murder Incident ) , also known as The Portopia Serial Murder Case , is an adventure game designed by Yuji Horii and published by Enix ( now Square Enix ) . It was first released on the NEC PC @-@ 6001 in June 1983 , and later ported to other personal computers . Chunsoft ported the game to the Family Computer ( or Famicom ) , the Japanese version of the Nintendo Entertainment System ( or NES ) , on November 29 , 1985 , and to different mobile phone services starting in 2001 . It is the first part of the Yuuji Horii Mysteries trilogy , along with its successors Hokkaido Chain Murder : The Disappearance of Ohotsuku ( 北海道連鎖殺人 オホーツクに消ゆ , Hokkaidou Rensa Satsujin : Ohotsuku ni Kiyu , 1984 ) and The Karuizawa Kidnapping Guide ( 軽井沢誘拐案内 , Karuizawa Yuukai Annai , 1985 ) .
The game is an investigation adventure , sophisticated for its time , in which the player must resolve a murder mystery by searching for clues , exploring different areas , interacting with characters , and solving item @-@ based puzzles . The game , especially its Famicom version , was received positively in Japan , where it was an influential title that defined the visual novel genre . An unofficial English fan translation of the Famicom version was released on June 16 , 2006 by DvD Translations . DvD Translations released an improved Rev. B patch on October 31 , 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
Portopia Renzoku Satsujin Jiken follows a first @-@ person perspective and narrative . The various events are described with still pictures and text messages . The player interacts with the game using a verb @-@ noun parser which requires typing precise commands with the keyboard . Finding the exact words to type is considered part of the riddles that must be solved . While sound effects are present , the game lacks music and a save function . It features a branching dialogue conversation system where the story develops through entering commands and receiving answers to them from the player 's sidekick or non @-@ player characters .
The game allows multiple different ways to achieve objectives , adding an element of nonlinear gameplay . This included travelling between different areas in a generally open world and making choices that determine the dialogues and order of events as well as alternative outcomes depending on who the player identifies as the culprit . However , only one of the characters is the true culprit , while the others are red herrings ; if the player closes the case with the wrong culprit , then the player will face criticism from the police chief and need to re @-@ open the case . The game includes a phone that could be used to manually dial any number , which is needed to contact several non @-@ player characters . The game also features an inventory system requiring the examination and collection of items , which could be used as evidence later in the game .
With no keyboard , the Famicom version replaces the verb @-@ noun parser with a menu list of fourteen set commands selectable with the gamepad . This is similar to the command selection menu system introduced in Yuji Horii 's murder mystery adventure game Okhotsk ni Kiyu : Hokkaido Rensa Satsujin Jiken , which was released in 1984 , in between the PC and Famicom releases of Portopia . One of the commands on the menu allowed the player to use the D @-@ pad to move a cursor on the screen in order to look for clues and hotspots , similar to a point @-@ and @-@ click interface . The Famicom version of Portopia also features branching menu selections , which includes using the pointer as a magnifying glass to investigate objects , which is needed to find hidden clues , and as a fist or hammer to hit anything or anyone , which could be used to carry out interrogation beatings on suspects . Additional sequences were also added , notably an underground dungeon maze reportedly influenced by Wizardry , giving those sequences a style similar to role @-@ playing video games .
= = Setting and characters = =
Although the story of the game is fictional , it is set in real Japanese cities ; mainly Kobe , in addition to a few sequences in Kyoto and Sumoto . The president of a successful bank company , Kouzou Yamakawa ( 山川耕造 ) , is found dead by his secretary Fumie Sawaki ( さわき ふみえ ) inside a locked room in his mansion . Signs seem to indicate that Kouzou stabbed himself ; however , the police sends a detective to investigate further .
The detective in charge of the case is an unnamed , unseen , and silent protagonist who essentially embodies the player . He works with an assistant named Yasuhiko Mano ( 間野康彦 ) , nicknamed Yasu ( ヤス ) , who is the one who actually speaks and executes most of the player 's commands . Other characters include , among others , Yukiko ( ゆきこ ) , daughter of a man named Hirata ( ひらた ) ; and Toshiyuki ( としゆき ) , Kouzou 's nephew and heir .
= = Development and release = =
The game was conceived by Yuji Horii around 1981 , when he was 27 years old , shortly after he bought his first computer and learned to program with it by modifying other games . During this time , he read a PC magazine article about a computer game genre called adventure games in the United States . Horii noticed the lack of such games in the Japanese market and decided to create an adventure game of his own , one that was " a program in which the story would develop through entering a command and by receiving an answer to it . " The game was developed using the BASIC programming language .
Following its 1983 release , the game was ported to various Japanese personal computers . A Famicom port was then released in 1985 and was the first adventure game to be released on that platform . The Famicom version was also the first collaboration between Yuuji Horii and Koichi Nakamura of Chunsoft , before Dragon Quest . The Famicom version was programmed by Nakamura , who was 19 years old at the time . The game was never released in the Western world , largely due to its mature content , involving themes such as murder , suicide , fraud , bankruptcy , interrogation beatings , drug dealings , and a strip club . The lack of a Western release prompted ROM hacking group DvD Translations to develop an unofficial translation of the Famicom version .
The first mobile phone version of the game was branded as a part of a Horii Yūji Gekijō ( 堀井雄二劇場 , " Yūji Horii Theater " ) trilogy along with mobile versions of Hokkaido Rensa Satsujin Okhotsk ni Kiyu and Karuizawa Yūkai Annai . It was released in 2003 on EZweb and Yahoo ! Keitai services . It features a list of set commands similar to the Famicom version but also improved graphics , no free @-@ moving cursor , and a save function . The games of the trilogy , which was retitled Yuuji Horii Mysteries ( 堀井雄二ミステリーズ ) , were re @-@ released in 2005 and 2006 on the same services . The second Portopia version possesses the same content as the first mobile one , in addition to updated graphics , background music , a bonus function obtained after completing the game , and a hint option which nullifies the ending bonus if it is used too frequently .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Famicom version of the game sold 700 @,@ 000 copies . The game was well received in Japan for allowing multiple ways to achieve objectives , its well @-@ told storyline , and its surprising twist ending . The Japanese press described it as " a game without game over " because " there was technically no way to lose . " According to Square Enix , it was " the first real detective adventure " game . The game , along with Super Mario Bros. , inspired Hideo Kojima ( creator of the Metal Gear series ) to enter the video game industry . He praised Portopia for its mystery , drama , humor , 3D dungeons , for providing a proper background and explanation behind the murderer 's motives , and expanding the potential of video games .
In 2003 , Portopia Renzoku Satsujin Jiken ranked 19th in a poll to determine the thirty best Famicom games ; the poll was conducted by the Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography as part of its " Level X " exhibition . The English @-@ language webzine Retrogaming Times Monthly compared the game to the later @-@ released Shadowgate where the player must examine and collect objects and find their true purpose later on , and recommended Portopia to fans of " slower paced games that require [ players ] to think through puzzles " . John Szczepaniak of Retro Gamer called the game simple , but praised its pacing and quality of writing , and considers the gameplay and plot to be sophisticated for its time . He also considers it " one of the most influential games " as it was responsible for defining the visual novel genre , comparing it to the role of Super Mario Bros. , Tetris and Street Fighter in defining their own respective genres ( platform game , puzzle game , and fighting game , respectively ) . He noted that it contains elements found in later titles such as Dragon Quest , Snatcher , Déjà Vu , 428 : Fūsa Sareta Shibuya de , and 999 : Nine Hours , Nine Persons , Nine Doors . 1UP also noted that Portopia is very similar to ICOM Simulations ' Déjà Vu released several years later and that Horii 's own seminal console role @-@ playing game Dragon Warrior used storytelling techniques and a menu @-@ based command system very similar to Portopia . Nintendo 's successful Famicom Detective Club series of adventure games were also inspired by Portopia .
= Flag of Lithuania =
The flag of Lithuania consists of a horizontal tricolor of yellow , green and red . It was re @-@ adopted on March 20 , 1989 , almost two years before the re @-@ establishment of Lithuania 's independence and more than three years before the collapse of the Soviet Union .
It was first used in Lithuania 's first period of independence ( in the 20th century ) from 1918 to 1940 , which ceased with the occupation first by Soviet Russia and Lithuania 's illegal annexation into the Soviet Union , and then by Nazi Germany ( 1941 – 44 ) . During the post @-@ WW2 Soviet occupation , from 1945 until 1989 , the Soviet Lithuanian flag consisted first of a generic red Soviet flag with the name of the republic , then changed to the red flag with white and green bars at the bottom . The last alteration to the current flag occurred in 2004 when the aspect ratio changed from 1 : 2 to 3 : 5 .
= = History = =
= = = Historical state flag = = =
The earliest known flags with a Lithuanian identity were recorded in the 15th @-@ century Banderia Prutenorum , written by Jan Długosz . At the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 , two distinct flags were present . The majority of the 40 regiments carried a red banner depicting a mounted knight in pursuit . This flag , known as the Vyt
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and learn the hard way . "
After the war , Gavin and his staff were criticised for the decision to secure the high ground around Groesbeek before attempting the capture of the Waal bridge at Nijmegen . Browning took responsibility for this , noting that he " personally gave an order to Jim Gavin that , although every effort should be made to effect the capture of the Grave and Nijmegen bridges as soon as possible , it was essential that he should capture the Groesbeek Ridge and hold it " .
After the battle , Browning was awarded the Order of Polonia Restituta ( II class ) by the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , but his critical evaluation of the contribution of Polish forces led to the removal of Major @-@ General Stanisław Sosabowski as commanding officer of the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade . Some writers later claimed that Sosabowski had been made a scapegoat for the failure of Market Garden . Field Marshal Montgomery attached no blame to Browning or any of his subordinates , or indeed acknowledged failure at all . He told the Chief of the Imperial General Staff , Sir Alan Brooke , that he would like Browning to take over VIII Corps in the event that Richard O 'Connor were transferred to another theatre .
= = = South East Asia Command = = =
Events took a different course . Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten , the Supreme Allied Commander , South East Asia Command ( SEAC ) , had need of a new chief of staff owing to the poor health of Lieutenant @-@ General Henry Royds Pownall . Brooke turned down Mountbatten 's initial request for either Lieutenant @-@ General Archibald Nye or Lieutenant @-@ General John Swayne . Brooke then offered Browning for the post , and Mountbatten accepted . Pownall considered that Browning was " excellently qualified " for the post , although he had no staff college training and had never held a staff job before . Pownall noted that his " only reservation is that I believe [ Browning ] is rather nervy and highly strung " . For his services as a corps commander , Browning was mentioned in despatches a second time , and was awarded the Legion of Merit in the degree of Commander by the United States government .
Browning served in South East Asia from December 1944 until July 1946 ; Mountbatten soon came to regard him as indispensable . Browning had an American deputy , Major @-@ General Horace H. Fuller , and brought staff with him from Europe to SEAC headquarters in Kandy , Ceylon . SEAC headquarters developed an adversarial relationship with that of Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Oliver Leese 's Allied Land Forces South East Asia ( ALFSEA ) . Matters came to a head when Leese attempted to replace the victorious commander of the Fourteenth Army , Lieutenant @-@ General Sir William Slim . In the resulting furore , Leese was relieved instead . Slim took over ALFSEA and was replaced as Fourteenth Army commander by Browning 's friend General Sir Miles Dempsey . For his services at SEAC , Browning was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 1 January 1946 . His last major military post was as Military Secretary of the War Office from September 1946 to January 1948 .
= = Later life = =
In January 1948 , Browning became Comptroller and Treasurer to Her Royal Highness the Princess Elizabeth Duchess of Edinburgh , although he did not officially retire from the Army until 5 April 1948 . This appointment was made on the recommendation of Lord Mountbatten , whose nephew Philip Mountbatten was now the Duke of Edinburgh . As such , Browning became the head of the Princess ' personal staff . He also juggled other duties . In 1948 he was involved with the 1948 Summer Olympics as Deputy Chairman of the British Olympic Association , and commandant of the British team . From 1944 to 1962 he was Commodore of the Royal Fowey Yacht Club ; on stepping down in 1962 , he was elected its first Admiral .
Upon the death of King George VI in 1952 , the Duchess of Edinburgh inherited the throne as Queen Elizabeth II . Browning and his staff became redundant , as the Queen was now served by the large staff of the monarch . The domestic staff remained at Clarence House , where they continued to serve the Queen Mother . The remainder were reorganised as the Office of the Duke of Edinburgh , with Browning as treasurer , the head of the office , moving into a new and larger office at Buckingham Palace . Like the Duke they served , the office had no constitutional role , but followed his sporting , cultural and scientific interests . Browning became involved with the Cutty Sark Trust , set up to preserve the famous ship , and in the administration of the Duke of Edinburgh 's Award . In June 1953 , Browning and Du Maurier attended the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II .
Browning had been drinking since the war , but it had now become chronic . This led to a severe nervous breakdown in July 1957 , forcing his resignation from his position at the Palace in 1959 . Du Maurier had known of his taking a mistress in Fowey , but his breakdown brought to light two other girlfriends in London . For her part , Du Maurier confessed to her own wartime affair . For his services to the Royal Household , Browning was made a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1953 , and was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order in 1959 . He retreated to Menabilly , the mansion that had inspired Du Maurier 's novel Rebecca , which she had leased and restored in 1943 . In 1960 he was appointed Deputy Lieutenant of Cornwall . Browning caused a scandal in 1963 when , under the influence of prescription drugs and alcohol , he was involved in an automobile accident in which two people were injured . He was fined £ 50 and forced to pay court and medical costs . He died from a heart attack at Menabilly on 14 March 1965 .
= = Legacy = =
Browning was portrayed by Dirk Bogarde in the film A Bridge Too Far , based on the events of Operation Market Garden . A copy of Browning 's uniform was made to Bogarde 's measurements from the original in the Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces Museum . The Airborne Forces Museum , which opened in 1969 , was for many years located in Browning Barracks , which had been built in 1964 and named after Browning . Browning Barracks remained the depot of the Parachute Regiment and Airborne Forces until 1993 . The museum moved to the Imperial War Museum Duxford in 2008 , and Browning Barracks was sold for housing development .
= Capture of Jenin =
The Capture of Jenin occurred on 20 September 1918 , during the Battle of Sharon which together with the Battle of Nablus formed the set piece Battle of Megiddo fought between 19 and 25 September during the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War . During the cavalry phase of the Battle of Sharon carried out by the Desert Mounted Corps , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , Australian Mounted Division attacked and captured the town of Jenin located on the southern edge of the Esdraelon Plain ( also known as the Jezreel Valley and the plain of Armageddon ) 40 – 50 miles ( 64 – 80 km ) behind the front line in the Judean Hills . The Australian light horse captured about 2 @,@ 000 prisoners , the main supply base and the ordnance depot of the Seventh and the Eighth Armies in and near the town . They also cut the main road from Nablus and a further 6 @,@ 000 Ottoman Empire and German Empire prisoners , were subsequently captured as they attempted to retreat away from the Judean Hills .
The Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) cavalry had ridden through a gap on the Mediterranean Sea coast , created by the infantry during the Battle of Tulkarm , to capture the two Ottoman armies ' main lines of communication and supply north of the Judean Hills , while the infantry battles continued . On 20 September , the Desert Mounted Corps captured Afulah , Beisan and Jenin on the Esdrealon Plain . The next day the headquarters of the Seventh Army at Nablus , and the General Headquarters ( GHQ ) of the Yilderim Army Group at Nazareth , were both captured , while Haifa was captured two days later . During a subsequent early morning attack on 25 September , a German rearguard was captured during the Battle of Samakh , which ended the Battle of Sharon . During these operations the greater part of one Ottoman army was captured in the Judean Hills and at Jenin . These and other battles fought during the Battle of Megiddo including the Battle of Nablus and Third Transjordan attack , forced the retreating Ottoman Fourth , and remnants of the Seventh and the Eighth Armies , to the eastern side of the Jordan River . As they withdrew northwards towards Damascus they were pursued by the Desert Mounted Corps .
After the infantry established a gap in the Ottoman front line on the coast early on the morning of 19 September , the Australian Mounted Division 's 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades ( less the 5th Light Horse Brigade temporarily detached to the 60th Division ) in reserve , followed the 4th Cavalry Division north on the Plain of Sharon and across the Mount Carmel Range , by the Musmus Pass , to Lejjun on the Esdrealon Plain . While the 4th Light Horse Brigade remained to garrison Lejjun and provide various guards for artillery , supplies , and corps headquarters before being ordered to capture Samakh , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade advanced to Jenin , where the 9th and 10th Light Horse captured the town after a brief fire fight . Subsequently , these two regiments captured some 8 @,@ 000 Ottoman soldiers , who had been attempting to retreat northwards out of the Judean Hills , during the night of 20 / 21 September . The outnumbered Australian Light Horsemen were reinforced as quickly as possible , and the majority of the prisoners were marched back into holding camps , near Lejjun in the morning . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade remained in the area to garrison Jenin until they advanced to capture Tiberias on 25 September 1918 , before participating in the pursuit to Damascus .
= = Background = =
Following the Capture of Jericho in February , the commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) , General Edmund Allenby ordered the occupation of the Jordan Valley . In March – April and April – May 1918 , the First and the Second Transjordan attacks took place , while the front line across the Judean Hills to the Mediterranean Sea was defended . During this time , three @-@ quarters of the British infantry and yeomanry cavalry regiments were redeployed to the Western Front to counter Ludendorff 's Spring Offensive . They were replaced by British India Army infantry and cavalry which required a reorganisation . These newly arrived soldiers carried out a series of attacks on sections of the Ottoman front line in the Judean Hills during the summer months , as part of their training . These attacks including the Battle of Tell ' Asur and Action of Berukin in March and April , were aimed at pushing the front line to more advantageous positions in preparation for a major attack , and to acclimatise the newly arrived infantry . This fighting continued during the summer months . By the middle of September the consolidated EEF was once again ready for large @-@ scale offensive operations .
On 19 September , the Battle of Megiddo commenced with the XXI Corps ( commanded by Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin ) , under cover of a creeping barrage , broke through the Ottoman front line to begin the Battle of Sharon . In the afternoon the XX Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Philip Chetwode began the Battle of Nablus , also supported by an artillery barrage . This offensive by the XX and XXI Corps , continued until midday on 21 September , when a successful flanking attack by the XXI Corps , combined with the XX Corps assault , forced the Seventh and the Eighth Armies , to disengage . The Seventh Army retreated from the Nablus area towards the Jordan River , crossing at the Jisr ed Damieh bridge before a rearguard at Nablus was captured . While the EEF infantry were fighting the Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills , the Desert Mounted Corps commanded by the Australian Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel advanced through the gap created by the XXI Corps infantry on the morning of 19 September , to ride northwards and virtually encircle the Ottoman forces before they disengaged . The cavalry divisions captured Nazareth , Haifa , Afulah , Beisan , and Jenin before and Samakh and the Capture of Tiberias ended the Battle of Megiddo . During this time , Chaytor 's Force ( temporarily detached from Desert Mounted Corps ) commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor , captured part of the retreating Ottoman and German column at the Capture of Jisr ed Damieh bridge over the Jordan River to cut off this line of retreat , during the Third Transjordan attack . To the east of the river , as the Ottoman Fourth Army began its retreat , Chaytor 's Force advanced to capture Es Salt on 23 September and Amman on 25 September . Units of Chaytor 's Force captured Amman after defeating a strong Fourth Army rearguard during the Second Battle of Amman .
= = Prelude = =
In preparation for the Battle of Megiddo , the Desert Mounted Corps , consisting of the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions , the Australian Mounted Division 's 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades , concentrated near Ramleh , Ludd ( Lydda ) , and Jaffa . Here dumps were formed of all surplus equipment , before the brigades and divisions moved up close behind the XXI Corps infantry divisions , near the Mediterranean coast .
Each mounted division of about 3 @,@ 500 troopers , consisted of three brigades , each brigade being made up of three regiments . Five of the six brigades of the 4th and 5th Cavalry Divisions , most of which had recently arrived from France , consisted of one British yeomanry regiment and two British Indian Army cavalry regiments , one of which was usually lancers , including the Indian Princely States ' 15th Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade of three lancer regiments . Some of the cavalry regiments were armed in addition to their Lee – Enfield rifles , bayonets and swords , with lances . The Australian Mounted Division consisting of three light horse brigades , each with three regiments , containing a headquarters and three squadrons . With 522 men and horses in each regiment , they were armed in addition to their rifles and bayonets with swords . The mounted divisions were supported by machine gun squadrons , three artillery batteries from the Royal Horse Artillery or the Honourable Artillery Company , and light armoured car units — two Light Armoured Motor Batteries , and two Light Car Patrols .
By 17 September the 5th Cavalry Division , which would lead the advance , was deployed north @-@ west of Sarona , eight miles ( 13 km ) from the front line , with the 4th Cavalry Division in orange groves to the east , ten miles ( 16 km ) from the front , and the Australian Mounted Division in reserve near Ramleh and Ludd , 17 miles ( 27 km ) from the front line . All movement , restricted to the night hours , culminated in a general move forward on the eve of battle during the night of 18 / 19 September , when the Australian Mounted Division moved up to Sarona . The supplies for the three divisions concentrated in the rear in divisional trains , in massed horse @-@ drawn transport and on endless strings of camels , clogging every road in the area . One iron ration and two days ' special emergency ration for each man , and 21 pounds ( 9 @.@ 5 kg ) of grain for each horse , was carried on the trooper 's horse , with an additional day 's grain for each horse , carried on the first @-@ line transport limbered wagons .
= = = Advance to Lejjun = = =
During the initial cavalry advance up the coastal Plain of Sharon to Litera on the Nahr el Mefjir , the Desert Mounted Corps was to advance , " strictly disregarding any enemy forces " which were not on the path of their advance . The mounted units were to cross the Mount Carmel Range from the coast to the Esdraelon Plain , through two passes . The 5th Cavalry Division took a northern and more difficult track from Sindiane to Abu Shusheh , 18 miles ( 29 km ) south @-@ east of Haifa , heading towards Nazareth , while the 4th Cavalry Division followed by the Australian Mounted Division in reserve crossed the mountain range by the historic southern Musmus Pass , ( used by armies of the Egyptian Pharaoh Thothmes III in the 15th century BC , and the Roman Emperor Vespasian in the 1st century AD ) to Lejjun before advancing to Afulah in the centre of the Esdrealon Plain . This southern pass was about 14 miles ( 23 km ) long and about 300 yards ( 270 m ) wide , as it followed the Wadi Ara up the side of the Samarian Hills to 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) above sea level , before falling to the plain . During their advance , the Australian Mounted Division halted for ten minutes every hour , when saddle girths may have been loosened and a few minutes sleep snatched , with the reins looped around an arm jammed deeply into a pocket .
The Esdrealon Plain , also known as the Jezreel Valley , and the Plain of Armageddon , stretches to the white houses of Nazareth in the foothills of the Galilean Hills on its northern edge 10 miles ( 16 km ) away , to Jenin on its southern edge at the foot of the Judean Hills , through Afulah to Beisan on its eastern edge , close to the Jordan River . On its western edge near Lejjun , at the mouth of the Musmus Pass , the ancient fortress of Megiddo on Tell al Mutesellim , dominates the Esdrealon Plain , across which Romans , Mongols , Arabs , Crusaders and the army of Napoleon had marched and fought . The road and railway network , on which the German and Ottoman forces in Palestine depended for supplies and communications , crossed this plain via the two important communication hubs of Afulah and Beisan . ( See Falls Map 21 Cavalry advances detail ) The railway passed from the plain into the Judean Hills south of Jenin , to wind through a narrow pass in the foothills before climbing to Messudieh Junction , where it again branched . One line ran westward to Tulkarm and Eighth Army headquarters , before turning south to the railhead to supply the Eight Army front line troops on the coastal plain , while the main railway line continued south @-@ eastward to Nablus , and the Seventh Army headquarters .
No defensive works of any kind had been identified on the Esdrealon Plain , or covering the approaches to it during aerial reconnaissance flights , except German troops known to garrison the commander of the Yildirim Army Group , General Otto Liman von Sanders ' headquarters in Nazareth . However , at 12 : 30 on 19 September , Liman von Sanders ordered the 13th Depot Regiment at Nazareth and military police , a total of six companies with 12 machine guns , to occupy Lejjun to defend the Musmus Pass against a possible attack . In reserve , the 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades , Australian Mounted Division rode 28 miles ( 45 km ) from the south @-@ east of Jaffa at 08 : 45 to arrive at 01 : 45 at the Nahr Iskanderun , still on the coast , on the Plain of Sharon . The 3rd Light Horse Brigade and divisional troops of the Australian Mounted Division resumed their advance , passing through Kerkuk at 05 : 00 on 20 September , to move through the Musmus Pass before rest between 07 : 30 and 08 : 30 for breakfast . They arrived on the Esdrealon Plain at Lejjun at 11 : 45 on 20 September . The 4th Light Horse Brigade had been detached to various escort and guard duties . The 4th Light Horse Regiment served as escort to the Desert Mounted Corps ' headquarters , while the 11th Light Horse Regiment escorted divisional transport . The remainder of the brigade moved to Liktera at 03 : 00 on 20 September to organize and escort the transport convoy through the Musmus Pass . The transport of the Australian Mounted Division , and the Desert Mounted Corps , was consolidated by the brigade at Liktera , before moving at 14 : 00 to Kerkuk , where the 5th Cavalry Division 's transport joined their column . At 16 : 30 the combined transport began moving through the Musmus Pass . ' A ' echelon arrived at Lejjun at 21 : 00 on 20 September .
= = = Desert Mounted Corps objectives = = =
According to Woodward , " [ c ] oncentration , surprise , and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby . " The question of whether or not it was Allenby 's plan has been raised in the literature . According to Chauvel , Allenby had already decided on his plan before the Second Transjordan attack in April / May . Victory at the Battle of Megiddo depended on the intense British Empire artillery barrage successfully covering the front line infantry attacks , and to drive a gap in the line so the cavalry could advance quickly to the Esdraelon Plain 50 miles ( 80 km ) away during the first day of battle . Control of the skies was achieved and maintained by destroying German aircraft or forcing them to retire . Constant bombing raids by the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) and Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) , were carried out on Afulah , Tulkarm and Nablus , which cut communications with the Yildirim Army Group commander , Liman von Sanders at Nazareth .
After entering the Esdraelon Plain the Desert Mounted Corps was to ride as far as the Jordan River to encircle the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies in the Judean Hills , where they were still busy fighting the XXI and the XX Corps . If the Esdraelon Plain could be quickly captured , the railways cut , the roads controlled , the lines of communication and retreat cut , two Ottoman armies could be captured . The main objectives for 20 September were :
The 5th Cavalry Division 's attack on Nazareth and Liman von Sanders ' Yildirim Army Group 's headquarters 70 miles ( 110 km ) from Asurf , before clearing the plain to Afulah .
The 4th Cavalry Division 's capture of Afulah and Beisan and occupation of the bridges over the Jordan River — in particular , they were to hold or destroy the Jisr Mejamieh bridge 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Beisan , 97 miles ( 156 km ) from the old front line .
The Australian Mounted Division , in reserve , was to occupy Lejjun , while the 3rd Light Horse Brigade advanced to capture Jenin , 68 miles ( 109 km ) from their starting point , cutting the main line of retreat for the German and Ottoman soldiers . Nazareth has been mentioned as the place where the brigade was to " await the retreating Turks beginning to stream back through the Dothan pass . " Without communications , no combined action could be organized by the Ottoman forces , and the continuing EEF infantry attack forced the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies to withdraw northwards from the Judean Hills . They withdrew along the main roads and railways from Tulkarm and Nablus through the Dothan Pass to Jenin . After capturing Jenin , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade was to wait for them .
= = Battle = =
At 15 : 35 on 20 September , Major General Henry Hodgson , commanding the Australian Mounted Division , ordered Brigadier General Lachlan Wilson 's 3rd Light Horse Brigade to capture Jenin . The 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments , accompanied by the Nottinghamshire Battery ( RHA ) , and four cars of the 11th Light Armoured Motor Battery moved out , leaving the 8th Light Horse Regiment for local protection at Lejjun . By 16 : 30 , this force had left Lejjun to advancing at the fast rate of ten miles ( 16 km ) per hour towards Jenin . As they were approaching Kufr Adan , three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north @-@ west of Jenin , a detached troop " rode down an enemy outpost " of between 1 @,@ 200 and 1 @,@ 800 German and Ottoman soldiers in an olive grove on the right flank . They had " immediately deployed " with swords drawn before charging " right into the Turks . " The whole force was captured including several wounded .
The 10th Light Horse Regiment with six machine guns of the 3rd Machine Gun Squadron formed the advanced guard . With the Afulah to Nazareth road already cut , one squadron of the advanced guard moved swiftly to control the road north from Jenin to Zir 'in , on which a column of Ottoman soldiers was retiring . The remainder of the advanced guard rode directly towards Jenin , passing the railway station about 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) on their right to cut the main road leading north , and the road east towards Beisan , with the 9th Light Horse Regiment following at the trot . Having cut the road and railway the 10th Light Horse Regiment turned south riding directly towards the village and railway station . They had galloped the 11 miles ( 18 km ) from Lejjun in 70 minutes to arrive from the north @-@ west . The Australian light horsemen charged into the town with drawn swords , to swiftly overwhelm all the German and Ottoman troops caught in the open . The 9th and the 10th Light Horse Regiments had attacked the town from two different directions , throwing the garrison into confusion . However , a " machine gun duel " between the 3rd Machine Gun Squadron and Germans , firing from windows and gardens on the light horsemen in the streets , developed . After about two hours of fighting , the Germans attempted to withdraw , when a number were killed and the remainder were captured . A total of about 4 @,@ 000 prisoners were captured , along with what the General Staff Headquarters of the Australian Mounted Division 's War Diary described as , an " enormous amount of booty . "
Jenin had been the main supply and ordnance depot of the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies , and huge quantities of war material , including guns , machine guns , and ammunition , were captured . In nearby caves , large stores of German beer , wine , and canned food were found . Jenin had also been the main German air base , and 24 burnt aircraft were found on two aerodromes . At the railway station , locomotives and rolling stock were captured , along with a number of well @-@ equipped workshops . Three hospitals were also captured . An armed guard was placed on 120 cases of champagne ( some of which was later distributed ) and a " wagon load of bullion " , worth nearly £ 20 @,@ 000 . Some of the gold was later used to buy food and forage for the Desert Mounted Corps , when they had outdistanced their lines of communication , and were forced to requisition supplies from the local population .
After securing the town , the 9th and 10th Light Horse Regiments were deployed across the main line of retreat from the Judean Hills , at the outlet of the Dothan Pass , about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Jenin , to wait for the expected retreating columns . At 21 : 00 on 20 September , a burst of machine gun fire stopped a long column of retreating German and Ottoman soldiers , resulting in the capture of 2 @,@ 800 prisoners and four guns . During the night the light horsemen were to capture 8 @,@ 000 prisoners who had retreated , in the face of EEF infantry attacks in the Judean Hills , along the good quality road from Nablus and Tulkarm , north towards Jenin and Damascus .
= = Aftermath = =
Outnumbered many times over , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade force patrolled 7 @,@ 075 prisoners for the remainder of the night , with drawn swords until reinforcements began to arrive . The first were the 12th Light Armoured Motor Battery , which arrived at 04 : 15 on 21 September . The 4th Light Horse Brigade left Lejjun at 04 : 30 on 21 September , to reinforce the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Jenin . The brigade moved out less one squadron , but with the 4th and 11th Light Horse Regiments and a section of the Nottinghamshire Battery RHA , and / or the 19th Brigade RHA ( less one battery and one section ) to arrive at 06 : 00 . They found virtually the whole plain covered with prisoners , motor cars , lorries , wagons , animals , and stores " in an inextricable confusion . " The headquarters of the Australian Mounted Division arrived Jenin at 06 : 30 and , half an hour later , the 14th Cavalry Brigade ( 5th Cavalry Division ) also arrived at Jenin to help manage the thousands of prisoners , but were able to return to their division at Afulah at 16 : 15 that afternoon . Meanwhile , the 8th Light Horse Regiment ( 3rd Light Horse Brigade ) also quickly followed after being relieved at Lejjun . They arrived at Jenin at 07 : 00 and two hours later departed , on their way back to Lejjun , escorting a convoy of about 7 @,@ 000 prisoners . It took 10 hours to escort them to the prison compound , where a total of about 14 @,@ 000 prisoners would eventually be held .
More than 40 hours after the offensive began , substantial columns of the Seventh Ottoman Army were seen withdrawing northeastwards from Nablus , in the direction of the Jordan River where many would be captured by the 11th Cavalry Brigade of the 4th Cavalry Division . Liman von Sanders , the commander of the Yildirim Army Group , had been surprised by the arrival of EEF cavalry at Nazareth in the early hours of 20 September . With no combat formations available to stop the EEF cavalry , he and his staff were forced to retire from Nazareth , driving via Tiberias , to reach Samakh in the late afternoon . Here he made arrangements to establish a strong rearguard garrison in what he planned would be the center of a rearguard line which was to stretch from Lake Hule to Irbid . Liman von Sanders drove on to Deraa on the morning of 21 September , where he received a report from the Ottoman Fourth Army , which he ordered to withdraw to the Deraa @-@ to @-@ Irbid line , without waiting for the southern Hejaz garrisons . He subsequently continued his journey back to Damascus .
As a result of the capture of Jenin , all the main direct northern routes across the Esdrealon Plain , which the retreating Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies could have used , were now held by the Desert Mounted Corps . The 4th Cavalry Division controlled the Beisan area on the eastern edge of the plain after they captured both Afulah and Beisan , while the 5th Cavalry Division garrisoned the Afulah and Nazareth areas in the center and to the north , with the Australian Mounted Division holding Jenin in the south and patrolling the surrounding area .
The 4th Cavalry Division had ridden 70 miles ( 110 km ) ( the first 20 miles ( 32 km ) over sandy soil ) and fought two actions , in 34 hours . The 13th Brigade of the 5th Cavalry Division covered 50 miles ( 80 km ) in 22 hours . On its way to Jenin , the Australian Mounted Division rode 62 miles ( 100 km ) , with its 3rd Light Horse Brigade riding 51 miles ( 82 km ) in less than 25 hours . These cavalry divisions had started the advance with three days rations , so they were on their last day 's supplies when their brigade transport and supply companies arrived . These divisional trains had been supplied from motor lorry convoys , one of which arrived at Jenin during 21 September . The Australian Mounted Division motor ambulance transport , also rejoined their division at Jenin on 21 September , after the main road had been cleared .
The 5th Light Horse Brigade ( Australian Mounted Division ) , which had been attached to the infantry in the Judean Hills , was ordered to rejoin their division at Jenin . The brigade doubled back to turn down the road to Jenin , arriving on dusk at 18 : 00 on 22 September to relieve the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , which then withdrew to Afulah . The 4th Light Horse Brigade remained at Jenin until 22 September , when it was ordered back to Afulah , where they arrived at midday on 23 September . The 5th Light Horse Brigade was still at Jenin on 25 September , the last day of the Battle of Megiddo , when it was ordered to send a regiment to reinforce the 4th Light Horse Brigade 's pre @-@ dawn attack on Samakh . They charged against a well prepared German and Ottoman rearguard during the Battle of Samakh . Later in the day , one squadron of the 8th Light Horse Regiment , 3rd Light Horse Brigade approached Tiberias along the road from Nazareth , while a squadron from the 12th Light Horse Regiment , advanced north from Samakh . Together they captured Tiberias and 56 prisoners , half of which were German . The next day Allenby held a corps commanders ' conference at Jenin where he ordered the pursuit to Damascus . Infantry from the 7th Brigade of the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division were detached to the Desert Mounted Corps to relieve the mounted and cavalry divisions of their garrison duties . The infantry took over the captured areas , marching via Jenin , and Nazareth , to arrive at Samakh on 28 September .
= Eddy Furniss =
Wilburn Edward " Eddy " Furniss III ( born September 18 , 1975 ) is an American retired professional baseball first baseman and designated hitter . A standout college baseball player for Louisiana State University ( LSU ) , Furniss has been inducted into the College Baseball Hall of Fame , the LSU Athletic Hall of Fame , and the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame .
With the LSU Tigers , Furniss was a two @-@ time College World Series champion and a two @-@ time All @-@ American . He won the Dick Howser Trophy as college baseball 's best player in 1998 , and set Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) records in numerous offensive categories , including home runs and runs batted in ( RBIs ) . He was among the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's all @-@ time leaders in home runs and RBIs at the time he graduated from college .
Drafted by the Pittsburgh Pirates in 1998 , Furniss played in their minor league system through 2000 . He played for the Oakland Athletics organization in 2001 and the Texas Rangers organization in 2002 . Unable to advance beyond Class AA , Furniss decided to retire from baseball and attend medical school . He graduated from the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston and completed his residency at John Peter Smith Hospital . He practices family medicine in his native Nacogdoches , Texas .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Amateur career = = =
Furniss attended Nacogdoches High School in Nacogdoches , Texas , where he played for the school 's baseball team . In his senior season , Furniss had a .430 batting average , and was named to the All @-@ State team . He had no intention of playing college baseball , expecting to study medicine in college . Following the persistence of college coaches who tried to recruit him , Furniss agreed to continue his baseball career in college .
After graduating from high school in 1994 , Furniss enrolled at Louisiana State University ( LSU ) , where he played college baseball for the LSU Tigers baseball team in the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association 's ( NCAA ) Division I. Furniss batted .326 as a freshman with the LSU Tigers in 1995 , and was named to the All @-@ Tournament Team in the 1995 SEC Baseball Tournament . As a sophomore , Furniss was named the SEC Player of the Year , as he batted .374 and hit 26 home runs with 103 RBIs , the most in the nation . He was also named a first @-@ team All American as a designated hitter , as the Tigers won the 1996 College World Series ( CWS ) .
As a junior , Furniss batted .378 with 17 home runs and 77 RBIs . The Tigers repeated , winning the 1997 CWS . The SEC presented Furniss with their Sportsmanship Award after the season . Furniss sought to improve his physical shape for the 1998 season , and after losing weight , Furniss batted .403 average in 1998 with 27 doubles , three triples , 28 home runs , 85 runs scored , and 76 RBIs . He also set a career @-@ high with 72 walks and a career @-@ low in strikeouts with 40 . He earned first @-@ team All @-@ America and All @-@ SEC honors , and won the Dick Howser Trophy as the top collegiate baseball player . He was also a semifinalist for the Golden Spikes Award , though the award was won by Pat Burrell .
Furniss had a .371 batting average in his four years at LSU , and set SEC career records for hits ( 349 ) , doubles ( 87 ) , home runs ( 80 ) , runs batted in ( 309 ) , and total bases ( 689 ) . At the end of his career , he was among the NCAA 's all @-@ time leaders in various offensive categories , ranking third in total bases , fourth in home runs and doubles , and fifth in RBIs .
= = = Professional career = = =
Selected in the 14th round of the 1997 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Draft by the Minnesota Twins , Furniss opted to return to LSU for his senior season , rather than sign for the signing bonus typically given to a player selected in that round . After his senior season , Furniss was drafted by the Pittsburgh Pirates in the fourth round of the 1998 MLB Draft .
Furniss made his professional debut with the Augusta GreenJackets of the Class A South Atlantic League . After a strong showing with Augusta , batting 40 @-@ for @-@ 86 ( .465 ) with seven doubles , nine home runs , 31 RBIs and 32 runs scored in 24 games , the Pirates promoted Furniss to the Carolina Mudcats of the Class AA Southern League in mid @-@ July , bypassing the Lynchburg Hillcats of the Class A @-@ Advanced Carolina League . Furniss struggled in Carolina , and the Pirates demoted Furniss to Lynchburg on August 4 . He batted .193 in 36 games with Lynchburg to close the season .
The Pirates assigned Furniss to Lynchburg in 1999 , where he batted .261 with 23 home runs and 87 RBIs , and was honored as the Carolina League 's All @-@ Star first baseman . He also set a Hillcats franchise record for walks with 94 . The Pirates sent Furniss to play in the Arizona Fall League after the 1999 regular season . He played for the Altoona Curve of the Class AA Eastern League , the Pirates ' new Class AA affiliate , in 2000 , where he batted .239 in 121 games played .
Signed as a free agent by the Oakland Athletics organization after the season , Furniss started the 2001 season with the Midland RockHounds of the Class AA Texas League , but was demoted to the Visalia Oaks of the Class A @-@ Advanced California League in April . The Athletics promoted him back to Midland later in the season . Joining the Texas Rangers organization for the 2002 season , he played for the Tulsa Drillers , also in the Texas League , where he played in 26 games and batted .143 .
= = = Honors = = =
In honor of his LSU career , Furniss has been inducted into three halls of fame ; the LSU Athletic Hall of Fame in 2007 , the College Baseball Hall of Fame in 2010 , and the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 2012 . During his 2012 induction speech , Furniss quoted the character based on Moonlight Graham from Field of Dreams . Graham played in one MLB game before he retired to practice medicine . On April 22 , 2016 the LSU baseball team retired Furniss ' No. 36 jersey .
= = Medical career = =
Furniss graduated LSU with an academic major in zoology on a pre @-@ medical track , and grade point averages above 3 @.@ 5 in each of his last three years . He took his laboratory courses during the fall semester , so they did not distract from the baseball season in the spring semester .
After the 2002 season , Furniss retired from baseball , as he promised himself he would if he found himself unable to advance beyond Class AA . He enrolled in medical school at University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston , and completed his residency at John Peter Smith Hospital in Fort Worth , Texas . Furniss practices in the Nacogdoches Medical Center , the same building where his father practices .
= = Personal life = =
Furniss was raised in Nacogdoches , Texas , on a 36 @-@ acre ( 15 ha ) ranch . His father , a medical doctor who practices family medicine , built Eddy a batting cage so that he could take 200 to 300 practice swings a day as a child .
Furniss married his high school girlfriend , Crystal , with whom he has two sons and a daughter .
= Swaminarayan =
Swaminarayan ( IAST : Svāmīnārāyaṇa , 3 April 1781 – 1 June 1830 ) , also known as Sahajanand Swami , is the central figure in a modern sect of Hinduism known as the Swaminarayan Hinduism .
Swaminarayan was born Ghanshyam Pande in Chhapaiya , Uttar Pradesh , India in 1781 . In 1792 , he began a seven @-@ year pilgrimage across India at the age of 11 years , adopting the name Nilkanth Varni.During this journey , he did welfare activities and after 9 years and 11 months of this journey , he settled in the state of Gujarat around 1799 . In 1800 , he was initiated into the Uddhav sampradaya by his guru , Swami Ramanand , and was given the name Sahajanand Swami . In 1802 , his guru handed over the leadership of the Uddhav Sampraday to him before his death . Sahajanand Swami held a gathering and taught the Swaminarayan Mantra . From this point onwards , he was known as Swaminarayan . The Uddhav Sampraday became known as the Swaminarayan Sampraday .
Swaminarayan developed a good relationship with the British Raj . He had followers not only from Hindu denominations but also from Islam and Zoroastrianism . He built six temples in his lifetime and appointed 500 paramahamsas to spread his philosophy . In 1826 , Swaminarayan wrote the Shikshapatri , a book of social principles . He died on 1 June 1830 and was cremated according to Hindu rites in Gadhada , Gujarat . Before his death , Swaminarayan appointed his adopted nephews as acharyas to head the two dioceses of Swaminarayan Sampraday .
Swaminarayan is also remembered within the sect for undertaking reforms for women and the poor , performing yajñas ( fire sacrifices ) on a large scale as well as performing miracles . Swaminarayan had an estimated 1 @.@ 8 million followers when he died . By 2007 , he had an estimated of 20 million followers . He has , however , been criticised by people such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Mahatma Gandhi . The acceptance of Swaminarayan as God and secondary treatment of women is questioned by critics .
= = Childhood as Ghanshyam = =
Swaminarayan was born on 3 April 1781 ( Chaitra Sud 9 , Samvat 1837 ) in Chhapaiya , Uttar Pradesh , a village near Ayodhya , in a Hindi speaking region in India . Born into the brahmin or priestly caste of Sarvariya , Swaminarayan was named Ghanshyam Pande by his parents , Hariprasad Pande ( father , also known as Dharmadev ) and Premvati Pande ( mother , also known as Bhaktimata and Murtidevi ) . The birth of Swaminarayan coincided with the Hindu festival of Rama Navami , celebrating the birth of Rama . The ninth lunar day in the fortnight of the waxing moon in the month of Chaitra ( March – April ) , is celebrated as both Rama Navami and Swaminarayan Jayanti by Swaminarayan followers . This celebration also marks the beginning of a ritual calendar for the followers . Swaminarayan had an elder brother , Rampratap Pande , and a younger brother , Ichcharam Pande . He is said to have mastered the scriptures , including the Vedas , the Upanishads , the Puranas , the Ramayana , and the Mahabharata by the age of seven .
= = Travels as Nilkanth Varni = =
After the death of his parents , Ghanshyam Pande left his home on 29 June 1792 ( Ashadh Sud 10 , Samvat 1849 ) at the age of 11 . He took the name Nilkanth Varni while on his journey . Nilkanth Varni travelled across India and parts of Nepal in search of an ashram , or hermitage , that practiced what he considered a correct understanding of Vedanta , Samkhya , Yoga , and Pancaratra , the four primary schools of Hindu philosophy . To find such an ashram , Nilkanth Varni asked the following five questions on the basic Vaishnava Vedanta categories :
What is Jiva ?
What is Ishvara ?
What is Maya ?
What is Brahman ?
What is Para Brahman ?
While on his journey , Nilkanth Varni mastered Astanga yoga ( eightfold yoga ) in a span of 9 months under the guidance of an aged yogic master named Gopal Yogi . In Nepal , it is said that he met King Rana Bahadur Shah and cured him of his stomach illness . As a result , the king freed all the ascetics he had imprisoned . Nilkanth Varni visited the Jagannath Temple in Puri as well as temples in Badrinath , Rameshwaram , Nashik , Dwarka and Pandharpur .
In 1799 , after a seven @-@ year journey , Nilkanth 's travels as a yogi eventually concluded in Loj , a village in the Junagadh district of Gujarat . In Loj , Nilkanth Varni met Muktanand Swami , a senior disciple of Ramanand Swami . Muktanand Swami , who was twenty @-@ two years older than Nilkanth , answered the five questions to Nilkanth 's satisfaction . Nilkanth decided to stay for the opportunity to meet Ramanand Swami , whom he met a few months after his arrival in Gujarat . He later claimed in the Vachnamrut that during this period , he took up a severe penance to eliminate his mothers flesh and blood from his body so that the sign of his physical attachment to family , was completely removed .
= = Leadership as Sahajanand Swami = =
According to the sect , Nilkanth 's understanding of the metaphysical and epistemological concepts of the pancha @-@ tattvas ( five eternal elements ) , together with his mental and physical discipline , inspired senior sadhus of Ramanand Swami .
Nilkanth Varni received sannyasa initiation from Ramanand Swami on 20 October 1800 , and with it was granted the names Sahajanand Swami and Narayan Muni to signify his new status .
At the age of 21 , Sahajanand Swami was appointed successor to Ramanand Swami as the leader of the Uddhav Sampraday by Ramanand Swami , prior to his death . The Uddhav Sampraday henceforth came to be known as the Swaminarayan Sampraday . According to sources he proclaimed the worship of one sole deity , Krishna or Narayana . Krishna was considered by him his own ista devata . In contrast with the Vaishnava sect known as the Radha @-@ vallabha Sampradaya , he had a more puritanical approach , rather than the theological views of Krishna that are strongly capricious in character and imagery . While being a worshipper of Krishna , Swaminarayan rejected licentious elements in Krishnology in favor of worship in the mood of majesty , alike to earlier Vaisnava teachers , Ramanuja and Yamunacarya .
Sahajanand Swami was later known as Swaminarayan after the mantra he taught at a gathering , in Faneni , a fortnight after the death of Ramanand Swami . He gave his followers a new mantra , known as the Swaminarayan mantra , to repeat in their rituals : Swaminarayan . When chanting this mantra , some devotees went into samadhi ( a form of meditation ) This act is also called maha @-@ samadhi ( " great samadhi " ) and claimed that they could see their personal gods , even though they had no knowledge of Astanga Yoga . Swaminarayan also became known by the names Ghanshyam Maharaj , Shreeji Maharaj , Hari Krishna Maharaj and Shri Hari . As early as 1804 , Swaminarayan , who was reported to have performed miracles , was described as a manifestation of God in the first work written by a disciple and paramhansa , Nishkulanand Swami . This work , the Yama Danda , was the first piece of literature written within the Swaminarayan sect .
Swaminarayan encouraged his followers to combine devotion and dharma to lead a pious life . Using Hindu texts and rituals to form the base of his organisation , Swaminarayan founded what in later centuries would become a global organisation with strong Gujarati roots . He was particularly strict on the separation of sexes in temples . Swaminarayan was against the consumption of meat , alcohol or drugs , adultery , suicide , animal sacrifices , criminal activities and the appeasement of ghosts and tantric rituals . Alcohol consumption was forbidden by him even for medicinal purposes . Many of his followers took vows before becoming his disciple . He stated that four elements need to be conquered for ultimate salvation : dharma , bhakti ( devotion ) , gnana ( knowledge ) and vairagya ( detachment ) . Doctrinally , Swaminarayan was close to eleventh century philosopher Ramanuja and was critical of Shankaracharya 's concept of advaita , or monistic non @-@ dualism . Swaminarayan 's ontology maintained that the supreme being is not formless and that God always has a divine form .
= = Work and views = =
= = = Women = = =
According to the author Raymond Brady Williams , " Swaminarayan is an early representative of the practice of advocacy of women 's rights without personal involvement with women " . To counter the practice of sati ( self @-@ immolation by a widow on her husband ’ s funeral pyre ) , Swaminarayan argued that , as human life was given by God it could be taken only by God , and that sati had no Vedic sanction . He went to the extent to call sati nothing but suicide . Swaminarayan offered parents help with dowry expenses to discourage female infanticide , calling infanticide a sin .
The Swaminarayan faith has been linked to patriarchal class structures that subjugate women . Professor David Hardiman states that Swaminarayan was not free from misogyny and " after travelling as an ascetic throughout India he was reported to vomit if approached by even the shadow of a woman " . Swaminarayan 's writings like the Shikshapatri portray women as polluted beings who pull men down . Swaminarayan taught that “ the woman who attracts attention is made up of bones , blood vessels , spittle , blood , mucus and feces ; she is simply a collection of these things , and there is nothing to be attractive . ” Women are thus depicted as dirty , slimy , polluted beings who pull men down . This discriminative treatment is endorsed to the full by the Shikshapatri . Swaminarayan refused to interact with women himself and barred them from leadership positions in his movement , causing critics to label him a hypocrite regarding the status of women . No women are allowed to serve on the managing committees of temples ; neither can they act as trustees of the trusts which look after temple funds .
Members of the faith are defensive of the fact that some practices seem to restrict women and make gender equality in leadership impossible . Female followers are segregated rigorously . They are only permitted to enter special sections of the temple reserved for women or have to go to separate women 's temples . Concepts of pollution associated with the menstrual cycle lead to the exclusion of women from the temples and daily worship . Swaminarayan also directed male devotees not to listen to religious discourses given by women .
In case of widows , Swaminarayan directed those who could not follow the path of chastity to remarry . For those who could , he lay down strict rules which included them being under the control of male members of the family . This may seem regressive , however it gave them " a respected and secure place in the social order " of the time . Swaminarayan restricted widows " to live always under the control of male members of their family and prohibited them from receiving instruction in any science from any man excepting their nearest relations . "
However , while " many would assert that Swaminarayan Hinduism serves a patriarchal agenda , which attempts to keep women in certain roles " , Swaminarayan himself , despite considerable criticism from those in his own contemporary society who " loathed the uplift of lower caste women , " insisted that education was the inherent right of all people . At that time , influential and wealthy individuals educated their girls through private and personal tuition . Male followers of Swaminarayan made arrangements to educate their female family members . The literacy rate among females began to increase , and they were able to give discourses on spiritual subjects . Within the sect , Swaminarayan is considered a pioneer of education of females in India .
= = = Caste system and the poor = = =
After assuming the leadership of the Sampraday , Swaminarayan worked to assist the poor by distributing food and drinking water . He undertook several social service projects and opened almshouses for the poor . Swaminarayan organized food and water relief to people during times of drought . The faith largely had excluded the mass of the poor , such as marginal peasants , agricultural labourers , the informal sector working class , adivasisand dalits . Dalits were banned from Swaminarayan temples from the beginning though in one case a separate temple was created for their use .
Some suggest that Swaminarayan worked towards ending the caste system , allowing everyone into the Swaminarayan Sampraday . However partaking in the consumption food of lower castes and caste pollution was not supported by him . A political officer in Gujarat , Mr. Williamson reported to Bishop Herber that Swaminarayan had " destroyed the yoke of caste . " He instructed his paramhansas to collect alms from all sections of society and appointed people from the lower strata of society as his personal attendants . Members of the lower castes were attracted to the movement as it improved their social status . Swaminarayan would eat along with the lower Rajput and Khati castes but not any lower . He established separate places of worship for the lower caste population where they were in large numbers . However , Dalits - the lowest in the caste system - were formally excluded from Swaminarayan temples . In the Shikshapatri , he wrote do not take food or water from a person of a lower caste . Members of a lower caste are prohibited from wearing a full sect mark ( tilak chandlo ) on their forehead . Even now , however , for the vast majority of Gujarat 's lower @-@ caste , Untouchable and tribal population , the sect is out of bounds .
According to Narrative of a Journey Through the Upper Provinces of India , from Calcutta to Bombay , Volume 2 1824 to 1825 by Reginald Bishop Heber - Lord Bishop of Calcutta , which says that desciples of Swaminarayan are across the casts including Muslims / Musalmans and lower casts such as Vaghari , Bheels and Kolis . They all pray to one god with no difference of casts . They live as if they are brothers .
Page 109 under head " Swaamee Narain " discussion between Mr. Williamson and Bishop Heber about The social and law & order situation of Kutch ( then Cutch ) and Kathiyawar ( then Catteywar ) during AD 1824 : " On other occasions , however , their opposition to law has been sufficiently open and daring . The districts of Cutch and Cattywar have ever been , more or less in a state of rebellion ; and neither the refency of the former state nor the Guicwar , as feudal sovereign of the latter , nor the English government in the districts adjoining to both , which are under their controul , have ever got through a year whiout one or more sieges of different forts or fastnesses .
Some good had been done , Mr. Williamson said , among many of these wild people , by the preaching and popularity of the Hindoo reformer , Swaamee Narain , who had been mentioned to me at Baroda . His morality was said to be far better than any which could be learned from Shaster ( Shashtra ) . He preached a great degree of purity , forbidding his disciples so much as to ( not ) look on any woman whom they passed . He condemned theft and bloodshed ; and those villages and districts which had received him , from being among worst , were now among the best and most orderly in the provinces . Nor was this all , insomuch as he was said to have destroyed the yoke of caste , - to have preached one God , and in shord , to have made so considerable approaches to the truth , that I could not but hope he might be an appointed instrument to prepare the way for gospel .
While I was listening with much interest to Mr. Williamson 's account of this map , six persons came to the tent , four in the dress of peasants or bunyans ; one , a yong man , with a large which turban and the quilted lebada , of a Coolie , but clean and decent , with a handsome sward and shield and other marks of rustic wealth ; and the sixth , an old Mussalman , which a white beard and pretty much appearance , dress , and manner of an ancient serving @-@ man . After offering some sugar and sweetmeats , as their nuzzur , and as usual , sitting down on the ground , one of the peasants began , to my exceeding surprise and delight , " Pundit Swaamee Narain , send his salaam " . and proceeded to say that person whom I so much desired to see was in the neighbourhood and asked permission to call on my next day . I , of course , returned a favourable answer , and stated with truth that I greatly desired his acquaintanee , and had heard much good of him . I asked if they were his disciples , and was answered in the affirmative . ... He added that though of different castes , they were all disciples of Swaamee Narain , and taught to regard each other as brethren . "
Page 115 - Meeting with Swaminarayain and discussion between Bishop and Swaminarayan " I ( Bishop Heber ) asked ( to Swaminarayan ) about castes , to which he answered , that he did not regard the subject as of much importance , but that he wished not to give offence ( to ancient Hindu system ) ; that people might eat separately or together in this world , but that above " oopur " pointing to heaven , those distinctions would cease , where we should be all " ek ekhee Jat " ( one like another ) . "
Swaminarayan 's few of the closest Muslim disciples were Karrimji , Kesharmiya ( Commander of Vadhawan state ) and Miyaji
It is said that Swaminarayan dispelled the myth that moksha ( salvation ) was not attainable by everyone . He taught that the soul is neither male nor female .
= = = Animal Sacrifices and Yagnas = = =
Swaminarayan was against animal sacrifices as carried out by Brahmin priests during Vedic rituals , such as yajnas ( fire sacrifices ) , influenced by the Kaula and Vama Marg cults . The priests consumed " sanctified " prasad in the form of meat of these animals . To solve this problem , Swaminarayan conducted several large scale yajnas involving priests from Varanasi . These did not have animal sacrifices and were conducted in strict accordance with Vedic scriptures . Swaminarayan was successful in reinstating ahimsa through several such large scale yajnas . Swaminarayan stressed lacto vegetarianism among his followers and forbade meat consumption .
According to ShikshaPatri Shloka 12 : " ( My followers ) shall never kill goats and / or other living beings in sacrifice performed for the propitiation of deities and Pitris ( ancestors ) , for non @-@ violence is declared ( by the Shastras ) as the highest Dharma of all the Dharmas . "
Shloka 15 : " None shall ever eat meat , even if it be an offering in a sacrifice or shall ever drink liquor or wine even if it be offered to a deity . "
Shloka 22 : " None shall ever accept prasad of a deity to whom offering of meat and / or liquor @-@ wine are offered and / or before whom goats and / or other living beings are sacrificed . "
= = = Establishing Law and Order of Gujarat = = =
During the time when Swaminarayan came to Gujarat , the law and order situation of Gujarat was in worst ever . Neither British government nor local kings were able to control the robberies , killings , internal conflicts , rapes , and other uncultured events in Kathiyawar , Kutch and Gujarat . Upon reaching to Gujarat , Swaminarayan by His preaching and super natural divine power restored noted notorious criminals as normal civilians . These criminals left their evil nature and started living life with high moral values to the extent that they would never rob , or kill any living being . Even they would not see the unknown women or would not drink alcohol and be strict vegetarian . Bombay Governor Sir Malcolm was impressed by social reforms of Swaminarayan and so had come down to Rajkot to meet Swaminarayan personally and to appreciate His work towards educating high moral values to the people of Gujarat and helping British Government in reducing criminal graph of Gujarat . Swaminarayan had vowed not to kill the evil people but to kill their evil nature .
Joban Pagi of Vadtal
One of the notorious criminal at time of Maharaja Syajirao Gaikwad 2 was Joban Pagi . Joban Pagi had robbed treasury of Gaikwad at Okha Mandal and killed many of the soldiers . He had also killed officers of British government at Vadtal . But neither British Government nor Gaikwad could arrest him alive . He had his robbers network from Puna till Palanpur . Jobanpagi tried to steal Swaminarayan 's favorite mare named " Manaki " at Dabhan but despite of his efforts through out night he could not steal it . Jobanpagi the master of robbery shocked with his defeat and met Swaminarayan during a vast assembly of Dabhan Yagna and confessed his crime and took his shelter . He then left robbery . Sayajirao Gaikwad had invited him and awarded him " Bahadur " by making him State Guest after he became a disciple of Swaminarayan .
Jogidas Khuman
Jogidas Khuman was one of the strongest Baharvatiya - rebellion turned robber . He became rebellion against Bhavnagar state because he was not given share of kingdom and Bhavnagar Maharaja did not supported him in giving justice . The Khumans periodically rob villages belonging to Wajesinhji - Bhavanagar Maharaja , razing them and pilfering the cattle and then escape to nearby Gir Forests . Despite of multiple efforts by British and Wajesinhji , Jogidas was not convinced to settle down the dispute . Wajesinhji was desperate for truce with Jogidas Khuman. in 1829 He come to know that Jogidas had recently visited Gadhada at Data Khachar Darbar and had met Dada and Swaminarayan on demise of Jiva Khachar . Wajesinhi requested Dada Khachar to help make truce with Jogidas . Dada Khachar being a subservient devotee of Swaminarayan asked permission of Swaminarayan Bhagavaan . Swaminarayan gave him permission . Dada become mediator and by bless of Swaminarayan , Dada made truce between Wajehsinh and Jogidas . D.A. Blane , then Political Agent in Rajkot , ratified the truce and sent it to the Bombay Presidency , which approved it . This clearly reflected Swaminarayan 's calming influence on outlaws of Gujarat and make them streamline without killing them .
= = Temples and ascetics = =
Swaminarayan ordered the construction of several Hindu temples and he had built six huge temples by himself and installed the idols of various deities such as Nara @-@ Narayana in two temples , Laxminarayan dev , gopinathji maharaj , Radha Raman dev and madanmohan lalji . The images in the temples built by Swaminarayan provide evidence of the priority of Krishna . Disciples of Swaminarayan composed devotional poems which are widely sung by the tradition during festivals . Swaminarayan introduced fasting and devotion among followers . He conducted the festivals of Vasant Panchami , Holi , and Janmashtami with organization of the traditional folk dance raas .
The first temple Swaminarayan constructed was in Ahmedabad in 1822 , with the land for construction given by the British Imperial Government . Following a request of devotees from Bhuj , Swaminarayan asked his follower Vaishnavananand to build a temple there . Construction commenced in 1822 , and the temple was built within a year . A temple in Vadtal followed in 1824 , a temple in Dholera in 1826 , a temple in Junagadh in 1828 and a temple in Gadhada , also in 1828 . By the time of his death , Swaminarayan had also ordered construction of temples in Muli , Dholka and Jetalpur .
From early on , ascetics have played a major role in the Swaminarayan sect . They contribute towards growth and development of the movement , encouraging people to follow a pious and religious life . Tradition maintains that Swaminarayan initiated 500 ascetics as paramhansas in a single night . Paramhansa is a title of honour sometimes applied to Hindu spiritual teachers who are regarded as having attained enlightenment . Paramhansas were the highest order of sannyasi in the sect . Prominent paramhansas included Muktanand Swami , Gopalanand Swami , Brahmanand Swami , Gunatitanand Swami , Premanand Swami , Nishkulanand Swami , and Nityanand Swami .
= = Scriptures = =
Swaminarayan propagated general Hindu texts . He held the Bhagavata Purana in high authority . However , there are many texts that were written by Swaminarayan or his followers that are regarded as shastras or scriptures within the Swaminarayan sect . Notable scriptures throughout the sect include the Shikshapatri and the Vachanamrut . Other important works and scriptures include the Satsangi Jeevan , Swaminarayan 's authorized biography , the Muktanand Kavya , the Nishkulanand Kavya and the Bhakta Chintamani .
Shikshapatri
Swaminarayan wrote the Shikshapatri on 11 February 1826 . While the original Sanskrit manuscript is not available , it was translated into Gujarati by Nityanand Swami under the direction of Swaminarayan and is revered in the sect . The Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency summarised it as a book of social laws that his followers should follow . A commentary on the practice and understanding of dharma , it is a small booklet containing 212 Sanskrit verses , outlining the basic tenets that Swaminarayan believed his followers should uphold in order to live a well @-@ disciplined and moral life . The oldest copy of this text is preserved at the Bodleian Library of Oxford University and it is one of the very few presented by Sahajanand Swami himself . Acharya Tejendraprasad of Ahmedabad has indicated in a letter that he is not aware of any copy from the hand of Sahajanand older than this text .
Vachanamrut
Swaminarayan 's philosophical , social and practical teachings are contained in the Vachanamrut , a collection of dialogues recorded by five prominent saints ( Muktanand Swami , Gopalanand Swami , Nityanand Swami , Shukanand Muni , & Brahmanand Swami ) from his spoken words . The Vachanamrut is the scripture most commonly used in the
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the Shropshire Regimental Museum ) and the Coleham Pumping Station . Also , there is the Gateway arts and drama centre and there are also various private galleries and art shops around the town . Another notable feature of the town is Lord Hill 's Column , the largest free @-@ standing Doric column in the world .
The Quantum Leap is an abstract sculpture unveiled in the town centre in 2009 to mark the bicentenary on the birth of Shrewsbury biologist Charles Darwin .
= = = Bridges = = =
Shrewsbury , being almost entirely encircled by the River Severn , has nine bridges across the river and many that cross the Rea Brook .
Working downstream from Frankwell Bridge , a modern pedestrian footbridge spans the River Severn between Frankwell and the town centre . Welsh Bridge was built in the 1790s to replace the ancient St George 's Bridge .
Further along from the Welsh Bridge is the Porthill Bridge , a pedestrian suspension bridge running between the Quarry and Porthill , built in 1922 . The next bridge along the river is Kingsland Bridge , a privately owned toll bridge , and the subsequent bridge is the Greyfriars Bridge , a pedestrian bridge between Coleham and the town centre . Following the Greyfriars Bridge is the English Bridge , historically called Stone Bridge , which was rebuilt in the 1930s . Beyond it is the railway station , which is partly built over the river . After the station is Castle Walk Footbridge , another modern pedestrian footbridge . The last bridge to cross the river within the Shrewsbury bypass area is called Telford Way , which has separate lanes for vehicles ( A5112 ) , bicycles and pedestrians . A. E. Housman wrote of the area this verse , which mentions the bridges of the town :
= = Religious sites = =
There are many churches in Shrewsbury , including Shrewsbury Abbey , founded by Roger de Montgomery in 1083 . Shrewsbury Greek Orthodox Church , a former Anglican church building , is off Sutton Road to the south . Shrewsbury is home to the Roman Catholic Shrewsbury Cathedral , by the Town Walls , as well as two other parishes in Harlescott and Monkmoor , within the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury . One of the houses in Fish Street , facing St Alkmund 's Church , was the site of John Wesley 's first preaching in Shrewsbury ; a wall plaque records the date as 16 March 1761 . According to legend , the spire of St Alkmund 's Church was damaged by the Devil in 1553 , and climbed four times by a drunken steeplejack in 1621 .
There are several Anglican churches in Shrewsbury . Methodists , Baptists and the United Reformed Church are also represented , alongside newer church groups including Elim Pentecostal and Newfrontiers . Shrewsbury Evangelical Church meets in the former Anglican parish church of St Julian at the Wyle Cop end of Fish Street . Shrewsbury 's first non @-@ Christian place of worship , a Muslim centre , was approved in 2013 .
Many community projects in Shrewsbury are based in , or have been started by local churches , including the Isaiah 58 project , which is the primary work amongst homeless people in the town , whilst ' Churches Together in Shrewsbury ' works to help homeless people through the Ark project . Basics Bank , based at the Barnabas Centre , provides debt relief for local people .
= = Culture = =
= = = Museums and entertainment = = =
Shrewsbury is home to one of the largest horticultural events in the UK , it is also the ' Longest running flower show in the world ' – the annual Shrewsbury Flower Show . A two @-@ day event , the Flower Show takes place in mid @-@ August , has been running for more than 125 years , and attracts around 100 @,@ 000 visitors each year . Set in the Quarry park , there are a multitude of events , exhibitions and displays , with a fireworks display at the end of each day . The town is well known for its flower displays , and has won numerous awards in recent years .
Theatre Severn is the town 's main performing arts complex . It is situated in Frankwell next to the Welsh Bridge and alongside its namesake , the River Severn . The theatre includes two performance spaces , the 635 seat Main Auditorium and a smaller studio space , the Walker Theatre which can accommodate 250 seating or 500 standing . In November 2015 the theatre celebrated the sale of its 1 millionth ticket since its opening in 2009 . The venue also includes a full sized dance studio , function rooms and restaurant . The new complex replaced the old theatre , the Music Hall , which itself has been refurbished and expanded in preparation for its current use as home to Shrewsbury Museum and Art Gallery ( opened 2014 ) . Further museums in the town include the acclaimed Shropshire Regimental Museum , based at Shrewsbury Castle , and the restored 19th century steam @-@ powered Coleham Pumping Station , which opens for tours on specific days each year . Nearby National Trust properties include Attingham Park , former home of the Hill family , Barons of Berwick , and the last remaining Town Walls Tower which dates from the 14th century .
Shrewsbury is also home to one of the region 's main agricultural shows – the Shropshire County Show ( formerly the West Mid Show ) . This is held every year , usually in May , at the Shropshire Agricultural Showground on the outskirts of town at Coton Hill . The town is host to the Shrewsbury International Music Festival , when musical groups from all over the world come to perform for about a week for local residents , and give a final concert in the abbey . The festival is organised by WorldStage Tours . 2006 saw the first Shrewsbury Folk Festival , after the event moved to the town from nearby Bridgnorth . Held annually over the August bank holiday , the event is very popular , with people travelling from across the UK to attend . In 2006 much of the event was held in the Quarry , with other related festivities happening around the town . For 2007 the event moved to the West Midlands Showground on the other side of the river . A new annual arts festival – the Shrewsbury Summer Season – was established in 2004 and runs each year from June to August with an extensive programme of music , visual arts , theatre and spectacle .
There are some very old public houses , which have been continuously open , such as the Golden Cross in Princess Street , the Dun Cow in Abbey Foregate , and the King 's Head in Mardol . The Golden Cross is reputed to be the oldest licensed public house in Shrewsbury and records show that it was used as an inn as far back as 1428 . Its original name was the Sextry , because it was originally the sacristy of Old St Chad 's Church .
= = = Shrewsbury in the arts = = =
Famous literary figures who have visited the town include ( in the 17th century ) Daniel Defoe , Celia Fiennes , the Shrewsbury School @-@ educated Arthur Mainwaring and Ambrose Phillips and playwright George Farquhar whose 1706 play ' The Recruiting Officer ' was set in the town .
Later , in the 18th and 19th centuries , the likes of John Wesley , Thomas de Quincey and Benjamin Disraeli the latter of which was MP for Shrewsbury 1841 – 47 , would visit the town . Charles Dickens once also visited to present a series of lectures at the Music Hall , staying at the Lion Hotel . However , in this period the town 's most prolific literary figure and famous son was born – Charles Darwin . Darwin was educated at Shrewsbury School and later , with the development of his 1859 work On the Origin of Species became the preeminent naturalist of the 19th century . Although Darwin 's work was both revolutionary and highly controversial at the time , his teachings and beliefs have become ever more globalised and he is today widely recognised as the father of the modern theory of evolution .
In his 1910 novel Howards End , E. M. Forster makes a brief reference to " astonishing Shrewsbury " , an impression he received after having visited the town in the early 20th century . In the same century Shrewsbury became famous for its poets . The Great War poet Wilfred Owen was a resident , whilst his fellow poet Mary Webb much loved the town and referred to it many a time in her works under the guise of Silverton . Owen is the subject of the 1993 sculpture Symmetry , which was unveiled in the grounds of Shrewsbury Abbey , whilst Webb was finally laid to rest in one of the town 's cemeteries .
The town appears in the Brother Cadfael novels by Ellis Peters ( pen name of Edith Pargeter ) . The novels take Shrewsbury Abbey for their setting , with Shrewsbury and other places in Shropshire portrayed regularly , and have made Medieval Shrewsbury familiar to a wide worldwide readership .
The local author , Carol Ewels has written two children 's books , including Jack the Cat , which are set in the town . Also , the children 's author Pauline Fisk wrote about a town called Pengwern , which is based entirely on Shrewsbury , in books including Midnight Blue and Sabrina Fludde . Frank Cottrell Boyce , another children 's author , writes briefly about Shrewsbury in his book Millions . Shrewsbury Library also hosts the West Midlands Literary Heritage website , developed to provide information about West Midland people and places , including those featured in the library 's own West Midland Creative Literature Collection .
In film Shrewsbury was used as the setting for the popular 1984 film , A Christmas Carol , which filmed many of its interior and exterior shots in and around the town . The gravestone prop of Ebenezer Scrooge ( played by George C. Scott ) that was used in the movie is still present in the graveyard of St Chad 's Church .
= = = Media = = =
Two newspapers are published for Shrewsbury – the local edition of the county 's Shropshire Star and the more traditional Shrewsbury Chronicle , which is one of the oldest weekly newspapers in the country , having produced its first edition in 1772 . There are presently three radio stations that specifically serve either the Shrewsbury area or encompass it as part of a Shropshire @-@ wide broadcast . They include : Free Radio Shropshire & Black Country ; , BBC Radio Shropshire , which is based in Shrewsbury ; and , as of September 2006 , The Severn , which broadcasts from the Shropshire Star building in Telford .
In 2009 a brand new online independent media company launched covering Shrewsbury and Shropshire. shropshirelive.com , is based in Shrewsbury with local residents encouraged to get involved with the web site by becoming citizen journalists and contributors .
= = = Food = = =
Shrewsbury is well known in culinary circles for being the namesake of a classic English dessert . Shrewsbury cakes ( or biscuits ) are typically crisp and brittle creations that may incorporate fruit . They can be small in size for serving several at a time , or large for serving as a dessert in their own right . Traditionally Shrewsbury cakes have a distinct hint of lemon .
The playwright William Congreve mentioned Shrewsbury cakes in his play The Way of the World in 1700 as a simile ( Witwoud – " Why , brother Wilfull of Salop , you may be as short as a Shrewsbury cake , if you please . But I tell you ' tis not modish to know relations in town " ) . The recipe is also included in several early cookbooks including The Compleat Cook of 1658 . A final reference to the cakes can be seen to this day as the subject of a plaque affixed to a building close to Shrewsbury 's town library at the top of Pride Hill . The aforementioned plaque marks the spot where the Shrewsbury Cake 's recipe is said to have been pioneered in 1760 by Mr Pailin ; a further quote , drawn from Richard Harris Barham 's Ingoldby Legends , reads :
Shrewsbury is also the origin of the most popular Simnel cake recipe . Different towns had their own recipes and shapes of the Simnel cake . Bury , Devizes and Shrewsbury produced large numbers to their own recipes , but it is the Shrewsbury version that became most well known . Shrewsbury also had a large cheese market in Victorian times .
= = Education = =
Shrewsbury is home to Shrewsbury School , a public school , on a large site ( " Kingsland " ) just south of the town centre overlooking the loop of the Severn . The school was once in the town centre , in the buildings that are now the main county library on Castle Street . Opposite it on the other side of the river is Shrewsbury High School , an independent girls ' day school .
The long established Prestfelde School is an independent preparatory school , on London Road , close to the Lord Hill column . As part of the Woodard Schools group , it is affiliated to the largest group of Church of England schools in the country . Whilst originally a school for boys only it diversified and , in the late 1990s , started also accepting girls between the ages of three and thirteen . The school is set in 30 acres ( 12 ha ) of grounds on the outskirts of the town . The town 's other long @-@ established boys ' preparatory school , Kingsland Grange ( on Old Roman Road in Kingsland ) , in 2007 merged with the junior department of Shrewsbury Girls ' High School , sharing the two sites with some classes remaining all @-@ boys or all @-@ girls , but others switching to a co @-@ ed format .
Adcote School is an independent day and boarding school for girls , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) northwest of Shrewsbury . The school was founded in 1907 and is set in a Grade I listed country house built in 1879 for Rebecca Darby – a great niece of Abraham Darby and a member of the iron @-@ master family who built Ironbridge .
However , the majority of the town 's pupils attend one of the seven comprehensive schools . The Priory School , formerly a grammar school for girls ; Meole Brace School currently carries the status of Science College ; The Grange School the status of Arts College ; Sundorne School the status of Sports College and Belvidere School has the status of Technology College .
The Wakeman School , which was geographically the closest school to the town centre ' loop ' , next to the English Bridge , was previously called Shrewsbury Technical School , and was attended by the notable First World War poet Wilfred Owen . It closed as part of reorganisation in July 2013 . Additionally , two other establishments outside town serve town students . The Corbet School to the north at Baschurch ; and Mary Webb School , in the village of Pontesbury to the south @-@ west .
Post @-@ 16 education is handled by Shrewsbury Sixth Form College , previously the Priory School for Boys recently ranked 17th in the top 20 of sixth form colleges nationally by the Sunday Times newspaper and Shrewsbury College of Arts and Technology , which handles primarily vocational courses .
University Centre Shrewsbury has been offering postgraduate courses since autumn 2014 and undergraduate students are being welcomed to the institution from autumn 2015 .
Established by the University of Chester and Shropshire Council , the University Centre is focused on high @-@ quality teaching and research , fostering entrepreneurship , contributing to the community and , ultimately , making a global impact .
= = Transport = =
Shrewsbury is the county 's public transport hub and has road and rail links to the rest of the county and country .
Five railway lines connect the town to most corners of Shropshire and the region , and the town is known as the " Gateway to Wales " . Shrewsbury railway station is served by Arriva Trains Wales and London Midland with trains running north to Chester , Manchester , Crewe and Wrexham , south to Hereford and Cardiff , west to Aberystwyth , and east to Birmingham via Telford , Shifnal , and Wolverhampton . Heart of Wales Line trains also operate to Swansea . On 28 April 2008 , open access operator Wrexham & Shropshire commenced services to London , restoring the county 's direct rail link to the capital ; previously , Shropshire had been one of only two mainland English counties without a dedicated service to the capital , the other being Rutland . However , the service ceased on 28 January 2011 . Virgin Trains announced in September 2014 that a new London service comprising two trains in each direction daily would be introduced in December of that year .
The main railway station building includes a clock tower , imitation Tudor chimneys and carved heads in the frames of every window . There is a small British Transport Police station within the building .
Bus services in the town are operated by Arriva Midlands and serve most parts of the town , congregating at the town 's bus station adjacent to the Darwin Shopping Centre and a short stroll from the railway station . Arriva also operate county services both independent of and on behalf of Shropshire County Council . There are other bus companies operating around the Shrewsbury area , including Boulton 's of Shropshire , Minsterley Motors , Bryn Melyn and Tanat Valley Coaches with the last operating services crossing from over the Welsh border from nearby towns including Llanfyllin , Montgomery , Newtown and Welshpool .
Shrewsbury has a Park and Ride bus scheme in operation and three car parks on the edge of town are used by many who want to travel into the town centre . The three car parks are at Harlescott ( to the north , colour @-@ coded blue ) , Oxon ( to the west , colour @-@ coded pink ) and Meole Brace ( to the south , colour @-@ coded green ) . It is proposed that a fourth one be built to the east of the town , at either Emstrey or Preston .
Shrewsbury has been an important centre for road traffic . In 1815 , Thomas Telford designed a new coaching route from London to Holyhead in order to improve communications with Ireland . He routed the new road via Shrewsbury , which opened in 1830 . The road is now the A5 . The road connects the town northwest to Oswestry , and east towards Telford , where it joins the M54 . The A5 once ran through the town centre , until a bypass was built in the 1930s . Subsequently , in 1992 , a 17 @-@ mile ( 27 km ) dual carriageway was completed at a cost of 79 million pounds to the south of the town , and was made to form part of the A5 route . This dual carriageway was built further out of the town to act as a substantial link to Telford , as well as a bypass for the town .
The A49 also goes to Shrewsbury , joining the A5 at the south of the town , coming from Ludlow and Leominster . At this point the road merges with the A5 for 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , before separating again to the east of the town . From there it runs north , passing Sundorne , then Battlefield , before heading out towards Whitchurch . At Battlefield , the A53 route begins and heads northeast towards Shawbury and Market Drayton then onwards towards Newcastle @-@ under @-@ Lyme and Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent .
The A458 ( Welshpool @-@ Bridgnorth ) runs through the town centre , entering in the west and leaving to the southeast . The A528 begins in the town centre and heads north , heading for Ellesmere . The A488 begins just west of the town centre in Frankwell and heads out to Bishop 's Castle , Clun and Knighton crossing the border in the southwest of Shropshire .
Major roads within the town include the A5112 , A5191 and A5064 . The A5191 goes north @-@ south via the town centre , while the A5112 runs north @-@ south to the east of the town centre . The A5064 is a short , one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) stretch of road to the southeast of the town centre , called " London Road " . Additionally , the A5124 , the most recent bypass , was completed in 1998 , and runs across the northern edge of the town at Battlefield ( connecting the A49 / A53 to the A528 ) , though it did exist before as Harlescott Lane ( which has since become unclassified ) .
= = = Cycling = = =
Shrewsbury has a comprehensive network of on @-@ road and traffic @-@ free cycle routes . In 2008 Shrewsbury was awarded Cycling Town status by Cycling England . As a result , Shrewsbury benefited from £ 1 @.@ 8 million of grant funding from the Department for Transport between 2008 and 2011 . The funding was used to make improvements to the cycle network in Shrewsbury , and to provide cycle training , information and advice to people to help encourage them to cycle to school and work .
= = Sport = =
Shrewsbury is home to a professional football club , Shrewsbury Town . The team currently competes in the third tier of English football , Football League One and since 2007 has played their home games at New Meadow – from 1910 to 2007 the club played at the Gay Meadow stadium . Shrewsbury Town 's achievements include winning the Welsh Cup six times , a record for an English club , a 10 @-@ year run in the old Second Division now known as The Championship from 1979 until 1989 , a Third Division Championship in 1979 , a Division 3 Championship and victory in the Conference National Playoff Final 2004 .
There is also a local rugby club , Shrewsbury Rugby Club . The River Severn in the town is used for rowing by both Pengwern Boat Club and the Shrewsbury School Boat Club . Shrewsbury Sports Village is a sports centre in the Sundorne district of the town , aimed at providing a wide range of sports facilities for townspeople . There are also a number of motorsports and golf facilities ( including Meole Brace Municipal Golf Course ) in the area . The local motorsports heritage includes the Loton Park Hillclimb and Hawkstone Park Motocross Circuit near Shrewsbury . Shrewsbury Motocross Club has staged motocross events in the area for over 30 years .
Shrewsbury Cricket Club is currently one of the most successful club cricket sides in the country . They have won the EBC National Club Championship twice in 1983 and recently in 2011 . England International player James Taylor currently plays for Shrewsbury .
A free weekly parkrun takes place in the centre of Shrewsbury . The event is attended by over 250 runners every week and is ' twinned ' with Darwin parkrun in Northern Territory , Australia due to the city of Darwin being named after Charles Darwin . Shrewsbury has also seen activity in the physical discipline , Parkour .
= = Notable Salopians = =
There have been a number of notable Salopians , and people otherwise associated with the town of Shrewsbury , including Charles Darwin , a biologist and evolutionary theorist , one of the most important thinkers of the 19th century , who was born in Shrewsbury on 12 February 1809 at the Mount House , and was educated in the town at Shrewsbury School .
People with political associations also have connections with the town . Leo Blair , the father of former Prime Minister Tony Blair , was a resident of the town . Former residents have included Michael Heseltine , a Conservative politician who was educated at Shrewsbury School , and Sir William Pulteney , 5th Baronet , who was once Britain 's richest man , and was MP for Shrewsbury . He lived in apartments at Shrewsbury Castle . Robert Clive was MP for Shrewsbury , and also the mayor .
Ian Hunter ( or Ian Patterson ) , the lead singer of the ' 70s pop group Mott the Hoople , was a resident of 23a Swan Hill in the town centre , and wrote a song of the same name . Also a resident of the town was John Peel , a DJ and radio presenter , who was educated at Shrewsbury School . Another DJ from the town is Lange , a producer of dance music , who was born in Shrewsbury . The 1980s pop group T 'Pau was formed in the town and the band 's vocalist Carol Decker was born and educated in the town , along with other members of the band . Notable music historian Charles Burney was born and educated in the town .
Shrewsbury has also been home to contributors to literature . In the early years of the 18th century , the Irish dramatist George Farquhar resided in the town while acting as a recruiting officer for the Army . He drew on this experience in writing the comedy The Recruiting Officer . Prior to the First World War , the poet Wilfred Owen lived in the town . The romantic novelist Mary Webb is buried there . Michael Palin , the writer , actor and comedian attended Shrewsbury School . Other actors with associations with the town include Nick Hancock , presenter of They Think It 's All Over , who , like Palin , was educated at Shrewsbury School . Nick Conway is another actor connected to the town , and was born in it in 1962 . Actor Jason Bateman 's mother was born in Shrewsbury . Comedian George Robey lived in the town , near Lord Hill 's Column , before and during the Second World War .
Sporting Salopians include footballers Danny Guthrie of Newcastle United and Shrewsbury Town youth academy graduates England goalkeeper Joe Hart and Wales midfielder David Edwards , both of whom are currently playing in the Premier League . Sunderland and Scotland striker Steven Fletcher was also born in the town , where his serviceman father was stationed . Four FA Cup Final winning players who took part in the first decade of the Cup 's history were born in or lived in Shrewsbury : John Hawley Edwards , Henry Wace and John Wylie , of the Wanderers and Clopton Lloyd @-@ Jones of Clapham Rovers . Sandy Lyle , a professional golfer , was also born in the town . Neville Cardus spent some of his formative years as assistant cricket coach at Shrewsbury School .
Other notable people of the town include Robert Cadman , a performer and steeplejack , who is buried in the town , at St Mary 's Church . Simon Gosling , a visual effects designer was born in the town , and was resident there until 1994 . John Gwynn , an 18th @-@ century architect , who designed the English Bridge and the bridge at Atcham was born in the town . Percy Thrower , the gardener and broadcaster lived in Shrewsbury , where he set up the garden centre near Meole Brace and just down the road from the football club . It is currently the home of renowned singer Steve Winwood , with his family .
Flight Lieutenant Eric Lock DSO , DFC and Bar was born in nearby Bayston Hill and was educated at Prestfelde public school on London Road . Lock became internationally recognised as a high scoring fighter ace of the Royal Air Force in the Second World War with 26 victories before his death in combat at the age of 21 . He was the RAF 's most successful British @-@ born pilot in the Battle of Britain , shooting down 16 @.@ 5 German aircraft in a period of just a few weeks .
One Victoria Cross recipient is known to have lived in Shrewsbury ; Arthur Herbert Procter , who was decorated in 1916 during World War I and retired from his later full @-@ time clergy ministry in 1964 to briefly live at Mytton Oak Road , Copthorne .
The forerunner of Private Eye was a school magazine edited by Richard Ingrams , Willie Rushton , Christopher Booker and Paul Foot at Shrewsbury School in the mid @-@ 1950s .
Comic book artist Charlie Adlard was born in Shrewsbury and is most known for illustrating The Walking Dead . Actor Adam Rayner was born in Shrewsbury and grew up in the United States .
= = Twin Town = =
Shrewsbury is twinned with Zutphen , Netherlands , a move inspired by the fact Sir Philip Sidney , an alumnus of Shrewsbury School , was fatally wounded there in 1586 . At the end of the Second World War Shrewsbury 's then Mayor , Harry Steward , who was made in 1946 an honorary citizen of Zutphen in return , launched an appeal for second @-@ hand tools , clothes , bedding and other materials towards the town 's post @-@ war reconstruction after Nazi German occupation and war damage .
A potential twinning with Shrewsbury by Bayreuth , Germany , was under discussion in 2009 .
= Domestic of the Schools =
The office of the Domestic of the Schools ( Greek : δομέστικος τῶν σχολῶν , domestikos tōn scholōn ) was a senior military post of the Byzantine Empire , extant from the 8th century until at least the early 14th century . Originally simply the commander of the Scholai , the senior of the elite tagmata regiments , the Domestic quickly rose in prominence : by the mid @-@ 9th century , its holders essentially occupied the position of commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Byzantine army , next to the Emperor . The office was eclipsed in the 12th century by that of the Grand Domestic , and in the Palaiologan period ( 13th – 15th centuries ) , it was reduced to a purely honorary , mid @-@ level court dignity .
= = History = =
The first holder of the office of Domestic of the Schools first appears in the sources ( the chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor ) for the year 767 , shortly after the creation of the tagmata . These were elite cavalry regiments stationed in or around the capital Constantinople , commanded by officers titled " Domestics " ( δομέστικοι , domestikoi ) and distinct from the provincial armies of the themes under their respective stratēgoi . The Schools ( Latin : scholae ; Greek : σχολαὶ , scholai ) was the senior tagma , tracing their origin to the Scholae Palatinae established by Constantine the Great ( reigned ( r . ) 306 – 337 ) and originally placed under the command of the magister officiorum . The historian J.B. Bury has traced a reference to a certain Anianos , " Domestic of the magister " , in the Chronicon Paschale for the year 624 , and considers this official to be the predecessor of the Domestic of the Schools . As the magister officiorum was gradually deprived of some of his functions in the 7th and 8th centuries , the Domestic apparently became an independent official . The Kletorologion of 899 lists his subordinate officials as comprising his deputy or topotērētēs ( τοποτηρητής ) , the secretary or chartoularios ( χαρτουλάριος ) , the head messenger or proximos ( πρόξιμος ) and the other messengers ( μανδάτορες , mandatores ) , as well as the various subordinate officers of the regiment ( cf. the article on the Scholae Palatinae ) .
In the 9th century , the office of the Domestic , or " Domesticate " ( δομεστικάτον , domestikaton ) , of the Schools rose in importance and its holder was often appointed as the head of the army in the absence of the emperor . However , this role was not yet enshrined : it depended rather on the abilities of the current Domestic , and other generals of inferior rank were sometimes entrusted with supreme command instead . The Domestic of the Schools nevertheless rose to such prominence that the sources frequently speak of the office as " the Domestic " without further qualification , and the power and influence of the post saw it frequently occupied by persons closely related to the emperor . From the time of Michael III ( r . 842 – 867 ) on , the Domestic ranked in the imperial hierarchy above all other military commanders except for the stratēgos of the Anatolic Theme . In practice , he quickly became senior even to the latter , as demonstrated by the fact that military leaders like Nikephoros Phokas and John Tzimiskes were promoted from the generalship of the Anatolics to the Domesticate .
In the reign of Romanos II ( r . 959 – 963 ) the post was split , with a " Domestic of the West " ( δομέστικος τῆς δύσεως , domestikos tēs dyseōs ) and a " Domestic of the East " ( δομέστικος τῆς ἀνατολῆς , domestikos tēs anatolēs ) being created for operations in Europe and Asia respectively . The ceremony for the Domestic 's appointment is described in the De Ceremoniis ( II.3 ) ; the same work describes his duties and role in court ceremonies .
With some exceptions , most notably the unparalleled 22 @-@ year tenure of John Kourkouas , or in times of domestic instability , Domestics were changed on the average every three to four years . During the 10th century , the Domesticate of the Schools was dominated by members of the Phokas family , which produced six holders of the office . Their attempts to monopolize the office led a series of emperors , concerned over the power of the military aristocracy , to entrust the potentially over @-@ powerful office to non @-@ military court officials , including — especially in the first half of the 11th century , before the military aristocracy reasserted its authority — to eunuchs , even though this was in theory forbidden , with the alternate office of stratopedarches having been created for this purpose .
In the 10th and 11th centuries , the variant " Grand Domestic " ( μέγας δομέστικος , megas domestikos ) appears sporadically , used in parallel with other variants such as " Grand Domestic of the Schools " or " Grand Domestic of the East / West " for the same person . The Byzantinist Rodolphe Guilland considers most of these early references either as anachronistic references by 12th @-@ century writers , or simply cases where " megas " is used as an honorific prefix , as was the norm with other senior offices during this period , like the Drungary of the Watch or the Domestic of the Excubitors . Nevertheless , Guilland argues that from the time of Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 – 1118 ) on , the " Grand Domestic " became a separate office , senior to the " plain " Domestics of the Schools and in effect the new commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the army beside the Emperor . However , the usage of the titles is not consistent , and the habitual division of command between East and West seems to have been sometimes applied to the Grand Domesticate as well during the 12th century , causing some confusion as to the nature of the office and its relation to the " plain " Domestic . In the 13th century however the two titles became clearly distinct : the Grand Domestic was the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the entire army and one of the highest offices of state , while the Domestic of the Schools was relegated to a simple dignity without duties , awarded to provincial governors and other middle @-@ ranking officials . In the words of the mid @-@ 14th century Book of Offices of Pseudo @-@ Kodinos , " the Domestic of the Schools once had an office similar to that of the Grand Domestic currently , but he now holds none " .
In Pseudo @-@ Kodinos ' work , the Domestic of the Schools ranks 31st in the imperial hierarchy , between the mystikos and the Grand Drungary of the Fleet . The Domestic 's distinctive court dress , as reported by Pseudo @-@ Kodinos , consisted of a gold @-@ brocaded hat ( skiadion ) , a plain silk kabbadion tunic and a silver staff ( dikanikion ) with a knob on top and another in the middle . For ceremonies and festivities , he bore the domed skaranikon , of yellow silk and decorated with gold wire embroidery , and with a portrait of the emperor seated on a throne in front and another with the emperor on horseback on the rear .
= = List of known holders = =
Note : the list does not include holders known only through their seals but otherwise unidentified .
= Barely Real =
Barely Real is the 1992 extended play ( EP ) by the American indie rock band Codeine . After releasing their previous album Frigid Stars LP in 1990 , the group accepted an invitation from the quartet Bastro to tour in Europe in 1991 . Following the tour the group was invited to record a single for Sub Pop Singles Club and attempted to record their followup album The White Birch in 1992 . The recording sessions proved to be disastrous for the group since it found themselves often with unusable tracks over several different studios . As Codeine could not record enough material for a full @-@ length album , they decided to release what tracks they had as an EP .
The music on Barely Real continued their slowcore music style of their previous album . Barely Real also featured contributions from guest musicians such as Jon Fine of Bitch Magnet playing additional guitar on the song " Jr " and a piano cover of the song " Wird " performed by David Grubbs . Following the recording sessions , the groups drummer Chris Brokaw left the group being replaced by Doug Scharin .
Barely Real had one single ( " Realize " ) released and was initially released in Germany through Sub Pop , followed by release in the United States in 1993 . The band toured North America to promote the release which included an opening spot for Mazzy Star and their first shows in Canada . The album received praise from the Alternative Press and Melody Maker on its initial release , with the latter calling the work " 25 minutes of snowblind glory " . The EP was re @-@ issued by The Numero Group in 2012 , including various unreleased songs and new material . The re @-@ issue was acclaimed Spin and Pitchfork Media , with the latter describing the release as " masterful " .
= = Background and production = =
Following the well received release of Frigid Stars LP ( 1990 ) , Codeine accepted and invitation from David Grubbs and John McEntire to open for their group Bastro on their European tour in 1991 . To prepare for the tour , Codeine and Bastro met in a studio to record the song " Produkt " and " A l 'Ombre de Nouse " as a seven @-@ inch single for the label Glitterhouse . Following the tour , Immerwahr returned to New York working as an engineer at Mike McMacklin 's Sound on Sound studio . John Engle worked as a delivery man for a restaurant and Chris Brokaw waited tables and wrote songs with Thalia Zedek that would later be released on Eleven : Eleven , the debut album for Come .
Towards the end of 1991 , Sub Pop gave the group $ 1000 to record the July 1992 entry in the labels singles club series . The group entered James Kavoussi 's Toxic Shock Studios on Broadway in New York with Frigid Stars LP producer Mike McMacklin to record early versions of " Realize " , " Jr " , and a cover of the MX @-@ 80 song " Promise of Love " . The tracks were not successful with only " Promise of Love " being usable . Engle noted that Codeine desired the song to be loud on both sides of the single , but could not get the song " Jr " to come together . The group had already gone through most of their budget for recording , which led to the group going to an eight @-@ track studio in the Boston suburb of Allston . Immerwahr went into the studio where the group were able to complete a version of the song " Realize " . The group met up again to work in early 1992 towards their second LP ( Long playing record ) The White Birch , with recording commencing in June at Harold Dessau Recording at 25 Murray Street in Manhattan . At the studio , the group attempted to record versions of " Realize " , " Jr " , " Tom " , " Wird " " Smoking Room " , " Barely Real " , " Something New " and " Sea " within a months time . Immerwahr was not content with the tracks , noting several issues such as : his own vocals , his desire to record music with even slower tempos , and the presence of high pitched noises in the songs that no one else could hear . On attempting to fix a broken toilet at the studio , Immerwahr accidentally flooded the clothing store below the studio .
Codeine decided to continue their recording sessions in July at the studio in Boston where " Barely Real " and their third recording of " Jr " were completed . The band then continued to Night Owl studio to record " Hard To Find " with a drum machine . Jon Fine of the band Bitch Magnet added guitar to " Jr " while Mike McMacklin began to EQ the tracks from Toxic Shock , Night Owl , and the Boston studio . Immerwahr also contributed to the mixing of the album without McMacklin , stating that they were not getting along after their extended periods of time spent recording . The band quickly noticed that the amount of material they had recorded would not be enough for the length of an LP which lead the group to releasing what they had as an EP . To balance out the EP 's sides , the band revisited the instrumental song " Wird " that was made as a tribute to the band Slint . Immerwahr described " Wird " as a song he regretted making , as it was an attempt to do a version of a song from Slint 's album Tweez . He sent a tape of the track to David Grubbs to do a piano version of the song that was re @-@ titled " W. " . John McEntire recorded the song in a music room at the University of Chicago where he was working on an undergraduate degree .
After completing the album , Brokaw left Codeine to focus on his band Come . The group shot the video for " Realize " without him . Engle took longer than he expected to replace Brokaw as after placing a classified ad , he ended up " flooded with calls " and that " Half of them hadn 't heard Codeine . I 'd say , well , we play a very particular style that you should really know about . " The group chose Doug Scharin , who had attended Codeine 's first show in Boston .
= = Music = =
Stephen Immerwhar , who wrote the lyrics to the original songs on Barely Real described composing these lyrics as " probably the hardest work . Not that we have these prodigious texts , but there 's a consistency between the lyrical subject and content and the presentation of the music " . Immerwhar described his lyrics as expressing feelings of alienation and banality . When he was asked regarding the lyrics on Barely Real and The White Birch , Immerwhar said he preferred the lyrics on latter album where he desired to " have more writerly songs " , where he found " out that there were different sources of the same feelings that seemed to inspire earlier Codeine songs . "
The Toronto Star described the Codeine 's music as slowcore , a style AllMusic stated was famous for having a slow pace and skeletal music with " melodies linger forever and rhythms lurch forward , all shrouded in thick , dank atmospherics . " Stewart Mason of AllMusic described the music of Barely Real as a continuation of the style made on their previous album " , while comparing a review of the compilation album When I See The Sun in Exclaim ! proposed that the group 's music " didn 't change much during their five years together ― all the songs are relentlessly slow and possess an emotional detachment verging on apathy . " When asked about the music 's pace , on Barely Real , Immerwahr said the music was in contrast to grunge music of the era , and that slowing it down made it " challenging for people and challenging for audiences . And I actually kind of like that . " In a contemporary review , Ned Raggett of AllMusic stated this style is exemplified on songs like " Realize " , which continued the hybrid of a deliberate pace with electric guitar playing with softly sung vocals . Some tracks contained a variation on Codeine 's music , such as " Promise of Love " , which Raggett characterized as having a " late @-@ night jazz club style " that only contains more traditional Codeine styled music towards the end . Other songs that veried the sound included the piano @-@ based track " W. " performed by David Grubbs and quick stuttering guitar riff on " Jr " .
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283 batting average . He became the all @-@ time Cardinals ' leader in games caught with his 1,439th on April 8 , 2016 .
Coming from a baseball family , Molina grew up in Vega Alta , Puerto Rico . His father was an amateur second baseman in Puerto Rico , and his two older brothers , Bengie and José , were also major league catchers . Molina 's pitch @-@ handling and throwing skills originally caught the attention of scouts before being drafted . The Cardinals ' fourth round selection in the 2000 MLB draft , he made his MLB debut four years later , quickly garnering a reputation for possessing one of the strongest and most accurate arms in the game . As of 2014 , he had thrown out 44 % of runners attempting a stolen base over his career and led active MLB catchers with 55 pickoffs . Molina also formulates fielder positioning plans and complete pitching strategies to opposing hitters , earning a reputation as an on @-@ field leader .
Initially considered a light hitter , Molina significantly improved his offense and raised his career batting average from .248 in 2007 . As of 2014 , he had a .290 career batting average in the postseason . In 2006 , he became just the third catcher to play in two World Series before age 25 , following Johnny Bench and Yogi Berra . He also played for Puerto Rico in all three tournaments of the World Baseball Classic . Molina is under contract through 2017 .
= = Early life = =
Molina was born in Bayamón , Puerto Rico , to Gladys Matta and Benjamín Molina , Sr. and attended Maestro Ladíslao Martínez High School in Vega Alta . Molina 's father played second base as an amateur and worked as a tools technician ten hours per day in a Westinghouse factory . He was a .320 lifetime hitter and the all @-@ time hits leader in the Doble @-@ A Beísbol league , gaining election to the Puerto Rican baseball hall of fame in 2002 . Molina 's two older brothers , Bengie and José , eventually also became major league catchers . Each day when he completed work , Molina directly went home , ate dinner and crossed the street from his family 's home with his sons to Jesús Mambe Kuilan Park , where he spent countless evening hours teaching them the fundamentals of the sport . He remained hopeful that his sons would become professional baseball players .
Molina 's catching aptitude showed as early as age five , and he developed quickly . Nonetheless , he played all over the baseball field , and as Bengie Molina recalled , always seemed to " be the first player taken in the youth league draft . " Molina concentrated on infield positions until about age 16 , when he began developing into the familiar Molina physique ; as of 2013 , he stood 5 ' 11 " and weighed 220 pounds .
Molina 's father also sought to accelerate him on the diamond . Following a suspension from his youth league about age 15 , Benjamín Molina anticipated the desistance would stagnate his development , so he searched for an alternative . Against the wishes of coaches , family members and friends , he scheduled Yadier for a workout with the Hatillo Tigres , an amateur league team . Molina made the team after a single workout and immediately became the starting catcher . The Tigres ' first baseman , Luis Rosario , was the one that recommended him to the organization . The Tigres played in a league composed mainly of players ten or more years older than Molina , well before he was eligible for the Major League Baseball draft .
= = Scouting and minor leagues = =
Minnesota Twins scout Edwin Rodríguez scrutinized Molina starting in high school . He observed that Molina 's skills closely resembled that of both his older brothers – both accomplished major league catchers – and decided that his defense was " polished " enough to be considered more advanced than most high schoolers in the United States . However , Molina 's hitting lagged behind his defense . The initial report on his skill set was " defensive catcher , great arm , weak bat " ; his closest comparable hitter as catcher was one who the Cardinals eventually placed at the top of their organizational ladder , and his future manager , Mike Matheny . Before he was drafted , Molina worked out for the Cincinnati Reds . He put on a spectacle at Riverfront Stadium with his arm and bat that grabbed the attention of executives , scouts , and prominent former Reds who attended his workout , including Johnny Bench and Bob Boone . As Molina recalled , he left the session with the impression the Reds intended to draft him .
Undeterred by the universal reservations about his offensive ceiling , the St. Louis Cardinals instead took Molina in the fourth round of the 2000 MLB draft and signed him for $ 325 @,@ 000 . In the spring training following his draft , the young catcher was described as " raw " and purposed with fascination to emulate Matheny . Matheny , in turn , told his wife one day that he " saw the kid that 's going to steal [ his ] job . "
In that extended spring training , longtime Cardinals instructor Dave Ricketts observed Molina from a golf cart during a game as he was still learning how to catch ; he had been transitioning from third base . After allowing a passed ball through his legs with a runner on third base , Molina raced to the backstop to retrieve the ball . Still hoping to prevent the runner from scoring , he instead found Ricketts in the golf cart parked on top of home plate . Ricketts had a reputation for getting upset when Cardinals minor league catchers allowed balls to bounce between their legs ; for this , he removed Molina from the game and drove him to the batting cage . There , Ricketts batted 150 to 200 ground balls , as Molina estimated , to improve the young catcher 's ability to block pitches .
Molina began his professional career with the Johnson City Cardinals of the Rookie @-@ level Appalachian League in 2001 , playing 44 total games and batting .259 . He advanced one level in each of four seasons in the minor leagues . Even without highly developed offensive skills , Molina proved difficult to strike out . Mainly a singles hitter who favored hitting the ball the other way , he batted .278 with 14 home runs and 133 runs batted in ( RBI ) with 118 strikeouts in 1 @,@ 044 at bats in four minor league seasons . In his first three seasons , he threw out 111 base runners attempting to steal while allowing 133 stolen bases , for a caught @-@ stealing percentage of 45 % .
= = St. Louis Cardinals ( 2004 – present ) = =
= = = 2004 – 06 = = =
Molina 's first chance in the Major Leagues arrived when incumbent Matheny went on the disabled list ( DL ) with a strained rib in the Cardinals ' pennant @-@ winning season of 2004 . Molina made his Major League debut on June 3 . One of his first game @-@ winning hits occurred on August 7 . He stroked a broken @-@ bat single to shallow center field in the bottom of the ninth inning against the New York Mets that center fielder Mike Cameron did not recognize had splintered , allowing Jim Edmonds to score . Three weeks later ( August 29 ) , the Cardinals were victorious over the Pittsburgh Pirates 6 – 4 thanks in part to two separate plays in which Molina tagged out the runner at home plate , including a collision with Ty Wigginton .
Molina appeared in 51 regular @-@ season games and batted .267 with two home runs and 15 RBI in 151 plate appearances . He made an immediate impact with his arm , throwing out more than 50 % percent of would @-@ be basestealers ( nine of 17 ) . In the World Series against the Boston Red Sox , manager Tony La Russa elected to start Molina over Matheny in Game 4 . The Red Sox swept the Cardinals and claimed the title that game , their first in 86 years . The following offseason , Matheny signed a three @-@ year , $ 10 @.@ 5 @-@ million contract with the San Francisco Giants , clearing the way for Molina to become the Cardinals ' starting catcher .
In 2005 , Molina struggled with injuries and saw a drop off in the offensive performance in his rookie season . He doubled and scored on David Eckstein 's go @-@ ahead single on his way to three hits in a June 12 defeat of the New York Yankees , 5 – 3 . Molina returned from a 33 @-@ game absence on August 19 induced by a hairline fracture of his left fifth metacarpal bone from being hit by a pitch on July 7 . Starting pitcher Chris Carpenter , attempting to extend a winning streak to ten games on an August 20 game versus the San Francisco Giants , found himself in a 4 – 0 deficit in the ninth inning . Capped by Molina 's three @-@ run home run , the Cardinals rallied and won 5 – 4 in the ninth . The next day , Molina 's suicide squeeze bunt scored Mark Grudzielanek , tying the game and allowing the Cardinals to win 4 – 2 . Those were just two wins of 100 as St. Louis made their way to another division title following 105 wins the season before .
In 114 games , Molina posted a .252 batting average with eight home runs and 49 RBI with just 30 strikeouts in 421 plate appearances . Defensively , he registered career @-@ highs of nine pickoffs and a 64 % caught @-@ stealing percentage from throwing out 25 of 39 would @-@ be basestealers . According to Baseball @-@ Reference.com , as of 2013 , that percentage ranked as the 26th @-@ highest all @-@ time season @-@ single caught stealing percentage . Further , it was the second @-@ highest figure since 1957 ; only Mike LaValliere 's 1993 figure of 72 @.@ 7 % was higher during that time period .
Before the 2006 season commenced , Molina participated in the inaugural World Baseball Classic ( WBC ) for Puerto Rico . After returning to the Cardinals , he changed his jersey number from 41 to 4 . However , the regular season presented some of his greatest offensive challenges as he struggled through a career @-@ worst .216 batting average in 461 regular @-@ season plate appearances . In fact , in a culmination of a three @-@ year downward trend in his offense , Molina 's on @-@ base plus slugging percentages declined from .684 in 2004 , .654 in 2005 and a career @-@ worst .595 in 2006 . The low batting average was due in part to a deflated batting average on balls in play ( BABIP ) of .226 ( normal is around .300 ) , a career low .
In a May 27 game against the San Diego Padres at Petco Park in San Diego with the Cardinals holding a 4 – 3 lead in the bottom of the ninth , Molina picked Brian Giles off first to end the game , the first pickoff to end a major league game in nearly four years . The Cardinals faced the Padres again in the National League Division Series ( NLDS ) playoff game in the playoffs , he again picked a Padre off at first , this time Mike Piazza , while bailing pitcher Jeff Suppan out of a jam . For the season , he caught 41 % of all base @-@ stealing attempts and picked off seven runners .
Even as his bat languished , Molina 's defense was instrumental in propelling the Cardinals to the National League Central division crown in a season heavily marred by injuries . However , the following playoffs marked a turning point in his career offensive output . He posted a .358 composite batting average , .424 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) , two home runs and eight RBI in 16 games as the Cardinals reached the World Series . He batted .308 in the National League Division Series ( NLDS ) , .348 in the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) and .412 in the World Series .
One of Molina 's landmark playoff performances came in Game 7 of the NLCS against the New York Mets , the final game of the series tied at three games each . Starting in the top of the ninth , he batted with a 1 – 1 score . In the sixth inning , Mets left fielder Endy Chávez had prevented the Cardinals from taking the lead when he leapt to catch Scott Rolen 's near @-@ miss home run over the center field fence . This time , however , Molina hit a two @-@ run home run off Aaron Heilman over center field that was too high for Chávez to catch and gave the Cardinals a 3 – 1 edge .
In the bottom of the ninth , rookie pitcher Adam Wainwright – filling in as an emergency closer – found himself in a two @-@ out , bases @-@ loaded situation against center fielder Carlos Beltrán , who had already homered three times in the NLCS . Molina called for a mound conference . Initially , he wanted a sinker from Wainwright but changed his mind because he suspected he would overthrow it and give Beltrán an easy pitch to hit . He made an unconventional choice by calling for a changeup to start the sequence against Beltrán . It was called for a strike . Had Beltrán successfully got a base hit , the scheme may have caused tension for the third @-@ year catcher with La Russa and pitching coach Dave Duncan because throwing a first @-@ pitch changeup ran contrary to Duncan 's teaching . Molina then called for two curveballs . Beltrán fouled off the first , but Wainwright struck him out looking at a " bender that started up and away and bit hard to the low inside corner " for the final out of the game . The Cardinals ' conquest of the NLCS gave them a return trip to the World Series after two years . They proceeded to defeat the Detroit Tigers in five games , giving Molina his first championship ring . His mask was turned in for display at the Baseball Hall of Fame .
= = = 2007 – 09 = = =
Batting out of the number @-@ five spot in the batting order for the first time in his career on Opening Day , 2007 , Molina collected two hits . In a game against the Milwaukee Brewers on April 15 , Molina picked Prince Fielder off first base as he leaned far off the bag , tipping off Molina and first baseman Albert Pujols to a hit and run the Brewers were planning . Four days later , Molina faced his brother Bengie for the first time in a game against the San Francisco Giants . It was also the first time they had seen each other in about three and one @-@ half years .
From May 1 to May 24 , Molina strung together a then @-@ career high 15 @-@ game hitting streak , during which he batted .373 . It was the longest streak for a Cardinals catcher since Erik Pappas ' 16 @-@ game streak in 1993 . Molina was absent for most of the month of June due of a fractured left wrist . In the third inning of the May 29 game against Colorado , he took a foul tip off his wrist from Rockies right fielder Brad Hawpe 's bat . After missing 26 games , the Cardinals activated him from the disabled list on June 28 .
The first multi @-@ error game of Molina 's career occurred July 13 against the Philadelphia Phillies on a catch and throw . In a span of 11 starts from August 2 – 16 , he racked up four three @-@ hit games . On August 16 , he hit two home runs against the Brewers for his first career multi @-@ homer game . Molina homered and stroked the go @-@ ahead double in an August 22 defeat of Florida . One week later , he homered in back @-@ to @-@ back games against the Cincinnati Reds ; he , Edmonds , and Rick Ankiel each drove in three runs in an 11 – 3 victory on September 2 . On Yadier Molina Bobblehead Night September 19 versus Philadelphia , he stroked three hits including the game @-@ winning single in the tenth inning .
Molina suffered a concussion in September and underwent arthroscopic surgery to repair torn cartilage in his right knee . The knee surgery ended his season early on September 24 . In Molina 's final 50 games , he successfully collected 49 hits in 158 AB for a .310 AVG . Of his final 35 starts , 12 were multi @-@ hit games . His .281 batting average after the All @-@ Star break ranked fifth among NL catchers . He finished the season with a new career @-@ best .275 batting average , six home runs , and 40 RBI in 111 games . He threw out 50 % ( 23 of 46 ) baserunners attempting to steal , the highest percentage in the majors . From 2005 – 07 , he led all MLB with a 47 % caught @-@ stealing rate and 18 pick @-@ offs .
On January 14 , 2008 , Molina and the Cardinals agreed to a four @-@ year , $ 15 @.@ 5 million deal with a club option for a fifth , cementing his position as their starting catcher . He reported to spring training having lost 15 pounds and in improved physical shape from rehabilitating following knee surgery . He started the season with an Opening Day home run and seven @-@ game hitting streak . After a home plate collision with Eric Bruntlett on June 15 against the Philadelphia Phillies in the ninth inning , Molina sustained head and neck injuries and was removed from the field on a stretcher . There were no indications of a concussion . He held on to the ball to help the Cardinals win . He missed the next four games . To that point , Molina was batting .295 with three home runs and 24 RBI . He also had thrown out 10 of 32 baserunners ( 31 @.@ 3 % ) – well below his career average of 45 % – but an Associated Press reporter attributed the decline to an inexperienced pitching staff .
Molina returned to the field against Boston at Fenway Park as the designated hitter . In that game , his solo home run provided the difference in a 5 – 4 Cardinals victory . It was also the first game of the first of two 13 @-@ game hitting streaks for the season . His first career start at first base , also against Boston , occurred two days later . During that streak , he collected 17 hits in 47 at @-@ bats for a .362 batting average . The second hitting streak spanned from August 16 to September 2 , where he successfully hit 19 times in 50 at bats for a .380 average . On September 2 , he and Felipe López hit consecutive home runs against the Arizona Diamondbacks en route to an 8 – 2 victory .
Overall , Molina enjoyed a breakout offensive season , finishing with new career highs with a .304 batting average – his first over .300 – and in hits ( 135 ) , OBP ( .349 ) , SLG ( .392 ) , runs ( 37 ) and RBI ( 56 ) . Of all catchers in franchise history with at least 450 PA in a season , he became just the second ever , after Simmons , to bat over .300 ; it was then the fourth @-@ best season batting average ; and , his 29 strikeouts were the fewest since Simmons fanned 20 times in 1976 . Molina led the team and was sixth in the NL with a .340 batting average with runners in scoring position . For the season , he successfully caught 35 % of opposing baserunners , still higher than the league average of 27 % . He led all MLB with seven pickoffs . That November , Molina received his first Gold Glove Award , becoming the third Cardinal catcher ever to win the honor , after Tom Pagnozzi and Matheny .
Before the 2009 season commenced , Molina participated with Puerto Rico in his second WBC . When the event concluded , he returned to the Cardinals . In an April 16 game against the Arizona Diamondbacks , he reached base in all five of his plate appearances in a 12 – 7 victory . Starting pitcher Joel Piñeiro – struggling with his fastball command in previous starts – experimented with a sinker and shut out the New York Mets on June 24 with just two hits . Molina erased a Mets runner by throwing out Luis Castillo attempting to steal second base . Molina was batting .278 with five home runs and 25 RBI through July 5 , 2009 . He was selected through fan vote to represent the Cardinals in the All @-@ Star Game in St. Louis ' Busch Stadium – his first All @-@ Star Game . As the top vote @-@ getter among NL catchers with 2 @,@ 641 @,@ 467 votes , Molina was named the NL 's starting catcher . He caught eight innings and drove home a run .
Following the All @-@ Star break on July 18 , Molina 's four hits and Albert Pujols ' two home runs helped cap Chris Carpenter 's 6 – 1 victory over the Diamondbacks , who pitched around nine runners on base in eight innings . On August 15 , Molina picked off San Diego 's Kevin Kouzmanoff at first on the way to a 7 – 4 victory , the 33rd of his career . At that point , Bill James Online rated that Molina saved his team fifteen total runs from pickoffs alone in his career .
A sore left knee sustained after taking a foul ball of his kneecap temporarily disabled Molina on September 26 . He was back in action on October 1 against Cincinnati , although he was removed from that game due to a " tweaked " knee . He finished the season with a .293 batting average , six home runs , 54 RBI , and a major league @-@ leading 136 games caught , the highest franchise total since Ted Simmons ' total in 1977 . His strikeout rate of once every 13 @.@ 9 PA was the second @-@ lowest in the NL . While accumulating 39 mult @-@ hit games , the Cardinals won 27 of them . He led the major leagues with eight pickoffs and was second in the NL in innings caught . He also won his second Gold Glove award after the season . The Sporting News announced that major league managers and coaches had selected Molina for the magazine 's end @-@ of @-@ season All @-@ Star award . For the first time in his career , Molina earned Most Valuable Player Award ( MVP ) consideration . He finished tied for 23rd with Miguel Tejada with one percent of the vote share .
= = = 2010 – 11 = = =
On Opening Day , April 5 , 2010 , Molina connected for a grand slam , becoming just the third Cardinals player to hit an Opening Day grand slam , following Mark McGwire and Scott Rolen . On April 17 , he caught all 20 innings of a game against the Mets . Molina turned in a productive April , driving in 15 runners , the most for a Cardinals catcher in the month of April since Ted Simmons drove in 20 in 1977 . He also continued his productivity with the bases loaded that month , collecting four hits and 11 RBI in five at bats .
Before the All @-@ Star break , Molina batted just .223 . However , he was voted to start his second consecutive game , and second overall , and played four innings . After the All @-@ Star break , his hitting improved , as he stroked 63 hits in 200 at bats for .315 batting average . During a game against the Cincinnati Reds on August 10 , as second baseman Brandon Phillips came to bat , he exchanged words with Molina that escalated to a bench @-@ clearing confrontation , although no one was ejected . On September 17 , he amassed a career @-@ high five RBI and career @-@ tying four hits against San Diego , including two doubles . After an examination on his sore right knee on September 23 , Molina was shut down for the rest of the season , missing 12 games .
The final batting results for Molina 's 2010 season consisted of a .262 batting average , six home runs , and 62 RBI . He ranked as the fourth toughest in the NL to strike out with 10 @.@ 2 at bats per strikeout . He led all NL catchers in at @-@ bats ( 465 ) and stolen bases ( eight ) , and his 122 hits ranked second , just behind Brian McCann 's 123 . He was tops in the NL with 24 bases @-@ loaded RBI , collecting eight hits in 15 AB for a .533 batting average in those situations . He also was first in the Majors with a .455 batting average ( 10 – 22 ) on 0 – 2 counts . He led all MLB catchers in innings ( 1138 @.@ 0 ) , games started ( 130 ) and assists ( 79 ) , and led the NL for the third time in caught @-@ stealing percentage at 49 % . On November 1 , he won his fourth consecutive Fielding Bible Award as the sole catcher . In addition , Molina became the first player at any position to win the award unanimously with a perfect score of 100 . Nine days later , he was awarded his third consecutive Gold Glove Award .
With increased offensive productivity in 2011 , Molina continued to help anchor the middle of Cardinals lineup in addition to the pitching staff and defense . From May 15 to May 18 , he put together four consecutive multi @-@ hit games . Selected to his third consecutive All @-@ Star Game , he substituted for the starter , McCann , played four innings and doubled in his only at @-@ bat . Molina hit safety in 14 consecutive games from July 21 to August 11 , one fewer than his career high . From July 22 – 25 , he homered in three consecutive games , the second time in his career he had done so .
On August 2 , Molina was ejected from a game against the Milwaukee Brewers for arguing a called strike . He bumped umpire Rob Drake in the chest multiple times and appeared to spit upon him . Molina later apologized , stating that he did not intend to spit on the umpire and that he " was caught up in the moment . That 's what happens when you 're caught up in the race and trying to win . I didn 't handle it the right way . " He served a five @-@ game suspension handed down by MLB for " making contact with umpire Rob Drake multiple times and spraying him with spit twice while arguing . "
Although the Cardinals stayed competitive , they were , at best , on the fringes of making the playoffs through August . As of August 28 , with a 70 – 64 record , they faced a 10 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ game deficit to the Braves for the wild card playoff berth with 28 left to play . Molina provided a spark to the offense in the close of the season , batting .342 in August and .341 in September . With his 30th double on September 21 , he became the fourth catcher in Cardinals history to reach that milestone , following Simmons , Bob O 'Farrell and Walker Cooper .
St. Louis won 20 of 28 games to finish the season , allowing them to tie the Braves for the wild card lead going into the final day . Molina caught Carpenter 's 8 – 0 shutout of the Astros , the final game of the regular season . Meanwhile , the Philles defeated the Braves 4 – 3 in 13 innings , giving the Cardinals the wild card title and eliminating the Braves from the playoffs . The 10 1 ⁄ 2 games @-@ won deficit marked the largest lead surrendered with 28 left to play in MLB history , consummating what St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch sportswriter Bernie Miklasz termed an " improbable comeback , " and one of the greatest sports history . It was just the first in a series of improbable comebacks for the Cardinals in 2011 .
Molina compiled a .305 batting average , 32 doubles , 14 home runs and 65 RBI during the 2011 regular season . His batting average led the Cardinals and was eighth in the NL . However , his posted a career @-@ low 29 % caught @-@ stealing percentage . His OPS + ( 126 ) , batting average , and hit totals led NL catchers , doubles placed second and RBI third . His .337 batting average following the All @-@ Star Break tied for seventh in the NL . He also led all NL catchers with 12 three @-@ hit games , and collated 39 multi @-@ hit games and 13 multi @-@ RBI games .
By making the playoffs , Molina became the first catcher in franchise history to appear in five postseasons for the Cardinals . He batted .333 in the NLCS against Milwaukee , including five hits in eight AB in the final two games . In Game 1 of the World Series against the Texas Rangers , Molina threw out Ian Kinsler attempting to steal in the first inning on the way to a 3 – 2 win . It was the Rangers ' only attempted steal of the game . That caught stealing gave Molina five in seven total chances in the 2011 postseason to that point ; the Rangers had been tied with the Cardinals for most steals in that postseason . For the series , the Rangers attempted to steal four bases and were successful just once . In Game 3 , Molina accumulated four RBI , and two more each in Games 6 and 7 .
The Cardinals won the Series in seven games , giving Molina his second championship ring . He batted .333 and set a team World Series record with nine RBI . It was the highest World Series RBI total among catchers since Sandy Alomar , Jr . , drove in 10 in 1997 . Molina started all 18 games and played every inning in that 2011 playoff run , including one at first . Overall , he batted .299 with five doubles and 12 RBI . His 20 hits were the most by a catcher in the postseason since Iván Rodríguez stroked 21 in 2003 . On November 1 , Molina won his fourth consecutive Gold Glove Award , becoming just the fifth catcher on a pennant @-@ winning club to lead his position in OPS + in his league while winning a Gold Glove . He also won the first @-@ ever National League Rawlings Platinum Glove Award , bestowed upon one player in each league . For the second time in his career , he won MVP consideration ; he finished tied for 21st for the NL MVP balloting .
= = = 2012 = = =
On March 1 , 2012 , Molina signed a five @-@ year extension with the Cardinals worth $ 75 million through 2017 . The contract included a $ 1 million signing bonus , no @-@ trade clause , and a mutual option for 2018 worth another $ 15 million . The deal made him the second @-@ highest @-@ paid catcher in the majors . He collected his tenth career four @-@ hit game against the Brewers on April 29 with a two @-@ run home run that led the Cardinals to a 7 – 3 win . On May 1 , Molina mounted the first of two two @-@ stolen base games of the season ; the other occurred August 3 .
On May 27 against the Phillies , Molina blasted his third career grand slam against Roy Halladay . His made his 1,000th career appearance in an MLB game against the Chicago White Sox on June 12 . From July 25 to August 7 , he maintained a season @-@ best 11 @-@ game hitting streak in which he batted .413 . In a game against Pittsburgh at PNC Park on August 28 , he sustained head , neck and back injuries – although no concussion – in a second @-@ inning home plate collision with second baseman Josh Harrison . In August , he batted .403 with a .453 OBP , both tied for third in the NL . As the season progressed , he garnered widespread consideration for the National League MVP award . On September 4 , Molina collected his 1,000th career hit , an infield single against the Mets at home in the second inning .
The 2012 season was one of Molina 's crowning achievements as a hitter , especially considering early professional scouting reports did not forecast his bat being much of a factor in the major leagues . He set new career highs in multiple offensive categories , including a .315 batting average , 22 home runs , 76 RBI , 65 runs scored , .373 OBP , .501 slugging percentage and 12 stolen bases . He led the team in batting average for the second straight season , thus becoming the first catcher in franchise history to do so .
Panning Molina 's performance National League @-@ wide , he ranked fourth batting , tenth in OBP , 14th in SLG and tied for 18th with 46 multihit games . He led NL catchers in stolen bases and set a Cardinals single @-@ season record for catchers , and ranked second among NL catchers in HR and third in RBI and batting average . An aggressive hitter , he batted .380 with seven HR on the first pitch ; the HR total on first pitches ranked seventh in the NL . His 32 baserunners caught stealing topped MLB , 47 @.@ 9 caught stealing percentage ranked second , and three pickoffs tied for first in the NL and were second in MLB .
From a historic perspective , Fangraphs ' Dave Cameron noted that Molina 's combination of offensive productivity and interception of base runners in 2012 was one of the rarest performances in history . He became just the ninth MLB catcher to post a season with a weighted runs created ( WRC + ) factor of 140 and 45 percent of runners caught stealing . At 143 , his WRC + was tied for eighth all @-@ time among catchers with at 45 % of base runners caught stealing . Further , those figures aligned with peak seasons of other catchers such as Johnny Bench , Elston Howard , Carlton Fisk , and Rick Wilkins .
After being the subject of much speculation for the MVP award throughout the season , Molina ultimately finished fourth . He and winner Buster Posey became the first pair of catchers to finish in the top four in the award 's 88 @-@ year history . However , like in years past , other awards were on their way . In November , he won his fifth straight Gold Glove award , making him the first Cardinal since Jim Edmonds to win that many consecutively , which Edmonds did in 2004 . On December 4 , he won his first GIBBY Award for Defensive Player of the Year . The St. Louis chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) named him the St. Louis Baseball Man of the Year for 2012 . In a Los Angeles Times report that published the top MLB jersey sales from the All @-@ Star break until October 1 , his jersey ranked 18th .
= = = 2013 = = =
With increased profile coming in conjunction with his offensive breakout from the year before , Molina 's popularity with fans around the game also increased . Following his 2012 fourth @-@ place MVP finish , his 2013 in @-@ season jersey sales rose to third place , just after Posey and retiring New York Yankees closer Mariano Rivera , according to a July 11 report . On June 2 he was ejected by 1st base umpire Clint Fagan for throwing his helmet . Molina collected two doubles in a three @-@ hit game on June 12 , giving him 21 doubles for the season , a pre @-@ All @-@ Star break career high . It was also the second @-@ highest pre @-@ All @-@ Star break total in franchise history following Ted Simmons ' 29 thirty @-@ five years earlier . That three @-@ hit game also gave Molina 78 for his career , tied for 43 on the all @-@ time list for catchers .
Through July 15 , Molina led the NL with a .341 ( 110 hits in 323 at @-@ bats ) batting average . In the final All @-@ Star Game balloting , Molina ( 6 @,@ 883 @,@ 258 votes ) edged out Posey ( 6 @,@ 474 @,@ 088 ) for the role of the NL 's starting catcher in the game held at Citi Field in Queens , New York City . The Cardinals placed Molina on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on July 31 due to a right knee sprain . At the time he went on the DL , Molina was batting .330 with eight homers , thirty doubles , and 54 RBI . A magnetic resonance image ( MRI ) indicated inflammation but no structural damage , so the knee was drained of excess fluid buildup and Molina was given a cortisone injection .
The knee injury impacted his batting average , contributing to a late @-@ season slump . On September 16 , Molina collected four hits with three runs scored to help the Cardinals to a 12 – 2 win over the Seattle Mariners and break an 0 – 15 slump , raising his batting average to .317 . Eight days later , Molina was behind the plate to call rookie Michael Wacha 's one @-@ hit , 8 2 ⁄ 3 innings of shutout work in a 2 – 0 victory over the Washington Nationals . It was actually a no @-@ hitter through that point until Ryan Zimmerman broke it up with a high @-@ bouncing ground ball that glanced off Wacha 's glove for the Nationals ' only hit of the game .
For the year , Molina set new career highs in batting average ( .319 ) , doubles ( 44 ) , runs scored ( 68 ) , and RBI ( 80 ) . He also hit .373 with runners in scoring position ( RISP ) in a season in which the Cardinals set the all @-@ team team record for batting average with RISP at .330 . He finished fourth in the NL in batting average , second in doubles and sixth in batting average with RISP . His 44 doubles were the most in the Major Leagues among catchers since Iván Rodríguez ' 47 in 1996 .
Molina was also noted for his handling of the pitching staff . The Cardinals overcame losing key pitchers Chris Carpenter , Jason Motte , and Jaime García – among others – early in the season by substituting twelve rookie pitchers en route to winning a competitive NL Central division title over the Pittsburgh Pirates and Cincinnati Reds ( each team finished with at least 90 wins ) . A continuously evolving core exceeded expectations by filling in for 52 games started , 36 wins , and five saves and Molina was credited with their success in a large part due to his pitch @-@ calling skills and aptness to guide . The rookies ' 36 wins were the most in franchise history since 1941 .
The Cardinals squared off against the Pirates in the NLDS . Two weeks removed from just missing a no @-@ hitter , Wacha again nearly repeated the feat with Molina behind the plate in an elimination game , Game 4 . Molina threw out pinch runner Josh Harrison attempting to steal second base in the eighth inning to help the Cardinals preserve a 2 – 1 lead . In the World Series against the Boston Red Sox , Molina became just the ninth player – and the first in the expansion era – in franchise history to appear in four World Series with the club , and the first since Stan Musial in the 1946 World Series , also against the Red Sox . Molina collected more awards following the season , including his first Silver Slugger Award , sixth Gold Glove , and a third @-@ place finish in MVP voting . Molina was a co @-@ winner , along with Wainwright and Matt Carpenter , for the BBWAA St. Louis Baseball Man of the Year .
= = = 2014 = = =
Along with three other players each separately displayed , Sports Illustrated featured Molina on the cover of their March 31 issue complementing the 2014 MLB season preview article . On the 2014 Opening Day – the same day Sports Illustrated published the Molina cover edition – he stroked his second season @-@ entry home run and the 90th of his career , accounting for the difference in a 1 – 0 defeat of the Reds in Cincinnati . It also secured the 100th win for batterymate Adam Wainwright . Molina added a single for two of the Cardinals ' five hits .
With a one ball , two strike pitch from relief pitcher Randy Choate incoming to Cubs outfielder Nate Schierholtz in a May 4 game , the batter foul tipped the pitch . Instead of Molina being in a position to catch it cleanly with his glove , the ball hit the thigh . Molina instantly hunched over the ball , trapping it between the thigh and rib cage . He held on , qualifying it as a third strike .
With the All @-@ Star Game nearing , Brewers catcher Jonathan Lucroy aired a satirical television commercial in the style of a political advertising campaign on June 17 to outgain Molina in the All @-@ Star voting totals . The voice @-@ over narrator posed the question , " Do you want another St. Louis Cardinals catcher to star in an All Star game ? Isn ’ t there a better way ? Cast a ballot for change . Cardinals fans need to know that enough is enough . " At that point , Molina led the vote total for NL catchers with more than two million , while Posey was second at 1 @.@ 4 million and Lucroy third with 1 @.@ 1 million .
Some , including Matheny , took the message literally . However , Brad Weimer , the advertisement 's creator , confirmed the humor was meant to be tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek . Molina stayed in the lead and won the vote as the starting catcher in the All @-@ Star Game at Target Field in Minneapolis , Minnesota , his sixth consecutive appearance .
His season was interrupted on July 9 against the Pirates . While sliding past third base , he attempted to grab the bag to stay on . However , during the play , he injured his right thumb . An MRI revealed torn ligaments , requiring surgery and forcing him to miss the next eight to 12 weeks . Regarding the injury as having a significance impact on the Cardinals ' season , St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch sportswriter Bernie Miklasz commented , " Losing the best catcher in the world for the next 8 to 12 weeks with a torn thumb ligament is a horrendous , demoralizing setback for the Cardinals . This could be a season @-@ ending injury . " At that point , he was batting .287 with a .341 OBP , .409 SLG , 16 doubles , seven homers , and 30 RBI through 83 games . He also led MLB with a 49 caught @-@ stealing percentage .
He returned from the DL ahead of schedule , about seven weeks and 40 games missed after the injury , and was activated August 29 before a series against the Cubs . However , he still had not fully recovered , as he batted .250 in September with a pronounced drop in power production . His 110 appearances were his fewest since his rookie season in 2004 . He finished the season with a .282 batting average , seven HR , 38 RBI , 21 doubles , a .333 OBP and .386 SLG , all lower totals than 2013 , and many since 2010 . Among players with at least 90 games played , Molina 's 48 % caught stealing and 3 @.@ 20 catcher 's ERA were both first in the major leagues .
During Game 1 of the NLDS against the Dodgers , Wainwright hit Adrian Gonzalez with a pitch , and both benches cleared . Umpire Jerry Meals attempted to get between Gonzalez and Molina , but Molina briefly shoved Meals . MLB fined Molina $ 5 @,@ 000 without suspending him . In Game 2 of the NLCS against the Giants , Molina collected his 89th career hit in the postseason , passing Pujols for the franchise record . However , he sustained his second significant injury of the season in that same game , straining his left abdominal oblique muscle during another at bat , due in part to compensation in his swing for lost power following his thumb injury earlier in the season .
After missing the next game , his string of 83 consecutive playoff games started was stopped , which was a major league record . The last playoff game he had not started was Game 3 of the 2004 World Series . On November 4 , Molina was announced as winning his seventh consecutive Gold Glove , tying Boone as having won the third @-@ most Gold Gloves among catchers . Further , only Bench and Rodríguez had won more consecutive ( 10 each ) as catchers in major league history . He won the National League Platinum Glove award on November 8 , his third time in the award 's first four years .
= = = 2015 = = =
With his 11th consecutive Opening Day start on April 5 , 2015 , against the Cubs , Molina became the first catcher in club history to achieve this feat . On May 10 against the Pirates , he was on the dubious end of a piece of MLB history : lining out into the first " 4 – 5 – 4 " triple play in MLB history . Second baseman Neil Walker caught his line drive with two runners on , then threw to third baseman Jung @-@ ho Kang to double up Jhonny Peralta for the second out . Kang briefly pirouetted the ball in his hand , albeit confused , but threw back to Walker to tag Jason Heyward for the third out . Molina 's first home run of the season and first in 95 games occurred against the Minnesota Twins on June 15 ; his previous home run dated back to June 27 , 2014 .
On July 7 , he was selected to his seventh consecutive All @-@ Star Game , played at Great American Ball Park in Cincinnati . In the Reds ' clubhouse for the All @-@ Star Game , Molina shared a locker with Reds ' second baseman Brandon Phillips . Since the brawl between the Cardinals and Reds in 2010 , the two mended their schism , and Molina has a photograph of their families together . When informed whose locker he was using , Molina replied , " This is Phillips ' locker ? How about that ? I 'll have to write something to him . " While the pregame roster introductions were made , Reds fans booed all six Cardinals players who were selected , and even former Cardinal Albert Pujols . When Molina was introduced , he smiled and turned and pointed his thumbs toward the back of his jersey . Pujols provided levity when he then joined in the booing . After the game , Molina remarked to reporters , " when you spend 12 years coming to Cincinnati and you beat them so many times , they ’ re going to boo you . " In his career to that point , he hit .319 with a .352 on @-@ base percentage and .500 slugging percentage in 270 career at @-@ bats at Great American Ball Park .
Hitting his first triple in more than four years and 2 @,@ 000 at bats , with the bases loaded , Molina provided the decisive run in a 3 – 2 outcome against the Chicago White Sox on July 22 . In the annual Baseball America Toolbox Awards , managers and coaches around the National League rated Molina as both the " Best hit and run artist " and " Best defensive catcher " in the NL . His 100th career home run was well @-@ timed , becoming the game @-@ winning run in the bottom of the eighth inning at Busch Stadium on August 19 in a 4 – 3 win over San Francisco . After sustaining an injury to his left thumb during a September 20 game against the Cubs , an MRI revealed a partial ligament tear , preventing him from playing . Molina won his eighth consecutive Gold Glove Award and fourth Platinum Glove Award in 2015 . In December , it was revealed that Molina had a second surgery on his left thumb , pushing his return to late in 2016 spring training . He was winner of the Darryl Kile Good Guy Award .
= = = 2016 = = =
At age 33 , Molina broke the Cardinals ' all @-@ time games caught record on April 8 , 2016 , in his 1,440th game , passing Ted Simmons ( 1968 – 80 ) . His 1 @,@ 343 games started since the beginning of the 2005 season was the highest total in the major leagues . He made his 1,500th career major league appearance on May 14 in a 5 – 3 loss to the Los Angeles Dodgers . While playing the Washington Nationals in the seventh inning of a 2 – 1 loss at Nationals Park on May 26 , Stephen Drew hit a high infield fly that stayed over the pitcher 's mound . With both Aledmys Díaz and Mike Leake attempting to catch the ball , Molina posited himself and waited . As the ball deflected off Díaz ' glove , he almost collided with Leake , but Molina instinctively moved his glove and caught the ball before it hit the ground . He recorded his 1,500th career hit on July 2 against Milwaukee , becoming the 34th catcher in MLB history , and second for the Cardinals , after Simmons .
= = Puerto Rico ( World Baseball Classic ) = =
Three World Baseball Classic ( WBC ) tournaments have been held – 2006 , 2009 and 2013 – and Molina has participated in all of them for the Puerto Rican team . He was fellow defensive standout Iván Rodríguez ' understudy in 2006 and 2009 and the primary catcher for the 2013 squad .
In his first classic in 2006 , Molina played four games and collected three hits in five at @-@ bats . In a 2009 tournament game against the Netherlands on March 9 , Molina 's eighth @-@ inning double keyed a rally in which Puerto Rico won 3 – 1 . Speaking the next day , Molina stated that the previous night 's double had been a bigger thrill than his two @-@ run homer to beat the Mets in Game 7 of the 2006 NLCS .
With Molina as the starting catcher in 2013 , Puerto Rico earned the silver medal . Edwin Rodríguez , who scouted Molina in Puerto Rico before the Cardinals signed him , became the manager for the 2013 squad . Shortly after learning he would be the 2013 manager , Rodríguez contacted Molina for input on constructing the roster . Molina prepared for the Classic by playing 14 games for the winter league team in Puerto Rico Rodríguez managed . Molina was voted on the All @-@ World Baseball Classic Team for the first time .
In a 2013 semifinal game against Japan , Molina alertly took advantage of a baserunning mistake to record an unusual putout . With Shinnosuke Abe batting for Japan in the top of the eighth inning , and Hirokazu Ibata on second and Seiichi Uchikawa on first , J. C. Romero was pitching for Puerto Rico . Abe took a pitch from Romero inside for a ball as the runners went in motion . However , Ibata retreated to second as Uchikawa charged toward him . Instead of throwing and risking an error , Molina held on to the ball . He then chased Uchikawa , cornered him by positioning himself between first and second and tagged out Uchikawa – an unassisted caught stealing . The Japanese later stated they were attempting to exploit Romero 's slow delivery .
= = Skills profile = =
= = = Defense , pitch calling , throwing and hands = = =
The winner of eight consecutive Gold Gloves , Molina has been widely praised for his preparation , defense and leadership , not just of the pitching staff , but also of the entire team . Fellow catchers Jorge Posada and Brian McCann stated in 2009 that Molina was " the best defensive catcher in baseball ; " Víctor Martínez also called him " the best behind the plate . " In 2013 , a scout pronounced Molina the " one piece the St. Louis Cardinals cannot lose " while another commented that he is " irreplaceable . " When the club did lose Molina midway through the 2014 season to a thumb injury , ESPN 's Keith Law tweeted , " Yadier Molina missing two @-@ plus months would be bad for the Cardinals , but also just bad for baseball , period . " In his time in the major leagues , Molina has been widely viewed as evolving into a competitive influence and an unofficial , on @-@ field coach .
As a part of his pre @-@ game preparation , Molina meticulously studies and prepares for the upcoming game 's opposing hitters by creating a complete pitching and defensive plan . Other preparation includes handling ground balls at shortstop and third base , extending his agility for blocking pitches thrown in the dirt . According to former Cardinals starter Jake Westbrook , he was " a part of every aspect of the game : starters , relievers , offense , defense . "
Advanced defensive metrics – known as sabermetrics – show he is a top defender among catchers in MLB history . Molina ranked second all @-@ time among catchers at the end of the 2014 season on Baseball @-@ Reference.com 's career defensive runs saved ( DRS ) with 120 , behind only Iván Rodríguez ( 167 ) , and ahead of Jim Sundberg ( 114 ) , Bob Boone ( 107 ) and Gary Carter ( 106 ) , the only catchers with over 100 on the list . He was the season leader in the NL every year from 2005 – 14 , except 2008 and 2011 – 12 . Fangraphs tallied his career DRS at 106 , with a career @-@ high of 20 in 2010 . The sabremetric stat defensive wins above replacement ( DWAR ) has also ranked Molina 's defense highly ; he has never had a full season with a negative DWAR , and he had a career @-@ high 2 @.@ 9 DWAR in 2010 .
Molina is known for his in @-@ game pitch @-@ calling skills , and pitchers rarely reject signs that he shows for the next pitch . Matheny stated , " We tell all our young pitchers when they come up to pitch their game . Yadi needs to find out how they work . He 's a quick study . But at the same time , they tend to just follow him . We do put them in Yadi 's hands . " Molina reads opposing hitters and will move fielders with subtle signs and gestures to align them with his pitch calling . La Russa commented that " it 's not just instinct . It 's sense , based on how a hitter 's standing , how he responds to the pitch or two before , and he 's very creative in how he makes his adjustment based on what he sees with the hitter and knowing what his pitcher can do . "
" You don 't ever have to worry about bouncing a ball to Yadier " , said Cardinals starter Adam Wainwright . " He 's a human vacuum behind the plate . The only thing you have to think about is making the pitch , because you know Yadi 's going to catch whatever you throw . " Former Cardinals pitching coach Dave Duncan remarked , " During the course of games , he would do something and I 'd go , ' I can 't believe he did that . ' But it worked . His pitch calling , sometimes you 're thinking he 's doing something so out of the norm , yet it was the right thing to do at the time . "
Baseball Prospectus estimated in 2013 that Molina saved 35 defensive runs per season through his pitch framing and had moved 301 out @-@ of @-@ zone pitches that were called strikes between April 1 and June 30 , 2013 . As of July 2013 , Molina had also thrown out 45 % of would @-@ be base stealers . At one time , an Arizona Diamondbacks official stated a team policy existed not to run on Molina . With pickoffs , Molina throws from behind left @-@ handed batters to obfuscate the runner 's view of his motion to first base . Besides studying hitters at the plate , Molina also studies base runners to watch their decision @-@ making process about stealing bases or when they are less guarded against a pickoff . He practices pickoff moves and coordinates signals with the first basemen to indicate when he is primed to move for a pickoff throw . In 2012 , a Sports Illustrated poll of 306 players found that Molina was the " toughest catcher to run on . "
= = = Batting = = =
As the publication Viva El Birdos wrote , " Yadier Molina broke into the majors as a light @-@ hitting defensive specialist " , who hit mostly singles . Molina pushed to shed the light @-@ hitter label he had in common with his brothers . A fidgeter with his batting stance early in his career , Molina mimicked and vacillated between more accomplished hitters such as Andrés Galarraga and Albert Pujols . However , it was a dip in his swing and an inability to get around on fastballs that sapped his efforts . Over time , with assistance of teammates such as Pujols , Molina found his comfortable stance , sounder mechanics and adopted a line @-@ drive style of swing that eliminated the dip and helped him hit fastballs with more authority .
Thus , he became a more consistent hitter as his career progressed , defying the scouting reports that he would have a weak bat . In combination with an improved his ability to pull the ball and hit it up the middle , he improved his batting average , batting .293 or higher in five of his last six seasons . His line @-@ drive pull percentage of 2009 – 11 increased by about 6 % in 2012 – 13 ; BABIP increased from .280 in 2005 – 10 to .327 in 2011 – 13 and pull weighted on @-@ base average ( wOBA ) has increased from .290 in 2009 to over .520 in 2013 . To keep his bat in the lineup but allow respite from the rigors of his in @-@ game catching duties , Molina has occasionally started at first base .
Aside from swinging with increased line @-@ drive contact and hitting fastballs with more authority , very little has actually changed in the catcher 's approach . One trait that has always persisted is that Molina is an aggressive and free @-@ swinging – but high @-@ contact – hitter . Through 2012 , he swung at more than 51 % percent of the pitches he saw – he has a reputation for swinging at pitches in and out of the strike zone , low and away and even in toward his hands . Because of his free @-@ swinging tendency , he naturally has a walk rate ( 7 @.@ 1 % ) below the Major League average ( 8 @.@ 4 % ) . Combined with his ability to put the bat on the ball quite frequently ( 87 % ) and his improved approach at the plate , he increased his career @-@ high single @-@ season batting average five times between 2006 and 2013 .
Despite batting just .238 in his first three seasons and .240 after 1 @,@ 000 at @-@ bats , Molina increased his average to .284 average after 3 @,@ 983 at @-@ bats ( 1 @,@ 132 hits ) as of 2013 due in part to having only one season lower than .293 from 2009 – 13 . He hit into 27 double plays in 2009 , but in 2012 reduced that figure to ten . Molina 's home run and doubles rates also increased ; from 2011 – 13 , he hit 104 of his 226 career doubles .
= = Awards and accomplishments = =
= = = Records = = =
MLB records
Consecutive playoff games started , 83
Platinum Glove awards won , 4
St. Louis Cardinals records
Consecutive Opening Day starts at catcher , 11 ( 2005 – 15 )
Consecutive seasons leading the team in batting average as catcher , 2
Gold Gloves won as catcher , 8
Defensive runs saved as catcher , 120
Playoff appearances as catcher , 8
Playoff hits for career , 89
= = = Statistical achievements = = =
Note : Per Baseball @-@ Reference.comBold : league leader
= = Personal life = =
Molina lives in Vega Alta , Puerto Rico , and stays in Caseyville , Illinois , during the baseball season . He married his wife Wanda Torres in 2007 . On September 4 , 2008 , he had a son named Yanuell , and on July 4 , 2010 , a daughter named Arianna . After signing his $ 75 million contract in 2012 , Molina purchased a home on a four @-@ acre property located in Jupiter , Florida for $ 7 @.@ 15 million . His agent is Melvin Roman of MDR Sports Management , who has represented him since he signed his first professional contract with the Cardinals shortly after being drafted in 2000 . Molina 's charitable organization , named Foundation 4 , has helped to raise donations for childhood cancer patients in Puerto Rico.A restaurant in St.Louis named a milk shake called the yadi gold glove
Molina 's two older brothers , Bengie and José Molina , have played a combined 28 seasons in the Major Leagues . Each of the three brothers has won at least one World Series ring , making them the only trio of brothers with such a distinction ( Bengie and José both won their first while with the Anaheim Angels in 2002 ) . They are also the only trio of brothers to play as catchers in the major leagues . Of a total of nineteen trios of brothers who have played in the Major Leagues – including the DiMaggios and the Cruzes – only one other trio of brothers has all appeared in a World Series : Matty , Félipe and Jesús Alou .
Even while the Molina brothers still lived in the United States playing professional baseball , their parents stayed in the same home near the park where the brothers grew up playing ball , Jesús Rivera Park . Benjamín Molina organized youth teams . On October 11 , 2008 , Molina 's father died from a heart attack . At the moment it occurred , he was tending to a baseball field that he had built for the youth in Bayamón .
Spurred by absences from autograph shows for which he was paid to appear , Steiner Sports Marketing filed a lawsuit for $ 175 @,@ 000 against Molina in the New York state supreme court in Manhattan on October 2 , 2009 . Steiner Sports paid Molina $ 90 @,@ 640 in advance when they renewed their contract in July 2008 . However , the firm stated that he ignored their agreement to make public and private appearances to sign autographs and did not return the money .
= = = Source notes = = =
= Long , Long , Long =
" Long , Long , Long " is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1968 album The Beatles ( also known as " the White Album " ) . It was written by George Harrison following the group 's attendance at Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 's Transcendental Meditation course in India in early 1968 . Although Harrison later stated that he was addressing God in the lyrics , it is the first of his compositions that invites interpretation as both a standard love song and a paean to his deity .
Harrison wrote " Long , Long , Long " during a period that marked his emergence as a prolific songwriter , coinciding with his return to the guitar after two years of studying the Indian sitar . His musical inspiration for the song was " Sad Eyed Lady of the Lowlands " by Bob Dylan , while the understated arrangement reflects the influence of the Band 's 1968 album Music from Big Pink . The Beatles recorded the song in London towards the end of the troubled sessions for the White Album . Sequenced to follow the heavy rock @-@ styled " Helter Skelter " , the otherwise gentle and meditative track ends with a partly improvised segment , which was inspired by the eerie sound of a wine bottle vibrating on a speaker in the recording studio .
" Long , Long , Long " has received praise from many music critics for its lilting , expressive qualities . Ian MacDonald described it as Harrison 's " touching token of exhausted , relieved reconciliation with God " and considered it to be his " finest moment on The Beatles " . Elliott Smith and Jim James are among the other artists who have recorded or performed the song .
= = Background and inspiration = =
George Harrison wrote " Long , Long , Long " in August 1968 , while the Beatles were part @-@ way through the recording of their eponymous double album , also known as " the White Album " . It was one of many songs that marked Harrison 's return to the guitar as his principal musical instrument , after he had dedicated himself to mastering the Indian sitar in 1966 . This period coincided with a new , prolific period in his songwriting , which musicologist Walter Everett likens to the arrival of John Lennon and Paul McCartney as composers in 1963 .
According to author and critic Kenneth Womack , the " origins " of " Long , Long , Long " date from the Beatles ' stay in Rishikesh , India , between February and April 1968 . Led by Harrison 's commitment , the four band members studied Transcendental Meditation there under Maharishi Mahesh Yogi . They departed for England separately , however , between 1 March and 12 April , and their mixed experiences on the course contributed to the divisiveness that pervaded the group upon their return . Alone among the Beatles , Harrison continued to espouse
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west to the east side of the river , building it to the standard gauge ( 4 ft 8 ½ in ( 1,435mm ) ) , and running from Conwy only as far as Llanrwst . Construction started on 27 August 1860 , and the railway was opened on 17 June 1863 . An extension of the line to Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed was completed in 1868 , but by this time Sharpe and his family had moved to Geneva .
= = = Abroad = = =
In 1860 a horse @-@ drawn tramway had been built by Charles Burn , an Englishman , in Switzerland between Geneva and Carouge , a distance of about 4 miles ( 6 km ) . This proved to be a success , and Burn planned to build more lines . In 1863 he was joined by Sharpe as a partner , but after a short time of working together the partnership was dissolved , and Sharpe continued with the project alone . By March 1864 a line from the centre of Geneva to Chêne @-@ Bougeries , a distance of about 6 miles ( 10 km ) was under construction , to an innovative design . The line to Carouge had two grooved rails . Sharpe 's line had two flat rails , with a third grooved rail between them , along which ran a wheel allowing the tram to be steered . The wheel could also be raised to permit the tram to deviate from the track to pass around obstacles , or come to the pavement . This line was Sharpe 's sole venture in Switzerland .
In August 1863 Sharpe was granted the concession for building a railway line in southern France from Perpignan to Prades in the Pyrenees , a distance of 26 miles ( 42 km ) . Work on the line began in 1865 , but proceeded very slowly ; progress was blocked by local landowners , legal processes , and financial problems . Sharpe was managing the project largely from Paris , through a series of agents . By the latter part of 1864 the stress was adversely affecting his health , so in 1865 he spent some time in Italy to recuperate . Following his return the difficulties continued to mount , and in 1867 he renounced his concession . The line was eventually taken over by the State , and was not fully completed until about 1877 . At some point Sharpe bought property and iron ore mines along the route of the line .
= = Civic life and sanitary reform = =
Concurrently with designing churches and building railways , Sharpe was heavily involved in the civic life of Lancaster , particularly in pioneering sanitary reform . By political persuasion he was a Conservative , and in 1837 he joined the local Heart of Oak Club , the core of the Lancaster Conservative Association . He was elected a town councillor for Castle Ward in 1841 , a post he held for ten years , and in 1843 was appointed the town council 's representative on the local Police Commission . He was also a visitor to the national schools , and in November 1848 he was elected as mayor for year , at that time a position more like that of a " chief magistrate " . Through these offices he became aware of the unsatisfactory state of sanitation in the town , and resolved to improve it . The town was overcrowded , it suffered from poor housing , open sewers , overflowing cesspits , and a very poor water supply , mainly from wells polluted by infiltration . Many people suffered from typhus , and in 1848 there was an outbreak of cholera . The Police Commission had been established in Lancaster in 1825 with a wider role than suggested by its title , including " cleansing , lighting and watching " the town . However , there was constant friction between the Police Commission and the Town Council , the former tending to block any necessary reforms on the grounds of cost to the ratepayers . The conflict was unresolved until the two bodies merged in 1849 . The functions of the new body included the establishment of the first Lancaster Board of Health .
Before , during and after his mayoralty , Sharpe played a major role in promoting sanitary reform , often meeting considerable opposition and needing to use his oratorical , political and persuasive skills to the full . A campaign to deal with the problems had been initiated in 1847 by two Lancaster doctors , Thomas Howitt and Edward Denis de Vitre . Sharpe joined them , drawing extensively on his experience of having accompanied Professor Richard Owen ( born and educated in Lancaster ) on his tour of inspection of the town in 1844 . In 1848 Robert Rawlinson , also from Lancaster , was appointed as local surveyor , and published a further report that recommended new sewers and drains and the construction of a waterworks . Although Sharpe agreed in principle with the report , he was not satisfied with its details . Later that year , which was during his mayoralty , he travelled to London with the town clerk and a former mayor to meet representatives of the General Board of Health , including its chairman , Lord Morpeth , and its secretary Edwin Chadwick . As a result of this meeting , the Board of Health appointed James Smith from Scotland as an inspector , and commissioned him to produce a further report on Lancaster 's problems . Smith 's investigation took place in January 1849 , and his report was received in July . In his conclusions , Smith noted that Lancaster was favourably situated to provide a healthy environment for its inhabitants , and that this could be achieved by " a complete and constant supply of pure and soft water , and ... a thorough system of drainage and sewerage " . Subsequently , an Act of Parliament gave approval for these measures to be carried out , and in 1852 royal assent was given for the waterworks to be constructed . Delays , disputes and controversies continued , until the waterworks was eventually opened in 1855 , when work on the drainage and sewage systems was already under way . This enabled underground pipes for the two systems to be laid simultaneously . Sharpe had played a significant part in arranging Queen Victoria 's visit to Lancaster in October 1851 , and with Paley designed four triumphal arches for the occasion . He also took part in the proceedings on the day , escorting the Queen , Prince Albert , and the Prince of Wales ( the future King Edward VII ) to the top of the castle tower .
In 1859 Sharpe was appointed as a Justice of the Peace for Lancashire and for Denbighshire . Shortly after his return to Lancaster in 1866 he again became involved in local politics . In 1867 the constituency of Lancaster was disfranchised because of corruption , and so lost its two members of parliament . Sharpe wrote a long letter to Benjamin Disraeli ( Chancellor of the Exchequer , and responsible for the Reform Act of that year ) , arguing the case for reinstating Lancaster as a parliamentary constituency , and putting forward his own proposals for electoral reform . His letter received no reply , and Lancaster remained without parliamentary representation for the next 20 years .
= = Personal and family life = =
On 27 July 1843 Sharpe married Elizabeth Fletcher , second sister of John Fletcher , at Bolton Parish Church . The couple had five children : Francis in 1845 , Edmund junior ( known as Ted ) in 1847 , Emily in 1849 , Catherine ( known as Kate ) in 1850 , and Alfred in 1853 .
When Sharpe moved his family from Lancaster to live in North Wales in early 1856 he was aged 47 . The seven years he spent there were later described , in a Memoir published in 1882 by the Architectural Association , as " perhaps the happiest years of his life " . The family initially lived in a semi @-@ detached house called Bron Haul near Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed , on what is now the A5 road . Two years later he bought a larger property called Coed @-@ y @-@ Celyn on the east bank of the River Lledr , about a mile south of Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed . After moving to Geneva , the family lived for about three years in a rented property called Richemont on the road from Geneva to Chêne @-@ Bougeries . Finally in 1866 the family moved back to Lancaster to live in Scotforth , then a small village to the south of the town .
Elizabeth Sharpe died on 15 March 1876 , a month after the consecration of St Paul , Scotforth where a plaque to her memory can be found in the chancel of the church . A year later , Sharpe travelled to northern Italy with his two daughters , his youngest son Alfred , and three research assistants , to make drawings of 12th @-@ century churches in the region . During the trip he became seriously ill with a chest infection and died on 8 May , in or near Milan . His body was taken to Lancaster , where he was buried on 19 May , alongside his wife , in the municipal cemetery . " Glowing obituaries " were carried by the local newspapers and the architectural press , including The Builder , The Building News , and The Architect . His estate was valued at " under £ 14 @,@ 000 " ( equivalent to £ 1 @,@ 190 @,@ 000 as of 2015 ) . A plaque to his memory was placed in the chancel of St Paul 's , next to that of his wife .
= = Other interests = =
Throughout his life , Sharpe took an interest in sport , as an active participant and as an organiser . At Cambridge , he was a member of the Lady Margaret Boat Club , and coxed the college boat . Back in Lancaster , he took up archery , joined the John O 'Gaunt Bowmen , played cricket and coxed . In June 1841 he helped to found the Lancaster Lunesdale Cricket Club and the Lancaster Rowing Club . Sharpe was also an accomplished musician , and a member of the committee that organised the Lancaster Choral Society 's first concert in September 1836 . The society thrived for a number of years , and for a time Sharpe was its conductor . By the beginning of 1837 he was a member of the Lancaster Literary , Scientific , and Natural History Society , giving a number of talks to the society , and eventually becoming a committee member . That same year he became the secretary and treasurer of the Lancaster Institution for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts , and in April 1840 he joined the committee of Lancaster 's Protestant Association . In 1842 he was part of a committee promoting congregational singing , and he gave an illustrated series of lectures on its history and merits . His love of music continued throughout his life , and included training choirs , composing hymn tunes , and manufacturing musical instruments similar to small harmoniums .
In early 1843 Sharpe bought Lancaster 's Theatre Royal ( now the Grand Theatre ) , the third @-@ oldest extant provincial theatre in Britain , which had opened in 1782 . He spent £ 680 ( equivalent to £ 60 @,@ 000 as of 2015 ) on converting it into the Music Hall and Museum . It was the only place in Lancaster , other than the churches , able to accommodate 400 or more people , and so was used for a variety of purposes , including concerts , lectures , and religious meetings . In 1848 Sharpe founded the Lancaster Athenaeum , a private society for " the promotion of public entertainment and instruction " , to which end it organised lectures on literary and scientific subjects , concerts and exhibitions . It held its meetings in the Music Hall , which was at one period renamed the Athenaeum . In 1852 Sharpe became the proprietor of the Phoenix Foundry on Germany Street , which among other things supplied cast iron pipes for the Lancaster waterworks , sewers and drains , and shells for the Crimean War .
= = Appraisal = =
Hughes considers that Sharpe was never in the " first division " of 19th @-@ century church architects ; his designs were " basic , workmanlike , and occasionally imaginative , though hardly inspiring " . There is no such thing as a " typical " church designed by Sharpe . He was an innovator and experimenter , and throughout his life a student of architecture . The architectural styles he used started with the Romanesque , passed through " pre @-@ archaeological " Gothic to " correct " Gothic , and then back to Romanesque for his last church . The sizes of the churches varied , from the small simple chapels at Cowgill and Howgill to the large and splendid church of Holy Trinity , Blackburn . During Sharpe 's earlier years in practice , between 1838 and 1842 , Britain was going through a period of severe economic recession , which may have been why he designed many of his churches to be built as cheaply as possible .
As an architectural historian , Hughes considers Sharpe to be " in the top rank " . His drawings of authentic Gothic buildings were still in use a century after his death . The architectural historian James Price states that Sharpe was " considered the greatest authority on Cistercian Abbeys in England " . Some writers have regarded Sharpe as an early pioneer of the Gothic Revival , although in Hughes ' opinion this is " probably more for his books than for his buildings " . In 1897 , 20 years after his death , Sharpe was considered to be sufficiently notable to merit an entry in the Dictionary of National Biography . In the article , the author refers to his being " an enthusiastic and profound student of medieval architecture " . As a railway engineer he was " hardly an unqualified success " ; but his administrative and persuasive skills were considerable , as is shown in his planning of railways in Northwest England , and in the sanitary reform and water supply of Lancaster . As an amateur musician his " gifts were prodigious " . Hughes considers that Sharpe " used his talents to the full " , and in view of the ways in which he employed his many gifts , Price describes him as Lancaster 's " Renaissance man " .
= Haiti at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Haiti sent a delegation to compete in the 2008 Summer Olympics , held in Beijing , People 's Republic of China from August 8 to August 24 , 2008 . Its participation in Beijing marked its seventh consecutive appearance at the summer Olympics and its fourteenth appearance overall , with its first being at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris . The Haitian Olympic team included seven athletes ( three men and four women ) participating in track and field ( Barbara Pierre , Ginou Etienne , Nadine Faustin @-@ Parker , and Dudley Dorival ) , boxing ( Azea Austinama ) , and judo ( Joel Brutus and Ange Jean Baptiste ) . More women participated for Haiti in 2008 than at any single Olympic games prior . Although Pierre and Dorival advanced to quarterfinals in their events , there were no Haitian medalists in Beijing . Brutus carried his countries flag at the ceremonies .
= = Background = =
For Haiti , the 2008 Beijing Olympics marked its fourteenth appearance at any Olympic games and its seventh consecutive appearance since the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles . Between that and its debut at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris , Haitian teams competed at the Olympics that took place during 1924 ( Paris ) , 1928 ( Amsterdam ) , 1932 ( Los Angeles ) , 1960 ( Rome ) , 1972 ( Munich , West Germany ) , and 1976 ( Montreál , Canada ) . As of 2008 , Haiti had not participated at a Winter Olympics . The delegation that Haiti sent to Beijing included seven athletes across three sports . With four female athletes , more women participated for Haiti in Beijing than at any single Olympic games before . Prior to Beijing , athletes from Haiti had won one silver medal ( by Silvio Cator in 1928 ) and one bronze medal ( by five athletes in 1924 ) . Between then and including the 2008 Olympics , Haitian athletes had not won medals in any event . Moise Joseph , an athlete of the University of Florida , was destined to participate for Haiti in Beijing , but did not compete .
Joel Brutus , a heavyweight judoka , was the flag bearer for Haiti at both the opening and closing ceremonies .
= = Athletics = =
= = = Women 's competition = = =
= = = = Women 's 100 meters = = = =
Then 21 @-@ year @-@ old athlete of Raleigh 's St. Augustine 's College Barbara Pierre participated in the women 's 100 meters dash on Haiti 's behalf in Beijing , marking her first appearance at any Olympic games . She was the only Haitian participating in the event . Pierre competed during the qualification round of the event , which took place on August 15 , where she was placed in the tenth heat . Pierre placed fourth with a time of 11 @.@ 52 seconds , placing directly behind Laverne Jones of the United States Virgin Islands ( 11 @.@ 41 seconds ) and ahead of Russia 's Natalia Murinovich ( 11 @.@ 55 seconds ) . The leaders of Pierre 's heat were Jamaica 's Kerron Stewart ( 11 @.@ 28 seconds ) and Norway 's Ezinne Okparaebo ( 11 @.@ 32 seconds ) . Overall , Pierre placed 30th out of the 85 athletes who participated in the qualification round . She advanced to quarterfinals , which took place on August 16 .
During quarterfinals , Pierre participated in the fifth heat , where she ran her event in a time of 11 @.@ 56 seconds . In doing so , Pierre placed fifth , ahead of Italy 's Anita Pistone ( 11 @.@ 56 seconds ) and behind Okparaebo ( 11 @.@ 45 seconds ) . The heat 's leaders were Torri Edwards of the United States ( 11 @.@ 31 seconds ) and Lithuania 's Lina Grincikaite ( 11 @.@ 33 seconds ) . Pierre did not advance to semifinals .
= = = = Women 's 400 meters = = = =
Ginou Etienne , who was 23 years old at the time of her participation in the Beijing Olympics , participated in the women 's 400 meters event . She was the only Haitian participating in the event . Etienne had not previously appeared at any Olympic games . Etienne participated in the August 16 qualification round , where she was placed in the third heat . Etienne completed the event in 53 @.@ 94 seconds , placing sixth in an event of seven participants . She defeated Rachidatou Seini Maikido of Niger ( 1 : 03 @.@ 19 ) but fell behind the fifth @-@ place finalist , Puerto Rico 's Carol Rodriguez ( 53 @.@ 08 seconds ) . The leaders of Etienne 's heat were Russia 's Anastasia Kapachinskaya ( 51 @.@ 32 seconds ) and the United States ' Mary Wineberg ( 51 @.@ 46 seconds ) . Out of the 50 athletes who participated in the qualification round , Etienne placed 41st . She did not advance to later rounds .
= = = = Women 's 100 meters hurdles = = = =
Brussels @-@ born Haitian athlete Nadine Faustin @-@ Parker participated on Haiti 's behalf at the Beijing Summer Olympics . She was 32 years old at the time , and was the only Haitian participating in the women 's 100 meters hurdles . Faustin @-@ Parker previously competed in the same event at both the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney and at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens . Faustin @-@ Parker participated in the fifth heat during the August 17 preliminary round , completing her event in 13 @.@ 25 seconds . She finished sixth out of eight athletes , ahead of Indonesia 's Dedeh Erawati ( 13 @.@ 49 seconds ) and behind the Ukraine 's Yevgeniya Snihur ( 13 @.@ 06 seconds ) . Faustin @-@ Parker finished in 29th place out of the 40 participating athletes . She did not advance to further rounds .
= = = Men 's competition = = =
= = = = Men 's 110 meters hurdles = = = =
New Jersey @-@ born Dudley Dorival was the only male track athlete to participate on Haiti 's behalf at the Beijing Olympics , where he participated in the men 's 110 meters hurdles . His appearance at Beijing marked his third appearance ; he previously participated in the Sydney Olympics in 2000 and the Athens Olympics in 2004 , reaching the finals round and ranking seventh in the 110 meters hurdles in Sydney . Dorival participated in the third heat of the August 17 qualification round , completing his event in 13 @.@ 78 seconds ahead of Pakistan 's Abdul Rashid ( 14 @.@ 52 seconds ) and behind Puerto Rico 's Héctor Cotto ( 13 @.@ 72 seconds ) . The leaders of Dorival 's heat were Colombia 's Paulo Villar ( 13 @.@ 37 seconds ) and Barbados ' Ryan Brathwaite ( 13 @.@ 38 seconds ) . Overall , Dorival ranked 30th out of the 43 athletes who participated in the qualification round . Dorival advanced to quarterfinals .
At the August 19 quarterfinals , Dorival participated in the third heat and finished last out of seven finishing athletes , completing his event in 13 @.@ 71 seconds . The eighth athlete in his heat , Mohamed Issa Al @-@ Thawadi of Qatar , was disqualified . Dorival finished behind British athlete Allan Scott ( 13 @.@ 66 seconds ) . The heat leaders of Dorival 's quarterfinals heat were Jamaica 's Maurice Wignall ( 13 @.@ 36 seconds ) and Brathwaite ( 13 @.@ 44 seconds ) . Dorival finished 25th out of the 32 remaining athletes . He did not advance to semifinals .
= = = Summary = = =
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= = Boxing = =
Haiti qualified one boxer for the Olympic boxing tournament . Azea Austinama qualified for the light heavyweight class at the second Americas ' qualifying tournament .
The then 25 @-@ year @-@ old , Miami @-@ based , Augustama 's appearance at Beijing was his first at any Olympic games . Augustama participated in the preliminary round of the light heavyweight class ( maximum of 81 kilograms in weight ) , which took place on August 9 . Over the four rounds in which Augustama faced Brazil 's Washington Silva , Augustama scored two points – both in the third round . Silva scored a total of six points on Augustama across all rounds to win the bout and advance to the next round .
= = Judo = =
= = = Men 's competition = = =
Then 37 @-@ year @-@ old Joel Brutus was the only male judoka to represent Haiti at Beijing . As a result of his weight , which exceeded 100 kilograms , he was placed in the heavyweight class . Brutus ' appearance at Beijing marked his second Olympic appearance ; he previously competed on Haiti 's behalf as a heavyweight at the Athens Olympics in 2004 . On August 15 , Brutus participated in the twenty @-@ sixth match of the Round of 64 , the first round in which the judokas competed . Facing Kim Sung @-@ Bum of South Korea , Brutus was defeated by Kim when he performed a seoi nage , scoring ippon . Brutus did not progress to further rounds .
= = = Women 's competition = = =
Then 23 @-@ year @-@ old Ange Jean Baptiste was the only female judoka to participate on Haiti 's behalf at the Beijing Olympics . Her appearance at Beijing was her first at an Olympic games . Baptiste participated in the lightweight class , placing her against athletes under 57 kilograms in weight . In the August 11 Round of 32 , the first round in which the judokas competed , Baptiste was set against Cuban judoka Yurisleydis Lupetey . Baptiste was defeated by Lupetey by a kuchiki @-@ taoshi , receiving a score of waza @-@ ari . As a result , she did not advance .
= = = Summary = = =
= Temple Israel ( Memphis , Tennessee ) =
Temple Israel is a Reform Jewish congregation in Memphis , Tennessee , in the United States . It is the only Reform synagogue in Memphis , the oldest and largest Jewish congregation in Tennessee , and one of the largest Reform congregations in the U.S. It was founded in 1853 by mostly German Jews as Congregation B 'nai Israel ( Hebrew for " Children of Israel " ) . Led initially by cantors , in 1858 it hired its first rabbi , Jacob Peres , and leased its first building , which it renovated and eventually purchased .
Peres was fired in 1860 because he opened a store that conducted business on Saturdays , the Jewish Sabbath . He was replaced by Simon Tuska , who moved the congregation from Orthodox to Reform practices . Tuska died in 1871 , and was succeeded by Max Samfield ; under his leadership , the synagogue was one of the founding members of the Union for Reform Judaism . In 1884 , Children of Israel completed a new building , and membership grew rapidly . Samfield died in 1915 , and was succeeded by Bill Fineshriber , an outspoken supporter of women 's suffrage and equal rights for African Americans . The following year the congregation moved to a new building , where membership continued to grow . Fineshriber left in 1924 , and was succeeded by Harry Ettelson .
The synagogue experienced difficulty during the Great Depression — membership dropped , the congregational school was closed , and staff had their salaries reduced — but conditions had improved by the late 1930s . In 1943 the synagogue changed its name to Temple Israel , and by the late 1940s membership had almost doubled from its low point in the 1930s . Ettelson retired in 1954 , and was succeeded by Jimmy Wax .
Wax became known for his activism during the Civil Rights era . Though some members — particularly those whose families had lived in the South for generations — had segregationist views , others were prominent in the fight for black civil rights . During Wax 's tenure , most of Temple Israel 's members moved far from the existing synagogue , and in 1976 the congregation constructed its current building , closer to where most members lived . Wax retired in 1978 , and was succeeded by Harry Danziger , who brought traditional practices back to the congregation . He retired in 2000 , and was succeeded by Micah Greenstein . As of 2010 , Temple Israel has almost 1 @,@ 600 member families . Greenstein is the senior rabbi , and the cantor is John Kaplan .
= = Early history ( 1853 – 1857 ) = =
Temple Israel was established as the Orthodox Congregation B 'nai Israel in 1853 by 36 heads of families , and granted a charter by the state legislature on March 2 , 1854 . It grew out of Memphis 's Hebrew Benevolent Society , established in 1850 by German Jews . The Benevolent Society managed Memphis 's Jewish cemetery , supported poor Jews , and conducted High Holy Day services . The congregation was initially led by part @-@ time cantors . The first was Jonas Levy , who had been hired as cantor and ritual slaughterer . Levy was succeeded by H. Judah and then J. Sternheimer . A Hebrew school was also created , directed by Sternheimer . In 1857 , B 'nai Israel hired as organist Christopher Philip Winkler , described by Tim Sharp ( Dean of Fine Arts at Rhodes College in Memphis ) as the " Dean of Memphis Musicians " . Born in Germany in 1824 , he had emigrated to the United States at age 16 , and moved to Memphis in 1854 . There he taught music , performed , and composed works for B 'nai Israel 's services ; by 1894 he had completed over 850 pieces for the congregation .
In its first decades , the congregation worshiped in various locations in downtown Memphis , near the Mississippi River waterfront . It received a $ 2 @,@ 000 ( today $ 57 @,@ 000 ) bequest from the estate of New Orleans philanthropist Judah Touro , and used it to purchase a lot on Second Street , but did not feel financially secure enough to build a synagogue , and eventually sold the property . The congregation instead held services in members ' homes in 1853 , and subsequently ( until 1857 ) rented various premises on Front Street . The Touro funds eventually enabled the members to lease the Farmers and Merchants Bank building at Main and Exchange streets in late 1857 , which they converted to a synagogue . Funds for the renovation were raised by two committees ; one solicited donations from " all the Israelites in this city " , while the other 's task was " to receive subscriptions from Gentiles " . Additional funds were raised by selling members reserved seats in the new sanctuary . An auction was held on March 18 , 1858 , in which 50 men 's seats were sold for $ 343 ( today $ 9 @,@ 400 ) , and 44 women 's ' seats for $ 158 ( today $ 4 @,@ 300 ) . The renovated premises had seating for 150 men and approximately 50 women . In 1860 , the congregation contracted to purchase the property ; by 1865 , it owned it outright and was debt @-@ free . On March 2 , 2007 , 153 years to the day after the congregation received its charter from the State of Tennessee , a historical marker was erected by the Shelby County Historical Commission , the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation , and Temple Israel , on the corner where the synagogue had once stood . It described the building as the " First Permanent Jewish House of Worship in Tennessee " .
Membership in B 'nai Israel was restricted to men , and attendance at the ( at least ) quarterly meetings was mandatory . Men who missed a meeting without a reasonable excuse were fined . The members also instituted rules intended to guard the image of the small Jewish congregation in the eyes of the much larger Christian community . New members had to be approved by a secret ballot , and existing members could blackball candidates . A member could also be suspended or expelled if he acted in a disreputable manner .
B 'nai Israel was the only Jewish congregation in Memphis , and from the time it was established members were split between traditionalists and reformers . When remodeling their new building , the congregation voted eighteen to fourteen to maintain traditional separate seating for men and women . By 1858 , with enough funds to hire a full @-@ time spiritual leader , they consulted Rabbi Isaac Leeser , the leader of America 's Orthodox Jewish community , but were also in contact with Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise , the leader of America 's fledgling Reform movement , who had dedicated B 'nai Israel 's sanctuary earlier that year . The members had advertised for their first spiritual leader in Wise 's newspaper , The Israelite ( along with other English @-@ language Jewish newspapers ) at the same time they advertised for a kosher butcher . Leeser recommended Jacob J. Peres , an Orthodox rabbi .
= = Peres era ( 1858 – 1860 ) = =
Born and raised in the Netherlands , Peres had been a child prodigy who , before turning eighteen , had edited a Hebrew grammar , as well as a volume of proverbs written in five languages . Upon graduation from high school , he had been given a stipend by William I of the Netherlands to attend the Netherlands Israelitish Seminary , where he pursued both secular and rabbinic studies . He was well @-@ versed in mathematics , language , literature and law , and co @-@ founded Peres and Micou , a legal firm .
B 'nai Israel hired Peres in December 1858 as cantor and teacher , in English and German , at an annual salary of $ 600 ( today $ 16 @,@ 000 ) with perquisites of $ 400 . By comparison , the kosher butcher 's salary was $ 300 , not including what he earned killing poultry . Peres also ran the Hebrew school and the choir , and was in effect the rabbi . Under his leadership , the membership took a serious interest in the plight of Jews around the world . For example , at a congregational meeting in January 1860 , they gathered money from the members present and B 'nai Israel 's treasury to assist suffering Moroccan Jews , and created a committee to raise funds throughout Memphis on their behalf . The congregation also moved more towards Orthodoxy , and passed a rule stating that only those members who were Sabbath observant could receive Torah honors on the High Holy Days .
Peres did not find his wages sufficient to support himself , his wife , and his four children . To supplement his income , he opened a grocery store and a commission business ( selling others ' goods on consignment ) with his brother . As Saturday ( the Jewish Sabbath ) was also the busiest day for commerce , he decided to keep his business open on that day — something forbidden by Jewish law , and at odds with the rule he had championed . Some of congregants objected , and at B 'nai Israel 's April 1860 quarterly meeting , charges were brought against him ; at a subsequent trial at a Jewish court , he was convicted and fired . In response , he sued the congregation in a civil court for lost wages and libel . The precedent @-@ setting case , which reached the Tennessee Supreme Court , was decided in his favor as regards the lost income , but against him regarding libel . The court 's ruling was that " a religious institution is sovereign ; that its laws and regulations are supreme ; and that its policies and practices may not be challenged by a legal action in a court of law " . In a letter to Rabbi Isaac Leeser in 1862 , Peres claimed that he had been framed and that the store was actually run by his brother , just under his name . He writes that the synagogue had accused him of opening on the Sabbath " in order to get rid of me . "
After Peres 's dismissal , the members began a search for what they called a " Moderate Reform " rabbi . This time , they consulted Wise , not Leeser . The position was advertised in Wise 's newspaper as a " Teacher , Preacher , and Reader " , paying $ 1 @,@ 000 ( today $ 26 @,@ 000 ) per year . Qualifications included the ability to " instruct children in Hebrew , lecture once a week in German or English and read the Prayers properly . " In 1860 , they hired Simon Tuska . Peres stayed in Memphis , and the theological tensions within the congregation were resolved when forty of the more traditional members departed ; with Peres as their spiritual leader , they formed the Orthodox Beth El Emeth congregation in the early 1860s . This division process was common to many American congregations of the time .
= = Tuska era ( 1860 – 1870 ) = =
Born in Veszprém , Hungary in 1835 , Tuska was raised in Rochester , New York , where his father was a rabbi . Simon attended the Rochester Theological Seminary , and upon completion of his studies there in 1858 , was sent to the Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau to get rabbinic training . He did not graduate from the seminary , instead returning to the United States in 1860 to apply for a position at Congregation Emanu @-@ El of New York , but he was turned down because of his small size and weak voice . He then applied to Temple Israel , where on July 1 , 1860 , he was unanimously elected and signed a three @-@ year contract at $ 800 ( today $ 21 @,@ 000 ) per year . He proved to be very popular with the congregation ; in January 1863 , six months before the three @-@ year contract was up for renewal , he was re @-@ elected as rabbi for a ten @-@ year term , and his salary rose to $ 1 @,@ 500 per year .
Tuska reformed services at B 'nai Israel , removing piyyutim ( liturgical poems ) in 1861 , adding an organ and mixed @-@ gender choir in 1862 , and confirmation ceremonies in 1863 . He also shortened the prayer book ( adopting Wise 's Minhag America version ) , added a late Friday night service , and created patriotically themed services for Thanksgiving and National Fast Day . When more pews were required to accommodate the worshipers , they were first added to the men 's and women 's sections , then family pews were added where men and women could sit together . In May 1864 , as rabbi of B 'nai Israel , he officiated at what may have been the first Jewish wedding in Tennessee ; until that year , Tennessee did not authorize rabbis to perform marriages . He was also involved in the broader Memphis community , and participated in interfaith services .
Tuska supported slavery , describing the abolitionist views of Henry Ward Beecher and others as " rabid " , and like most members of B 'nai Israel , after hostilities broke out between the Union and the Confederacy , he supported secession from the Union . More than ten members of the congregation volunteered for the Confederate Army after war broke out , and they were given special honors and blessings at a ceremony during Sabbath services . Many Memphis schools were forced to close because of the Civil War ; in response , B 'nai Israel established the Hebrew Educational Institute in 1864 . A secular school , it had 100 students , and taught English , Hebrew , German , and French as well as geography and music . Tuska was one of the school 's language teachers . Insufficient funding forced its closure in 1868 .
B 'nai Israel had 83 members in 1864 . The mortgage on the synagogue building had been paid off by 1865 , but by 1867 the synagogue 's expenses were exceeding its income . Dues were raised to $ 4 ( today $ 70 ) per member per month , and the congregation took out a new mortgage . In January 1870 , the congregation moved Friday night services to 7 : 30 p.m. ; previously the services had been held just after sunset , in accordance with Jewish law , which had meant late @-@ night services in mid @-@ summer , and late @-@ afternoon services in mid @-@ winter . ( Several years later High Holy Day services were moved to the same time ) . That year Tuska began giving his Friday night sermons in English , rather than German . At the end of 1870 , Tuska died of a heart attack .
= = Samfield era ( 1871 – 1915 ) = =
In 1871 , the congregation , whose membership by this time had reached 100 , elected Max Samfield to succeed Tuska . The son of a rabbi , he was born in 1846 in Marktsteft , Bavaria , and was ordained in Germany . He left for the United States in 1867 to be rabbi of B 'nai Zion Congregation of Shreveport , Louisiana , where he served for four years . He had significant competition for the role at B 'nai Israel , with at least ten rabbis applying . Samfield had , however , preached there the Sabbath before the election for rabbi , and was hired for a one @-@ year term . A strong proponent of Reform Judaism , he was associated with Wise in founding the Union of American Hebrew Congregations ( now Union for Reform Judaism ) , and under his leadership , B 'nai Israel became one of its founding members in 1873 . He was also president of the Board of Governors of Hebrew Union College ( HUC ) in Cincinnati , Ohio , and was supervisor of the Central Conference of American Rabbis . In 1875 , he asked the congregation if he could abandon wearing the traditional head covering while leading the prayers ; in response , the members resolved that all men would be required to remove their hats during services . He led the congregation to adopt the Reform movement 's new Union Prayer Book in 1896 , but resisted moving Sabbath services to Sunday . Like most Reform rabbis at that time , he was strongly anti @-@ Zionist , writing that Zionism was " an abnormal eruption of perverted sentiment " .
A Scottish Mason , Samfield was committed to public service . When Tennessee 's first Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and Children was formed in 1880 , he became its first vice @-@ president , and in 1889 , he led the fundraising for Memphis 's first civilian hospital , St. Joseph 's , a Catholic institution . He founded Memphis 's Hebrew Relief Association , and the non @-@ sectarian United Charities , and was a director of the New Orleans Jewish Orphans ' Home , Denver 's Jewish Consumptive House , and New York 's Sheltering House Association . For the last fifteen years of his life he worked to create a home for elderly and infirm Southern Jews , completed in 1927 .
During Memphis 's 1873 yellow fever epidemic , he — along with other Memphis rabbis and leading Jews — remained in the city rather than fleeing . During the seven weeks the epidemic lasted , 51 people were buried in B 'nai Israel 's cemetery , almost twice the number typically buried there in a whole year . When another yellow fever epidemic broke out in 1878 , Samfield stayed again , ministering to the dead and dying of all faiths . During that epidemic 78 people were buried in the congregation 's cemetery . The city 's frequent yellow fever epidemics decimated its Jewish community , which dropped from 2 @,@ 100 to 300 . They also hurt B 'nai Israel 's finances ; members did not pay their dues , and for a time the congregation could not afford to pay Samfield . By 1880 , however , membership had increased to 124 families , and finances had improved . By this time , the synagogue was more typically called Children of Israel . Beth El Emeth was affected more severely than Children of Israel by the epidemics ; its rabbi ( Peres ) died of yellow fever in 1879 . In 1882 , Beth El Emeth disbanded , and transferred its property to Children of Israel , though most Beth El Emeth members joined the Orthodox Baron Hirsch Synagogue . The property included land on Second Street , and Beth El Emeth 's cemetery .
In 1872 , Children of Israel purchased land on Adams Avenue , with the intent of building a new synagogue there , but financial pressures delayed the project , and in 1880 the congregation decided to sell the property and find a better one . They sold the lot in 1882 , and instead purchased land on Poplar Avenue between Second and Third Streets . By 1884 , they had completed a new synagogue building there , at a cost of $ 39 @,@ 130 ( today $ 1 @,@ 031 @,@ 000 ) . The Byzantine Revival structure had an impressive façade featuring twin tall spires and a large round window containing a Star of David . The building helped attract new members ; by 1885 an additional 45 had joined , for a total of 173 member families , and the congregation was again debt @-@ free . That year , the synagogue acquired a cemetery on Hernando Road .
Though the congregation continued to grow , most new Jewish immigrants to Memphis were from Eastern Europe , and more traditional than the members of Children of Israel . As a result , they typically formed their own Orthodox synagogues , the oldest and longest @-@ lasting of which was the Baron Hirsch Synagogue . Members of Children of Israel worked to assist the Eastern European Jews in assimilating into American society , providing financial assistance , free education on topics such as English , civics , and even hygiene , and from 1897 to 1907 they held a Sunday School for children of the Baron Hirsch congregation . In 1890 , the membership of Children of Israel was 186 families , and the religious school had 148 students . To deal with persistent financial issues and attract younger members , in 1897 the congregation created a new class of member , the " seatholder " , who could not be elected to any office , but paid less in return . This innovation was successful ; 47 new members joined in 1898 , and the congregation 's total membership reached 222 families . Combined with cost cuts in other areas ( primarily reducing the amount paid to the choir ) , this pulled the synagogue out of a four @-@ year financial deficit .
At the end of the nineteenth century , the synagogue 's annual revenues were $ 7 @,@ 500 ( today $ 213 @,@ 000 ) . Around this time the congregation stopped hiring cantors , relying instead on the organist and choir to lead prayer @-@ singing . By 1905 , congregational membership had increased to 262 , and by 1907 it was 285 , and the synagogue 's annual revenues were $ 8 @,@ 500 . The congregational school , which held classes once a week , had fifteen teachers and 220 students . That year the congregation added 56 seats to the sanctuary , primarily to handle the increased attendance on the High Holy Days . Despite the congregation 's growth and the expansion of the sanctuary , attendance at regular services was sparse , particularly on Friday nights . From 1892 onward , Samfield publicly admonished the members for their poor Sabbath attendance , and in 1907 , he insisted that board members attend Friday night services . The board agreed on condition that Samfield ensured his sermons were no longer than 25 minutes . Notwithstanding these issues , in 1904 Children of Israel purchased him a house , and in 1910 voted him " rabbi for life " , at an annual salary of $ 4 @,@ 200 ( today $ 107 @,@ 000 ) . That year membership reached 305 families . In September 1911 , William H. " Bill " Fineshriber became the congregation 's first associate rabbi . By 1912 , the congregation had again grown too large for its building . Family membership was now 340 , and the religious school had 260 children enrolled . The congregation acquired land on Poplar Avenue at Montgomery Street , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of their existing location , and began constructing a new synagogue there .
In addition to his other activities , in 1885 Samfield founded The Jewish Spectator , a weekly journal on Southern Jewish life and culture . He was its editor until his death in September 1915 , just days before his planned retirement . His death was announced with banner headlines , and to commemorate his passing , Memphis 's streetcars were stopped for ten minutes .
= = Fineshriber era ( 1915 – 1924 ) = =
Fineshriber succeeded Samfield in 1915 . Born in St. Louis , Missouri , in 1878 , his father had been a Reform rabbi , who died at the age of 37 . When Fineshriber was 13 , he moved to Cincinnati on his own , where he attended high school . After graduating , he attended the University of Cincinnati and entered HUC 's eight @-@ year program . By 1900 he had graduated from both and been ordained . He accepted his first pulpit that year at Temple Emanuel in Davenport , Iowa , and joined Children of Israel in 1911 as associate rabbi . He was the synagogue 's first HUC graduate , and its first American @-@ born rabbi . He had a quick wit , and was able to speak eloquently and extemporaneously on almost any topic . Often quoted in the newspapers , he was active in the Memphis community , and was a Rotarian , Shriner , and Freemason . He was also an early suffragist , and took up the cause at Children of Israel . At a 1913 women 's day event , featuring speakers from Louisiana , Arkansas , Mississippi and Tennessee , he was the only male speaker . At a 1914 rally he stated " Taxation without representation is tyranny ... [ The ] purpose of this meeting ... is to shock the people of Memphis into a realization that the question of equal suffrage is not child 's play . "
He spoke out strongly against the lynching of Ell Persons in 1917 . Persons , a black man accused of raping and decapitating a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old white girl , had been burned alive in front of a crowd of thousands in Memphis , and his remains dismembered , scattered , and displayed . Fineshriber called a congregational meeting to protest the lynching , convinced the membership to endorse a public condemnation of it , and acted as secretary to a group of clergymen who issued a statement decrying the practice . He also convinced the editor of Memphis 's largest newspaper , The Commercial Appeal , to write an editorial criticizing the lynching . Fineshriber supported other causes affecting African @-@ Americans ; he worked to improve their housing , spoke at black churches , and helped raise funds for them . He criticized the Ku Klux Klan from his pulpit , the only clergyman in Memphis to do so . In 1921 he publicized his intention to " preach on the Ku Klux Klan " at Children of Israel at an event which , it was hoped , would attract many non @-@ members . The Klan had re @-@ organized in Memphis that year , and less than a month after Fineshriber 's speech , marched publicly in Nashville 's Armistice Day parade . Despite threats against him , his wife , and children , Fineshriber continued to preach against the Klan at the temple and other venues .
In 1922 , in response to the attempt by William Jennings Bryan and his followers to ban the teaching of evolution in universities and public schools , Fineshriber devoted three Friday night sermons to discussing it . He emphasized to packed audiences the " inalienable right of free thought and free speech , guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States " , and argued that " [ t ] he majority of thoughtful and liberal preachers of the world have found no difficulty in accepting the theory of evolution without discarding their Bibles or their religion . You can worship God only in the light of truth " . Nevertheless , in 1925 Tennessee became the first state to ban the teaching of evolution in public schools , a law not repealed until 1967 .
During Fineshriber 's early years the congregation continued to modify its religious practices . At funerals , it encouraged mourners to leave the graveside , rather than having them wait until the coffin was lowered and cover it with earth themselves ( as was the traditional practice ) . By this time , few members had bar mitzvah ceremonies for their 13 @-@ year @-@ old boys ; instead , boys and girls participated in the Reform Confirmation ceremony ( though the synagogue still allowed those who wanted bar mitzvah ceremonies to have them ) . In 1916 , the congregation eliminated the observance of the eighth days of Passover and Sukkot , required all worshipers to stand when mourners stood to recite the kaddish , and restored the Orthodox practice of blessing and naming babies in the synagogue as part of the services .
Children of Israel dedicated its new synagogue building in 1916 . Designed by local architects Walk C. Jones , Sr. and Max Furbringer , it featured a large central dome and two smaller flanking domes , and was designed to resemble Istanbul 's Hagia Sophia . Entrance was through three sets of double @-@ doors , and carved into the entablature was the biblical verse fragment " THOU SHALT LOVE THY NEIGHBOR AS THYSELF " ( Leviticus 19 : 18 ) . The building 's sanctuary seated 1 @,@ 200 , and had a huge $ 10 @,@ 000 ( today $ 220 @,@ 000 ) organ . The money for the latter had been raised by the recently formed Ladies Auxiliary , whose most effective fund @-@ raising activity involved selling home @-@ cooked meals . The building also had an auditorium with a stage , and fourteen classrooms for the religious school . Children of Israel 's vacated building was purchased by a new Orthodox congregation that had adopted the name of the disbanded Beth El Emeth .
After the United States entered World War I in 1917 , 131 men from Children of Israel enlisted or were drafted ; one was killed . By 1919 , the congregation 's family membership had reached 450 , and the synagogue 's annual revenues were $ 18 @,@ 000 ( today $ 250 @,@ 000 ) . The congregational school , which still held classes once a week , had 14 teachers and 388 students . The following year , women were given the right to vote at all congregational meetings . Fineshriber left in 1924 to become head rabbi of Congregation Keneseth Israel in Philadelphia . During his tenure , Children of Israel 's membership doubled , and the religious school grew from 100 to 550 students . He died in 1968 , and is the congregation 's only deceased senior rabbi not buried in its cemetery .
= = Ettelson era ( 1925 – 1954 ) = =
Harry William Ettelson succeeded Fineshriber in 1925 , the first Southerner to lead the congregation . Born in 1883 , he was raised in Mobile , Alabama . He had a B.A. from the University of Cincinnati ( graduating in 1900 when he was seventeen ) , an M.A. from the University of Chicago , and a Ph.D. from Yale University . Ordained at HUC in 1904 , he first served Congregation Achduth Vesholom in Fort Wayne , Indiana , from 1904 to 1910 , then Congregation Beth Israel of Hartford , Connecticut , from 1911 to 1919 . From 1919 to 1925 he was associate rabbi , then head rabbi at Congregation Rodeph Shalom in Philadelphia .
Ettelson was a strong supporter of the Pittsburgh Platform and its principles , which became the basis for what was later known as " classical " Reform Judaism . The services he led reflected that : member participation in the services ( which were mostly in English ) was limited . While at Achduth Vesholom he moved services from Saturday to Sunday for a period , in an attempt to improve attendance . Even before his joining Children of Israel , the congregation had already substantially reformed its services ; it no longer held bar mitzvahs , observed the laws of kashrut , or allowed congregants to participate in the Torah reading . Aside from the Shema Yisrael and Kaddish , Hebrew or Aramaic prayers had been almost totally eliminated . Though he made few ritual changes himself , Ettelson continued this tradition , and emphasized community service over ritual practice , promoting Judaism as a universalist religion with a mission of justice and peace . The year he arrived he organized the Cross Cut Club , an inter @-@ faith group intended to counter religious prejudice . He served as its first president , and was its president again in 1950 . One of his initiatives there was the Union Civic Thanksgiving Service , an interdenominational eve @-@ of @-@ Thanksgiving service that was held for a number of years . In the 1930s it held an integrated meeting , and , as a result , was not invited back to the venue the following year .
When Ettelson joined the congregation , it had 650 member families . To accommodate growth , in 1926 the synagogue built an annex for the children 's religious school . That year the congregation also established the " Temple Men 's Club " , which had over 200 members , and joined the National Federation of Temple Brotherhoods . In 1928 , the congregation purchased an adjoining house south of the synagogue , for Junior Congregation meetings , and began broadcasting its Friday evening services on the radio . The costs for both endeavors were donated anonymously by synagogue member Abe Plough , founder and chairman of Schering @-@ Plough . The synagogue was hard @-@ hit by the Great Depression . Income from dues dropped from $ 47 @,@ 000 in 1928 ( today $ 650 @,@ 000 ) to $ 23 @,@ 000 in 1932 , and membership fell from 750 families in 1929 to as low as 629 families . The Talmud Torah was closed due to lack of funds , and board meetings focused on finding ways to keep the congregation going financially . Ettelson requested a pay reduction of $ 1 @,@ 000 ( today $ 16 @,@ 000 )
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to one tow @-@ plane , using a short rope for the high @-@ towed glider and a long rope for the low tow . The current record is nine gliders in the same aerotow .
= = = Winch launching = = =
Gliders are often launched using a stationary ground @-@ based winch mounted on a heavy vehicle . This method is widely used at many European clubs , often in addition to an aerotow service . The engine is usually a large diesel , gasoline or LPG engine , though hydraulic fluid engines and electrical motors are also used . The winch pulls in a 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 500 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 000 to 7 @,@ 500 ft ) cable , made of high @-@ tensile steel wire or a synthetic fiber , attached to the glider . The cable is released at a height of about half the cable length after a short , steep ride . Strong winches , light gliders and strong headwind result in higher launches .
Winch launches are much cheaper than aerotows , permit a higher take off frequency and have the advantage that many members of a club can be taught to operate the equipment . A winch may also be used at sites where an aerotow could not operate , because of the shape of the field or because of noise restrictions . The height gained from a winch is usually less than from an aerotow so pilots need to find a source of lift soon after releasing from the cable , otherwise the flight will be short . A break in the cable or the weak link during a winch launch is a possibility for which pilots are trained .
= = = Auto @-@ tow = = =
Another method of launching , the " autotow " , is rarer nowadays . The direct autotow requires a hard surface and a powerful vehicle that is attached to the glider by a long steel cable . After gently taking up slack in the cable , the driver accelerates hard and as a result the glider rises rapidly to about 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) , especially if there is a good headwind and a runway of 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) or more . This method has also been used on desert dry lakes .
A variation on the direct autotow is known as the " reverse pulley " method . In this method , the truck drives towards the glider being launched . The cable passes around a pulley at the far end of the airfield , resulting in an effect similar to that of a winch launch .
= = = Bungee launch = = =
Bungee launching was widely used in the early days of gliding , and occasionally gliders are still launched from the top of a gently sloping hill into a strong breeze using a substantial multi @-@ stranded rubber band , or " bungee " . For this launch method , the glider 's main wheel rests in a small concrete trough . The hook normally used for winch @-@ launching is instead attached to the middle of the bungee . Each end is then pulled by three or four people . One group runs slightly to the left , the other to the right . Once the tension in the bungee is high enough , the glider is released and the glider 's wheel pops out of the trough . The glider gains just enough energy to leave the ground and fly away from the hill .
= = Cross @-@ country = =
One of the measures of a glider 's performance is the distance that it can fly for each meter it descends , known as its glide ratio . Glide ratio is dependent on an aircraft 's class , and can typically range from 44 : 1 ( for modern designs in the Standard Class ) up to 70 : 1 ( for the largest aircraft ) . A good gliding performance combined with regular sources of rising air enables modern gliders to fly long distances at high speeds . The weather is a major factor in determining cross @-@ country speeds . The record average speed for 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 620 mi ) is 203 @.@ 1 kilometres per hour ( 126 @.@ 2 mph ) . required unusually good conditions , but even in places with less favorable conditions ( such as Northern Europe ) a skilled pilot could expect to complete flights over 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) every year .
As the performance of gliders improved in the 1960s , the concept of flying as far away as possible became unpopular with the crews who had to retrieve the gliders . Pilots now usually plan to fly around a course ( called a task ) via turn @-@ points , returning to the starting point .
In addition to just trying to fly further , glider pilots also race each other in competitions . The winner is the fastest , or , if the weather conditions are poor , the furthest round the course . Tasks of up to 1 @,@ 000 km have been set and average speeds of 120 km / h are not unusual .
Initially , ground observers confirmed that pilots had rounded the turn @-@ points . Later , the glider pilots photographed these places and submitted the film for verification . Today , gliders carry secure GNSS Flight Recorders that record the position every few seconds from GPS satellites . These recording devices now provide the proof that the turn @-@ points have been reached .
National competitions generally last one week , with international championships running over two . The winner is the pilot who has amassed the greatest number of points over all the contest days . However , these competitions have as yet failed to draw much interest outside the gliding community for several reasons . Because it would be unsafe for many gliders to cross a start line at the same time , pilots can choose their own start time . Furthermore , gliders are not visible to the spectators for long periods during each day 's contest and the scoring is complex , so traditional gliding competitions are difficult to televise . In an attempt to widen the sport 's appeal , a new format , the Grand Prix , has been introduced . Innovations introduced in the Grand Prix format include simultaneous starts for a small number of gliders , cockpit mounted cameras , telemetry giving the positions of the gliders , tasks consisting of multiple circuits , and simplified scoring .
There is a decentralized Internet @-@ based competition called the Online Contest , in which pilots upload their GPS data files and are automatically scored based on distance flown . Worldwide , 6 @,@ 703 pilots registered for this contest in 2010 .
= = = Maximizing average speed = = =
Soaring pioneer Paul MacCready is usually credited with developing mathematical principles for optimizing the speed at which to fly when cross @-@ country soaring , although it was first described by Wolfgang Späte in 1938 . The speed to fly theory allows the optimal cruising speed between thermals to be computed , using thermal strength , glider performance and other variables . It accounts for the fact that if a pilot flies faster between thermals , the next thermal is reached sooner . However at higher speeds the glider also sinks faster , requiring the pilot to spend more time circling to regain the altitude . The MacCready speed represents the optimal trade @-@ off between cruising and circling . Most competition pilots use MacCready theory to optimize their average speeds , and have the calculations programmed in their flight computers , or use a " McCready ring " , a rotatable bezel on the glider 's variometer to indicate the best speed to fly . The greatest factor in maximizing average speed , however , remains the ability of the pilot to find the strongest lift .
On cross @-@ country flights on days when strong lift is forecast , pilots fly with water ballast stored in tanks or bags in the wings and fin . The fin tank is used to reduce trim drag by optimizing the center of gravity , which typically would shift forward if water is stored only in the wings ahead of the spar . Ballast enables a sailplane to attain its best L / D at higher speeds but slows its climb rate in thermals , in part because a sailplane with a heavier wing loading cannot circle within a thermal as tightly as one with a lower , unballasted wing loading . But if lift is strong , typically either from thermals or wave , the disadvantage of slower climbs is outweighed by the higher cruising speeds between lift areas . Thus , the pilot can improve the average speed over a course by several percent or achieve longer distances in a given time . If lift is weaker than expected , or if an off @-@ field landing is imminent , the pilot can jettison the water ballast by opening the dump valves .
On days with particularly strong and widespread lift pilots can attain high average speeds by alternating periods of fast flight with pull @-@ ups , merely slowing down in areas of lift without deviating from the course . This ' dolphining ' technique can result in high average speeds because the height lost can be minimised until particularly strong lift is encountered when circling would be most effective .
= = = Badges = = =
Achievements in gliding have been marked by the awarding of badges since the 1920s . For the lower badges , such as the first solo flight , national gliding federations set their own criteria . Typically , a bronze badge shows preparation for cross @-@ country flight , including precise landings and witnessed soaring flights . Higher badges follow the standards set down by the Gliding Commission of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale ( FAI ) .
The FAI 's Sporting Code defines the rules for observers and recording devices to validate the claims for badges that are defined by kilometers of distance and meters of altitude gained . The Silver @-@ C badge was introduced in 1930 . Earning the Silver Badge shows that a glider pilot has achieved an altitude gain of at least 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) , made a five @-@ hour duration flight , and has flown cross @-@ country for a straight @-@ line distance of at least 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) : these three attainments are usually , but not invariably , achieved in separate flights . The Gold and Diamond Badges require pilots to fly higher and further . A pilot who has completed the three parts of the Diamond Badge has flown 300 kilometres ( 186 mi ) to a pre @-@ defined goal , has flown 500 kilometres ( 311 mi ) in one flight ( but not necessarily to a pre @-@ defined goal ) and gained 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) in height . The FAI also issues a diploma for a flight of 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 621 mi ) and further diplomas for increments of 250 kilometres ( 155 mi ) .
= = = Landing out = = =
If lift is not found during a cross @-@ country flight , for example because of deteriorating weather , the pilot must choose a location to " land out " . Although inconvenient and often mistaken for " emergency landings " , landing out ( or " outlanding " ) is a routine event in cross @-@ country gliding . The pilot has to choose a location where the glider can be landed safely , without damaging the plane , the pilot , or property such as crops or livestock . The glider and the pilot ( s ) can then be retrieved by road from the outlanding location using a purpose @-@ built trailer . In some instances , a tow @-@ plane can be summoned to re @-@ launch the aircraft .
= = = Use of engines or motors = = =
Although adding to the weight and expense , some gliders are fitted with small power units and are known as motor gliders . This avoids the inconvenience of landing out . The power units can be internal combustion engines , electrical motors , or retractable jet engines . Retractable propellers are fitted to high performance sailplanes , though in another category , called touring motor gliders , non @-@ retractable propellers are used . Some powered gliders are " self launching " , which makes the glider independent of a tow plane . However some gliders have " sustainer " engines that can prolong flight but are not powerful enough for launching . All power units have to be started at a height that includes a margin that would still allow a safe landing out to be made , if there were a failure to start .
In a competition , using the engine ends the soaring flight . Unpowered gliders are lighter and , as they do not need a safety margin for starting the engine , they can safely thermal at lower altitudes in weaker conditions . Consequently , pilots in unpowered gliders may complete competition flights when some powered competitors cannot . Conversely , motor glider pilots can start the engine if conditions will no longer support soaring flight , while unpowered gliders will have to land out , away from the home airfield , requiring retrieval by road using the glider 's trailer .
= = Aerobatic competitions = =
World and European Aerobatic competitions are held regularly . In this type of competition , the pilots fly a program of maneuvers ( such as inverted flight , loop , roll , and various combinations ) . Each maneuver has a rating called the " K @-@ Factor " . Maximum points are given for the maneuver if it is flown perfectly ; otherwise , points are deducted . Efficient maneuvers also enable the whole program to be completed with the height available . The winner is the pilot with the most points .
= = Hazards = =
Unlike hang gliders and paragliders , gliders surround the pilots with strong structures and have undercarriages to absorb impacts when landing . These features prevent injuries from otherwise minor incidents , but there are some hazards . Although training and safe procedures are central to the ethos of the sport , a few fatal accidents occur every year , almost all caused by pilot error . In particular there is a risk of mid @-@ air collisions between gliders , because two pilots might choose to fly to the same area of lift and so might collide . Because of this risk , pilots usually wear parachutes . To avoid other gliders and general aviation traffic , pilots must comply with the Rules of the Air and keep a good lookout . In several European countries and Australia , the FLARM warning system is used to help avoid mid @-@ air collisions between gliders . A few modern gliders have a ballistic emergency parachute to stabilize the aircraft after a collision .
= = Training and regulation = =
In addition to national laws controlling aviation , the sport in many countries is regulated though national gliding associations and then through local gliding clubs . Much of the regulation concerns safety and training .
Many clubs provide training for new pilots . The student flies with an instructor in a two @-@ seat glider fitted with dual controls . The instructor performs the first launches and landings , typically from the back seat , but otherwise the student manages the controls until the student is deemed to have the skill and the airmanship necessary to fly solo . Simulators are also beginning to be used in training , especially during poor weather .
After the first solo flights glider pilots are required to stay within gliding range of their home airfield . In addition to solo flying , further flights are made with an instructor until the student is capable of taking a glider cross @-@ country and of handling more difficult weather . Cross @-@ country flights are allowed when they have sufficient experience to find sources of lift away from their home airfield , to navigate , and to select and land in a field if necessary . In most countries pilots must take a written examination on the regulations , navigation , use of the radio , weather , principles of flight and human factors . Proposals are being made to standardise the training requirements across European countries .
In addition to the regulation of pilots , gliders are inspected annually and after exceeding predetermined flight times . Maximum and minimum payloads are also defined for each glider . Because most gliders are designed to the same specifications of safety , the upper weight limit for a pilot , after allowing for a parachute , is usually 103 kilograms ( 227 lb ) . There is also a limit , 193 centimetres ( 6 ft 4 in ) , on the tallest pilots who can safely fit into a typical glider 's cockpit .
= = Challenges for the gliding movement = =
According to the FAI President , gliding as a sport faces challenges in the years ahead . These include :
Time pressures on participants : gliding typically takes whole days that many people today find harder to devote . As a result , the average age of glider pilots is increasing .
In some countries , the need for more land for housing is threatening small airfields . These airfields may also be used for other general aviation activities , and the addition of gliding may be difficult to accommodate . This can limit the number of available airfields and so it can require longer drives to reach them .
Airspace : in many European countries , the growth of civil aviation is reducing the amount of uncontrolled airspace . In the U.S. new security requirements , and the growth of controlled airspace around cities , has also had some impact on where to fly .
Competition from other activities : there is now a greater variety of similar sports such as hang gliding and paragliding that may attract potential glider pilots .
Lack of publicity : without coverage by television or popular publications , many people are unaware that gliding is even a sport . Without this knowledge the public may have a poor understanding of how flying without an engine is possible and safe .
Increasing costs : due to higher costs of fuel and insurance , and due to greater regulation requiring equipment such as new radios , or in some cases transponders , gliding costs have increased , although without the continuous use of engines and fuel , they are still considerably lower than traditional power flying .
= = Related air sports = =
The two air sports that are most closely related to gliding are hang gliding and paragliding . Although all three sports rely on rising air , there are significant differences which are listed in detail in a comparison of sailplanes hang gliders and paragliders . The main difference is that both hang gliders and paragliders are simpler , less sophisticated and cheaper aircraft that use the pilot 's feet as the undercarriage . All paragliders and most hang gliders have no protective structure around the pilot . However , the dividing line between basic gliders and sophisticated hang @-@ gliders is becoming less distinct . For example , hang gliders typically use fabric wings , shaped over a framework , but hang gliders with rigid wings and three @-@ axis controls are also available . The lower air speeds and lower glide ratios of typical hang gliders means that shorter cross @-@ country distances are flown than in modern gliders . Paragliders are more basic craft . They are also foot @-@ launched , but their wings usually have no frames and their shape is created by the flow and pressure of air . The airspeeds and glide ratios of paragliders are generally lower still than the typical hang gliders , and so their cross @-@ country flights are even shorter . Radio @-@ controlled gliding uses scale @-@ models of gliders mainly for ridge soaring ; however thermic aeromodelling craft are also used .
= Siege of Dubrovnik =
The Siege of Dubrovnik ( Croatian : Opsada Dubrovnika , Serbian Latin : Blokada Dubrovnika ) was a military engagement fought between the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) and Croatian forces defending the city of Dubrovnik and its surroundings during the Croatian War of Independence . The JNA started its advance on 1 October 1991 and by late October had captured virtually all of the territory between the Pelješac and Prevlaka peninsulas on the coast of the Adriatic Sea — except for Dubrovnik itself . The JNA attacks and bombardment of Dubrovnik , including the Old Town — a UNESCO World Heritage Site — culminated on 6 December 1991 . The bombardment provoked strong international condemnation of the JNA and became a public relations disaster for Serbia and Montenegro , contributing to their diplomatic and economic isolation and the international recognition of the independence of Croatia . In May 1992 , the JNA pulled back from Dubrovnik to Bosnia and Herzegovina , less than 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 miles ) from the coast in some places , and east of the city to hand over its equipment to the newly formed Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) . During this time , the Croatian Army ( HV ) attacked from the west and pushed back the JNA / VRS from the areas east of Dubrovnik , both in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina , and by the end of May linked up with the HV unit defending the city . Fighting between the HV and the Yugoslav troops east of Dubrovnik gradually died down .
The siege and a naval blockade by the Yugoslav Navy caused the deaths of between 82 and 88 Croatian civilians and 194 Croatian military personnel . The JNA suffered 165 fatalities . By the end of 1992 , when the entire region was recaptured by the HV in Operation Tiger and the Battle of Konavle , 417 HV troops had been killed . The offensive displaced 15 @,@ 000 refugees — mainly from Konavle — who fled to Dubrovnik . Approximately 16 @,@ 000 refugees were evacuated from Dubrovnik by sea and the city was resupplied by blockade @-@ evading runabouts and a convoy of civilian vessels . 11 @,@ 425 buildings suffered a degree of damage and numerous homes , businesses , and public buildings were looted or torched by the JNA .
The JNA operation was a part of a plan drawn up by top JNA officers aimed at securing the Dubrovnik area and then proceeding north @-@ west to link up with the JNA troops in northern Dalmatia via western Herzegovina . The offensive came immediately after war propaganda in Montenegro , which said that Croatian troops were about to attack and capture the Bay of Kotor and that the offensive was a " war for peace " , and that the Old Town was not being targeted by the JNA . Montenegrin President Milo Đukanović apologized for the attack in 2000 , eliciting an angry response from his political opponents and from Serbia .
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) convicted two Yugoslav officers for their involvement in the siege and handed a third over to Serbia for prosecution . The ICTY indictment stated that the offensive was designed to detach the Dubrovnik region from Croatia and integrate it into a Serb @-@ dominated state through an unsuccessful proclamation of the Dubrovnik Republic on 24 November 1991 . In addition , Montenegro convicted four former JNA soldiers with prisoner abuse at the Morinj camp . Croatia also charged several former JNA or Yugoslav Navy officers and a former Bosnian Serb leader with war crimes but no trials have yet resulted from these indictments .
= = Background = =
In August 1990 , an insurrection centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around the city of Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , and Banovina regions , and settlements in eastern Croatia with significant Serb populations took place in Croatia . These areas were subsequently named the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) and after declaring its intention to integrate with Serbia , the Government of Croatia declared the RSK a rebellion . By March 1991 , the conflict had escalated and the Croatian War of Independence erupted . In June 1991 , Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated . A three @-@ month moratorium followed , after which the decision came into effect on 8 October . The RSK then initiated a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Croatian civilians , expelling most non @-@ Serbs by early 1993 . By November 1993 , less than 400 ethnic Croats remained in the United Nations ( UN ) protected area known as Sector South , and a further 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 remained in Sector North .
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) increasingly supported by the RSK and the Croatian Police was unable to cope with the situation , the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) was formed in May 1991 . In November , the ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( HV ) . The development of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September , while the military conflict in Croatia continued to escalate with the Battle of Vukovar , which started on 26 August .
Dubrovnik is the southernmost major Croatian city . It is located on the Adriatic Sea coast . The walled city centre , known as the Old Town , is a site of historical monuments and heritage buildings largely dating to the Republic of Ragusa ; the city has been placed on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites . In 1991 , the city had a population of approximately 50 @,@ 000 , of whom 82 @.@ 4 % were Croats and 6 @.@ 8 % were Serbs . Croatian territory surrounding the city stretches from the Pelješac peninsula to the west and the Prevlaka peninsula in the east at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor on the border with Montenegro . This territory is very narrow , especially near Dubrovnik itself , and consists of a 0 @.@ 5 to 15 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 31 to 9 @.@ 32 miles ) wide coastal strip of land .
= = Prelude = =
In mid @-@ 1991 , top JNA commanders — including Yugoslav Federal Defence Minister General Veljko Kadijević , JNA Chief of the General Staff General Blagoje Adžić and deputy defence minister Vice Admiral Stane Brovet — planned a military offensive entailing an attack on the Dubrovnik area followed by a westward JNA advance towards western Herzegovina to link up with the JNA 9th Knin Corps in northern Dalmatia once the area was secured . General Jevrem Cokić submitted the plan of the Dubrovnik offensive to Adžić for his approval .
In September 1991 , the JNA and the leaders of Montenegro said that Dubrovnik should be attacked and neutralized to ensure Montenegro 's territorial integrity , to prevent ethnic clashes and to preserve the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . Montenegrin Prime Minister Milo Đukanović stated that Croatian borders needed be revised , attributing the existing border line to " poorly educated Bolshevik cartographers " . The propaganda , compounded by JNA Colonel General Pavle Strugar 's allegations that 30 @,@ 000 Croatian troops and 7 @,@ 000 terrorists and Kurdish mercenaries were about to attack Montenegro and seize the Bay of Kotor led many in Montenegro to believe that Croatia had actually started an invasion . The newspaper Pobjeda was the most significant media source that contributed to the spread of the propaganda . In July 1991 , high @-@ ranking Serbian official Mihalj Kertes said at a political rally in Nikšić that a Serbian state was to be established west of Montenegro extending to the Neretva River with Dubrovnik — renamed Nikšić @-@ at @-@ Sea — as its capital .
On 16 September 1991 , the JNA mobilized in Montenegro citing the deteriorating situation in Croatia . Despite a radio broadcast appeal by the JNA 2nd Titograd Corps on 17 September , considerable numbers of reservists refused to respond to the call @-@ up . On 18 September , Đukanović threatened harsh punishment of deserters and those refusing to respond to the mobilization . The mobilization and the propaganda were in contrast with assurances from Yugoslav federal authorities in Belgrade that there would be no attack against Dubrovnik . The JNA 's strategic plan to defeat Croatia included an offensive to cut off the southernmost parts of Croatia , including Dubrovnik , from the rest of the country .
On 23 September , JNA artillery attacked the village of Vitaljina in the eastern part of Konavle and Brgat to the east of Dubrovnik . Two days later , the Yugoslav Navy blockaded maritime routes to the city . On 26 September , the JNA renamed its Eastern Herzegovina Operational Group the 2nd Operational Group and subordinated it directly to the Federal Ministry of Defence and the JNA General Staff . Cokić was appointed the first commanding officer of the 2nd Operational Group but was replaced by General Mile Ružinovski on 5 October following the shooting down of Cokić 's helicopter . Strugar replaced Ružinovski on 12 October .
= = Order of battle = =
The JNA tasked the 2nd Titograd Corps and the 9th Boka Kotorska Military @-@ Maritime Sector ( VPS ) — both of which were elements of the 2nd Operational Group — with cutting off and capturing the Dubrovnik area . The 2nd Titograd Corps deployed the 1st Nikšić Brigade while the 9th Boka Kotorska VPS employed the 5th and the 472nd Motorized Brigades . The Corps boundary running north @-@ to @-@ south near Dubrovnik was set . The 2nd Operational Group also commanded the 16th Border Patrol Detachment and 107th Coastal Artillery Group , and mobilised Territorial Defence units from Herceg @-@ Novi , Kotor , Tivat , Budva , Bar , Mojkovac , Bijelo Polje and Trebinje . Strugar was in overall command of the 2nd Operative Group while the 9th Boka Kotorska VPS was commanded by Vice Admiral Miodrag Jokić . Jokić replaced Admiral Krsto Đurović , who had died in uncertain circumstances hours before the offensive began . Major General Nojko Marinović , once commanding the 472nd Motorized Brigade and subordinate of Đurović , said that the JNA had killed the admiral because he opposed the offensive . Marinović resigned his post on 17 September and joined the Croatian ZNG . The JNA 2nd Operational Group initially deployed 7 @,@ 000 troops and maintained similar troop levels throughout the offensive .
The defences of Dubrovnik were almost non @-@ existent — at the outset of hostilities there were 480 troops in the city area , out of which only 50 had some training . The only regular military unit was a platoon armed with light infantry weapons that was stationed in the Napoleonic era Fort Imperial atop the Srđ Hill overlooking Dubrovnik . The rest of the troops in the area were poorly armed because the Croatian Territorial Defence had been disarmed by the JNA in 1989 . Unlike elsewhere in Croatia , there had been no JNA garrisons or storage depots in Dubrovnik since 1972 and thus very few arms and munitions captured during the September Battle of the Barracks were available to defend Dubrovnik . On 26 September 200 rifles and four artillery pieces captured from the JNA on the island of Korčula were sent to reinforce the city . The guns were a mix of 76 mm and 85 mm Soviet World War II @-@ era divisional guns . In addition , an improvised armoured vehicle was supplied to the city . Dubrovnik also received additional HV , Croatian Police and Croatian Defence Forces troops from other parts of Croatia . This brought the number of Croatian troops in Dubrovnik to 600 . By November , about 1 @,@ 000 Croatian troops were defending the city . On 19 September , Marinović was appointed commanding officer of the defences in Dubrovnik , at which time he assessed them as inadequate . The troops , initially organized as the Territorial Defence of Dubrovnik , were reorganized into the HV 75th Independent Battalion on 28 December 1991 and were later reinforced with elements of the 116th Infantry Brigade to form the 163rd Infantry Brigade on 13 February 1992 . The Armed Boats Squadron Dubrovnik , a volunteer military unit of the Croatian Navy consisting of 23 vessels of various sizes and 117 volunteers , was established on 23 September to counter the Yugoslav Navy blockade .
= = Timeline = =
= = = JNA advance = = =
On 1 October , the JNA started its offensive towards Dubrovnik , moving the 2nd Titograd Corps west through the Popovo field north of the city . The JNA 2nd Corps destroyed the village of Ravno before turning south towards Dubrovačko Primorje area , aiming to envelop Dubrovnik from the west . The second axis of the JNA advance was assigned to the 9th Boka Kotorska VPS . It originated in the Bay of Kotor about 35 kilometres ( 22 miles ) south @-@ east of Dubrovnik and was directed through Konavle . The advance started at 5 am after preparatory artillery fire against Vitaljina and other targets in Konavle . The advance , using several roads in the region , was supported by the Yugoslav Navy and the Air Force . Croatian defences were nonexistent in Konavle and light in Dubrovačko Primorje — the only JNA casualties of the day occurred during a successful ZNG ambush in Čepikuće village . On the first day of the offensive , the JNA artillery attacked Srđ Hill and the Žarkovica promontory just to the north and east of Dubrovnik , while the Yugoslav Air Force MiG @-@ 21s raided Komolac in Rijeka Dubrovačka to the west , destroying supplies of electricity and water to Dubrovnik . Until the end of December , Dubrovnik relied on fresh water supplied by boats and electricity from the few electric generators .
Over the next three days , the JNA made slow progress . Its artillery attacked Srđ Hill , the Fort Imperial and Žarkovica on 2 October . The next day , the JNA shelled Dubrovnik 's Belvedere Hotel , where a ZNG defence post was located , and the Yugoslav Air Force bombarded the city 's Argentina Hotel . On 4 October , the JNA 2nd Corps captured Slano in Dubrovačko Primorje , interdicting the Adriatic Highway there and isolating Dubrovnik from the rest of Croatia . On 5 October , the Ploče district of Dubrovnik was shelled , followed by a Yugoslav Air Force strike on the Fort Imperial the next day .
On 15 October , Croatia offered peace talks to Montenegro , but the President of Serbia Slobodan Milošević dismissed the offer . The offer was made to the Montenegrin officials because the offensive was first officially endorsed by the Montenegrin government on 1 October . Three days later , Serbia publicly distanced itself from the move , blaming Croatia for provoking the JNA . On the seventh day of the offensive , the Montenegrin parliament blamed the JNA for the attack . On 16 October — a day after Milošević declined the Croatian offer — the JNA 9th Boka Kotorska VPS force captured Cavtat . The capture of Cavtat was supported by an amphibious landing operation approximately 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 miles ) east of Dubrovnik and an airstrike on Ploče district of Dubrovnik on 18 October . The following day , a ceasefire was agreed but it was violated as soon as it came into effect . On 20 October , the Yugoslav Air Force attacked Dubrovnik and on 22 October , the Yugoslav Navy bombarded hotels housing refugees in the Lapad area of the city .
On 23 October , the JNA started a sustained artillery bombardment of Dubrovnik , including the Old Town within the city walls , drawing a protest from the United States Department of State the next day . The JNA 9th VPS captured Župa Dubrovačka and Brgat on 24 October , while the Yugoslav Navy bombarded Lokrum Island . The next day , the JNA issued an ultimatum to the city , demanding its surrender and the removal of elected officials from Dubrovnik . On 26 October , the JNA captured the Žarkovica promontory 2 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 miles ) south @-@ east from the city centre , and took most of the high ground overlooking Dubrovnik by 27 October . The JNA 2nd Corps south @-@ western drive towards Dubrovnik was slower . It destroyed a large portion of the Trsteno Arboretum . The JNA advance displaced about 15 @,@ 000 refugees from the areas it captured . About 7 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from Dubrovnik by sea in October ; the rest took refuge in hotels and elsewhere in the city .
= = = Defence of Dubrovnik = = =
The JNA continued its artillery strikes against Dubrovnik on 30 October and the bombardment continued until 4 November , targeting the western areas of Dubrovnik — Gruž and Lapad — as well as the Babin Kuk and Argentina hotels , which were housing refugees . On 3 – 4 November , JNA troops attacked the Old Town and the Argentina Hotel using small arms and sniper fire from positions held by the 3rd Battalion of the JNA 472th Motorized Brigade , which occupied the positions closest to the city centre . The next day , the Fort Imperial was bombarded once again . On 7 November , the JNA issued a new ultimatum demanding the surrender of Dubrovnik by noon . The demand was rejected and Jokić announced that the JNA would only spare the Old Town from destruction . The same day , fighting resumed near Slano .
JNA artillery and the Yugoslav Navy resumed the bombardment of Dubrovnik between 9 and 12 November , targeting the Old Town , Gruž , Lapad and Ploče , as well as the Belvedere , Excelsior , Babin Kuk , Tirena , Imperial and Argentina hotels . Wire @-@ guided missiles were used to attack boats in the Old Town harbour , while some larger ships at the port of Gruž — including the ferryboat Adriatic and the American @-@ owned sailing ship Pelagic , were set ablaze and destroyed by gunfire . The Fort Imperial was attacked by the JNA on 9 , 10 and 13 November . These attacks were followed by a lull which lasted until the end of November when the European Union Monitoring Mission ( ECMM ) mediated in negotiations between the JNA and Croatian authorities in Dubrovnik . The ECMM was withdrawn in mid @-@ November after its personnel were attacked by the JNA , and the mediation was taken over by French State Secretary for Humanitarian Affairs Bernard Kouchner and UNICEF Mission Chief Stephan Di Mistura . The negotiations produced ceasefire agreements on 19 November and 5 December , but neither yielded any specific results on the ground . Instead , the JNA 2nd Corps units located in Dubrovačko Primorje , north @-@ west of Dubrovnik , closed in on the city , reaching the farthest point of their advance on 24 November , as the city defences were pushed back to Sustjepan – Srđ – Belvedere Hotel line . That day , the JNA tried to establish the Dubrovnik Republic in the area it occupied , but the attempt ultimately failed .
In November , Dubrovnik began receiving the largest deliveries of humanitarian aid since the beginning of the siege . The first successful attempt to sustain the city was the Libertas convoy — a fleet of civilian vessels , the largest being Jadrolinija 's Slavija — which arrived in Dubrovnik on 31 October . The convoy sailed from Rijeka and made several port calls , growing to 29 vessels as it approached Dubrovnik . The convoy — which also carried the ECMM observers , at least 1 @,@ 000 protesters , the President of the Presidency of Yugoslavia Stjepan Mesić and the former Prime Minister of Croatia Franjo Gregurić — was initially stopped by the Yugoslav frigate JRM Split between the islands of Brač and Šolta , and the next day by Yugoslav patrol boats off Korčula before the Armed Boats Squadron linked up with the fleet and escorted it to the Port of Dubrovnik in Gruž . On its return , the 700 @-@ capacity Slavija evacuated 2 @,@ 000 refugees from Dubrovnik , although she had to sail to the Bay of Kotor first for inspection by the Yugoslav Navy .
On 2 – 3 December , the JNA resumed infantry weapons fire against the Old Town , followed by mortar fire against the Fort Imperial on 4 December . The heaviest bombardment of the Old Town started at 5 : 48 am on 6 December . The Old Town was struck by 48 82 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) missiles , 232 82 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) and 364 120 @-@ millimetre ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) mortar shells , as well as 22 wire @-@ guided missiles . Two impact craters indicated the use of heavier weapons . The bombardment was concentrated on Stradun — the central promenade of the Old Town — and areas north @-@ east of Stradun , while other parts of the Old Town sustained relatively few impacts . The attack subsided at 11 : 30 am . It killed 13 civilians — the heaviest loss of civilian life during the siege . The Dubrovnik Inter @-@ University Centre library containing 20 @,@ 000 volumes was also destroyed in the attack and the Libertas Hotel was bombarded by JNA artillery aiming to kill firefighters putting out fires caused by an attack earlier that day . The 6 December attack of the Old Town was met with strong protests from the international media , UNESCO Director @-@ General Federico Mayor Zaragoza , Special Envoy of the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations Cyrus Vance and the ECMM on the day of the bombardment . Later that day , the JNA issued a statement of regret and promised an inquiry . On 7 December , representatives of the JNA visited the Old Town to inspect the damage but no further actions were noted .
All of the Croatian defences were 3 to 4 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 to 2 @.@ 5 miles ) away from the Old Town , except for the Fort Imperial about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 miles ) to the north . The fortress was attacked at 5 : 50 am — minutes after the bombardment of the Old Town began . The attack was executed by the 3rd Battalion of the JNA 472nd Motorized Brigade , advancing simultaneously from two directions . The primary attack consisted of a company @-@ sized force , and the secondary of a platoon of infantrymen — both supported by T @-@ 55 tanks and artillery . By 8 am , the infantry reached the Fort Imperial , forcing the defending force to retreat into the fortification and request help . Marinović ordered the HV artillery to fire directly onto the fortress and dispatched a special police unit to reinforce the Fort Imperial garrison . By 2 pm , the JNA called off the attack . That day , Sveti Vlaho — the first vessel commissioned by the Armed Boats Squadron Dubrovnik and named after the patron saint of the city Saint Blaise — was sunk by a wire @-@ guided missile .
= = = Croatian counterattack = = =
On 7 December 1991 , another ceasefire was agreed and the JNA force besieging Dubrovnik became largely inactive . In January 1992 , the Sarajevo Agreement was signed by representatives of Croatia , the JNA and the UN , and fighting was paused . The United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) was deployed to Croatia to supervise and maintain the agreement . Serbia continued to support the RSK . The conflict largely passed onto entrenched positions and the JNA soon retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina , where a new conflict was anticipated . The only exception was the Dubrovnik area , where the JNA attacked westward from Dubrovačko Primorje , pushing back elements of the HV 's 114th and 116th Infantry Brigades and reaching the outskirts of Ston by the beginning of 1992 .
The capabilities of the HV increased dramatically in the first few months of 1992 because it acquired large stockpiles of JNA 's weapons in the Battle of the Barracks . After the JNA disengaged in Croatia , its personnel prepared to set up a new Bosnian Serb army , later renamed the Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) . The move followed the Bosnian Serb declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the 29 February – 1 March 1992 referendum on independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The referendum would later be cited as a pretext for the Bosnian War , which had begun by 4 April when VRS artillery began shelling Sarajevo . The JNA and the VRS in Bosnia and Herzegovina were confronted by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) , reporting to the Bosniak @-@ dominated central government and the Bosnian Croat leadership respectively . The HV sometimes deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina to support the HVO .
In April 1992 , the JNA began offensive operations against the HV and the HVO in areas of western and southern Herzegovina near Kupres and Stolac . The 4th Military District of the JNA , commanded by Strugar , aimed to capture Stolac and most of the eastern bank of the Neretva River south of Mostar . The fighting around Mostar and JNA artillery attacks on the city started on 6 April . The JNA pushed the HV / HVO force from Stolac on 11 April and Čapljina came under JNA fire . A ceasefire was arranged on 7 May but the JNA and the Bosnian Serb forces resumed the attack the next day . The attack succeeded in capturing a large part of Mostar and some territory on the western bank of the Neretva River . On 12 May , the JNA forces based in Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the VRS , and the JNA 2nd Operational Group was renamed as the 4th VRS Herzegovina Corps . Croatia saw the JNA moves as a prelude to attacks on southern Croatia specifically aimed at the Port of Ploče and possibly Split . To counter the threat , the HV appointed General Janko Bobetko to command the Southern Front , encompassing the Herzegovina and Dubrovnik areas . Bobetko reorganized the HVO command structure and assumed command of the HVO in the region and newly deployed HV units , the 1st Guards and the 4th Guards Brigades .
The VRS / JNA force attacked north of Ston on 11 April , pushing back elements of the HV 115th Infantry Brigade and elements of the arriving HV Guards Brigades for only modest territorial gain . The frontline stabilized by 23 April and the HV counterattacked and reclaimed some ground after 27 April . On 17 May , Bobetko ordered a major attack of the two full guards brigades . The 1st Guards Brigade was tasked with advancing to link up with the Ston Company guarding access to the Pelješac Peninsula and advance to Slano . The 4th Guards Brigade was ordered to secure the hinterland of the Dubrovačko Primorje by advancing along the rim of the Popovo field . At the same time , the JNA was pressured by the international community to pull back east of Dubrovnik to Konavle .
The 1st Guards Brigade , supported by elements of the 115th Infantry Brigade , captured Čepikuće on 21 May and Slano on 22 – 23 May . The Armed Boats Squadron Dubrovnik landed troops in Slano the previous night , but they were repulsed by the JNA . On the night of 23 – 24 May , the JNA attacked Sustjepan and the northern outskirts of Dubrovnik . On 26 May , the JNA started to pull out of Mokošica and Žarkovica . The 163rd Infantry Brigade advanced from Dubrovnik ; its 1st Battalion took positions in Brgat and Župa Dubrovačka , and the 2nd Battalion deployed to Osojnik . On 29 May , the 4th Guards Brigade recaptured Ravno . On 31 May , the 2nd Battalion of the 163rd Brigade pushed the JNA to the Golubov Kamen massif overlooking the Adriatic Highway section tracing around the Rijeka Dubrovačka embayment , but failed to capture the massif . The brigade was relieved by the 145th Infantry Brigade on 15 June . Dubrovnik was targeted by the JNA artillery continuously until 16 June , and then intermittently until 30 June . On 7 June , the 1st Guards and the 4th Guards Brigades ceased their advance in Dubrovačko Primorje in the vicinity of Orahov Do , a village to the north of Slano .
= = Aftermath = =
Regardless of its military outcome , the Siege of Dubrovnik is primarily remembered for the large @-@ scale looting by JNA troops and the artillery bombardment of Dubrovnik , especially its Old Town . The reaction of the international media and media coverage of the siege reinforced an opinion , already taking shape since the fall of Vukovar , that the conduct of the JNA and the Serbs was barbaric and intent on dominating Croatia — regardless of the destruction of priceless cultural heritage that occurred in the process . Serbian authorities thought the international community had no moral grounds to judge because they did not interfere when hundreds of thousands of Serbs were brutally killed in Croatian concentration camps during World War II . Besides the protests made by Mayor Zaragoza , Vance and the ECMM , 104 Nobel Prize laureates published a full @-@ page advertisement in the The New York Times on 14 January 1992 at the incentive of Linus Pauling , urging governments throughout the world to stop the unrestrained destruction by the JNA . Because the siege shaped the international opinion of the Croatian War of Independence , it became a major contributor to a shift in the international diplomatic and economic isolation of Serbia and rump Yugoslavia , which came to be viewed as an aggressor @-@ state in the West . On 17 December 1991 , the European Economic Community agreed to recognize the independence of Croatia on 15 January 1992 .
Between October and December 1991 , the JNA captured approximately 1 @,@ 200 square kilometres ( 460 square miles ) of territory around Dubrovnik — all of which the HV recaptured in its May 1992 counterattack as the JNA pulled back east of Dubrovnik , and in subsequent HV offensives — Operation Tiger and the Battle of Konavle between July and October 1992 . Between 82 and 88 Croatian civilian deaths were caused by the JNA advance and siege . 194 Croatian military personnel were also killed . Ninety @-@ four of these were killed between October and December 1991 . A total of 417 were killed in all military operations around Dubrovnik by the end of October 1992 . The JNA suffered 165 fatalities during the siege . Approximately 15 @,@ 000 refugees from Konavle and other areas around Dubrovnik fled to the city , and about 16 @,@ 000 refugees were evacuated by sea from Dubrovnik to other parts of Croatia . The JNA set up two prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps — the Bileća and Morinj camp — to detain those it captured . During and after the offensive , 432 people , mainly civilians from Konavle , were imprisoned there — 292 in Morinj and 140 in Bileća — and subjected to physical and psychological abuse . The abuse was perpetrated by the JNA personnel and paramilitaries as well as civilians , and included beatings and mock executions . A large portion of the prisoners was exchanged for prisoners of war held by Croatia on 12 December 1991 , but the camps JNA operated until August 1992 .
11 @,@ 425 buildings in the region sustained damage ; 886 were totally destroyed and 1 @,@ 675 sustained damage . The cost of the damage was estimated at 480 million Deutsche Marks . Damage to the Old Town of Dubrovnik was observed by a UNESCO team which stayed in the city from 27 November until 20 December 1991 . It was estimated that 55 @.@ 9 % of buildings were damaged , that 11 @.@ 1 % were heavily damaged and 1 % were burnt down . Seven burnt Baroque palaces were the greatest losses . Additional damage was caused by the JNA troops looting museums , businesses and private homes . All exhibits held by Vlaho Bukovac Memorial Museum in Cavtat were taken away by the JNA , as were contents of hotels in Kupari . The Franciscan monastery of St. Jerome in Slano was also targeted . The JNA admitted that looting took place , but Jokić said the property would be distributed to Serbian refugees by a special JNA administration set up on 15 December 1991 . It is probable , however , that the looted property ended up in private homes or was sold on the black market . Dubrovnik 's Čilipi Airport was also targeted and its equipment taken to Podgorica and Tivat Airports .
Following attempts to justify the JNA offensive , authorities in Serbia and Montenegro tried to deny damage to the Old Town . Radio Television of Serbia said that smoke rising from the Old Town was the result of automobile tyres set on fire by the population of Dubrovnik , echoing Kadijević . Officials and media in Montenegro referred to the offensive as the " war for peace " , or a blockade — applying the term to land operations and the naval blockade . According to a 2010 survey of public opinion in Serbia , 40 % of those polled did not know who bombarded Dubrovnik , while 14 % believed that no shelling occurred . In a June 2000 meeting with Croatian President Mesić , the President of Montenegro Milo Đukanović apologized to Croatia for the attack . The gesture was welcomed in Croatia , but it was condemned by Đukanović 's political opponents in Montenegro and by authorities in Serbia .
In 2007 , Montenegrin filmmaker Koča Pavlović released a documentary entitled Rat za mir ( War for peace ) , covering the role of propaganda in the siege , testimonies of Morinj camp prisoners and interviews with JNA soldiers . In 2011 , Radio Television of Montenegro broadcast a documentary series using archive footage titled Rat za Dubrovnik ( War for
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11 , Vučurević was arrested in Serbia and Croatia requested his extradition . He was released on bail on 17 June . In September , the extradition request was approved but Vučurević left Serbia and returned to Trebinje , avoiding extradition . In 2009 , Croatian authorities filed charges against ten JNA officers , including Cokić , Ružinovski , Strugar , Jokić , Zec and Kovačević . They were charged with war crimes committed in the area of Dubrovnik prior to or after 6 December 1991 , which were not covered by the ICTY indictments . The charges were made after the ICTY supplied documents collected during its investigation . In 2012 , Croatia indicted the commanding officer of the 3rd Battalion of the JNA 5th Motorized Brigade and charged him with arson for burning 90 houses , businesses and public buildings in Čilipi from 5 to 7 October 1991 .
= = = Books = = =
= = = News reports = = =
= = = Other sources = = =
= Women 's Boat Race 2014 =
The 69th Women 's Boat Race took place on 30 March 2014 . The race , between crews representing Oxford University Women 's Boat Club and Cambridge University Women 's Boat Club , was umpired by Judith Packer . Cambridge 's crew , the heavier of the two , was entirely British , while Oxford 's boat included rowers from Canada , Switzerland and the United States . Oxford won by four lengths in a time of 5 minutes 50 seconds , their second consecutive win . The victory took the overall record in the event to 41 – 28 in Cambridge 's favour . It was the last time the race would be conducted over a 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) straight race as part of the Henley Boat Races .
= = Background = =
The Women 's Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between eights from Oxford University Women 's Boat Club and the Cambridge University Women 's Boat Club that has taken place since 1927 . Oxford went into the race as champions , having won the previous year 's race by one and three @-@ quarter lengths ; Cambridge led 41 – 27 overall . It was the last time the race would be conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , along a 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) stretch of the River Thames referred to as the Straight Course which is used for the Henley Royal Regatta since 1924 . The 2015 race would be conducted on The Championship Course on the same day as men 's race .
Cambridge 's number five , Catherine Foot , remarked " After training , I step back and think ' wow , I 'm part of this incredible tradition ' . There is nothing else I 'd rather be doing than training for this event " , while Oxford 's stroke Amber de Vere said " All the training has been leading up to this weekend . Next year is definitely exciting and it has added something to training , but as a crew , we 're only thinking about Sunday . " This year 's race was umpired by Judith Packer and was sponsored by Newton Investment Management , a subsidiary of The Bank of New York Mellon , for the third successive year .
= = Crews = =
During the build @-@ up to the race , the two universities sent trial boats to race on 19 December 2013 . For the first time in the history of the competition , this took place on the Tideway on part of the Championship Course . The two Cambridge boats were named Nudge Nudge and Wink Wink ( with a third reserve boat called Say No More ) , while Oxford 's trialists rowed in Cleopatra and Boudicca . Both trials were overseen by Olympic bronze medallist Sarah Winckless .
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 73 @.@ 2 kg ( 161 lb ) per rower , 4 kilograms ( 8 @.@ 8 lb ) more than their opponents . Three members of Oxford 's 2013 crew returned to race in 2014 : Alice Carrington @-@ Windo , Maxie Scheske and Anastasia Chitty . Cambridge 's boat included two double Blues in Caroline Reid and Holly Game , while four other members of the crew had taken part in the previous year 's race . Every member of the Cambridge crew was British , while Oxford 's boat included Canadian Elizabeth Fence , German / Britons Carrington @-@ Windo and Scheske , Nadine Graedel Iberg from Switzerland and American Laura Savarese ( who had rowed in the Harvard – Yale Regatta for Harvard University on four occasions ) .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Berkshire side , handing the Buckinghamshire station to Oxford . At 3 p.m. , umpire Palmer dropped the flag to start the race . Both crews went off rating 40 strokes per minute and after the first 500 metres ( 550 yd ) Oxford were half a length ahead . By the time the crews passed the Upper Thames Rowing Club , Oxford 's lead was over a length . Cambridge made a series of pushes ; both crews were warned by the umpire to avoid a collision . Oxford continued to extend their lead to win by four lengths , the largest winning margin since the 2010 race . Their time was 5 minutes 50 seconds , six seconds slower than the record time set by Oxford in the 2006 race . The victory was Oxford 's second consecutive win and their sixth in the last seven ; it took the overall record in the event to 41 – 28 in Cambridge 's favour .
The former Oxford cox Rachel Quarrell , writing in The Daily Telegraph stated that the race " was won in storming style " and suggested the contest was over within the first two minutes . A newly @-@ designed trophy , to replace the existing wooden shield , was awarded to the Oxford president by Olympic gold medallist Sophie Hosking who had won the Women 's lightweight double sculls at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
= Tropical Storm Hazel ( 1965 ) =
Tropical Storm Hazel was a weak East Pacific tropical cyclone that caused heavy damage in Mexico . The costliest storm of the 1965 Pacific hurricane season , it formed from a northward @-@ moving disturbance that originated southeast of Socorro Island . After reaching tropical storm strength on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale , the cyclone turned to the east @-@ northeast . The storm made landfall near Mazatlán on September 26 and quickly transitioned an extratropical cyclone . Although fairly weak , the system was responsible for causing heavy damage to the Mexican economy . Flooding in Mazatlán washed out many houses and submerged others in muddy water . At least six people died with damages totaling $ 10 million ( 1965 USD ) and possibly higher . The name Hazel was retired following this storm .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 22 , a weak tropical disturbance was first observed southeast of Socorro Island . The disturbance moved northward uneventfully until late on September 23 , when the disturbance became a tropical depression at a distance of 100 mi ( 160 km ) . The next day , the depression intensified into a tropical storm while moving north at 8 mph ( 15 km / h ) . Later on September 24 , satellite imagery suggested winds of up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) near the center . Around that time , Tropical Storm Hazel reached its peak pressure of 986 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . On September 26 , a ship reported peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The storm then moved towards the east @-@ northeast and made landfall just south of Mazatlán on September 26 and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone shortly thereafter .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Since meteorologists were expecting Hazel to remain away from land , many residents were unprepared for the storm . However , 10 @,@ 000 people fled the low @-@ lying areas of Mazatlán . Substantial damage was recorded in the city Many rivers overflowed its banks , and roughly 5 @,@ 000 people were without shelter . The entire city of Mazatlán was without power and the city water system was damaged . At least 50 boats were damaged or sunk by the storm . The damage from the storm was estimated to be at least $ 10 million ( 1965 USD ) , making Hazel the costliest tropical cyclone of the season . Three people were reported killed in Mazatlán , two fishermen died when attempted to ride out the storm , and a boy who was electrocuted by a downed power line . Three additional deaths from electrocutions were reported in a rural section of Nayarit . Due to a communications breakdown , no word was received about six vacationers in Mazatlán . The city was only reachable by boat . In addition , several shacks made of wood , tin , and cardboard were either washed away or inundated by up to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of muddy water while flooding from the storm had washed out bridges and roads throughout the state and some merges were cancelled . The cyclone also had a major impact on the coastal economy since Mazatlán 's shrimp fleet , which makes up the base of the city 's economy . In southern Sinaloa , 55 @,@ 000 acres ( 220 km2 ) of cotton , corn , and sorghum were lost . There were also reports of heavy losses to livestock .
After the storm , 1 @,@ 000 people were sought shelter in schools ; in the farm areas of Barron and El Wailamo , people were taking refuge on top of trees and homes . Army units and relief agencies rushed to provide aid to coastal cities . The name Hazel was retired ; the name was replaced with Heather in 1969 .
= Freemasonry and women =
Freemasonry and women have a complex relationship , which can be readily divided into many phases with no demonstrable relationship to each other until the 20th century . A few women were involved in Freemasonry before the 18th century ; however the first printed constitutions of the Premier Grand Lodge of England appeared to bar them from the Craft forever .
The French Lodges of Adoption which spread through Continental Europe during the second half of the 18th century admitted Masons and their female relatives to a system of degrees parallel , but unrelated to the original rite . After eclipse in the 19th century , they were revived as women @-@ only lodges in the 20th , and these later adopted the male degrees to give rise to French women 's Masonry in the 1950s .
18th @-@ century British lodges and their American offshoots remained male only . In the late 1800s , rites similar to adoption emerged in the United States , allowing masons and their female relatives to participate in ritual together . These bodies , however , were more careful to discriminate between the mixed ritual and the genuine Freemasonry of the men .
In the 1890s , mixed lodges following a standard Masonic ritual started to appear in France , and quickly spread to other countries . Women @-@ only jurisdictions appeared soon afterwards . As a general rule , the admission of women is now recognised in Continental ( Grand Orient ) jurisdictions . In Anglo @-@ American Freemasonry , neither mixed nor all @-@ female lodges are officially recognised , although unofficial relations can be cordial , with premises sometimes shared .
= = Women as Operative Masons = =
Women in Mediaeval and Renaissance Europe were legally assumed to be subject to their fathers , then to their husbands after marriage . The status of women within Mediaeval trades was largely dependent on the local interpretation of femme sole , the legal term for a single woman . This was usually the widow of a tradesman , who was permitted to continue her husband 's business after his death , and often established in the rights and privileges of his trade guild or company . More rarely , single women would achieve success in their father 's trade . Exceptions occurred mainly in trades linked to traditional women 's occupations , such as haberdashery and needlecraft .
In Norwich , a woman called Gunnilda is listed as a mason in the Calendar for Close Rolls for 1256 . It is reputed that Sabina von Steinbach , the daughter of the Architect , worked on Strasbourg Cathedral in the early part of the 14th century , although the first reference to her work comes 300 years later . In England , hints of female participation appear in the Regius Manuscript ( ca 1390 @-@ 1425 ) , and in the Guild records at York Minster in 1408 . Women were employed in administrative roles in the London Mason 's Company , and as such received the benefits of membership . Also , the charge in York Manuscript No 4 , dated 1693 and used as a warrant by the later Grand Lodge of All England at York , contains the phrase " hee or shee that is to be made mason " . While a number of masonic historians have categorised this as a " misprint " , Adolphus Frederick Alexander Woodford , who studied and catalogued these documents , considered it genuine .
In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries , the status of women amongst masons in Britain is likely to be similar to that codified in the minutes of the lodge at St. Mary 's Chapel in Edinburgh . A burgess could pay for the Freedom to employ and instruct masons . The widow of a master mason could accept commissions from his old clients , provided that she employed a journeyman of the lodge to supervise the work .
= = Lodges of Adoption = =
As the Freemasonry of the Premier Grand Lodge of England spread in France , the French fraternity stayed within the letter of Anderson 's proscription of women , but saw no reason to ban them from their banquets or their religious services . During the 1740s , lodges of adoption began to appear . Attached to a regular ( men only ) lodge , wives and female relatives of the masons would be admitted to a parallel system of degrees , with a similar moral undertone to the authentic rite of the lodge . The earliest had a nautical theme . In 1747 , the Chevalier Beauchaine began the Order of Woodcutters ( Ordre des Fendeurs ) , with rites supposedly based on an early version of the Carbonari . In 1774 , the lodges of adoption came under the jurisdiction of the Grand Orient de France , and the published regulations show a system of four degrees :
Apprentie , or Female Apprentice .
Compagnonne , or Journeywoman .
Maîtresse , or Mistress .
Parfaite Maçonne , or Perfect Masoness .
Further degrees came and went , with a ten @-@ degree system evolving at the end of the Eighteenth century . The idea spread widely in Europe , but never appeared in England . After a brief eclipse during the Reign of Terror at the start of the French Revolution , lodges of adoption flourished , with the Empress Josephine presiding over one in Strasbourg in 1805 .
In 1808 , the Grand Orient decided that these lodges were unconstitutional , and they became marginalised until re @-@ activated by the same Grand Orient in 1901 . In their new incarnation , the chair was taken by a woman , where previously only a man could occupy the " Chair of King Solomon " . Final separation occurred in 1935 , and in 1959 they adopted the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite , embracing regular masonry as Grande Loge féminine de France . Only one lodge , Cosmos , holds to the adoptive rite .
= = Other concordant bodies admitting women = =
Concordant rites exist with the blessing and often the active support of regular masonic lodges . There are several concordant bodies in the United States which admit the wives and female relatives of Freemasons . The Dutch Order of Weavers admits only the wives , while in the American orders the men and women share in the ritual . Like the lodges of adoption , they have their own ceremonies , which means that some grand lodges view them as irregular .
Order of the Eastern Star In 1850 , Rob Morris created the Order of the Eastern Star for Freemasons and their female relatives . Often classed as an adoptive rite , its ritual is based on the Bible . It continues to flourish in the United States of America , and maintains a presence in Scotland .
Order of the Amaranth The ritual of the Order of the Amaranth was conceived in 1860 to be loosely based on a society with a similar name instituted over two centuries earlier by Queen Christina of Sweden . Open to master masons and their female relatives , members were once compelled to join the Order of the Eastern Star first , but the two organisations became separate in 1921 .
Ladies ’ Oriental Shrine of North America Founded in 1903 in Wheeling , West Virginia , the order has over 16 @,@ 000 members in 76 Courts across North America . A woman must be related to a member of the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine or a Master Mason by birth , marriage or adoption . She must be at least 18 years of age and a resident for at least six months in the area of the Court in which membership is desired .
The Order of the White Shrine of Jerusalem Like the members of the Masonic Lodge and other appendant bodies , members of the White Shrine must profess a belief in a Supreme Being . However , the White Shrine goes one step further , requiring members to profess a belief in Jesus Christ as the Savior and Redeemer of the World . Membership is open to female relatives of Master Masons or members either active for three years or majority of the International Order of Rainbow for Girls or Job 's Daughters International who have attained of eighteen ( 18 ) years of age .
Heroines of Jericho , Order of Cyrenes Offshoots of Prince Hall Freemasonry , these two orders are open to Royal Arch and Templar masons respectively , together with their female relatives .
Order of Weavers Formed on 17 July 1947 , the Orde van Weefsters Vita Feminea Textura , or the Order of Weavers was the creation of the wives of Dutch Freemasons . They constructed a ritual system using the tools of weaving in their symbology , which they judged to be more appropriate for women than stonemasons tools . There are now 17 lodges spread through the Netherlands .
= = Quasi @-@ Masonic Rites = =
Many rites accepting women have ritual of a Masonic style , are founded by Masons , but at best have an ambivalent reception amongst Grand Lodge masons . Nonetheless , they actively recruit new members from within regular masonry .
The Order of the Pug The Order of the Pug , or Mops @-@ Orden , is believed to have been founded in Bavaria in about 1740 , to circumvent the Papal ban on Catholics becoming Freemasons . Admitting both men and women , the order had a single rite , based on the faithfulness of the pug dog .
Cagliostro 's Egyptian Rite In 1784 , in Bordeaux , the man calling himself Count Alessandro di Cagliostro opened the first lodge of his Egyptian Rite masonry . This had the three degrees of normal French masonry ( Apprentice , Companion and Master ) , but with a greatly different , more mystical ritual . Cagliostro claimed that he was re @-@ introducing true Freemasonry , and he attempted to attract candidates wherever he went . Male candidates were already Freemasons , but women were also admitted . The ceremony for the two sexes differed only in minor points - males were admitted by Cagliostro ( the Grand Copht ) and females by his wife ( the Queen of Sheba ) . On admission , the women were told that they were now Freemasons .
Rite of Memphis @-@ Misraïm Proceeding from Cagliostro 's rite , the Rite of Misraïm ( from Arabic مصر Miṣr = Egypt ) continued as a form of mixed , esoteric masonry . Banned in 1817 , it was reformulated as the Rite of Memphis in 1838 , and in spite of fluctuating fortunes in its French home , began to spread internationally during the second half of the nineteenth century . During the 1880s the two rites were fused by Giuseppe Garibaldi into the Rite of Memphis @-@ Misraïm . The modern order now boasts up to 99 degrees , not all of which actually worked .
The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn The membership and ritual of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn were strongly linked to Freemasonry , but membership was open to non @-@ masons and to women . The grades formed a teaching system for the Caballah , and initiates had to pass an exam before being allowed to advance to the next degree .
= = Female Masons in " Masculine Only " Masonic Bodies = =
There have been a few reported cases of a woman joining a " masculine only " masonic lodge . These cases are exceptions and are debated by masonic historians .
= = = Elizabeth Aldworth = = =
One account of a woman being admitted to Freemasonry in the 18th century is the case of Elizabeth Aldworth ( born St Leger ) , who is reported to have surreptitiously viewed the proceedings of a Lodge meeting held at Doneraile House , the private house of her father , first Viscount Doneraile , a resident of Doneraile , County Cork , Ireland . Upon discovering the breach of their secrecy , the Lodge resolved to admit and obligate her , and thereafter she proudly appeared in public in Masonic clothing . Speculative attempts to link the lodge of her initiation with a documented lodge of the Grand Lodge of Ireland have proved futile , but there is no reason that her father should not have instituted a lodge in his home , and the authenticity of her initiation is generally accepted .
= = = Madame de Xaintrailles = = =
The story runs that this woman dressed as a man to enlist in the French Army , and attained the rank of Captain of Cavalry . Since the Army treated her as a man , the Lodge of Freres @-@ Artistes in Paris voted to initiate her , knowing she was a woman , when she presented herself in her cavalry uniform , with her paperwork as an Aide @-@ de @-@ camp . She is said to have been the wife of " General de Xaintrailles " , probably Charles Antoine Dominique Xaintrailles .
= = = Countess Helene / Ilona Hadik @-@ Barkóczy de Szala = = =
Countess Barkóczy ( 1833 - 1887 ) became fascinated by her grand @-@ uncle 's books on Freemasonry , browsing through his library after his death . By this time , she was married to Count Bela Hadik , Emperor Maximilian 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp . The Countess ' request for initiation into a Masonic lodge was supported by the Johannite Grand Master Ferenc Pulszky , and she was duly initiated in 1875 by a provincial lodge of Grand Orient , Lodge Egyenlőség ( Equality ) in Unghvár . ( In Hungary in that time there were two masonic Grand Lodges , the Grand Lodge of St. John and the Grand Orient worked independently from each other . ) Her initiation was then declared void by decision of Grand Orient and the perpetrators were punished , but the lodge wasn 't erased , and only one officer was excluded . The countess defended her request and argued its validity in common law . In her reasoning she brought up her knowledge of freemasonry , her legal status as a son ( praefectio ) and the absence of any mention of candidates ' gender in the constitution of the Grand Orient . The Orient , holding to Prussian law , considered the initiation null and void because the usual bureaucratic formalities were not adhered to . The next year , after debating her status , the Grand Orient demanded the return of her certificate , but she never complied . Masonic sources repeat Denslow and Truman ( 10 @,@ 000 masons ) giving her name as Countess Helene Hadik Barkóczy , while biographical and family sources use the Hungarian name Ilona .
= = = Salome Anderson = = =
In 1892 , American newspapers hailed Salome Anderson , of Oakland , California as " the only female Freemason in the world " . She had , according to some , learned the secrets of masonry by hiding in the lodge room in her uncle 's house , and was made a mason in order to pledge her to secrecy . She served on the board of trustees of her temple , and took higher degrees , as well as joining the Order of the Eastern Star .
The theme of a young woman hiding in a lodge room had become a standard formula for this type of report , which was uncritically echoed and embellished as it spread from newspaper to newspaper . Anderson herself denied that it was possible for a woman to be made a mason , but remained non @-@ committal or downright enigmatic when questioned as to the origin of her extensive knowledge of Freemasonry . Born in Alsace in 1818 , she was raised in Paris after her parents died by her uncle , a " prominent mason " . She met and married Captain Andrew Anderson in the 1840s , and settled in New Orleans , accompanying her husband on his coastal voyages in their own vessel , and managing their finances . They moved to Oakland , California in 1854 , where Andrew became a respected businessman and an active mason . He died in 1867 , leaving Salome a wealthy widow , who turned her fortune to helping masonic charities . She became the founding treasurer of Oak Leaf Chapter No 8 of the Order of the Eastern Star , and when a Masonic Temple was built , she became the largest stock @-@ holder . In spite of opposition , she was elected to the board of trustees . In 1892 , the Trestle Board published a biography of her as a prominent citizen and implied that she had acquired some degree of masonic knowledge from the masons meeting at the house of her uncle . The San Francisco News @-@ Letter and Advertiser then embellished the story by saying that she " claimed to be a mason " , having cajoled the younger members of her uncle 's lodge into clandestinely conferring the three Blue Lodge degrees on her . This story was rapidly picked up by the West Coast press , and various versions of the story were passed around . While she strenuously denied that she had come by her knowledge in an improper way , in subsequent interviews she refused to be drawn on the source of her masonic knowledge . It not known if she was ever initiated .
= = = Catherine Babington = = =
A similar story was published about Catherine Babington , first in her obituary , in Shelby , North Carolina , in 1886 , then in a short book by her son outlining her masonic career . Hailed as the only female mason in the United States , she is said to have obtained the secrets at the age of 16 by hiding in her uncles ' lodge room in Princess , Kentucky . Having lost her father at an early age , she spent much of her childhood at her grandfather 's house , where she became a favourite of her uncles . They attended a lodge in an unused chapel above Catherine 's school @-@ room , which she often helped them clean . As a teenager , Catherine Sweet ( Babington being her married name ) attended lodge meetings for a year , hiding in the old pulpit , finally being discovered when one of her uncles returned unexpectedly for a rifle he had left in the ante @-@ room . Being questioned by the lodge , it was discovered that she had committed much of the ritual to memory , and was , like Anderson , made a mason to swear her to secrecy , but in this instance not admitted to membership of the lodge . The sole source of the story is her son , and much of the detail remains unconfirmed . There is no account or recollection of such a lodge room in or around Princess .
= = Co @-@ Freemasonry : Freemasonry for Men and Women = =
On 14 January 1882 , Maria Deraismes was initiated into Freemasonry in Loge Libre Penseurs ( Freethinkers Lodge ) , in Le Pecq , just outside Paris . Deraismes was a well known writer and campaigner for democracy , women 's rights , and the separation of church and state . Her lodge , on 9 January , had seceded from la Grande Loge Symbolique Ecossaise in order to initiate her . She then resigned , to enable her lodge to rejoin their previous jurisdiction . She did , however , persist in her efforts to legitimately become a mason , with the assistance of Doctor Georges Martin , a fellow campaigner for women 's rights , and a Freemason . After a decade of trying they started to form their own lodge , and between 1 June 1892 and 4 March 1893 , assembled 16 women who wished to become masons . They were initiated as Apprentices on 14 March 1893 , Companions on 24 March , and Master Masons on 1 April . This done , on 4 April the now mixed lodge of male and female masons proceeded to elect its officers and constitute itself as La Grande Loge Symbolique Ecossaise de France , Le Droit Humain , soon to become l ’ Ordre Maçonnique Mixte International Le Droit Humain . This would flourish as international co @-@ masonry , which Deraismes never lived to see . She died the following February .
Having resolved at the outset to adopt the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite as their ritual , the new Grand Lodge found itself with only the three craft degrees , and aspiring to a 33 @-@ degree system . Male masons were sent into other jurisdictions to acquire the necessary ritual . In 1899 , ten masons in the Droit Humain received the 33rd degree , allowing them to form a Supreme Council . Lodges had opened in Paris , Blois , Lyon , Rouen , and Zürich . By 1914 , the movement had spread to Britain , the Far East , the United States , Belgium , and the Netherlands .
Co @-@ Freemasonry was brought to the English @-@ speaking world by the socialist and theosophist Annie Besant . Passing through the usual three degrees of craft masonry in 1902 , she founded the Lodge of Human Duty No. 6 in London that same year . French @-@ speaking lodges started to appear in the United States in 1903 , but it was again Besant who opened the first English speaking lodge , in 1908 . The French lodges took their lead from the Grand Orient de France in not requiring any religious belief in their members . Besant , with the blessing of Paris , followed the lead of the United Grand Lodge of England in requiring initiates to believe in a supreme being . Craft degrees in English speaking lodges took on a less continental , and more mystical flavour , with Besant importing the Dharma , or Besant Leadbeater ritual to both Britain and the United States .
Modern Co @-@ Freemasonry is divided into self @-@ governing Federations , Jurisdictions , and pioneer lodges , bound to an International Constitution and a Supreme Council , which delegates elect at an international convention every five years . In common with any other Masonic jurisdiction , the president of the Supreme Council is referred to as the Grand Master . It currently has 28 @,@ 000 members spread through 60 countries and 5 continents .
= = Exclusive Women 's Lodges = =
It is possible that a women 's lodge existed in Boston during the last quarter of the eighteenth century . Hannah Mather Crocker , in an apology for Freemasonry written in 1815 , claims to have presided over such a lodge , yet her description , " founded on the original principles of true ancient masonry , as far as was consistent with the female character " leaves the actual constitution open to question . It is also clear that St. Anne 's lodge was extinct at the time of her writing about it .
As Co @-@ Freemasonry spread in England from 1902 , some members became alarmed by decisions taken by the governing body in Paris . There was a perceived threat to the ancient form of masonic ritual . Resignations resulted , in 1908 , in the formation of a new Grand Lodge , which became the Honourable Fraternity of Antient Masonry , under a clergyman , the Rev. Dr. William Frederick Cobb , as Grand Master . His retirement after four years led to the election of a female Grand Master . Reverting to the original legal meaning of Brotherhood , the members have addressed each other as Brother since 1908 . A further split occurred in 1913 , when those wishing to include higher degrees , specifically the Royal Arch , left to form the Honourable Fraternity of Ancient Freemasons . Both societies are now exclusively female . The Honourable Fraternity of Antient Masonry restricted initiation to women and stopped admitting male visitors . The last male member left in 1935 . The older society , having started working higher degrees , changed its name in 1958 , appending the Order of Women Freemasons , as they are known today . Both bodies have lodges throughout the United Kingdom , and the Order of Women Freemasons also has lodges in Australasia , Zimbabwe , and Spain .
La Grande Loge féminine de France , which emerged from adoptive masonry in 1959 , spread to Belgium in 1974 , and la Grande Loge féminine de Belgique was formed in 1981 . By 2001 , they had 35 lodges , three of which were in the United States . These arose due to La Croisee des Chemins ( Crossroads ) , a lodge under la Grande Loge féminine de Belgique formed to spread Freemasonry amongst the women of other countries .
= = Recognition of Women as Freemasons = =
The Anglo @-@ American jurisdictions of " regular " Freemasonry follow a set of traditions referred to in ritual as the Ancient Landmarks . These comprise the practices and precepts perceived as " ancient " at the beginning of the 18th century , and frozen in time by Anderson 's Constitutions and similar works which followed and copied it . Among Anderson 's Ancient Charges , still enshrined in the constitutions of the United Grand Lodge of England ( UGLE ) and many other Grand Lodges , is a description of the person who may be admitted to Freemasonry , " good and true men , free @-@ born , and of mature and discreet age and sound judgement , no bondmen , no women , no immoral or scandalous men , but of good report " . For this reason , any lodge admitting women is considered irregular by mainstream lodges and Grand Lodges . Masons attending irregular lodges or subscribing to irregular jurisdictions , are subject to immediate exclusion or suspension from the craft . This practice is said to follow the regulation of Mediaeval stonemasons " guilds " which , UGLE claims , never accepted women . However , the UGLE has stated since 1999 that two English women 's jurisdictions ( The Order of Women Freemasons and The Honourable Fraternity of Ancient Freemasons ) are regular in practice except for their inclusion of women , and has indicated that , while not formally recognized , these bodies may be regarded as part of Freemasonry when describing Freemasonry in general . In North America , neither " mainstream " Freemasonry nor Prince Hall Freemasonry accept women , but rather have associated separate bodies , some of which are mentioned above , which are " Masonic " in character , but not Masonic in their content . These bodies , together with co @-@ freemasonry , remain anathema to UGLE .
Continental Freemasonry has no such problems . Le Droit Humain enjoys fraternal relations with the Grand Orient de France , the Grande Loge féminine de France , and the Grande Loge de France . The Grand Orient de France , in addition to recognising women 's masonry , decided in 2010 that there was no reason that its lodges should not be able to initiate women , thus adding another strand to international co @-@ masonry .
= Fagel Attraction =
" Fagel Attraction " is the twenty @-@ third episode of the fourth season of the American television series Will & Grace . It was written by Jenji Kohan and directed by series producer James Burrows . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on April 25 , 2002 . Michael Douglas , Molly Shannon , and Barry Livingston guest starred in " Fagel Attraction " .
In the episode , Will ( Eric McCormack ) files a police report after his laptop computer is stolen . He then meets a police detective ( Douglas ) who takes a special interest in his case as they go undercover — however , Will does not know that the detective participates in Jack 's ( Sean Hayes ) therapy group for gays . Meanwhile , Grace ( Debra Messing ) is once again hassled by her kleptomaniac neighbor Val ( Shannon ) who opens a rival design business and prospers by stealing Grace 's ideas .
Since airing , " Fagel Attraction " has received positive reviews from television critics . According to Nielsen ratings , the episode was watched by 14 @.@ 3 million households during its original broadcast . Douglas was mostly praised from critics for his performance and received an Emmy Award nomination in the " Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series " category .
= = Plot = =
Following the theft of Will 's ( Eric McCormack ) laptop computer , detective Gavin Hatch ( Michael Douglas ) assures Will he will do everything he can to get his laptop back . Upon meeting Will , Gavin becomes attracted to him . Instead of asking him out on a date , due to fear of rejection , Gavin makes up an elaborate story that Will 's laptop theft was part of a " gay laptop @-@ theft ring . " Meanwhile , at Grace Adler Designs , Grace ( Debra Messing ) is showing some designs to a potential client , Vince ( Barry Livingston ) . He is fond of her work and would like to become her client , but reveals that he promised another designer he would listen to her ideas too . Grace becomes horrified when she learns that her kleptomaniac neighbor and nemesis , Val ( Molly Shannon ) , is the other designer .
Meanwhile , Will and Gavin go undercover at a gay nightclub . Will believes they are doing police business for the " gay laptop @-@ theft ring " , but it is actually a date planned by Gavin . Jack ( Sean Hayes ) , a friend of Will 's , sees the two dancing and is dumbfounded . Jack and Gavin attend the same gay therapy group , and the two dislike one another , which leads Jack to tell Will all he knows about Gavin . At Will 's apartment , Gavin reveals to Will that he is gay , after Will admits to having a liking to him , but that he is " barking up the wrong tree . " Will , however , identifies Gavin 's problem with asking men out and his knack of making stories up to spend time with them . Before Gavin leaves , Will tells him to face his fears .
At Grace Adler Designs , Val suggests she and Grace integrate their presentations in the same meeting with Vince , to which Grace agrees . In the middle of Grace 's presentation , Val begins repeating the same thing Grace says . This leads to the two bickering , which prompts Karen ( Megan Mullally ) , Grace 's friend and socialite assistant , to pull them apart . She tells them that violence is never the answer , " but sometimes it is , " then chops Val behind the neck , rendering Val unconscious . Karen tells Grace to go get Vince , who was out of the room , while she gets " rid " of Val 's body .
= = Production = =
" Fagel Attraction " was written by Jenji Kohan and directed by series producer James Burrows . The episode 's title is a reference to the 1987 film Fatal Attraction which starred actor Michael Douglas . In March 2002 , it was announced that Michael Douglas would guest star on the show , playing a gay detective who becomes attracted to Will . His role on the show was his first television acting role in almost 30 years , since his role in the police drama The Streets of San Francisco . It was also confirmed that actress Molly Shannon would reprise her role as Val , Grace 's nemesis . This was Shannon 's fourth appearance on the show .
While in negotiations , Douglas ' staff approached the show 's producers about a guest spot for Douglas and the sitcom 's executives sought to work against Douglas ' image . His management team wanted him to stretch beyond his usual roles , and believed a successful comedy show like Will & Grace would be a good way to do so . The show 's producers said that Douglas was willing to go with any story line the writers could come up with . Executive producer and co @-@ creator of the show , David Kohan said : " There 's something great about playing on a person 's iconic status . [ ... ] Michael Douglas often plays these virile men , and the idea of making him a gay cop too shy to ask Will out was funny . "
However , in another interview , it was revealed that Douglas himself called the show 's producers to ask them about a guest appearance . " I am a big fan of the show , so when the opportunity to guest @-@ star came along , I had to grab it " , Douglas said on his official website . " It 's been awhile since I 've performed in front of a live audience , and it was great to flex that old theater acting muscle . It was also my first experience with a television sitcom . "
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Fagel Attraction " was watched by 14 @.@ 3 million households , according to Nielsen ratings . It received a 10 @.@ 3 rating / 15 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , and was the seventh highest @-@ rated show on the NBC network that week . " Fagel Attraction " has received mostly positive reviews from television critics since airing , and several reviewers praised Douglas for his appearance . Debra Messing , who plays Grace , commented that it was " hilarious how easily " Douglas played his character in the episode . In 2002 , he was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in the " Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series " category for this episode , but lost to Anthony LaPaglia of Frasier . In March 2006 , Entertainment Weekly named Douglas ' guest spot the fourth most memorable guest appearance on Will & Grace .
Kevin McDonough of Charleston Daily Mail called Douglas ' appearance an " unforgettable performance " , and Adam Buckman of the New York Post commented that Douglas is " such a commanding presence on screen " that he " steals every scene " . Renée Peck of The Times @-@ Picayune reported that she enjoyed watching Douglas have fun with an " off @-@ the @-@ wall " role combining an alternate lifestyle with altered consciousness . TV Guide contributor Matt Roush , in review of season four , said that without guest appearances from actors such as Douglas , the season " would be an awfully sad misfire . " Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald wrote that the " biggest laughs " in the episode come when Douglas holds hands with Will and then dances with him . Alan Pergament of The Buffalo News also praised this sequence , calling it " priceless " .
The episode received less positive reviews as well . Allan Johnson of the Chicago Tribune wrote that the episode is good , but not great : " It proves stunt @-@ casting doesn 't necessarily work unless the actor is up to the script and lead performers . And Douglas , an otherwise fine actor , basically does a caricature of a macho gay man . " Ted Cox of the Daily Herald wrote that the idea of Douglas being cast as a neurotic gay man " isn 't a whole lot to this episode . " A television reviewer from Deseret News thought that because of his role on Will & Grace , Douglas should give the Oscar he won earlier in his career back . The reviewer concluded : " He 's embarrassingly bad , as is this episode . "
Johnson was complimentary towards Molly Shannon : " Far funnier is a subplot with Molly Shannon of Saturday Night Live back as Will and Grace 's ( Messing ) whacked @-@ out neighbor Val [ ... ] Shannon , always funny and fun to watch , isn 't a mere stunt ... Shannon shows a guest actor can shine when paired with the right character . " The Palm Beach Post 's Kevin D. Thompson wrote that Shannon 's performance " displays why she should have her own sitcom " , while Cox wrote that she has a " quality in which a tightly bound surface normalcy seems to barely contain a bundle of tics and impulses , and the writers make excellent use of it by having Val try to first steal Grace 's flair for design , then cop one of her clients . " Perigard noted that Grace and Val 's storyline made it " clear that the producers just like the sight of the two women flailing their arms in a mock catfight . "
= Rongorongo =
Rongorongo ( / ˈrɒŋɡoʊˈrɒŋɡoʊ / ; Rapa Nui : [ ˈɾoŋoˈɾoŋo ] ) is a system of glyphs discovered in the 19th century on Easter Island that appears to be writing or proto @-@ writing . Numerous attempts at decipherment have been made , none successfully . Although some calendrical and what might prove to be genealogical information has been identified , not even these glyphs can actually be read . If rongorongo does prove to be writing and proves to be an independent invention , it would be one of very few independent inventions of writing in human history .
Two dozen wooden objects bearing rongorongo inscriptions , some heavily weathered , burned , or otherwise damaged , were collected in the late 19th century and are now scattered in museums and private collections . None remain on Easter Island . The objects are mostly tablets shaped from irregular pieces of wood , sometimes driftwood , but include a chieftain 's staff , a bird @-@ man statuette , and two reimiro ornaments . There are also a few petroglyphs which may include short rongorongo inscriptions . Oral history suggests that only a small elite was ever literate and that the tablets were sacred .
Authentic rongorongo texts are written in alternating directions , a system called reverse boustrophedon . In a third of the tablets , the lines of text are inscribed in shallow fluting carved into the wood . The glyphs themselves are outlines of human , animal , plant , artifact and geometric forms . Many of the human and animal figures , such as glyphs 200 and 280 , have characteristic protuberances on each side of the head , possibly representing eyes .
Individual texts are conventionally known by a single uppercase letter and a name , such as Tablet C , the Mamari Tablet . The somewhat variable names may be descriptive or indicate where the object is kept , as in the Oar , the Snuffbox , the Small Santiago Tablet , and the Santiago Staff .
= = Etymology and variant names = =
Rongorongo is the modern name for the inscriptions . In the Rapa Nui language it means " to recite , to declaim , to chant out " .
The original name — or perhaps description — of the script is said to have been kohau motu mo rongorongo , " lines incised for chanting out " , shortened to kohau rongorongo or " lines [ for ] chanting out " . There are also said to have been more specific names for the texts based on their topic . For example , the kohau ta ‘ u ( " lines of years " ) were annals , the kohau îka ( " lines of fishes " ) were lists of persons killed in war ( îka " fish " was homophonous with or used figuratively for " war casualty " ) , and the kohau ranga " lines of fugitives " were lists of war refugees .
Some authors have understood the ta ‘ u in kohau ta ‘ u to refer to a separate form of writing distinct from rongorongo . Barthel recorded that , " The Islanders had another writing ( the so @-@ called ' ta ‘ u script ' ) which recorded their annals and other secular matters , but this has disappeared . " However , Fischer writes that " the ta ‘ u was originally a type of rongorongo inscription . In the 1880s , a group of elders invented a derivative ' script ' [ also ] called ta ‘ u with which to decorate carvings in order to increase their trading value . It is a primitive imitation of rongorongo . " An alleged third script , the mama or va ‘ eva ‘ e described in some mid @-@ twentieth @-@ century publications , was " an early twentieth @-@ century geometric [ decorative ] invention " .
= = Form and construction = =
The forms of the glyphs are standardized contours of living organisms and geometric designs about one centimeter high . The wooden tablets are irregular in shape and , in many instances , fluted ( tablets B , E , G , H , O , Q , and possibly T ) , with the glyphs carved in shallow channels running the length of the tablets , as can be seen in the image of tablet G at right . It is thought that irregular and often blemished pieces of wood were used in their entirety rather than squared off due to the scarcity of wood on the island .
= = = Writing media = = =
Except for a few possible glyphs cut in stone ( see petroglyphs ) , all surviving texts are inscribed in wood . According to tradition , the tablets were made of toromiro wood . However , Orliac ( 2005 ) examined seven objects ( tablets B , C , G , H , K , Q , and reimiro L ) with stereo optical and scanning electron microscopes and determined that all were instead made from Pacific rosewood ( Thespesia populnea ) ; the same identification had been made for tablet M in 1934 . This 15 @-@ meter tree , known as " Pacific rosewood " for its color and called mako ‘ i in Rapanui , is used for sacred groves and carvings throughout eastern Polynesia and was evidently brought to Easter Island by the first settlers . However , not all the wood was native : Orliac ( 2007 ) established that tablets N , P , and S were made of South African Yellowwood ( Podocarpus latifolius ) and therefore that the wood had arrived with Western contact . Fischer describes P as " a damaged and reshapen European or American oar " , as are A ( which is European ash , Fraxinus excelsior ) and V ; notes that wood from the wreck of a Western boat was said to have been used for many tablets ; and that both P and S had been recycled as planking for a Rapanui driftwood canoe , suggesting that by that time the tablets had little value to the islanders as texts . Several texts , including O , are carved on gnarled driftwood . The fact that the islanders were reduced to inscribing driftwood , and were regardless extremely economical in their use of wood , may have had consequences for the structure of the script , such as the abundance of ligatures and potentially a telegraphic style of writing that would complicate textual analysis .
Oral tradition holds that , because of the great value of wood , only expert scribes used it , while pupils wrote on banana leaves . German ethnologist Thomas Barthel believed that carving on wood was a secondary development in the evolution of the script based on an earlier stage of incising banana leaves or the sheaths of the banana trunk with a bone stylus , and that the medium of leaves was retained not only for lessons but to plan and compose the texts of the wooden tablets . He found experimentally that the glyphs were quite visible on banana leaves due to the sap that emerged from the cuts and dried on the surface . However , when the leaves themselves dried they became brittle and would not have survived for long .
Barthel speculated that the banana leaf might even have served as a prototype for the tablets , with the fluted surface of the tablets an emulation of the veined structure of a leaf :
Practical experiments with the material available on [ Easter Island ] have proved that the above @-@ mentioned parts of the banana tree are not only an ideal writing material , but that in particular a direct correspondence exists between the height of the lines of writing and the distance between the veins on the leaves and stems of the banana tree . The classical inscriptions can be arranged in two groups according to the height of the lines ( 10 – 12 mm vs. 15 mm ) ; this corresponds to the natural disposition of the veins on the banana stem ( on average 10 mm in the lower part of a medium @-@ sized tree ) or on the banana leaf ( [ ... ] maximum 15mm ) .
= = = Direction of writing = = =
Rongorongo glyphs were written in reverse boustrophedon , left to right and bottom to top . That is , the reader begins at the bottom left @-@ hand corner of a tablet , reads a line from left to right , then rotates the tablet 180 degrees to continue on the next line . When reading one line , the lines above and below it would appear upside down , as can be seen in the image at left .
However , the writing continues onto the second side of a tablet at the point where it finishes off the first , so if the first side has an odd number of lines , as is the case with tablets K , N , P , and Q , the second will start at the upper left @-@ hand corner , and the direction of writing shifts to top to bottom .
Larger tablets and staves may have been read without turning , if the reader were able to read upside @-@ down .
= = = Writing instruments = = =
According to oral tradition , scribes used obsidian flakes or small shark teeth , presumably the hafted tools still used to carve wood in Polynesia , to flute and polish the tablets and then to incise the glyphs . ( See shark tooth tools . ) The glyphs are most commonly composed of deep smooth cuts , though superficial hair @-@ line cuts are also found . In the closeup image at right , a glyph is composed of two parts connected by a hair @-@ line cut ; this is a typical convention for this shape . Several researchers , including Barthel , believe that these superficial cuts were made by obsidian , and that the texts were carved in a two @-@ stage process , first sketched with obsidian and then deepened and finished with a worn shark tooth . The remaining hair @-@ line cuts were then either errors , design conventions ( as at right ) , or decorative embellishments . Vertical strings of chevrons or lozenges , for example , are typically connected with hair @-@ line cuts , as can be seen repeatedly in the closeup of one end of tablet B below . However , Barthel was told that the last literate Rapanui king , Nga ‘ ara , sketched out the glyphs in soot applied with a fish bone and then engraved them with a shark tooth .
Tablet N , on the other hand , shows no sign of shark teeth . Haberlandt noticed that the glyphs of this text appear to have been incised with a sharpened bone , as evidenced by the shallowness and width of the grooves . N also " displays secondary working with obsidian flakes to elaborate details within the finished contour lines . No other rongo @-@ rongo inscription reveals such graphic extravagance " .
Other tablets appear to have been cut with a steel blade , often rather crudely . Although steel knives were available after the arrival of the Spanish , this does cast suspicion on the authenticity of these tablets .
= = = Glyphs = = =
The glyphs are stylized human , animal , vegetable and geometric shapes , and often form compounds . Nearly all those with heads are oriented head up and are either seen face on or in profile to the right , in the direction of writing . It is not known what significance turning a glyph head @-@ down or to the left may have had . Heads often have characteristic projections on the sides which may be eyes ( as on the sea turtle glyph below , and more clearly on sea @-@ turtle petroglyphs ) but which often resemble ears ( as on the anthropomorphic petroglyph in the next section ) . Birds are common ; many resemble the frigatebird ( see image directly below ) which was associated with the supreme god Makemake . Other glyphs look like fish or arthropods . A few , but only a few , are similar to petroglyphs found throughout the island .
Some of the more iconic rongorongo glyphs . The seated man [ bottom left ] is thought to be a compound .
( Readings from Barthel ( 1958 ) . The captions in the right @-@ most column are merely descriptive . )
= = Origin = =
Oral tradition holds that either Hotu Matu ‘ a or Tu ‘ u ko Iho , the legendary founder ( s ) of Rapa Nui , brought 67 tablets from their homeland . The same founder is also credited with bringing indigenous plants such as the toromiro . However , there is no homeland likely to have had a tradition of writing in Polynesia or even in South America . Thus rongorongo appears to have been an internal development . Given that few if any of the Rapanui people remaining on the island in the 1870s could read the glyphs , it is likely that only a small minority were ever literate . Indeed , early visitors were told that literacy was a privilege of the ruling families and priests who were all kidnapped in the Peruvian slaving raids or died soon afterwards in the resulting epidemics .
= = = Dating the tablets = = =
Little direct dating has been done . The start of forest @-@ clearing for agriculture , and thus presumably colonization , has been dated to circa 1200 , implying a date for the invention of rongorongo no earlier than the 13th century . Tablet Q ( Small Saint Petersburg ) is the sole item that has been carbon dated , but the results only constrain the date to sometime after 1680 . Glyph 67 ( ) is thought to represent the extinct Easter Island palm , which disappeared from the island 's pollen record circa 1650 , suggesting that the script itself is at least that old .
Texts A , P , and V can be dated to the 18th or 19th century by virtue of being inscribed on European oars . Orliac ( 2005 ) argued that the wood for tablet C ( Mamari ) was cut from the trunk of a tree some 15 meters ( 50 ft ) tall , and Easter Island has long been deforested of trees that size . Analysis of charcoal indicates that the forest disappeared in the first half of the 17th century . Roggeveen , who discovered Easter Island in 1722 , described the island as " destitute of large trees " and in 1770 González de Ahedo wrote , " Not a single tree is to be found capable of furnishing a plank so much as six inches [ 15 cm ] in width . " Forster , with Cook 's expedition of 1774 , reported that " there was not a tree upon the island which exceeded the height of 10 feet [ 3 m ] . "
All of these methods date the wood , not the inscriptions themselves . Pacific rosewood is not durable , and is unlikely to survive long in Easter Island 's climate .
= = = 1770 Spanish expedition = = =
In 1770 the Spanish annexed Easter Island under Captain González de Ahedo . A signing ceremony was held in which a treaty of annexation was signed by an undisclosed number of chiefs " by marking upon it certain characters in their own form of script . " ( Reproduction at right )
Several scholars have suggested that rongorongo may have been an invention inspired by this visit and the signing of the treaty of annexation . As circumstantial evidence , they note that no explorer reported the script prior to Eugène Eyraud in 1864 , and are of the opinion that the marks with which the chiefs signed the Spanish treaty do not resemble rongorongo . The hypothesis of these researchers is not that rongorongo was itself a copy of the Latin alphabet , or of any other form
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make temporary appointments until a special election can be held .
The amendment was proposed in the 62nd Congress in 1912 and became law in 1913 after being ratified by the required 36 state legislatures . It was implemented in special elections in Maryland ( November 1913 ) and Alabama ( May 1914 ) and then nationwide in the November 1914 election .
= = Text = =
The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State , elected by the people thereof , for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote . The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures .
When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate , the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies : Provided , That the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct .
This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution .
= = Background = =
= = = Original composition = = =
Originally , under Article I , § 3 , Clauses 1 and 2 of the Constitution , each state legislature elected its state 's senators for a six @-@ year term . Each state , regardless of size , is entitled to two senators as part of the Connecticut Compromise between the small and large states . This contrasted with the House of Representatives , a body elected by popular vote , and was described as an uncontroversial decision ; at the time , James Wilson was the sole advocate of popularly electing the Senate and his proposal was defeated 10 – 1 . There were many advantages to the original method of electing senators . Prior to the Constitution , a federal body was one where states effectively formed nothing more than permanent treaties , with citizens retaining their loyalty to their original state . However , under the Constitution , the states were subordinated to a central government ; the election of senators by the states reassured Anti @-@ federalists that there would be some protection against the swallowing up of states and their powers by the federal government , providing a check on the power of the federal government .
Additionally , the longer terms and avoidance of popular election turned the Senate into a body that could " temper " the populism of the House . While the Representatives operated in a two @-@ year direct election cycle , making them frequently accountable to their constituents , the senators could afford to " take a more detached view of issues coming before Congress " . State legislatures retained the theoretical right to " instruct " their senators to vote for or against proposals , thus giving the states both direct and indirect representation in the federal government . The Senate was part of a formal bicameralism , with the members of the Senate and House responsible to completely distinct constituencies ; this helped defeat the problem of the federal government being subject to " special interests " . Members of the Constitutional Convention considered the Senate to be equivalent to the British House of Lords as an ' upper house ' , containing the " better men " of society ; it was hoped that they would provide more coolness and stability than the House of Representatives due to the senators ' status .
= = = Issues = = =
According to Judge Jay Bybee of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit , those in favor of popular elections for senators believed that two primary problems were caused by the original provisions : legislative corruption and electoral deadlocks . There was a sense that senatorial elections were " bought and sold " , changing hands for favors and sums of money rather than because of the competence of the candidate . Between 1857 and 1900 , the Senate investigated three elections over corruption . In 1900 , for example , William A. Clark had his election voided after the Senate concluded that he had bought votes in the Montana legislature . But , analysts Bybee and Todd Zywicki believe this concern was largely unfounded ; there was a " dearth of hard information " on the subject . In more than a century of legislative elections of US senators , only 10 cases were contested for allegations of impropriety .
Electoral deadlocks were another issue . Because state legislatures were charged with deciding whom to appoint as senators , the system relied on them being able to agree . Some states could not , and thus delayed sending representatives to Congress ; in a few cases , the system broke down to the point where states completely lacked representation in the Senate . Deadlocks started to become an issue in the 1850s , with a dead @-@ locked Indiana legislature allowing a Senate seat to sit vacant for two years . Between 1891 and 1905 , 46 elections were deadlocked , in 20 different states ; in one extreme example , a Senate seat for Delaware went unfilled from 1899 until 1903 . The business of holding elections also caused great disruption in the state legislatures , with a full third of the Oregon House of Representatives choosing not to swear the oath of office in 1897 due to a dispute over an open Senate seat . The result was that the legislature was unable to pass legislation that year .
Zywicki again argues that this was not a serious issue . Deadlocks were a problem , but they were the exception rather than the norm ; many legislatures did not deadlock over elections at all . Most of those that did in the 19th century were the newly admitted western states , which suffered from " inexperienced legislatures and weak party discipline ... as western legislatures gained experience , deadlocks became less frequent . " While Utah suffered from deadlocks in 1897 and 1899 , they became " a good teaching experience , " and Utah never again failed to elect senators . Another concern was that when deadlocks occurred , state legislatures were unable to conduct their other normal business ; James Christian Ure , writing in the South Texas Law Review , notes that this did not in fact occur . In a deadlock situation , state legislatures would deal with the matter by holding " one vote at the beginning of the day — then the legislators would continue with their normal affairs " .
State legislative elections were perceived to have become dominated by the business of picking senators . Senator John H. Mitchell noted that the Senate became the " vital issue " in all legislative campaigns , with the policy stances and qualifications of state legislative candidates ignored by voters who were more interested in the indirect Senate election . To remedy this , some state legislatures created " advisory elections " that served as de facto general elections , allowing legislative campaigns to focus on local issues .
= = = Calls for reform = = =
Calls for a constitutional amendment regarding Senate elections started in the early 19th century , with Henry R. Storrs in 1826 proposing an amendment to provide for popular election . Similar amendments were introduced in 1829 and 1855 , with the " most prominent " proponent being Andrew Johnson , who raised the issue in 1868 and considered the idea 's merits " so palpable " that no additional explanation was necessary . In the 1860s , there was a major Congressional dispute over the issue , with the House and Senate voting to veto the appointment of John P. Stockton to the Senate due to his approval by a plurality rather than a majority vote for the office . In reaction , the Congress passed a bill in July 1866 that required state legislatures to elect senators by an absolute majority .
By the 1890s , support for the introduction of direct election for the Senate had substantially increased , and reformers worked on two fronts . On the first front , the Populist Party incorporated the direct election of senators into its Omaha Platform , adopted in 1892 . In 1908 , Oregon passed the first law that based the selection of U.S. senators on a popular vote . Oregon was soon followed by Nebraska . Proponents for popular election noted that ten states already had non @-@ binding primaries for Senate candidates , in which the candidates would be voted on by the public , effectively serving as advisory referenda instructing state legislatures how to vote ; reformers campaigned for more states to introduce a similar method .
William Randolph Hearst opened a nationwide popular readership for direct election of U.S. Senators in a 1906 series of articles using flamboyant language attacking “ The Treason of the Senate ” in his Cosmopolitan Magazine . David Graham Philips , one of the " yellow journalists " whom President Teddy Roosevelt called “ muckrakers ” , described Nelson Aldrich of Rhode Island as the principal “ traitor ” among the “ scurvy lot ” in control of the Senate by theft , perjury , and bribes corrupting the state legislatures to gain election to the Senate . A few state legislatures began to petition the Congress for direct election of senators . By 1893 , the House had the two @-@ thirds vote for just such an amendment . However , when the joint resolution reached the Senate , it failed from neglect , as it did again in 1900 , 1904 and 1908 ; each time the House approved the appropriate resolution , and each time it died in the Senate .
On the second national legislative front , reformers worked toward a constitutional amendment , which was strongly supported in the House of Representatives but initially opposed by the Senate . Bybee notes that the state legislatures , which would lose power if the reforms went through , were supportive of the campaign . By 1910 , 31 state legislatures had passed resolutions calling for a constitutional amendment allowing direct election , and in the same year ten Republican senators who were opposed to reform were forced out of their seats , acting as a " wake @-@ up call to the Senate " .
Reformers included William Jennings Bryan , while opponents counted respected figures such as Elihu Root and George Frisbie Hoar among their number ; Root cared so strongly about the issue that after the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment , he refused to stand for re ‑ election to the Senate . Bryan and the reformers argued for popular election through highlighting perceived flaws with the existing system , specifically corruption and electoral deadlocks , and through arousing populist sentiment . Most important was the populist argument ; that there was a need to " Awaken , in the senators ... a more acute sense of responsibility to the people " , which it was felt they lacked ; election through state legislatures was seen as an anachronism that was out of step with the wishes of the American people , and one that had led to the Senate becoming " a sort of aristocratic body – too far removed from the people , beyond their reach , and with no special interest in their welfare " . The settlement of the West and continuing absorption of hundreds of thousands of immigrants expanded the sense of " the people . "
Hoar replied that ' the people ' were both a less permanent and a less trusted body than state legislatures , and that moving the responsibility for the election of senators to them would see it passing into the hands of a body that " [ lasted ] but a day " before changing . Other counterarguments were that renowned senators could not have been elected directly , and that since a large number of senators had experience in the House , which was already directly elected , a constitutional amendment would be pointless . The reform was considered by opponents to threaten the rights and independence of the states , who were " sovereign , entitled ... to have a separate branch of Congress ... to which they could send their ambassadors " . This was countered by the argument that a change in the mode in which senators were elected would not change their responsibilities .
The Senate freshman class of 1910 brought new hope to the reformers . Fourteen of the thirty newly elected senators had been elected through party primaries , which amounted to popular choice in their states . More than half of the states had some form of primary selection for the Senate . The Senate finally joined the House to submit the Seventeenth Amendment to the states for ratification , nearly ninety years after it first was presented to the Senate in 1826 .
By 1912 , 239 political parties at both the state and national level had pledged some form of direct election , and 33 states had introduced the use of direct primaries . Twenty @-@ seven states had called for a constitutional convention on the subject , with 31 states needed to reach the threshold ; Arizona and New Mexico each achieved statehood that year ( bringing the total number of states to 48 ) , and were expected to support the motion . Alabama and Wyoming , already states , had passed resolutions in favor of a convention without formally calling for one .
= = Proposal and ratification = =
= = = Proposed by the Congress = = =
In 1911 , the House of Representatives passed House Joint Resolution 39 proposing a constitutional amendment for direct election of senators . It included a “ race rider ” meant to bar federal intervention in cases of racial discrimination against voters . Since the turn of the century , most blacks in the South , and many poor whites , had been disenfranchised by state legislatures passing constitutions with provisions that were discriminatory in practice . This meant that their millions of population had no political representation . Most of the South had one @-@ party states . When the resolution came before the Senate , a substitute resolution , one without the rider , was proposed by Joseph L. Bristow of Kansas . It was adopted by a vote of 64 to 24 , with 4 not voting . Nearly a year later , the House accepted the change . The conference report that would become the Seventeenth Amendment was approved by the Senate 42 to 36 on April 12 , 1912 , and by the House 238 to 39 , with 110 not voting on May 13 , 1912 .
= = = Ratification by the states = = =
Having been passed by Congress , the amendment was sent to the states for ratification and was ratified by :
Massachusetts — May 22 , 1912
Arizona — June 3 , 1912
Minnesota — June 10 , 1912
New York — January 15 , 1913
Kansas — January 17 , 1913
Oregon — January 23 , 1913
North Carolina — January 25 , 1913
California — January 28 , 1913
Michigan — January 28 , 1913
Iowa — January 30 , 1913
Montana — January 30 , 1913
Idaho — January 31 , 1913
West Virginia — February 4 , 1913
Colorado — February 5 , 1913
Nevada — February 6 , 1913
Texas — February 7 , 1913
Washington — February 7 , 1913
Wyoming — February 8 , 1913
Arkansas — February 11 , 1913
Maine — February 11 , 1913
Illinois — February 13 , 1913
North Dakota — February 14 , 1913
Wisconsin — February 18 , 1913
Indiana — February 19 , 1913
New Hampshire — February 19 , 1913
Vermont — February 19 , 1913
South Dakota — February 19 , 1913
Oklahoma — February 24 , 1913
Ohio — February 25 , 1913
Missouri — March 7 , 1913
New Mexico — March 13 , 1913
Nebraska — March 14 , 1913
New Jersey — March 17 , 1913
Tennessee — April 1 , 1913
Pennsylvania — April 2 , 1913
Connecticut — April 8 , 1913
With 36 states having ratified the Seventeenth Amendment , it was certified by Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan on May 31 , 1913 , as part of the Constitution . The amendment has subsequently been ratified by :
Louisiana — June 11 , 1914
Alabama — April 11 , 2002
Delaware — July 1 , 2010 ( After rejecting the amendment on March 18 , 1913 )
Maryland — April 1 , 2012
Rhode Island – June 20 , 2014
The Utah legislature rejected the amendment on February 26 , 1913 . No action on the amendment has been completed by : Florida , Georgia , Kentucky , Mississippi , South Carolina , or Virginia .
= = = Effect = = =
The Seventeenth Amendment altered the process for electing United States Senators and changed the way vacancies would be filled . Under the original constitutional provision , state legislatures filled vacancies when a Senator left office before the end of the term ; the Seventeenth Amendment provides that state legislatures can grant governors the right to make temporary appointments , which last until a special election is provided to fill the seat . The power to call such an election can also be granted to the governor . It also had an immediate and dramatic impact on the political composition of the U.S. Senate .
Before the Supreme Court required " one man , one vote " in Reynolds v. Sims ( 1964 ) , rural counties and cities could be given equal weight in the state legislatures , enabling one rural vote to equal 200 city votes . The malapportioned state legislatures would have given the Republicans control of the Senate in the 1916 Senate elections . With direct election , each vote represented equally , the Democrats retained control of the Senate .
The reputation of corrupt and arbitrary state legislatures continued to decline as the Senate joined the House of Representatives implementing popular reforms . Judge Bybee has argued that the amendment led to complete " ignominy " for state legislatures without the props of a state @-@ based check on Congress . Progressive measures were enacted to enable the federal government to supersede the discredited states repeatedly over decades . However , Schleiches argues that the separation of state legislatures and the Senate has had a beneficial effect on the states , as it has allowed state legislative campaigns to focus on local rather than national issues .
New Deal legislation is another example of expanding federal regulation overruling the state legislatures promoting their local state interests in coal , oil , corn and cotton . Ure agrees , saying that not only is each Senator now free to ignore his state 's interests , Senators " have incentive to use their advice @-@ and @-@ consent powers to install Supreme Court justices who are inclined to increase federal power at the expense of state sovereignty " . Over the first half of the 20th century , with a popularly elected Senate confirming nominations , both Republican and Democratic , the Supreme Court began to apply the Bill of Rights to the states , overturning state laws whenever they harmed individual state citizens .
= = = First direct elections to the Senate = = =
Oklahoma , admitted to statehood in 1907 , chose a Senator by legislative election three times : twice in 1907 , when admitted , and once in 1908 . In 1912 , Oklahoma reelected Robert Owen by advisory popular vote .
New Mexico , admitted to statehood in 1912 , chose only its first two Senators legislatively . Arizona , admitted to statehood in 1912 , chose its first two Senators by advisory popular vote . Alaska , and Hawaii , admitted to statehood in 1959 , have never chosen a U.S. Senator legislatively .
The first direct elections to the Senate following the Seventeenth Amendment being adopted were :
In Maryland on November 4 , 1913 : a class 1 special election due to a vacancy , for a term ending in 1917 .
In Alabama on May 11 , 1914 : a class 3 special election due to a vacancy , for a term ending in 1915 .
Nationwide in 1914 : All 32 class 3 senators , term 1915 – 1921
Nationwide in 1916 : All 32 class 1 senators , term 1917 – 1923
Nationwide in 1918 : All 32 class 2 senators , term 1919 – 1925
= = = Interpretation and advocacy for reform = = =
In Trinsey v. Pennsylvania ( 1991 ) , the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit was faced with a situation where , following the death of Senator H. John Heinz III of Pennsylvania , Governor Robert P. Casey had provided for a replacement and for a special election that did not include a primary . A voter and prospective candidate , John S. Trinsey , Jr . , argued that the lack of a primary violated the Seventeenth Amendment and his right to vote under the Fourteenth Amendment . The Third Circuit rejected these arguments , ruling that the Seventeenth Amendment does not require primaries .
Another subject of analysis is whether statutes restricting the authority of governors to appoint temporary replacements are constitutional . Vikram Amar , writing in the Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly , claims that Wyoming 's requirement that its governor fill a senatorial vacancy by nominating a person of the same party as the person who vacated that Senate seat violates the Seventeenth Amendment . This is based on the text of the Seventeenth Amendment , which states that " the legislature of any state may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments " . The amendment only empowers the legislature to delegate the authority to the governor and , once that authority has been delegated , does not permit the legislature to intervene . The authority is to decide whether or not the governor shall have the power to appoint temporary senators , not in what fashion he should do so . Sanford Levinson , in his rebuttal to Amar , argues that rather than engaging in a textual interpretation , those examining the meaning of constitutional provisions should interpret them in the fashion that provides the most benefit , and that legislatures being able to restrict gubernatorial appointment authority provides a substantial benefit to the states .
Due to the controversy over the effects of the Seventeenth Amendment , advocates have emerged for both reform and / or repeal of the amendment . Under President Barack Obama 's administration in 2009 , four sitting Democratic senators left the Senate for appointed executive branch positions : Barack Obama ( President ) , Joe Biden ( Vice President ) , Hillary Rodham Clinton ( Secretary of State ) , and Ken Salazar ( Secretary of the Interior ) . Controversies developed about the successor appointments made by Illinois Governor Rod Blagojevich and New York Governor David Paterson . New interest was aroused in abolishing the provision for the Senate appointment by the governor .
Accordingly , Senator Russ Feingold of Wisconsin and Representative David Dreier of California proposed an amendment to remove this power ; Senators John McCain and Dick Durbin became co @-@ sponsors , as did Representative John Conyers . The Tea Party movement has been arguing for repealing the Seventeenth Amendment entirely , claiming that it would protect states ' rights and reduce the power of the federal government .
On March 2 , 2016 , the Utah legislature approved Senate Joint Resolution No. 2 asking Congress to offer an amendment to the United States Constitution that would repeal the Seventeenth Amendment .
= Tropical Depression One ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Depression One was the first tropical cyclone to develop during the 2009 Atlantic hurricane season . Upon being declared a tropical depression on May 28 , it marked the third time that a pre @-@ season storm formed in three consecutive years . Originating from a disorganized area of low pressure off the coast of North Carolina , Tropical Depression One quickly developed over the Gulf stream . After attaining winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) along with a minimum pressure of 1006 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 71 inHg ) , the depression began to weaken due to increasing wind shear and cooling sea surface temperatures . During the afternoon of May 29 , convection associated with the system was significantly displaced from the center of circulation ; this led the National Hurricane Center to issue their final advisory on the depression as it had degenerated into a remnant @-@ low pressure area . As a tropical cyclone , Tropical Depression One had no effects on land ; however , the precursor to the depression brought minor rainfall and light winds to parts of coastal North Carolina . Its track , formation , and timing were relatively similar to Tropical Storm One of the 1940 Atlantic hurricane season .
= = Meteorological history = =
During mid @-@ May , a frontal boundary stalled near The Bahamas and slowly degenerated . On May 25 , a shortwave trough caused the northern portion of the system to move north of the Bahamas . The following day , an area of low pressure developed along the boundary about 290 miles ( 465 km ) south @-@ southwest of Wilmington , North Carolina . Tracking towards the north , the system became increasingly organized . On May 27 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began issuing Tropical Weather Outlooks for the low while it was located about 120 miles ( 195 km ) south of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . An upper @-@ level ridge situated to the southeast of the system was steering it towards the northeast . The NHC issued their final outlook on the low around 0000 UTC on May 28 while the system was located about 90 mi ( 150 km ) east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , as development of the low was not expected .
On May 28 , the NHC once again initiated outlooks on the system as convection quickly redeveloped . Around 1500 UTC , they designated the system as Tropical Depression One while it was located about 310 mi ( 500 km ) south of Providence , Rhode Island . Upon being classified , the depression exhibited deep convective activity , with the center of circulation situated on the northwestern edge . The redevelopment of the system was the result of low wind shear and warm waters , up to 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) , from the Gulf Stream . Later that day , convection began to diminish as the depression tracked into an area of progressively higher shear and cooler waters . By this time , the system was embedded within the westerlies between a subtropical ridge to the southeast and a trough to the northwest . Around 2330 UTC , a QuickSCAT satellite pass over the depression found tropical storm @-@ force winds ; however , the winds were determined to have been affected by rain and therefore not representative of the depression 's actual intensity . Following the satellite pass , the center of circulation became partially exposed to the northwest and the area of convection associated with the depression diminished in area .
Early on May 29 , Tropical Depression One nearly attained tropical storm status , with intensity estimates using the Dvorak Technique reaching T2.5 , or 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) ; however , the estimates were also as low as T1.5 , leading to the intensity of the depression remaining at 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . After a burst in convective activity overnight , shower and thunderstorm activity waned once more by 0700 UTC . Situated at the edge of the Gulf Stream , intensification into a tropical storm was no longer anticipated . Later that morning , the center of circulation became fully exposed by strong wind shear ; an approaching trough also began absorbing the small depression by this time . The remaining convection associated with the system was displaced to the southeast . With no convection developing around the depression , it degenerated into a remnant @-@ low pressure area during the afternoon of May 29 . At 2100 UTC , the NHC issued their final advisory on Tropical Depression One . The remnants of the depression persisted until 0600 UTC on May 30 , at which time it was absorbed by a warm front south of Nova Scotia .
= = Preparations , impact and records = =
The precursor to Tropical Depression One produced light showers over parts of North Carolina on May 27 . Rainfall in Hatteras amounted to 0 @.@ 1 in ( 2 @.@ 5 mm ) on May 27 ; sustained wind reached 15 mph ( 24 km / h ) and gusts were measured up to 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) . The lowest sea level pressure recorded in relation to the system was 1009 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 81 inHg ) . Increased winds along coastal areas of the state was possible in relation to the outer edges of the depression . Tropical Depression One was the farthest north a May tropical cyclone is known to have formed , according to the NHC 's Tropical Cyclone Report .
= Plum River raid =
The Plum River raid was a bloodless skirmish that occurred at present @-@ day Savanna , Illinois , on May 21 , 1832 , as part of the Black Hawk War . Most of the settlement 's inhabitants , except for a few defenders , had fled for Galena , Illinois , before the raid happened . A small band of Native Americans , either Sauk or Fox , attacked the settlement while only three of the six defenders were present . The men who were present fell back to the blockhouse and a firefight ensued for about one hour , after which the attackers withdrew . No one was killed or injured during the attack , but in its aftermath Colonel James M. Strode dispatched a detachment of militia to Savanna . They returned to Galena without incident and the settlement at Savanna was temporarily abandoned .
= = Background = =
As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between the Governor of Indiana Territory and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement , the Sauk and Fox tribes vacated their lands in Illinois and moved west of the Mississippi in 1828 . However , Sauk Chief Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty , claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted , nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands . Angered by the loss of his birthplace , between 1830 – 31 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River , but was persuaded to return west each time without bloodshed . In April 1832 , encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British , he again moved his so @-@ called " British Band " of around 1000 warriors and non @-@ combatants into Illinois . Finding no allies , he attempted to return across the Mississippi ( to modern Iowa ) , but ensuing events led to the Battle of Stillman 's Run . A number of other engagements followed and the militia of Michigan Territory and the state of Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk 's band . The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War . After Stillman 's Run , an ambush at Buffalo Grove killed one militia member two days before the raid on the Plum River settlement .
= = Prelude = =
The settlement at the mouth of the Plum River was established in 1827 when copper was discovered near the Mississippi River . When the Black Hawk War erupted in 1832 , the settlement at Plum River consisted of 25 people . When the settlers were informed of Black Hawk 's invasion they were undecided about whether or not to abandon their homes for safer grounds in Galena , Illinois . In the end , while nearby towns such as Hanover emptied of their residents , the citizens at Plum River decided to send the women and children to Galena and leave the men to stick it out on the frontier . They partially disassembled two of the settlement 's homes and constructed a blockhouse for protection . Left to defend the impromptu fortifications were Aaron Pierce , Vance Davidson , Robert Upton , William Blundell , Leonard Goss and a man known as Hays . On May 19 another group of militia volunteers were ambushed at Buffalo Grove and two days later the more famous Indian Creek massacre occurred ( on the same day as the raid at Plum River ) .
= = Attack = =
On May 21 , 1832 , a small raiding party made up of some independent minded braves from Keokuk 's village or the Fox village at Dubuque 's Mines carried out a raid on the settlement at present @-@ day Savanna , Illinois on the Plum River . The party originated west of the Mississippi River and were probably motivated by a desire to collect needed supplies . When the small raiding party arrived at the settlement they found it practically deserted : only three men were present . Of the six men originally at the settlement , three had left when the raiding party arrived : Blundell was away , Upton was hunting nearby , and Davidson had left the area in search of a horse . Of the three men left at the settlement , Hays and Goss were trying to round up livestock , while only Pierce remained at the blockhouse . Pierce heard a dog barking outside and looked up to see a small band of Native Americans creeping along the river 's edge . He immediately sounded the alarm and Hays and Goss sprinted for the blockhouse . Gunshots started to explode behind the men as they approached the protection of their makeshift fortification .
Goss darted inside , but Hays slipped and fell before he could enter the blockhouse . As he fell , three musket balls lodged themselves into the wall where he had been standing moments before . While the attackers reloaded , Hays slipped inside and for about an hour an exchange of heavy gunfire erupted between the parties before the attackers withdrew . A fourth man , Upton , was out hunting nearby ; when he was discovered by the attackers he was chased throughout the afternoon . Upton escaped the attackers injury @-@ free . In fact , no person was killed or injured during the Plum River raid . The small raiding party escaped with three horses , but two horses were badly wounded by gunfire , and the other shot dead by the settlement 's defenders .
= = Aftermath = =
The men at the Plum River settlement waited overnight and then fled to Galena where they reported the incident to Colonel James M. Strode . He ordered a militia party to the settlement to secure the it and make sure the attackers were dealt with accordingly . When the detachment arrived at Savanna they found no Native Americans , and plenty of bullet holes from the battle . The group continued to Fort Armstrong , where they picked up supplies , and returned to Galena without incident . On June 1 , then @-@ Colonel Zachary Taylor expressed his concerns about recent events , including the Plum River raid in a letter to General Henry Atkinson . He stated that there had no doubt been an attack at the settlement , but no one was killed and the site abandoned since .
= Project Camel =
Project Camel was the codename given to work performed by the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) in support of the Manhattan Project during World War II . These activities included the development of detonators and other equipment , testing of bomb shapes dropped from Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress bombers , and the Salt Wells Pilot Plant , where explosive components of nuclear weapons were manufactured .
= = Background = =
In the early 1930s , an emergency landing field was built by the Works Progress Administration in the Mojave Desert near the small town of Inyokern , California . Opened in 1935 , it was acquired by the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) in 1942 , and became part of the Muroc Bombing and Gunnery Range . In 1943 , the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) contracted with the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) for the testing and evaluation of rockets for the Navy . A suitable test area was required for this near Pasadena , California , so the area was transferred from the Army to the Navy in October 1943 , and commissioned as the Naval Ordnance Test Station ( NOTS ) in December 1943 . Workshops , laboratories and facilities were constructed for over 600 men . During 1944 , NOTS worked on the development and testing of the 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch , 5 @-@ inch , HVAR and 11 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( Tiny Tim ) rockets .
By late 1944 , rocket development and testing work began to taper off , and production models started to reach the Navy and USAAF in quantity . The director of the OSRD , Vannevar Bush saw an opportunity to use some of the expertise at Caltech on another secret wartime project he was involved with , the Manhattan Project . Bush arranged for Charles C. Lauritsen , the head of the rocket team at Caltech , to visit the Los Alamos Laboratory , and meet with the project director , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the laboratory director , Robert Oppenheimer , and senior scientists at the Los Alamos laboratory . Oppenheimer and Lauritsen knew each other well , as Oppenheimer had worked at Caltech before the war . In addition to its scientists , Caltech also possessed an experienced procurement team , headed by Trevor Gardner . This group worked closely with its counterpart at Los Alamos , which was headed by Lieutenant Colonel Robert W. Lockridge .
= = Codename = =
All the work done at NOTS on behalf of the Manhattan Project came under the codename Project " Camel " . The name is said to have come from a remark by a Los Alamos scientist that once a camel ( meaning Caltech ) gets its nose under a tent flap it is hard to dislodge .
= = Manhattan Project = =
= = = Drop testing = = =
The Manhattan Project conducted an extensive series of drop tests to evaluate various bomb shapes . These were initially conducted with scale models of the bomb dropped from a Grumman TBF Avenger at the US Navy test range at Dahlgren , Virginia starting in August 1943 . A new airfield was constructed at NOTS , using Manhattan Project funding , with three runways , 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , 7 @,@ 700 feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) and 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) long , and 200 feet ( 61 m ) wide to accommodate the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress . Fuel storage for 200 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 760 @,@ 000 l ) of gasoline and 20 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 76 @,@ 000 l ) of oil . It was opened on 1 June 1945 , and named Armitage Field after Navy Lieutenant John Armitage , who was killed while testing a Tiny Tim rocket at NOTS in August 1944 .
Three B @-@ 29s were based at Armitage for drop testing . Caltech 's Gerald Kron developed instrumentation to evaluate the test drops , which were made by aircraft based at NOTS , Muroc and Wendover Army Air Field . Getting the Fat Man to fall properly was quite difficult . One officer described it as :
... a crazy bomb . It was built about like a streamlined brick , and to get [ it ] to fly reasonably well ballistically was quite a chore .
The resolution of the problem involved extensive testing with various fin configurations . Commander Chick Hayward initially thought that test bombs dropped at NOTS would be easier to recover than those dropped on the sands at Wendover , but they proved to have considerable ability to penetrate the desert floor , and required no less digging out .
The commander of Project Alberta , Captain Deak Parsons , had four bomb assembly kits produced . These kits were fully contained facilities , which included a number of Quonset huts with air conditioning . Two were shipped to the Pacific island of Tinian , where the atomic bombs were assembled . One was kept as a spare at Wendover , and one was erected at Inyokern , where it was used to assemble the explosive but non @-@ nuclear pumpkin bombs for testing .
= = = Detonators = = =
The design of the Fat Man required that a number of explosive lenses had to be detonated simultaneously . After learning from Luis Alvarez that the Los Alamos Laboratory had encountered problems with the supply of the exploding bridgewire detonators required for this , Lauritsen found manufacturers in the Los Angeles area that could produce them . Alvarez ordered the detonators by the thousand . They were used in the bomb , but most were expended in various diagnostic tests required to verify that the detonators and the lenses worked perfectly .
Responsibility for the development and testing of the critical detonators was shared between Lauritsen 's group at Caltech and Robert Henderson 's group at Los Alamos . By mid @-@ 1945 , the object was to produce 1 @,@ 000 detonators each week . Meeting this target proved challenging . Reliability was the key problem , with initial batches containing unacceptably high numbers of failures . In May 1945 , a box of detonators manufactured by Raytheon fell from a truck and tumbled down a mountain side , but were found to still be in working order .
= = = Pilot plant = = =
The explosive lenses required by the Fat Man had to be fabricated . A small explosive plant was established at Los Alamos known as Site S , as it was a former sawmill . Groves was appalled at the work practices and safety at Site S , and considered it only a matter of time before it blew up . On Parsons ' recommendation , Groves decided to establish a pilot plant at NOTS , because Caltech had experience in building and operating pilot ordnance plants . He had some misgivings about this , because he thought that the Navy might err too far on the side of workplace safety .
Groves and Parsons met with Lauritsen and Bruce Sage , who had built the China Lake Pilot Plant where the rockets were made , and it was agreed that Caltech would build and operate the plant . A site was chosen in the Salt Wells Valley and work commenced on 80 buildings , 52 of them permanent , at a cost of $ 13 million . Groves wanted the plant working within 100 days . While Site S had sufficient capacity to make explosive components for one or two bombs , it was unlikely that it could meet the expected demand in the months to come . Complicating the construction program was the fact that Los Alamos had not finalized what processes would be used .
Equipping the plants involved its own challenges . Some facilities had to be fabricated for the purpose . Some items were hard to locate , while others were in short supply in the wartime economy . The Manhattan Project 's overriding priority overcame this problem . In some cases , the Army had representatives at the factories where items were made who designated them for use by Project Camel . Groves felt that his fears about excessive safety were realized : reinforced concrete , blast proof doors and electrical shielding drove up costs . In the end , after 115 days , the first explosives were melted , mixed and poured on 25 July 1945 .
= = After the war = =
After the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , the Under Secretary of War , Robert P. Patterson , sent a telegram to " all the men and women employed on the Camel Project " :
Today the whole world knows the secret which you have helped us keep for many months . I am pleased to be able to add that the warlords of Japan now know its effects better even than we ourselves . The atomic bomb which you have helped to develop with high devotion to patriotic duty is the most devastating military weapon that any country has ever been able to turn against its enemy . No one of you has worked on the entire project or known the whole story . Each of you has done his own job and kept his own secret , and so today I speak for a grateful nation when I say congratulations and thank you all . I hope you will continue to keep the secrets you have kept so well . The need for security and for continued effort is fully as great now as it ever was . We are proud of every one of you .
Production at Site S ceased in late 1945 due to the cold weather . All work was then done at Salt Wells . The plant was completed in January 1946 , and all equipment was installed and working by May 1946 . Work was initially dogged by an unacceptably large number of defects in the form of cracks or imperfections in the explosive blocks . The core of the problem was that the techniques used at Los Alamos did not scale to a production site , so different methods were required . Special instrumentation was devised by Caltech 's Ira Bowen to assess the quality of the explosive blocks .
The temporary nature of the accommodation was no longer acceptable after the war , and the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) , which took over from the Manhattan Project on 1 January 1947 , spent $ 3 @.@ 252 million on 380 sets of family quarters , streets , electricity , sewers , mains water , and a small school , which was named after Groves , and opened in 1948 . Improved techniques and facilities allowed the plant to triple its output in 1947 . By 1949 , the pilot plant employed over 700 people . The pilot plant helped design and equip and train workers for the new Burlington AEC Plant , which took over responsibility for manufacturing the explosive lenses . The Salt Wells Pilot Plant was closed in 1954 .
= M @-@ 150 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 150 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs through Rochester Hills and Rochester . It is more commonly known as Rochester Road and runs from a southern terminus at the M @-@ 59 freeway north through downtown Rochester to a northern terminus at Tienken Road . M @-@ 150 has been a state trunkline since around 1930 , and within a few years of its commissioning , it was extended south through Royal Oak and north into rural Oakland County . After changes in 1960s , the highway terminated in Troy at Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) on the southern end and Tienken Road on the north . Since 1987 , it has ended at M @-@ 59 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 150 follows a single road , known locally as Rochester Road . The trunkline begins at an interchange where Rochester Road crosses the M @-@ 59 freeway at exit 46 in Rochester Hills . From there it travels north past the Hampton Golf Club and the Winchester Mall between the intersections with Auburn and Hamlin roads . Past this commercial development , the trunkline runs through residential subdivisions and near Rochester College . North of the Avon Road intersection , the highway enters Rochester and crosses the Clinton River . Rochester Road forms one of the main streets of the downtown area in Rochester as it passes through the city . North of Romeo Street , the road exits downtown and passes through another residential neighborhood . The highway crosses back into Rochester Hills before it terminates at the intersection with Tienken Road near another commercial development ; Rochester Road continues northward as a locally maintained roadway .
Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 150 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 41 @,@ 675 vehicles used the highway daily between M @-@ 59 and Auburn Road and 27 @,@ 320 vehicles did so each day in Rochester , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . The section of M @-@ 150 between M @-@ 59 and Auburn Road is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 150 has always existed along Rochester Road in Oakland County since it was commissioned around the end of 1930 or in early 1931 At that time , the road ran from a junction with M @-@ 59 in , what is today , Rochester Hills , north to the northern limit of Rochester . Since then , the road has been extended and shortened a number of times . By the middle of 1936 , a 14 @-@ mile ( 23 km ) extension to the south extended the highway along Rochester Road and Stephenson Highway through Royal Oak to end at M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) , and northward to Romeo Road in northern Oakland County .
In 1963 , the section south of 11 Mile Road near Royal Oak was removed from M @-@ 150 ; sections were rebuilt as part of I @-@ 75 and the rest was turned over to local control . The northern extension from the 1930s was removed in 1965 when the trunkline was shortened to end on the north side of Rochester at Tienken Road . The southern section was later truncated back to the current southern terminus at M @-@ 59 in 1987 . This southern segment between I @-@ 75 and M @-@ 59 is listed on the National Highway System however .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Oakland County .
= Art 's Auto =
Art 's Auto is a historic former service station at 5 – 7 Lonsdale Avenue in Pawtucket , Rhode Island . It is a single @-@ story brick structure , with a flat roof , and a series of towers capped by pointed roofs . It was built as an automotive service station in 1927 – 28 for Arthur Normand , at a time when gasoline producers competed in part by the shape and style of their service stations . This station is one of two stations known to survive from this period in the state . Its front facade has a dramatic presentation , with square towers topped by pyramidal roofs at the corners , and a projecting round bay in the center , topped by a conical roof , with windows arrayed around the bay and on its flanks . Currently , the building is used as an office for Anchor Financial . Art 's Auto was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 .
= = Design = =
Constructed in 1927 – 28 , Art 's Auto stands on a triangular lot intersected by Main Street and Lonsdale Avenue ( Rhode Island Route 122 ) . Also intersecting are Thurston Street and Randall Street , forming a busy intersection in Pawtucket , Rhode Island . Built for Arthur Normand , the service station is a single @-@ story brick structure measuring 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) by 40 feet ( 12 m ) . The interior and exterior of the building is divided into two distinct sections , with the original office and sales display area measuring 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) deep and the rear area being 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) deep .
The front division 's corners are marked by four square turret @-@ like piers with pyramidal roofs , each capped with a single over @-@ scaled ball finial . Projecting from the center of southwest facade is a circular tower with a ten @-@ sided conical roof with a large ball finial . The front of the building has two doorways , one on each side , and the large display windows that comprise the majority of the facade , which is topped by a false mansard roof . The rear division is devoid of architectural ornamentation , consisting of a flat metal roof to house the garage of the service station . At the time of the nomination , an overhead garage door allows access for vehicles into the concrete floor service area . In 1978 , the building likely used asbestos shingles for the front roofing , but it may have been removed by later renovations .
= = Use = =
Originally used as a gas station , it had become abandoned and was slated for demolition after it was acquired by the Pawtucket Redevelopment Agency . In 1978 , the buildings historic nature was better understood and it was decided to try to preserve the property . At the time of its listing on the historic register , the property was in a rundown state when the Pawtucket Redevelopment Agency was advertising it as " the most interesting and best preserved early 20th century service station in Rhode Island " . This local attempt to revitalize and preserve historic sites was not unique because more than 4 @,@ 000 such organizations existed nationally by 1977 with the goal to re @-@ use or save such sites from destruction . The vacant property was later purchased for use by a lawyer and then by an auto dealer before being purchased Joseph Baptista in 2000 . When the property was purchased by Baptista , the ground had to be surveyed to ensure that the gas tanks had been removed . Since 2000 , Baptista 's mortgage finance company , Anchor Financial , has operated out of the location and the building has continued to retain its historic features .
= = Significance = =
Art 's Auto is historically significant and architecturally significant as a rare surviving type of novelty gas station that was constructed during the phase in which America became highly mobile and yet had not designed specific forms and marketing for automobile service stations . Art 's Auto whimsical design was intended to capture the attention of motorists and likely capitalized on the positive imagery of the design . Pawtuckets ' Art 's Auto and Gilbane 's Service Center
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Building are both rare surviving examples of a dedicated service station displaying whimsical designs in what has been described as the second generation service stations . In this way the building 's design represents the antithesis of standardization and the goal of promoting " image of familiarity and reliability through uniformity " . The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 .
= You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me =
" You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " is a song performed by American singer @-@ actress Cher , taken from the soundtrack Burlesque : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack of the accompanying film Burlesque ( 2010 ) . After a long time of hiatus in her acting career , Cher returned to the screen in Burlesque , which co @-@ stars Christina Aguilera . It was released to adult contemporary radio station in the United States on January 15 , 2011 , as the first single from the soundtrack by RCA Records . Prior to the release , a remix EP which includes uptempo dance versions of the song was made available to purchase iTunes Stores on November 24 , 2010 . Written by Diane Warren and produced by Matt Serletic and Mark Taylor , " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " is a power ballad .
Upon its release , the single was well @-@ received from most contemporary music critics , who praised Cher 's comeback as well as the track 's composition . It garnered Warren a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song at the 68th Golden Globe Awards ( 2011 ) , and was nominated for Best Song Written for Visual Media at the 54th Grammy Awards . On January 20 , 2011 , the track peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart , making Cher the only musical act to have a number @-@ one single on a Billboard chart in each of the last six decades . Since its release , " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " has been covered by James Franco and CeCe Frey .
= = Background and release = =
Following a long time of hiatus in her acting career , Cher was announced to be returned on the musical film Burlesque ( 2010 ) co @-@ starring Christina Aguilera . This was the first time Cher appeared on the screen since Stuck on You ( 2003 ) . Talking about the making of the film , Cher revealed , " It ’ s harder to do things . I 've beat my body up so badly , it 's amazing it 's still talking to me and listening to what I say . But I ’ ve got aches and pains everywhere . " The soundtrack was also revealed , with eight songs performed by Aguilera , and two songs by Cher : " Welcome to Burlesque " and " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " . During an interview with a California journal , Cher commented about " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " , " That song , for me , had a lot of meaning . It reminded me that I have to kind of move over . " She also spoke about the track with Fresno Bee , " Not that I 'm doing it gracefully , because you 'd have to pull me over kicking and screaming . " In the United States , the song was released to adult contemporary radio station on January 15 , 2011 the first single from the soundtrack . In order to promote the song , several promotional remixes were made by Almighty , Dave Aude and StoneBridge . The remix EP , which contains uptempo dance versions of the track , was released onto iTunes Stores on November 24 , 2010 . The remix done by StoneBridge was released as a single on December 7 , 2010 . The song is also included in Cher 's 25th studio album , Closer to the Truth ( deluxe edition ) .
Since its release , " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " was covered by American actor James Franco , the co @-@ host at the 83rd Academy Awards ( 2010 ) . Gregory Ellwood for Hitfix called the cover " a great listen " . CeCe Frey , a participant of the second season of U.S. television contest The X Factor also covered the track .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
Written by Diane Warren , " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " is a power ballad which lasts for a duration of 3 : 30 ( three minutes and thirty seconds ) . Composed in the key of F minor , it has a moderate slow tempo of 69 beats per minute . Cher 's vocals on the track span from the low @-@ note of Ab3 to the high @-@ note of D5 . Upon its release , critical response to " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " was favorable . Jim Farber for New York Daily News praised the track , calling it " a show @-@ stopper with the tailor @-@ made " and " takes nothing away from the sweep of the tune – or from the star 's to @-@ the @-@ rafters performance " . Bill Lamp for About.com gave it a positive review , labeling it " a mega power ballad " . Frank Bruni for The New York Times commented that the song " proclaims that she ’ s " far from over " . Tina Mrazik for Associated Content labelled it " ultimate " , while Ann Hornaday for The Washington Post picked " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " as well as " Bound to You " are the two power ballads that " lands with such powerful force " . Alissa LeClair for the website Movie Buzzers called the song is " Cher 's peak " throughout the movie and " conveys how important Cher is both on screen and on the music charts , transcending any previous doubts that Cher was no longer relevant in her sixty @-@ fourth year " . AFP of The Independent commented that the song " has particular poignancy at this moment in her career " . At the 68th Golden Globe Awards ( 2011 ) , " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " earned Warren a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song . It was also nominated for Best Song Written for Visual Media at the 54th Grammy Awards .
= = Track listing = =
Digital remixes EP
Dave Audé Club Mix From Burlesque – 7 : 15
Dave Audé Radio Mix From Burlesque – 3 : 59
Dave Audé Dub Mix From Burlesque – 6 : 26
Almighty Club Mix From Burlesque – 7 : 12
Almighty Radio Mix From Burlesque – 3 : 35
Almighty Dub Mix From Burlesque – 7 : 15
StoneBridge Club Mix From Burlesque – 6 : 51
StoneBridge Radio Mix From Burlesque – 3 : 51
StoneBridge Dub Mix From Burlesque – 5 : 32
StoneBridge Club Instrumental From Burlesque – 6 : 51
= = Chart performance = =
On January 20 , 2011 , " You Haven 't Seen the Last of Me " peaked at number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . This made Cher the only act to have notched a number @-@ one single on a Billboard chart in each of the last six decades . By the end of 2011 , the single was the 33rd best @-@ performing dance single in the United States , according to Billboard . On October 25 , 2013 , the song spent its first week in the Australian Singles Chart at number 91 .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Thomas S. Monson =
Thomas Spencer Monson ( born August 21 , 1927 ) is an American religious leader , author , and the sixteenth and current President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) . As president , Monson is considered by adherents of the religion to be a " prophet , seer , and revelator . " A printer by trade , Monson has spent most of his life engaged in various church leadership positions and in public service .
Monson was ordained an LDS apostle at age 36 , served in the First Presidency under three church presidents and was the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles from March 12 , 1995 until he became President of the Church on February 3 , 2008 . He succeeded Gordon B. Hinckley as church president .
Monson has received four honorary doctorate degrees , as well as the Boy Scouts of America 's Silver Buffalo and the World Organization of the Scout Movement 's Bronze Wolf — both awards the highest given in each organization . Monson is a member of the National Executive Board of the Boy Scouts of America , the organization 's governing body .
Monson is chairman of the Boards of Trustees / Education of the Church Educational System , and was appointed by Ronald Reagan to the U.S. President 's Task Force for Private Sector Initiatives . Monson married Frances Beverly Johnson Monson in the Salt Lake Temple in 1948 and they are the parents of three children . Frances Monson died on May 17 , 2013 .
= = Biography = =
Monson was born on August 21 , 1927 , in Salt Lake City , Utah to G. Spencer Monson ( 1901 – 1979 ) and Gladys Condie Monson ( 1902 – 1973 ) . The second of six children , he grew up in a " tight @-@ knit " family — many of his mother 's relatives living on the same street and the extended family frequently going on trips together . The family 's neighborhood included several residents of Mexican descent , an environment in which he says he developed a love for the Mexican people and culture . Monson often spent weekends with relatives on their farms in Granger ( now part of West Valley City ) , and as a teenager , he took a job at the printing business that his father managed .
From 1940 to 1944 , Monson attended West High School in Salt Lake City . In the fall of 1944 , he enrolled at the University of Utah . Around this time he met his future wife , Frances , whose family came from a higher social class on the east side of the city . Her father , Franz Johnson , felt an immediate connection because Monson 's great uncle had baptized him into the LDS Church in Sweden .
In 1945 , Monson joined the United States Naval Reserve and anticipated participating in World War II in the Pacific theater . He was sent to San Diego , California , for training , but was not moved overseas before the end of the war . His tour of duty lasted six months beyond the end of the war , and after it was completed he returned to the University of Utah . Monson graduated cum laude in 1948 with a bachelor 's degree in business management . Monson did not serve a full @-@ time mission as a youth . At age 21 , on October 7 , 1948 , he married Frances Beverly Johnson in the Salt Lake Temple . The couple eventually had three children : Thomas Lee , Ann Frances , and Clark Spencer . His wife died on May 17 , 2013 .
After college he rejoined the Naval Reserve with the aim of becoming an officer . Shortly after receiving his commission acceptance letter , his ward bishop asked him to serve as a counselor in the bishopric . Time conflicts with bishopric meetings would have made serving in the Navy impossible . After discussing the matter with church apostle Harold B. Lee ( his former stake president ) , Monson declined the commission and applied for a discharge . The Navy granted his discharge in the last group processed before the Korean War . Lee set him apart six months later as a bishop — mentioning in the blessing that he likely would not have been called if he had accepted the commission .
Monson taught for a time at the University of Utah , then began a career in publishing . His first job was with the Deseret News , where he became an advertising executive . He joined the advertising operations of the Newspaper Agency Corporation when it was formed in 1952 . Monson later transferred to the Deseret News Press , beginning as sales manager and eventually becoming general manager . While with Deseret News Press , Monson worked to publish LeGrand Richards 's A Marvelous Work And A Wonder . He also worked with Gordon B. Hinckley , the LDS Church 's representative on publications , with whom he later served in the First Presidency .
= = = Young adulthood and local church leadership = = =
On May 7 , 1950 , Monson became an LDS bishop at age 22 . He had previously served as ward clerk , ward YMMIA superintendent , and as a counselor in a bishopric . At the time , Monson 's Salt Lake City ward contained over 1 @,@ 000 people , including 85 widows whom he visited regularly . He continued his visits to these widows when he was released after five years of service . He brought them gifts during the Christmas season , including poultry he had raised himself . Monson eventually spoke at the funerals of each of these women . Also during his time as bishop , 23 men from his ward were serving in the United States military in the Korean War . He wrote personal letters to each of these men on a weekly basis . At least one of these men became fully involved with the Church as a result of Monson 's communication .
During the time Monson was bishop of the 6th @-@ 7th Ward sacrament meeting attendance in the ward quadrupled .
In June 1955 , at age 27 , Monson became a counselor to Percy K. Fetzer ( later first president of the Berlin Mission ) , president of the Salt Lake Temple View Stake . He was replaced as bishop of the 6th @-@ 7th ward the following month . In the stake presidency , Monson oversaw the stake 's Primary , Sunday School , MIA , athletics and budget . He served in the stake presidency until June 1957 , when he moved to Holladay , Utah . In Holladay , Monson became a member of the ward building committee , with the assignment to coordinate ward members ' volunteer service to build a chapel .
In 1959 , Monson became a mission president at age 31 . His youngest child , Clark , was born during the time he was mission president . When he became mission president there were 130 missionaries serving in the mission , with the number of missionaries later peaking at 180 . As mission president , he presided over the church 's Canadian Mission until 1962 , supervising missionaries who were not much younger than he was . The Canadian Mission consisted of Ontario and Quebec ; it was under the leadership of Monson that missionary work began among the French @-@ speaking population of Quebec . Much of the missionary work under his direction was done among immigrants from such places as the Netherlands , Germany , Poland , Italy , the Soviet Union and Hungary . Jacob de Jager , who would later be an LDS general authority , was among the immigrant converts .
In addition to overseeing the missionaries , since there were no local stakes , Monson was also responsible for all operations of the church in the area . When he became mission president , there were 55 church branches , divided into 9 districts , under his direction . When he became president , most districts and branches were presided over by full @-@ time missionaries . Monson changed this to have local members serve as presidents of branches and districts soon after arriving .
As mission president , Monson encouraged members to remain in eastern Canada and work to build up the church there instead of migrating to the centers of the church in Utah or Alberta as many had done in the past . To assist in this effort , to increase the perception of the church and an air of permanence , and to allow better reach to potential members , he initiated a major building program to replace the rented halls most branches met in with permanent structures .
With the organization of a stake in Toronto on August 14 , 1960 much of Monson 's efforts at building the church in Ontario came to fruition . However most of the mission 's area remained in districts and a more complete strengthening of the church in Ontario would not come about until the dedication of the Toronto Ontario Temple in 1990 , which Monson attended as a member of the First Presidency .
Immediately after returning from Canada , Monson was called to serve on the high council of the Valley View Stake in Holladay . Two months later he was made area supervisor over nine stake missions , which included the Winder , Wilford , Monument Park , Monument Park West , Hillside , Highland , Parleys , Sugarhouse and Wasatch stakes . These stakes were in either Salt Lake City or its east @-@ side suburbs , except for the Wasatch Stake , based in Heber City , Utah . He was also made a member of the Priesthood Genealogy Committee and later the Priesthood Home Teaching Committee .
Upon his return to Utah after his mission to Canada , Monson resumed his work with the Deseret News . He was the assistant general manager of the Deseret News Press , the printing arm of the press mainly doing non @-@ newspaper printing . A month later he was made the general manager of the Deseret News Press . At the time , it was the largest printing plant in the United States , west of the Mississippi River . Monson remained in this position until he was called as an apostle in 1963 , at age 36 .
= = = Apostleship = = =
Monson was sustained a member of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles at general conference on October 4 , 1963 . He was the youngest man called to the quorum in 53 years and 17 years younger than the next youngest member , Gordon B. Hinckley . He was ordained an apostle and set apart as a member of the Quorum of the Twelve on October 10 , 1963 , by Joseph Fielding Smith .
As an LDS Church apostle , Monson worked in many capacities all around the world . With his business background , he helped oversee many operations of the church , including KSL Newsradio and Bonneville International . He was chairman of the Scripture Publication Committee in the 1970s that oversaw publication of the LDS Church edition of the King James Bible and revised editions of church scriptures containing footnotes and guides . He has also overseen the church 's Printing Advisory , Missionary Executive and General Welfare committees . While an apostle , he continued his education and received a master of business administration degree from Brigham Young University in 1974 . As of 1973 , Monson was one of four members of the church 's Missionary Executive Committee .
From 1965 to 1968 , Monson had the responsibility of overseeing church operations in the South Pacific and Australia . During this time he organized the first LDS stake in Tonga .
Monson also oversaw church operations in Eastern Europe and helped the church gain access to its members in the Soviet bloc . In 1982 , he organized the first stake in East Germany and was instrumental in obtaining permission for the church to build a temple in Freiberg , East Germany , in 1985 .
= = = Positions with for @-@ profit Latter @-@ day Saint businesses = = =
From 1965 until 1996 Monson was a member of the Deseret News Publishing Company board of directors . He was made chairman of the board of directors in 1977 .
= = = Non @-@ Latter @-@ day Saint business positions = = =
Monson also served for several years on the boards of businesses and organizations not owned by the LDS Church . From 1969 to 1988 Monson was on the Mountain Bell Board of Advisors . He served as a member of the board of directors of Commercial Security Bank , and chaired the bank 's audit committee for 20 years . In 1993 when the bank was bought out by Key Bank , Monson was made a member of the Board of Directors of Key Bank . This was one of multiple positions that Monson resigned in 1996 when it was decided that general authorities of the LDS Church should leave all business boards of directors , with the lone exception of the board of Deseret Management Corporation .
= = = Non @-@ Latter @-@ day Saints community leadership positions = = =
In the mid @-@ 1950s Monson was the secretary of the Utah State Roller Club , a group of pigeon breeders .
Monson was also a member of the National Executive Board of Boy Scouts of America starting in 1969 . From 1971 to 1977 he served on the Utah State Board of Higher Education and the Utah State Board of Regents . From 1981 to 1982 he was a member of the Task Force on Private Sector Initiatives appointed by Ronald Reagan .
= = = First Presidency = = =
Following the death of church president Spencer W. Kimball in 1985 , newly selected church president Ezra Taft Benson asked Hinckley and Monson to serve as his first and second counselors . Monson and Hinckley also served as counselors to Benson 's successor , Howard W. Hunter . When Hinckley succeeded Hunter in 1995 , Monson became his first counselor . He served until Hinckley 's death on January 27 , 2008 . As the second in seniority among the apostles behind Hinckley , Monson simultaneously served as President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles ; Boyd K. Packer ( then third in seniority behind Hinckley and Monson ) served as Acting President during that time .
= = = Church President = = =
Monson became the 16th president of the LDS Church on February 3 , 2008 , succeeding Hinckley , who had died seven days earlier . Monson selected Henry B. Eyring and Dieter F. Uchtdorf as his first and second counselors , respectively . When Monson was born , there were fewer than 650 @,@ 000 members of the church in the world , with most of them being based in the western United States . When he became president , there were over 13 million members worldwide , with the majority of the membership living outside the United States and Canada . As of October 2012 , 31 temples announced by Monson are either under construction or in planning .
Monson and his counselors in the First Presidency met with President George W. Bush on May 29 , 2008 during Bush 's visit to Salt Lake City . He and apostle Dallin H. Oaks met with U.S. President Barack Obama and Senator Harry Reid in the Oval Office on July 20 , 2009 and presented Obama with five volumes of personal family history records .
Monson was notably absent for a meeting other church leaders , including Eyring and Uchtdorf , had with Obama during his visit to Utah in April 2015 . A church spokesperson indicated the absence , given the logistics and timing of the meeting , occurred in order to preserve Monson 's strength for the church 's general conference the upcoming weekend .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Temple dedications = = =
As President of the Church , Monson has dedicated thirteen ( and rededicated four ) LDS Church temples : the Rexburg Idaho Temple ( 2008 ) , Curitiba Brazil Temple ( 2008 ) , Panamá City Panamá Temple ( 2008 ) , Twin Falls Idaho Temple ( 2008 ) , México City México Temple ( re @-@ dedication ; 2008 ) , Draper Utah Temple ( 2009 ) , Oquirrh Mountain Utah Temple ( 2009 ) , Vancouver British Columbia Temple ( 2010 ) , Gila Valley Arizona Temple ( 2010 ) , Cebu City Philippines Temple ( 2010 ) , Kyiv Ukraine Temple ( 2010 ) , Laie Hawaii Temple ( rededication ; 2010 ) , Kansas City Missouri Temple ( 2012 ) , Calgary Alberta Temple ( 2012 ) , Boise Idaho Temple ( rededication ; 2012 ) , Gilbert Arizona Temple ( 2014 ) , and the Ogden Utah Temple ( rededication ; 2014 ) .
As a counselor in the First Presidency , Monson dedicated seven church temples : Buenos Aires Argentina Temple ( 1986 ) , Louisville Kentucky Temple ( 2000 ) , Reno Nevada Temple ( 2000 ) , Tampico México Temple ( 2000 ) , Villahermosa México Temple ( 2000 ) , Mérida México Temple ( 2000 ) , and Veracruz México Temple ( 2000 ) . Monson also attended the dedication of many other church temples as a member of the Quorum of the Twelve and the First Presidency .
= = = Volunteer work = = =
Monson has continued to be active in community and civic affairs . He is past president of the Printing Industry of Utah and a former board member of the Printing Industries of America . A Life Scout and Explorer crew member in his youth , Monson has served in several adult Scouter leadership capacities : merit badge counselor , member of the Canadian LDS Scouting Committee , chaplain at a Canadian Jamboree , and a member of the General Scouting Committee of the LDS Church for ten years . He has been a proponent of the Scouting for Food drive , and since 1969 , he has served on the national executive board of the Boy Scouts of America . He also represented the Boy Scouts of America as a delegate to the World Conferences in Tokyo , Nairobi and Copenhagen .
He served on the Utah State Board of Regents . In December 1981 , U.S. President Ronald Reagan appointed Monson to the President 's Task Force for Private Sector Initiatives . He remained with the initiative until it completed its work in December 1982 .
= = = Political involvement = = =
In June 2008 , Monson and his counselors in the First Presidency sent a letter to local congregations in California , urging them to support Proposition 8 by donating their time and resources , stating that , " Our best efforts are required to preserve the sacred institution of marriage . " In the 2012 Utah voter list he was listed as a registered Republican voter .
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
Monson has received various awards related to his volunteer and educational involvement . In 1966 , Monson was honored as a distinguished alumnus by the University of Utah . His first honorary degree , an Honorary Doctorate of Laws , was conferred upon him in April 1981 by Brigham Young University . Subsequent honorary degrees include a Doctor of Humane Letters from Salt Lake Community College ( June 1996 ) , an Honorary Doctor of Business from the University of Utah ( May 2007 ) , and an honorary doctorate degree in Humanities from Dixie State College ( May 2011 ) .
For his service to Scouting and the community , Monson has received the Boy Scouts of America 's Silver Beaver ( 1971 ) and Silver Buffalo ( 1978 ) awards , the latter being the highest honor bestowed by the BSA . In 1993 , Monson also received the Bronze Wolf , the highest honor and only award bestowed by the World Organization of the Scout Movement . The citation for this award ( conferred at the October 1993 Priesthood Session of the church 's general conference ) says , " In his assignments throughout the world as a leader of [ the LDS Church ] , President Monson has worked tirelessly to bring about the advancement of Scouting in many countries . He has worked closely with the World Organization of the Scout Movement to find ways to strengthen the links between the Church and national Scout associations . He is a committed , solid , hard @-@ working volunteer in the Scout Movement . His Scouting leadership has been exemplary . " In connection with the LDS Church 's centennial celebration as a chartered sponsor , the BSA announced that the Leadership Excellence Complex , located at The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve in West Virginia , would be renamed the Thomas S. Monson Leadership Excellence Complex and also awarded him Scouting 's Honor Medal ( 2013 ) for saving the life of a girl who was drowning when he was 12 years old . The Salt Lake chapter of Rotary International also honored Monson at its international convention with its Worldwide Humanitarian Award .
In Slate.com 's " 80 Over 80 , " a list of the most powerful octogenarians , Monson placed first in 2009 , and was first again in 2010 . In 2011 , Gallup listed Monson as one of " Americans ' 10 Most Admired Men " .
= = Publications = =
Monson has written a number of books , some of which are compilations of speeches given by him , or of quotes . Others discuss particular LDS gospel themes . He also wrote Faith Rewarded which is an autobiographical account about his work in leading the church in Eastern Europe .
Monson , Thomas S. ( 1973 ) , Pathways to Perfection , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87747 @-@ 511 @-@ 8
— — ( 1979 ) , Be Your Best Self , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87747 @-@ 787 @-@ 7
— — ( 1983 ) , Christmas Gifts , Christmas Blessings , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87747 @-@ 976 @-@ 5
— — ( 1985 ) , Favorite Quotations from the Collection of Thomas S. Monson , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87747 @-@ 749 @-@ 5
— — ( 1988 ) , Live the Good Life , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87579 @-@ 192 @-@ 0
— — ( 1992 ) , The Search for Jesus , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87579 @-@ 669 @-@ 7
— — ( 1994 ) , Inspiring Experiences That Build Faith : From the Life and Ministry of Thomas S. Monson , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87579 @-@ 901 @-@ 8
— — ( 1996 ) , Faith Rewarded : A Personal Account of Prophetic Promises to the East German Saints , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57345 @-@ 186 @-@ 4
— — ( 1997 ) , Invitation to Exaltation , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57345 @-@ 358 @-@ 5
— — ( 1997 ) , Meeting your Goliath , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57345 @-@ 357 @-@ 8
— — ( 2004 ) , A Christmas Dress for Ellen , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59038 @-@ 386 @-@ 5
— — ( 2011 ) , Teachings of Thomas S. Monson , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 60908 @-@ 890 @-@ 3
— — ( 2012 ) , A Prophet 's Voice : Messages from Thomas S. Monson , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 60907 @-@ 218 @-@ 6
= = = Biography = = =
Swinton , Heidi S. ( 2010 ) , To The Rescue : The Biography of Thomas S. Monson , Salt Lake City , Utah : Deseret Book , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 60641 @-@ 898 @-@ 7
= Who Owns My Heart =
" Who Owns My Heart " is a song by American recording artist Miley Cyrus for her third studio album Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) . The song was written by Cyrus , Antonina Armato , Tim James and Devrim Karaoglu , and produced by Armato and James . " Who Owns My Heart " was released on October 22 , 2010 by Hollywood Records as the second and final single from Cyrus ' third studio album Can 't Be Tamed only in Europe . It would become her final single and overall release with Hollywood Records after signing with RCA Records in 2013 . The song was written about the feelings a club 's environment can lead someone to believe . " Who Owns My Heart " is musically club @-@ oriented and driven by synths . Lyrically , the song speaks of meeting a potential love interest at a nightclub .
The song garnered mixed reception from music critics . Some critics argued it was dull and faceless , while other deemed it one of the best tracks on Can 't Be Tamed . " Who Owns My Heart " failed to become a commercial success , unlike its predecessor " Can 't Be Tamed " . It managed to perform moderately in Dutch @-@ speaking , European territories , its highest international peak being achieved in Belgium ( Flanders ) , at number two . It also charted in Austria , Germany , and Slovakia . A corresponding music video for " Who Owns My Heart " was directed by Robert Hales . It follows Cyrus throughout preparing herself for , arriving , and dancing at a mansion party . The video received criticism from the Parents Television Council for its sexual elements . The song , along with " Start All Over " and " Fly on the Wall " are the only singles released by Cyrus that haven 't been certified at least platinum in the United States .
= = Background = =
The song was written by Cyrus in collaboration with Antonina Armato , Tim James , and Devrim Karaoglu . Cyrus described it as a " total dance track " with a cool concept . " Who Owns My Heart " was written about the feelings a club 's environment can lead one to believe . Cyrus depicted the club scene to be very sexy , which she thought was primarily composed by the music playing and intense lighting , and thought that it might trigger fake emotions with the person one is dancing with . She stated , " If you 're out , dancing at a club , the way the whole vibe is [ ... ] Do you actually like the person you 're dancing with or is just the whole ambiance of what 's going on ? "
= = Composition = =
" Who Owns My Heart " is a dance and electropop song with a length of three minutes and 35 seconds . It is an uptempo and predominantly club @-@ oriented number that is inspired by 1980s music . The song is set in common time and has a driving dance tempo of 136 beats per minute . It is written in the key of A minor and Cyrus ' vocals span two octaves , from G3 to C5 . It follows the chord progression Am – F – Dm – E. " Who Owns My Heart " is heavy in rubbery and bubbling disco synths . Keyboard riffs also drive the song 's instrumentation . Lyrically , " Who Owns My Heart " speaks of the thrill of meeting a potential love interest on the dance floor . Verses and the bridge describe the setting using comparisons to numerous things , including tsunamis and rodeos . The song 's refrains proceed to question , " Who owns my heart ? Is it love or is it art ? "
= = Critical reception = =
Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly stated , " This song is a pulsy , possibly club @-@ ready jam that deserves single status . " Heather Phares of Allmusic used " Who Owns My Heart " as an example of , according to her , a recurring problem on Can 't Be Tamed : " too often , Cyrus equates grown @-@ up with joyless " . Alexis Petridis of the United Kingdom magazine The Guardian felt the song was a gamely attempt at Lady Gaga . He said the chorus invites the answer : " probably that creepy bloke from the Disney Channel who went on about violating your godliness . " Evan Sawdey of PopMatters also found an alternate answer to the song 's chorus . " It ’ s commerce that owns your heart , Miley , and it always has been " , he wrote . Mikael Wood of Billboard compared " Who Owns My Heart " to 2010 singles released by The Black Eyed Peas . Nick Levine of Digital Spy said it was a post @-@ GaGa Hi @-@ NRG track that was inclined to the generic . However , he said that lyrical references were a large reminder that Cyrus sung the track . Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic deemed " Who Owns My Heart " to be one of the best tracks from Can 't Be Tamed , despite containing a " cheesy ABBA @-@ worthy chorus " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times also perceived the song to be " in the vein of Cascada " and one of the most " exciting " on Can 't Be Tamed . He said it was a sound that " Ms. Cyrus hasn ’ t previously shown any affinity for and may never again . Still , it ’ s a timely and sharp sound . "
= = Commercial performance = =
On the week ending November 27 , 2010 , " Who Owns My Heart " debuted and peaked at number 76 on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles , its only week on the chart . The song debuted at number 35 on the Austrian Singles Chart , on the week ending November 19 , 2010 . The following week , " Who Owns My Heart " descended to number 50 and , later , number 54 before completely falling from the chart . On the week ending November 22 , 2010 , " Who Owns My Heart " debuted and peaked at number 24 on the German Singles Chart . In the succeeding week , the song dropped to number 39 . The track continued to descend in positions until spending its last week on the German Singles Chart on the week ending January 10 , 2011 . The song spent a total of seven weeks on the chart . " Who Owns My Heart " also charted on the Belgian Tip Singles Chart ( Flanders ) and the Slovakian Airplay Singles Chart , peaking at number two and 35 , respectively .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Who Owns My Heart " was directed by Robert Hales , who previously directed the video for " Can 't Be Tamed " , and filmed on November 6 and 7 , 2010 at the Meadow Brook Hall in Rochester Hills , Michigan . The video commences with Cyrus asleep , blindfolded on a mattress in a bedroom . She awakens and writhes on the mattress . Following , Cyrus proceeds to a bathroom , her attire is composed of a white tank top , white boy shorts , a fishnet hair wrap , rollers , and heavy metal jewelry . While in the bathroom scenes , Cyrus sings as she sits on the edge of a bathtub and prepares herself for an upcoming party . With the arrival of the song 's refrains , Cyrus appears writhing in the backseat of a limousine , costumed in a low @-@ cut gold halter top , black hots pants , a black jacket with shoulder pads , and big hair . Once arrived at the mansion party , she is first seen dancing atop a big , wooden table . In the continuation of the video , Cyrus dances with multiple people on the dance floor . Cut @-@ scenes feature Cyrus in all prior scenes or dancing with others in the mansion 's study . The video concludes with Cyrus back in her bedroom , once again waking up .
The video for " Who Owns My Heart " was premiered in MSN Spain on January 1 , 2011 . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News said , " There comes a time in every pop princess ' career when she must throw a sexy dance party and proclaim her womanhood . Back in 2001 Britney Spears did as much in ' I 'm a Slave 4 U , ' and this week , Miley Cyrus is doing the same in the video for her club @-@ ready track ' Who Owns My Heart . ' " Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly assumed the theme of the video were the divergent hairstyles , but acclaimed the video for its fun . Stransky said the sultry aspect of the video added to its frothy , " thumpa @-@ thumpa deliciousness " . Edith Zimmerman of New York magazine viewed it as " awkward " . Megan Vick of Billboard thought the video followed the same steps as the video for " Can 't Be Tamed " — dark lighting , lots of bare Cyrus parts and writhing around on flat surfaces . Vick recalled Amy Winehouse 's " Rehab " video when seeing the bathroom scene and viewed the ending as a relief . Tim Winter , president of the Parents Television Council , criticized the video for its suggestiveness and sexual elements . Winter continued , " It is unfortunate that she would participate in such a sexualized video like this one . It sends messages to her fanbase that are diametrically opposed to everything she has done up to this point . Miley built her fame and fortune entirely on the backs of young girls , and it saddens us that she seems so eager to distance herself from that fanbase so rapidly . "
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus first performed " Who Owns My Heart " at a concert at the House of Blues in Los Angeles , California , which was streamed across over thirty websites owned by MTV Networks . Dressed in a cut @-@ out leotard that and black , leather pants , Cyrus single @-@ handedly roamed throughout the stage to perform the song . Cyrus embarked on a European promotional tour for the single in October 2010 . On November 6 , 2010 , Cyrus performed the track at on the German television program Wetten , dass .. ? . On November 7 , 2010 , Cyrus performed " Who Owns My Heart " at the 2010 MTV Europe Music Awards at the Caja Mágica in Madrid , Spain . The performance featured elaborate costuming that had Cyrus bearing white bodysuit with a turtle neck while female dancers in lingerie and male dancers in suits , chiropractically challenging dance routines , and symbolism . Cyrus explained ,
" We actually came up with this concept because I wanted it to kinda be Angels & Demons ( 2000 ) , but it 's not a Tom Hanks reference . It 's [ about the idea ] that during this world , you 're always going to have temptation ; basically that 's kind of the whole vibe . It 's a little more Victorian . There 's a lot of lace . The girls are dressed all in white , and the guys are in black ... The girls will know what I 'm talking about . "
The song was the closing number of Cyrus ' Gypsy Heart Tour .
= = Release history = =
= = Charts = =
= Battle of the Lippe =
The Battle of the Lippe was a cavalry action fought on 2 September 1595 on the banks of the Lippe river , in Germany , between a corps of Spanish cavalry led by Juan de Córdoba and a corps of Dutch cavalry , supported by English troops , led by Philip of Nassau . The Dutch statholder Maurice of Nassau , taking advantage of the fact that the bulk of the Spanish army was busied in operations in France , besieged the town of Groenlo in Gelderland , but the elderly governor of the citadel of Antwerp , Cristóbal de Mondragón , organized a relief army and forced Maurice to lift the siege . Mondragón next moved to Wesel , positioning his troops on the southern bank of the Lippe river to cover Rheinberg from a Dutch attack . Maurice aimed then , relying on his superior army , to entice Mondragón into a pitched battle , planning to use an ambush to draw the Spanish army into a trap . However , the plan was discovered by the Spanish commander , who organized a counter @-@ ambush .
The Dutch intended to overtake a Spanish foraging convoy and deliver it into their camp in order to draw the Spanish army in pursuit to the banks of the Lippe , where Maurice was awaiting with the Dutch States Army in order of battle . However , Mondragón reinforced the escort of the convoy and hid a large force of cavalry in a wood nearby under his lieutenant Juan de Córdoba . Thanks to Mondragón 's long experience , the Spanish routed the Dutch force and inflicted a number of casualties upon Philip of Nassau 's men , including himself and several other high @-@ ranking Dutch and English officers in the Dutch army .
= = Background = =
In 1595 , Henry IV of France declared war on Spain in response to Philip II 's continued support of the Catholic League of France , and formed an alliance with Elizabeth I of England and the Dutch Republic , who were engaged in their own wars against the Spanish Crown . The Catholic Netherlands were , consequently , caught between two fronts , and French and Dutch forces even tried to create a corridor linking their respective states through the Prince @-@ Bishopric of Liège . The new Governor @-@ General of the Spanish Netherlands , the Count of Fuentes , directed his efforts against Picardy and Cambrésis , leaving a few troops to defend the loyal provinces from a Dutch attack .
In July , while Fuentes was busied in the siege of Doullens , Maurice of Nassau , statholder of the Dutch Republic , assembled a force of 6 @,@ 000 infantry , some cavalry companies and 16 artillery pieces of the Dutch States Army , and led them under the walls of Groenlo , a medium @-@ sized town in the County of Zutphen . Its northern flank defended by the Slinge , a stream of the Berkel river , Groenlo was fortified with five bulwarks and garrisoned by 11 infantry companies from Count Herman van den Bergh 's regiment numbering 600 troops under Jan van Stirum , a German officer , and four small artillery pieces .
On receiving news of the siege , Cristóbal de Mondragón , the elderly Spanish governor of Antwerp , whom Fuentes had left in command of the Spanish forces opposite to the Dutch , collected a little army gathering forces of several garrisons and marched to Groenlo through Brabant and Gelderland . Mondragón 's force comprised two Spanish tercios ( under Luis de Velasco and Antonio de Zúñiga ) , an Irish regiment under William Stanley , a Swiss regiment and 1 @,@ 300 cavalry under Juan de Córdoba , which , having crossed the Meuse at Venlo , were joined by Frederick van den Bergh 's German regiment .
At over 80 , Mondragón was still able to mount on horseback , though he had to be helped by two men and could only wear light armour . He first came to prominence at the Battle of Mühlberg , in 1547 , and was one of the few Spanish officers of good fame in the rebel provinces , being portrayed in a positive light by contemporaneous Dutch authors such as Hugo Grotius and Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft . Mondragón planned not only to relieve Groenlo , but also to lure Maurice into a pitched battle . The Dutch general , however , on receiving news of his enemy 's march , set fire to supplies , tools and ammunitions gathered for the siege and retreated two miles out of Groenlo . Mondragón could therefore ressuply the town unmolested .
= = Prelude = =
After Groenlo was secured , Mondragón marched south to Rheinberg to cover the town from a Dutch attack . He encamped his army near Wesel , at Dinslaken , while Maurice followed him and took up positions at Bislich , both armies being separated by the Lippe river . The Spanish position was strong ; the rearguard and the left flank covered by the Rhine and the right flank by the Lippe and a range of moorland hills called Testerburg . For several weeks both armies looked at each other , often skirmishing when both cavalries sallied to forage . As time passed , the Spanish foragers were forced to look for victuals two or three leagues far away from their camp . Maurice took the opportunity to plan a mock ambush on Mondragón 's foraging convoy aiming to lure him into a general action in which he could destroy the Spanish army . Mondragón also hoped to lure his enemy into a trap .
On 1 September , Maurice gave the command of the ambush to his favourite commander , his cousin Philip of Nassau . Maurice instructed him to cross the Lippe river the following day at dawn , hide in a wood next to which the Spanish convoy was expected to pass , and fall on its guard . Maurice 's goal was to seize the foraging convoy , separate it from the escort and lead it to the Dutch camp , thus forcing Mondragón to intervene with a larger force . Then , after the appearance of Mondragón with the main army , Nassau was to retreat to the Dutch camp , thus luring the Spanish army into an ambush . For his task , Nassau received the command of some 500 or 700 Dutch and English horsemen and was accompanied by his two brothers , Ernst Casimir and Ludwig Gunther , as well as several other Dutch officers , Count Ernst of Solms , Paul and Marcellus Bacx , and the English captains Nicholas Parker , Cutler and Robert Vere .
The Dutch intentions were anticipated by the Spanish . According to Joseph de La Pise , a French jurist hired by Maurice 's half brother and successor Frederick Henry to write a history of the Princes of Orange , Mondragón had learned of the ambush from English soldiers who had deserted from the Dutch colours , but the Italian Jesuit Angello Gallucci claims that it was Spanish spies who informed Mondragón , who had used spies to gather information on the enemy since the siege of Zierikzee , in 1576 . In any case , the Spanish general took measures to turn Nassau 's surprise into a trap . The convoy , normally guarded by 300 infantry and 150 cavalry , was reinforced by 300 musketeers and a large force of cavalry under Mondragón 's lieutenant , Juan de Córdoba .
= = Action = =
On 2 September , at dawn , the Dutch force crossed the Lippe across a pontoon bridge . Maurice awaited them with 5 @,@ 000 infantry and the rest of his cavalry arranged for the battle in the hills near Wesel , along the opposite riverbank . Philip of Nassau divided his troops into four squadrons : the first one of 125 men under the drossaard of Sallandt , the second one of 125 men under the Count of Kinsky , the third one , those in which Nassau and his brothers marched , of 150 soldiers under Lieutenant Balen , and the last , closing the way , of 120 men under the English captain Nicholas Parker . Having arrived at Krudenburg , Nassau sent 40 chosen men from the companies led by Balen to surprise the foraging horses . On finding a force much larger than they expected , the Dutch officers thought that something was wrong and sent a report back to Philip of Nassau . The Dutch commander , nevertheless , believed that it was only the convoy 's escort and moved on with his troops and his entourage to attack the Spanish cavalry , aiming to prevent its escape .
The Dutch officers ' report was not mistaken : early in the morning , two Spanish scouts had found the track of the Dutch force crossing the river , and Mondragón , anticipating them , had deployed his cavalry beyond a beechwood , the countryside southwards the Lippe being covered by small woods alternating with moorlands . Besides the troops guarding the convoy , Juan de Córdoba had the command of at least seven cavalry companies : those of Hendrik van den Bergh , Girolamo Caraffa , Carlo Maria Caracciolo , Paulo Emilio Martinengo , his own company , ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch lances under Adolf van den Bergh and Sancho de Leyva 's company . Other authors also list Alonso Mendo 's company . Mondragón had informed the guard of the convoy of the Dutch intentions and encouraged the soldiers to hold their ground , promising them that he was behind them with the whole Spanish army to come in relief .
Commanding 75 lances from Kinsky 's company , and followed by the bulk of his force , Nassau passed through a narrow path in a small forest , and , coming out to open field , was surprised by the Spanish troops , namely by those under Hendrik van den Bergh , followed by Carlo Maria Caracciolo and the ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch lances . Van den Bergh 's harquebusiers , discovering the Dutch column emerging from the forest , fired a volley and , turning right , clashed with the Dutch scouts , starting the action . There was then a firece fight . The Dutch troops were formed into eight squadrons , but caught by surprise in a narrow passage , the Dutch soldiers were unable to use their lances , so they were forced to defend themselves with swords and pistols . Philip of Nassau , his brothers and their cousin Ernst von Solms were seriously wounded and dismounted at the beginning the fight . Kinsky 's and Balen 's troops , coming in relief , were unable to rescue the wounded commanders , and some Dutch soldiers started to flee from the battlefield . Nicholas Parker , however , managed to collect the fugitives and , renewing the action , he put disorder into the Spanish cavalry . The encounter turned then a general action out the wood , in open ground .
At first the Dutch were winning the action , but after they put in disorder two or three Spanish squadrons , Paulo Emilio Martinengo charged ahead his company on their flank and in turn routed a Dutch squadron , which allowed Córdoba to regroup his troops and renew the attack , this time with success . Despite the stubborn resistance offered by the Dutch troops , they were finally broken and fled in a disorderly fashion , attempting to save themselves before the Lippe river . Córdoba sent his cavalry to follow them up , and they found that some of the Dutch soldiers , having been unable to find a good place to ford the river , had drowned . The Spanish captives were freed , and the spoils taken by the Dutch recovered .
= = Aftermath = =
The battle is noted for the heavy death toll among the Dutch commanders . Philip of Nassau was mortally wounded at the beginning of the action , shot at point blank range through the body with an harquebus , his robes being set on fire . Robert Vere , brother of the English colonel Horace Vere , was slain by a lance thrust in the face . The drossaard of Zallandt and Count Ferdinand Kinsky were also killed . Count Ernst of Solms was seriously wounded and captured . Together with Philip , he was carried to Rheinberg , where both soldiers were visited by Mondragón and their Catholic cousins , the Van den Bergh brothers , and treated by the Spanish surgeons . Despite all the attentions , both Dutch commanders died of the wounds they had sustained ; Nassau the night after the battle , and Solms three days later . Count Ernst Casimir was captured and ransomed for 10 @,@ 000 florins . Mondragón dispatched him to Maurice of Nassau with the bodies of the dead counts , which were buried with honours at Arnhem .
As for the battle losses , sources vary . The Flemish Protestant Guillaume Baudart set Dutch losses at 88 horses , 83 prisoners and 24 killed . The Italian Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio claimed that more than 300 Dutch soldiers were slain as opposed to about 60 Spanish casualties . The Roman Jesuit Angelo Gallucci also wrote of 300 Dutch casualties . The Spanish soldier and writer Carlos Coloma set the Spanish loss as 19 men killed and claimed that the Dutch force lost three flags and about 400 serviceable horses . On the Spanish side the only soldiers of note among the casualties were Caraffa , Martinengo and Caracciolo , all of whom were wounded , but not mortally . Joseph de La Pise stated that the Dutch took seven Spanish prisoners and 15 horses . According to Antonio Carnero , accountant in the Spanish army , an envoy of the King of France to the Dutch camp was present at the battle and found later among the fatalities .
The English author Edward Grimeston wrote , in his book A General History of the Netherlands , that the battle of the Lippe " was a pettie battaile of young and hot blouds , who prooved but bad Marchants that got nothing " . Even though it was only a small battle , it was celebrated joyfully at the Spanish camp before Cambrai . Three salvos were fired upon the city by 87 artillery pieces and 6 @,@ 000 muskets and arquebuses . The North @-@ American historian John Lothrop Motley highlighted the key role played by the 91 @-@ year @-@ old Mondragón in the Spanish victory :
This skirmish on the Lippe has no special significance in a military point of view , but it derives more than a passing interest , not only from the death of many a brave and distinguished soldier , but for the illustration of human vigour triumphing , both physically and mentally , over the infirmities of old age , given by the achievement of Christopher Mondragon . Alone he had planned his expedition across the country from Antwerp , alone he had insisted on crossing the Rhine , while younger soldiers hesitated ; alone , with his own active brain and busy hands , he had outwitted the famous young chieftain of the Netherlands , counteracted his subtle policy , and set the counter @-@ ambush by which his choicest cavalry were cut to pieces , and one of his bravest generals slain . So far could the icy blood of ninety @-@ two prevail against the vigour of twenty @-@ eight .
The Spanish and Dutch armies spent 16 more days observing each other from their encampments , but no action of importance ensued . Maurice of Nassau laid a bridge over the Rhine and tried to take Meurs by surprise , but the enterprise was discovered . He also committed Count William Louis of Nassau @-@ Dillenburg to intercept five Spanish companies sent by Mondragón to lodge in Twente , but the Spaniards managed to reach Enschede , leaving only a few chariots with supplies in Dutch hands . On 11 October , lacking of forage , Mondragón retired back to Brabant . Maurice aimed to cut off his retreat , but the Spaniard succeeded in bringing his troops to a secure position . Mondragón re @-@ crossed the Meuse in November and distributed his troops in different towns . Before crossing the river the Swiss mercenaries were paid and liscended . On 4 January 1596 , the elderly general died in the citadel of Antwerp . On his deathbed he wrote a letter to Philip II asking for the castellany of Antwerp for his son Alonso and a company of lances for his grandson Cristóbal , but both requests were denied .
= M @-@ 153 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 153 is a state trunkline highway in the Metro Detroit area of the U.S. state of Michigan . It is also known as Ford Road for nearly its entire length , except for its westernmost portion where the highway follows a short expressway to the M @-@ 14 freeway . Named for William Ford , father of Henry Ford , Ford Road runs from near Dixboro to the Dearborn – Detroit border . The M @-@ 153 designation continues along Wyoming Avenue where it terminates at a junction with Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) and US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) on the city line .
Ford Road has been a part of the state highway system since December 3 , 1930 . Since the state has maintained the roadway as M @-@ 153 , it has been extended westward from Wayne County into Washtenaw County and upgraded in sections to expressway conditions . The first of these improvements were made in the 1930s with additional upgrades in the 1960s and 1970s . The last change was made by 1980 to create the modern routing .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 153 starts as an interchange with M @-@ 14 's exit 10 in Superior Township east of Ann Arbor . The highway starts as an expressway curving southeasterly to meet Ford Road near the curve eastward in the expressway at Frains Lake Road , a gravel road northeast of the unincorporated community of Dixboro . Ford Road continues
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qualities like adrsta — an unseen force being the metaphysical link between work and its result — by themselves mediate the appropriate , justly deserved pleasure and pain . The fruits , according to him , then , must be administered through the action of a conscious agent , namely , a supreme being ( Ishvara ) .
Jainism 's strong emphasis on the doctrine of karma and intense asceticism was also criticised by the Buddhists . Thus , the Saṃyutta Nikāya narrates the story of Asibandhakaputta , a headman who was originally a disciple of Māhavīra . He debates with the Buddha , telling him that , according to Māhavīra ( Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta ) , a man 's fate or karma is decided by what he does habitually . The Buddha responds , considering this view to be inadequate , stating that even a habitual sinner spends more time " not doing the sin " and only some time actually " doing the sin . "
In another Buddhist text Majjhima Nikāya , the Buddha criticizes Jain emphasis on the destruction of unobservable and unverifiable types of karma as a means to end suffering , rather than on eliminating evil mental states such as greed , hatred and delusion , which are observable and verifiable . In the Upālisutta dialogue of this Majjhima Nikāya text , Buddha contends with a Jain monk who asserts that bodily actions are the most criminal , in comparison to the actions of speech and mind . Buddha criticises this view , saying that the actions of mind are most criminal , and not the actions of speech or body . Buddha also criticises the Jain ascetic practice of various austerities , claiming that he , Buddha , is happier when not practising the austerities .
While admitting the complexity and sophistication of the Jain doctrine , Padmanabh Jaini compares it with that of Hindu doctrine of rebirth and points out that the Jain seers are silent on the exact moment and mode of rebirth , that is , the re @-@ entry of soul in womb after the death . The concept of nitya @-@ nigoda , which states that there are certain categories of souls who have always been nigodas , is also criticized . According to Jainism , nigodas are lowest form of extremely microscopic beings having momentary life spans , living in colonies and pervading the entire universe . According to Jaini , the entire concept of nitya @-@ nigoda undermines the concept of karma , as these beings clearly would not have had prior opportunity to perform any karmically meaningful actions .
Karma is also criticised on the grounds that it leads to the dampening of spirits with men suffering the ills of life because the course of one 's life is determined by karma . It is often maintained that the impression of karma as the accumulation of a mountain of bad deeds looming over our heads without any recourse leads to fatalism . However , as Paul Dundas puts it , the Jain theory of karma does not imply lack of free will or operation of total deterministic control over destinies . Furthermore , the doctrine of karma does not promote fatalism amongst its believers on account of belief in personal responsibility of actions and that austerities could expatiate the evil karmas and it was possible to attain salvation by emulating the life of the Jinas .
= Meermin slave mutiny =
The Meermin slave mutiny took place in February 1766 and lasted for three weeks . The Meermin was one of the Dutch East India Company 's fleet of slave ships . Her final voyage was cut short by the mutiny of her cargo of Malagasy people , who had been sold to Dutch East India Company officials on Madagascar to be used as company slaves in its Cape Colony in southern Africa . During the mutiny half the ship 's crew and almost 30 Malagasy lost their lives .
The Meermin set sail from Madagascar on 20 January 1766 , heading to the Cape Colony . Two days into the trip , Johann Godfried Krause , the ship 's chief merchant , persuaded the captain , Gerrit Cristoffel Muller , to release the Malagasy slaves from their shackles and thus avoid attrition by death and disease in their overcrowded living conditions . The Malagasy were put to working the ship and entertaining the crew . In mid @-@ February , Krause ordered the Malagasy to clean some Madagascan weapons , which they subsequently used to seize the ship in an attempt to regain their freedom ; Krause was among the first of the crew to be killed , and Muller was stabbed three times but survived .
The crew negotiated a truce , under the terms of which the Malagasy undertook to spare the lives of the surviving crew members . In exchange it was agreed that the Meermin would return to Madagascar , where the Malagasy would be released . But gambling on the Malagasy 's ignorance of navigation , the wounded Muller instead ordered his crew to head for the coast of southern Africa . After making landfall at Struisbaai , in the Cape Colony , which the Malagasy were assured was their homeland , 50 – 70 of them went ashore . Their intention was to signal to the others still on board the Meermin if it was safe for them to follow , but the shore party soon found themselves confronted by a militia of farmers formed in response to the Meermin 's arrival ; the farmers had understood that as the ship was flying no flags , it was in distress .
The Meermin 's crew , now led by Krause 's assistant Olof Leij , managed to communicate with the militia on shore by means of messages in bottles , and persuaded them to light the signal fires for which the Malagasy still on board were waiting . On seeing the fires , the Malagasy cut the ship 's anchor cable and allowed the ship to drift towards the shore , after which she ran aground on an offshore sandbank . The Malagasy could then see the militia on the shore preparing to come to the ship 's assistance , and realised that their situation was hopeless ; they surrendered and were once again shackled . Captain Muller , ship 's mate Daniel Carel Gulik and Krause 's assistant Olof Leij were tried in the Dutch East India Company 's Council of Justice ; all three were fired from the Company , while Muller and Gulik were also stripped of their rank and wages . The slaves were not tried , but the two surviving leaders of the mutiny , named in Dutch East India Company records as Massavana and Koesaaij , were sent to Robben Island for observation , where Massavana died three years later ; Koesaaij survived there for another 20 years . In 2004 an ongoing search was begun for the Meermin 's remains .
= = Voyage = =
Between 1658 and 1799 the Dutch East India Company acquired and transported approximately 63 @,@ 000 slaves to its Cape Colony in southern Africa , now part of South Africa . In Dutch , the company 's name was Vereenigde Oost @-@ Indische Compagnie : abbreviated as " VOC " , the company 's initials were used in a monogram which appeared on company materials as a logo . The Meermin was a 480 @-@ ton square rigged ship of the Dutch " hoeker " type , with three masts , which was built in 1759 in the Dutch port of Amsterdam for the VOC 's African trade . From December 1765 she was working the coastline of Madagascar , under Captain Gerrit Muller and a crew of 56 , collecting Malagasy men , women and children for use as slaves in the Cape Colony . Carrying about 140 Malagasy , she set sail from " Betisboka Bay " on the north @-@ western coast of Madagascar on 20 January 1766 .
= = = Mutiny = = =
In 1766 supercargo Johann Krause was probably the most experienced merchant trading in Madagascar , although he had been " guilty of an earlier indiscretion in 1760 " , on the VOC ship Neptunus . To avoid the loss of profit caused by captive Malagasy dying while at sea , Krause convinced Captain Muller , who was in his first command and was unwell at the time , to unshackle some of them and let them work on deck . Disease was spreading among the Malagasy in the unsanitary conditions below deck , and the ship 's surgeon had reported that , while there were no suitable medicines on board , disease was spreading to the crew . Consequently , two days after the ship had left Madagascar , the crew released a " large party of [ Malagasy ] " from confinement , the men assisting the crew and the women providing entertainment by dancing and singing . The Malagasy Massavana and some others were set to controlling and taking care of the sails , which has been described as " unheard of , and certainly against all [ VOC ] regulations " . Allowing slaves into secure areas on deck was common practice on most European vessels , and VOC regulations did permit slaves to be released onto the deck from time to time , under careful supervision . But the chief concern was that slaves might jump overboard to escape , rather than that they might mutiny , despite a slave mutiny on the VOC ship Drie Heuvelen in 1753 . That mutiny was quickly suppressed , but clearly it could happen again , making Captain Muller 's agreement to the kind of release that occurred on the Meermin " appear all the more foolish . "
According to crew member Harmen Koops , on 18 February 1766 , Krause ordered him to bring on deck some assegais , or African spears , and some swords , for the Malagasy to clean . The assegais had been acquired on Madagascar along with the Malagasy , some of whom were experienced in the use of this weapon . Krause believed himself to be intellectually superior to the Malagasy , and is reported to have laughed when issuing his order , saying he was sure that others would doubt his wisdom ; having set the task , he went below deck for a meal . When the Malagasy had cleaned the weapons and were ordered to return them , they attacked the ship 's crew , killing all who were left on deck , including Krause , who had returned when the attack began . Also killed in this fight were two of the ship 's mates , Bender and Albert , leaving only Daniel Carel Gulik surviving of that rank . Some of the surviving crew climbed into the rigging , and others , including Gulik , Koops , Jan de Leeuw , and Krause 's assistant Olof Leij , withdrew to the Constapelskamer , or gunroom , which was below decks at the stern of the ship , near the rudder . Captain Muller , who stated that he had been " gazing out over the sea " at the time of the attack , was taken by surprise and stabbed three times by Massavana . Muller escaped to his cabin and soon climbed down from a window , via the rudder , to join the others in the gunroom . Crew member Rijk Meyer , who had been thrown overboard with others from the rigging , managed to swim around the ship to a rope hanging from the gunroom window , and was pulled to safety by his shipmates . Although the crew who had climbed into the rigging threatened the Malagasy from the fore @-@ mast with hand grenades , " only those that reached the safety of the barricaded [ gunroom ] ... escaped a brutal death . " With Krause dead and Muller wounded , Olof Leij was left in charge of the remaining crew below deck .
The mutiny began under the de facto leadership of three men : the primary leader is unknown , but the names of the others were recorded as Massavana and Koesaaij . Massavana , a man of 26 , had been enslaved by " the king of Toulier " , now Toliara , through an elaborate deception . Although Krause had presented the Malagasy with an opportunity to mutiny by allowing them on deck and handing them familiar weapons , the mutiny had been premeditated and organised by the Malagasy , who intended to kill all Europeans on board the ship , and to return to Madagascar . According to Massavana , the Malagasy had " planned for a long time to become masters of the ship [ and their ] aim was to go back to [ their ] own country . " It may be that the Malagasy had originally intended to sail the ship themselves , as did slaves involved in a later mutiny on the VOC ship De Zon , in 1775 ; but they found that they could not control the ship , and the Meermin drifted for three days .
= = = Truces and betrayal = = =
The crew members on the fore @-@ mast initially reached an agreement with the Malagasy : the crew 's lives were to be spared on condition that they sailed the Meermin back to Madagascar ; but this truce broke down , as a result of which most of those crew members were also killed , and all were thrown overboard . The crew in the gunroom were short of food and drink ; Muller decided that they should attempt to regain control of the Meermin . Neither Muller nor Gulik took part in the attack , as both were wounded . It was led by bosun Laurens Pieters ; twelve crewmen left the gunroom , shooting as they went . Pieters and another of the attack party were killed on deck ; the rest retreated back to the gunroom , where another crewman , who had been severely wounded , later died .
On the third day the crew trapped in the gunroom created a small explosion just outside it , using gunpowder , in which Gulik was injured again . Their hope was to frighten the Malagasy into submission , and a female Malagasy who had been held in the gunroom was instructed to tell the other Malagasy that , if they did not surrender , the crew would blow up the ship . The Malagasy responded by saying that they had seen the fearful effect that the explosion also had on the crew , and refused to surrender , again demanding that they be returned to Madagascar . Olof Leij agreed , but Captain Muller ordered the crew to sail the ship towards Cape Agulhas , the southernmost point of Africa . Muller 's assessment was that the Malagasy had little skill in seafaring and navigation and therefore would be unlikely to notice the deception , which proved to be the case . After three or four days ' sailing they sighted land , the VOC settlement of Struisbaai .
The leader of the mutineers was by now suspicious . The orientation of the sunrise , and birds the Malagasy had seen , did not match those of his homeland , which he pointed out to Leij , who spoke enough of the Malagasy language to tell him that the land they saw was a different part of Madagascar . They dropped anchor when the ship was " a mile [ 1 @.@ 6 km ] offshore " , and the mutiny 's leader , with more than fifty – perhaps as many as seventy – other Malagasy men and women set off for the shore in the ship 's longboat and pinnace . They had promised their fellow Malagasy that they would light signal fires on the beach and send the boats back if it was safe for them to follow .
Dutch farmers had spotted the ship , and observing that she was flying no flags understood that to be a distress signal . On coming ashore , the Malagasy reached a farm belonging to Dutchman Matthijs Rostok and discovered that they had been deceived by the ship 's crew . Local officials had ordered local Dutch farmers and burghers to form an impromptu militia ; some of the Malagasy were shot dead and some were imprisoned at Wessels Wesselsen 's property close by . On 27 February a local official named Hentz wrote a letter describing events to Johannes Le Sueur , the VOC magistrate for Stellenbosch , about 146 kilometres ( 91 mi ) to the north @-@ west . Two days later Le Sueur arrived in Soetendaal 's Valleij , a little more than 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) north @-@ west of Struisbaai , and " installed himself " in the home of farmer Barend Geldenhuijs . Le Sueur then went to Wesselsen 's property , where he interrogated eighteen male Malagasy in an attempt to assess the situation on board the Meermin . On 3 March he went from there to Matthijs Rostok 's farm and began corresponding with the VOC 's Cape Colony government , based in what is now the city of Cape Town . A crew member who had come ashore with the Malagasy and subsequently escaped was taken to Le Sueur , who sent him to report in person to the authorities at Cape Town . Meanwhile , local farmers and burghers were recapturing Malagasy in small groups . The authorities at Cape Town sent two hoekers , the Neptunus and the Snelheid , with a party of soldiers under two corporals and a sergeant , to assist in retaking the Meermin , but the ships did not arrive until the action was over .
= = = Final stages = = =
About 90 Malagasy remained on the ship throughout the following week , waiting for the promised signal fires and growing increasingly impatient . Some of the mutineers decided to build a raft to carry them to the shore in an effort to establish exactly where they were . In a stroke of luck for the crew , they encountered a black shepherd , but he ran away before they could speak to him ; believing that they were indeed in Madagascar , they returned to the ship . Meanwhile , the surviving crew members were becoming desperate ; having observed that the ocean current was setting onshore , and knowing of the arrangements for signal fires , they wrote messages asking for Dutchmen on land to light three fires on the shore to deceive the Malagasy on the ship into believing they were close to home rather than in a " Christian country " , and to guard them " should the ship run aground " .
Convinced they would be killed if the Malagasy discovered the truth while still on board ship , the crew sealed their messages in bottles and dropped them into the onshore current . The VOC authorities in Cape Town had sent their chief ship 's carpenter , Philip van den Berg , with two other ship 's carpenters , two pilots , a quartermaster and 20 sailors overland . Carpenters were needed since neither of the Meermin 's boats , now onshore , could be used : one was buried in the sand , and the other was in need of repair . The party from Cape Town had arrived by 6 March , and , while Johannes Le Sueur was overseeing the carpenters ' examination of the Meermin 's boats , he was handed a bottle containing a message signed by Jan de Leeuw . A second bottle , containing a message signed by Olof Leij , was also found and handed to Le Sueur , and the fires were lit on 7 March . One of the messages is preserved in the Cape Archives Repository .
The Malagasy on the ship , seeing the signal fires , cut the anchor cable , allowing the Meermin to drift shorewards , where it grounded on a sandbank . Crew member Rijk Meyer , who had earlier been thrown overboard and swum around the ship to the safety of the gunroom , now swam from the ship to the shore and was brought to Le Sueur . He informed Le Sueur that the Malagasy on the ship had told him to find out whether the earlier landing party was there , but that he had secretly arranged with the other crew members that , if help was available on shore , he would signal back to the ship by waving a handkerchief above his head . Six Malagasy and another crew member also left the Meermin in a canoe , but a unit of the militia immediately surrounded the party when they landed . One Malagasy was shot dead and three others taken prisoner ; the dead Malagasy was later identified by one of the ship 's crew as the mutiny 's overall ringleader , but his name was not recorded . Of the remaining two , one swam away and the other was believed either to have swum back to the ship or drowned in the attempt . Enraged by the crew 's deception , the Malagasy still on the Meermin launched an attack on the crew which lasted for three hours , but the crew were able to defend themselves .
On 9 March the ship 's carpenters from Cape Town completed repairs to one of Meermin 's two boats , described as a " schuit " . The Malagasy saw how close they were to defeat ; the ship was grounded and a force of Dutchmen on shore was preparing to go to the ship 's assistance . Olof Leij persuaded the remaining Malagasy to surrender ; he promised that , if they allowed themselves to be shackled again , they would not be punished further . A second canoe , manned by Leij , Daniel Gulik and a ship 's boy , went ashore to deliver news of the surrender .
The weather had begun to deteriorate , and it was decided that the schuit was not strong enough to bring the remaining Malagasy ashore . One end of a rope was anchored to the shore , and at low tide volunteers from the Dutch group on shore swam out to the Meermin , bringing the other end of the rope with them and handing it up to the crew on the ship . The crew then helped the remaining fifty @-@ three Malagasy climb down to the Dutch volunteers , who helped them to shore , some carrying children on their backs . The Dutch built a fire to warm the Malagasy after their immersion in the water , and fed them ; three wagons took them to Cape Town on 12 March . Of the 140 or so Malagasy who had been shipped , 112 reached the Cape Colony as slaves .
= = Aftermath = =
The VOC authorities salvaged as much as possible from the beached Meermin . They recovered nearly 300 firearms , gunpowder and musket balls , compasses and five bayonets ; they auctioned cables , ropes and other items from the ship on the shore . The Meermin was left to break up where she grounded .
On 30 October 1766 the VOC 's Council of Justice found Captain Muller and the surviving ship 's mate , Daniel Carel Gulik , guilty of culpable negligence and sentenced them to demotion and dismissal from the company ; they lost their rank and their pay was docked . They were also ordered to pay the costs of the case and were sent home to Amsterdam , having to work their passage ; Muller was banned from the Cape Colony and was banned for life from working for the VOC . Olof Leij was also dismissed from the VOC . The burghers of Struisbaai were considered to have played an " exemplary role " in assisting Le Sueur 's efforts to terminate the mutiny .
Other rulings made in this case represented a " huge step in the recognition of oppressed people [ such as slaves ] as free @-@ thinking individuals . " The VOC 's normal punishment for a slave who attacked his master was " death by impalement " , but none of the slaves were tried . For lack of sufficient evidence it was decided that the remaining mutiny leaders Massavana and Koesaaij should be “ put on [ Robben Island ] until further instructions . ” The purpose of this was for observation of their behaviour , in the hope that Massavana and Koesaaij might shed further light on how the mutiny had arisen . Massavana died on Robben Island on 20 December 1769 ; Koesaaij survived there for another 20 years .
= = Archaeology = =
On 24 September 1998 – South Africa 's Heritage Day – the building housing the South Africa Cultural History Museum , a branch of Iziko Museums , was renamed the Old Slave Lodge , commemorating its accommodation of about 9 @,@ 000 government @-@ owned slaves between the 17th and early 19th centuries . In 2004 Iziko Museums started a maritime archaeology project , associated with the Old Slave Lodge museum , to find and salvage the wreck of the Meermin ; supporting historical and archaeological research was also commissioned , funded by the South African National Lottery .
Jaco Boshoff of Iziko Museums , who is in charge of the research , retrieved the Meermin 's plans from the Netherlands to help identify this wreck among the numerous ships reputed to have run aground in the Struisbaai area . In 2011 the Iziko Museums ' travelling exhibition " Finding Meermin " included updates on the progress of Jaco Boshoff 's work with the archaeological research team , but , as of 2013 , the search for the Meermin continues .
= Danny Valencia =
Daniel Paul " Danny " Valencia ( born September 19 , 1984 ) is an American professional baseball third baseman for the Oakland Athletics of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He has also played for the Minnesota Twins , Boston Red Sox , Baltimore Orioles , Kansas City Royals , and Toronto Blue Jays .
In high school , Valencia was all @-@ county three times and all @-@ state twice . At the University of North Carolina at Greensboro , he was Southern Conference Freshman of the Year , second @-@ team all @-@ conference , and on his all @-@ regional team . He was drafted while he was a junior at the University of Miami by the Twins in the 19th round of the 2006 Major League Baseball Draft , the 576th player overall .
In the minors , Valencia was an All @-@ Star in the Appalachian League ( 2006 ) , the Midwest League ( 2007 ) , and the Florida State League ( 2008 ) . He entered the 2010 season ranked as the sixth @-@ best prospect of the Twins by Baseball America .
Valencia made his major league debut with the Twins in June 2010 . He was named the third baseman on Baseball America 's 2010 All @-@ Rookie Team , and on the 2010 Topps Major League Rookie All @-@ Star Team . In 2011 , he led the Twins in RBIs , and led all major league third basemen in assists . In 2013 , he batted .371 vs. left @-@ handed pitching , leading the American League , and ranked third in slugging percentage at .639 ( minimum 100 plate appearances ) .
= = Early life = =
Valencia is Jewish , and was born in Miami , Florida . His parents are Mindy Valencia , who is Jewish , and Jewish Cuban immigrant Michael Valencia , who converted to Judaism . He grew up in Boca Raton , Florida . He was raised Jewish , and has said : " People are shocked at first that I ’ m Jewish . I get teased in the clubhouse about being Jewish , but we all get teased about something . Going to Hebrew school and being a bar mitzvah … made my mom really happy . I wished I had been out playing baseball , but looking back at it now , I ’ m happy I did it . ” Valencia has a sister , Laura .
In 1996 , Valencia pitched for the Boca Raton Babe Ruth League 12 @-@ and @-@ under all @-@ star baseball team that won the Florida state championship . The next year , he pitched and hit for the Boca Lightning 12 @-@ and @-@ under travel baseball team that went 27 – 2 and won the South Florida All @-@ Star Travel League championship . His two key hitting coaches growing up were Bob Molinaro , a family friend who is a former major leaguer and Eastern League manager , and his mother Mindy .
= = = High school = = =
Valencia played shortstop for four years for the Spanish River High School Sharks . He earned South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel All @-@ County honors as a junior , and was named first team All @-@ Palm Beach County three times and second @-@ team All @-@ State twice . As a junior in 2002 he was Offensive Player of the Year after hitting .430 , and as a senior in 2003 he hit .575 .
= = College = =
= = = UNC @-@ Greensboro = = =
Although Valencia had dreamed of playing for the University of Miami , its baseball program did not recruit him , and instead he went to the University of North Carolina at Greensboro , one of two teams that had offered him a full baseball scholarship . In his freshman year , Valencia played third base and batted .338 with a .527 slugging percentage and a team @-@ leading 8 home runs . He was the 2004 Southern Conference Freshman of the Year , and was voted second @-@ team All @-@ Conference .
= = = University of Miami = = =
Homesick for Florida , Valencia sought to transfer to the University of Miami after his freshman year , even though it only offered him a modest scholarship . UNC @-@ Greensboro initially agreed to release Valencia from his scholarship , but later refused , placing him in jeopardy of losing a year of college eligibility under NCAA Division I rules . He appealed to a university committee which ruled in his favor , allowing him to leave while preserving his eligibility .
During his sophomore year , Valencia played first base for the University of Miami Hurricanes alongside then @-@ third @-@ baseman Ryan Braun . He hit .300 and drove in 63 runs while batting fifth in the lineup , and was named to the All @-@ Regional Team . By his sophomore year of college , he had added 40 pounds . " It 's night and day " from UNC @-@ Greensboro , said Valencia . " It 's awesome . It 's what every Florida kid dreams of . It 's the program – the winning , the uniforms . Everything from the strength coach to the facilities is completely different . " During the summer of 2005 , he played third base for the Anchorage Glacier Pilots in the Alaska Baseball League .
When Braun left to join the Milwaukee Brewers ' farm system in 2005 , Valencia replaced him at third base for his junior year , batting .324 with a .475 slugging percentage . Valencia hit .312 with 124 runs batted in ( RBIs ) in 122 games over two years with the Hurricanes , and played in the College World Series . Valencia then played seven games for the Orleans Cardinals in the Cape Cod League in the summer of 2006 .
Drafted in the 19th round of the 2006 draft by the Minnesota Twins , the 576th player overall , he skipped his senior year of college to begin his pro career . Valencia was disappointed in his draft position , but said : " realistically , it does not change things for me . My goal has always been to get to the big leagues ... It does not matter where you start , but where you finish . "
= = Minor league career ( 2006 – 10 ) = =
= = = 2006 – 08 = = =
In his first professional season , Valencia played first and third base with the Elizabethton Twins . He compiled a .311 batting average ( ninth in the league , and fifth in the Twins ' organization ) and a .505 slugging percentage ( sixth in the league ) , with eight home runs ( fourth in the league ) and 29 RBIs in 48 games . He was also fifth in the league in at @-@ bats @-@ per @-@ home @-@ run . Valencia was named a 2006 Appalachian League Postseason All @-@ Star , and then batted .364 in the playoffs .
Valencia was selected as a Midwest League All Star in 2007 , while playing with the Beloit Snappers , for whom he batted .302 / .374 / .500 . His Beloit teammates nicknamed him " The Franchise " . Manager Jeff Smith lauded him for using the whole field when he batted , and for patience at the plate .
Immediately following the All Star game , he was promoted to the high A Fort Myers Miracle . He earned Florida State League ( FSL ) " Player of the Week " honors , batting .379 ( 11 – 29 ) with two home runs , three runs scored , and 10 RBIs for the week of July 16 . He hit a combined .297 / .354 / .462 with 17 homers and 66 RBIs at Beloit and Fort Myers .
Again assigned to the Miracle for the first half of 2008 , he batted a league @-@ leading .336 with a league @-@ leading 74 hits , and five home runs and 44 RBIs ( second in the league ) , a .402 on @-@ base percentage , and a .518 slugging percentage . He was named a Florida State League All Star , and helped the Miracle capture the FSL 2008 Western Division first half crown . Jim Rantz , director of minor leagues for the Twins , said that he expected Valencia would hit for both power and average .
Valencia was promoted to the Twins ' Double @-@ A affiliate , the New Britain Rock Cats , for the second half of the season . With the Rock Cats , Valencia batted .289 with 10 home runs and 32 RBIs . Between the two teams , he batted .311 ( sixth in the Twins ' system ) , with 15 home runs and 76 RBIs ( fourth in the Twins ' system ) .
= = = 2009 – 13 = = =
With the Rock Cats to start 2009 , he was voted the Eastern League Player of the Week Award for the week ending May 24 , after batting .444 with a .778 slugging percentage . Rock Cats manager Tom Nieto said : " Danny 's going to be a special player . He 's got an electric bat . " He hit 38 doubles during the season , tied for the most in the Twins ' organization .
Following the season , he played 31 games of winter ball with the Arizona Fall League 's Phoenix Desert Dogs . He spent spring training with the Twins in 2009 as a non @-@ roster invitee , batting .429 , and was assigned to New Britain following spring training . Baseball America ranked him as the fifth @-@ best prospect in the Twins ' organization .
During the 2009 season , Valencia first played for New Britain and was then promoted to the Triple @-@ A Rochester Red Wings . He batted a combined .285 with 14 home runs and 70 RBIs for the two teams . The Twins management indicated that it felt that Valencia would be one of the top position players of the future . On November 20 , 2009 , he was added to the Twins ' 40 @-@ man roster . Rantz said : " We 're still trying to fill the third @-@ base hole . Eventually ... we 're all hoping that [ Valencia will ] be that guy . "
He then played for the Indios de Mayagüez in the Puerto Rico winter league , and as a foreign @-@ born player ( of Cuban heritage ) for Team Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Series . Twins general manager Bill Smith said in December : " I give Danny Valencia credit . He 's down in Puerto Rico right now playing winter ball , and trying to get better .... You always want an underdog guy , somebody to step up when presented with an opportunity . " Hector Otero , the Twins scout who signed Valencia and who was the general manager of the Mayagüez club , said : " I think he is a talented player . He definitely can throw . He worked on his defense – worked extra before games – and everyone knows he can swing the bat . "
Valencia entered the 2010 season ranked as the Twins ' sixth @-@ best prospect by Baseball America . Valencia began 2010 playing third base for Rochester , and was batting .292 in 48 games when he was called up by the parent club .
In 2013 , Valencia batted .286 with 14 home runs and 51 RBIs in 262 at bats with Triple @-@ A Norfolk , and a .531 slugging percentage that would have ranked second in the International League if he had reached the minimum number of at bats .
= = Major League career ( 2010 – present ) = =
= = = Minnesota Twins ( 2010 – 12 ) = = =
Assessing Valencia 's hitting during 2010 spring training , Twins manager Ron Gardenhire said : “ I guarantee you one thing , he can hit a fastball ; and if he sits on a breaking ball , he can hit that , too . ” On June 3 , Valencia was called up to replace Michael Cuddyer , who had been placed on the bereavement list following the death of his father @-@ in @-@ law . In his debut that day , he went 1 for 3 .
On July 26 , Valencia hit a grand slam off reigning AL Cy Young winner Zack Greinke to record his first big league homer . The feat marked the first time in the 49 years of Twins franchise history that a player 's first Major League home run was a grand slam . The game was also his first four @-@ hit performance . The next day , Valencia became the first Twins rookie to have back @-@ to @-@ back games with four hits apiece .
In 2010 , Valencia hit .394 with runners in scoring position . That was best in the AL ( ahead of Josh Hamilton ) , among those with at least 75 plate appearances in that situation . On defense , he had the fifth @-@ best fielding percentage among AL third basemen ( .973 ) .
For the season , his .311 batting average ( the best by a Twins rookie in 46 years ) , .448 slugging percentage , and .799 OPS were the highest among AL rookies with 300 or more plate appearances . He came in 3rd among AL rookies in hits ( 93 ) and total bases ( 134 ) . In 65 games after the All Star break , he led AL rookies in batting ( .311 ) , RBIs ( 37 ) , and doubles ( 16 ) .
Valencia was named the third baseman on Baseball America 's 2010 All @-@ Rookie Team , and the third baseman on the 2010 Topps Major League Rookie All @-@ Star Team . He was also named the Twins ' Most Outstanding Rookie ( the Bill Boni Award ) . He came in third in the voting for 2010 AL Rookie of the Year , with one second @-@ place vote and nine third @-@ place votes .
In 2011 , Valencia batted .246 , with 15 home runs and a team @-@ leading 72 RBIs . He also led the team in games played and at bats , and led the AL in games played at third base . On defense , he led the all major league third basemen in assists , with 260 .
In 2012 , Valencia was replaced by Trevor Plouffe as the team 's everyday third baseman after mediocre play during the season . After Plouffe was placed on the DL , Valencia made his return to the Twins roster on July 27 .
= = = Boston Red Sox ( 2012 ) = = =
Valencia was hitting .205 with two home runs with the Twins when he was traded to the Boston Red Sox on August 5 . Minnesota received minor league outfielder Jeremias Pineda in return . The Red Sox immediately optioned Valencia to their Triple @-@ A affiliate Pawtucket Red Sox . He was recalled from Pawtucket on August 11 when Will Middlebrooks was placed on the disabled list with a broken right wrist expected to end his season . Valencia was sent back to Pawtucket on August 21 , before being recalled again on September 25 . He remained with the major league club for the rest of the season , while appearing in six games . On November 20 , Valencia was designated for assignment along with four other Red Sox players .
= = = Baltimore Orioles ( 2013 ) = = =
Valencia was traded to the Baltimore Orioles for cash considerations eight days later , on November 28 , 2012 .
Valencia was recalled from the Triple @-@ A Norfolk Tides on August 19 , 2013 .
He batted .304 for the season , with a .553 slugging percentage . He batted .371 vs. left @-@ handed pitching , leading the American League , and ranked third in slugging percentage at .639 ( minimum 100 plate appearances ) .
He was eligible for arbitration after the season . Valencia was traded to the Kansas City Royals for OF David Lough on December 18 , 2013 .
= = = Kansas City Royals ( 2014 ) = = =
On May 22 , 2014 , Valencia was given the starting third baseman job by the Royals , after hitting .308 in his first 16 games . He batted .282 in 110 at bats , before being traded .
= = = Toronto Blue Jays ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = =
On July 28 , 2014 , Valencia was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays for pitcher Liam Hendriks and catcher Erik Kratz . In the offseason , Valencia won his salary arbitration case against the Blue Jays , and was awarded a one @-@ year contract worth $ 1 @.@ 675 million . On August 1 , 2015 , Valencia was designated for assignment .
= = = Oakland Athletics ( 2015 – present ) = = =
The Oakland Athletics claimed Valencia off waivers on August 3 . He debuted with the team on August 5 , starting at third base .
= = Awards = =
= Fluorine =
Fluorine is a chemical element with symbol F and atomic number 9 . It is the lightest halogen and exists as a highly toxic pale yellow diatomic gas at standard conditions . As the most electronegative element , it is extremely reactive : almost all other elements , including some noble gases , form compounds with fluorine .
Among the elements , fluorine ranks 24th in universal abundance and 13th in terrestrial abundance . Fluorite , the primary mineral source of fluorine , was first described in 1529 ; as it was added to metal ores to lower their melting points for smelting , the Latin verb fluo meaning " flow " became associated with it . Proposed as an element in 1810 , fluorine proved difficult and dangerous to separate from its compounds , and several early experimenters died or sustained injuries from their attempts . Only in 1886 did French chemist Henri Moissan isolate elemental fluorine using low @-@ temperature electrolysis , a process still employed for modern production . Industrial production of fluorine gas for uranium enrichment , its largest application , began during the Manhattan Project in World War II .
Owing to the expense of refining pure fluorine , most commercial applications use fluorine compounds , with about half of mined fluorite used in steelmaking . The rest of the fluorite is converted into corrosive hydrogen fluoride en route to various organic fluorides , or into cryolite which plays a key role in aluminium refining . Organic fluorides have very high chemical and thermal stability ; their major uses are as refrigerants , electrical insulation and cookware , the last as PTFE ( Teflon ) . Pharmaceuticals such as atorvastatin and fluoxetine also contain fluorine , and the fluoride ion inhibits dental cavities , and so finds use in toothpaste and water fluoridation . Global fluorochemical sales amount to more than US $ 15 billion a year .
Fluorocarbon gases are generally greenhouse gases with global @-@ warming potentials 100 to 20 @,@ 000 times that of carbon dioxide . Organofluorine compounds persist in the environment due to the strength of the carbon – fluorine bond . Fluorine has no known metabolic role in mammals ; a few plants synthesize organofluorine poisons that deter herbivores .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Electron configuration = = =
Fluorine atoms have nine electrons , one fewer than neon , and electron configuration 1s22s22p5 : two electrons in a filled inner shell and seven in an outer shell requiring one more to be filled . The outer electrons are ineffective at nuclear shielding , and experience a high effective nuclear charge of 9 − 2 = 7 ; this affects the atom 's physical properties .
Fluorine 's first ionization energy is third @-@ highest among all elements , behind helium and neon , which complicates the removal of electrons from neutral fluorine atoms . It also has a high electron affinity , second only to chlorine , and tends to capture an electron to become isoelectronic with the noble gas neon ; it has the highest electronegativity of any element . Fluorine atoms have a small covalent radius of around 60 picometers , similar to those of its period neighbors oxygen and neon .
= = = Reactivity = = =
The bond energy of difluorine is much lower than that of either Cl
2 or Br
2 and similar to the easily cleaved peroxide bond ; this , along with high electronegativity , accounts for fluorine 's easy dissociation , high reactivity , and strong bonds to non @-@ fluorine atoms . Conversely , bonds to other atoms are very strong because of fluorine 's high electronegativity . Unreactive substances like powdered steel , glass fragments , and asbestos fibers react quickly with cold fluorine gas ; wood and water spontaneously combust under a fluorine jet .
Reactions of elemental fluorine with metals require varying conditions . Alkali metals cause explosions and alkaline earth metals display vigorous activity in bulk ; to prevent passivation from the formation of metal fluoride layers , most other metals such as aluminium and iron must be powdered , and noble metals require pure fluorine gas at 300 – 450 ° C ( 575 – 850 ° F ) . Some solid nonmetals ( sulfur , phosphorus ) react vigorously in liquid air temperature fluorine . Hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide combine readily with fluorine , the latter sometimes explosively ; sulfuric acid exhibits much less activity , requiring elevated temperatures .
Hydrogen , like some of the alkali metals , reacts explosively with fluorine . Carbon , as lamp black , reacts at room temperature to yield fluoromethane . Graphite combines with fluorine above 400 ° C ( 750 ° F ) to produce non @-@ stoichiometric carbon monofluoride ; higher temperatures generate gaseous fluorocarbons , sometimes with explosions . Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide react at or just above room temperature , whereas paraffins and other organic chemicals generate strong reactions : even fully substituted haloalkanes such as carbon tetrachloride , normally incombustible , may explode . Although nitrogen trifluoride is stable , nitrogen requires an electric discharge at elevated temperatures for reaction with fluorine to occur , due to the very strong triple bond in elemental nitrogen ; ammonia may react explosively . Oxygen does not combine with fluorine under ambient conditions , but can be made to react using electric discharge at low temperatures and pressures ; the products tend to disintegrate into their constituent elements when heated . Heavier halogens react readily with fluorine as does the noble gas radon ; of the other noble gases , only xenon and krypton react , and only under special conditions .
= = = Phases = = =
At room temperature , fluorine is a gas of diatomic molecules , pale yellow when pure ( sometimes described as yellow @-@ green ) . It has a characteristic pungent odor detectable at 20 ppb . Fluorine condenses into a bright yellow liquid at − 188 ° C ( − 306 ° F ) , a transition temperature similar to those of oxygen and nitrogen .
Fluorine has two solid forms , α- and β @-@ fluorine . The latter crystallizes at − 220 ° C ( − 364 ° F ) and is transparent and soft , with the same disordered cubic structure of freshly crystallized solid oxygen , unlike the orthorhombic systems of other solid halogens . Further cooling to − 228 ° C ( − 378 ° F ) induces a phase transition into opaque and hard α @-@ fluorine , which has a monoclinic structure with dense , angled layers of molecules . The transition from β- to α @-@ fluorine is more exothermic than the condensation of fluorine , and can be violent .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Only one isotope of fluorine occurs naturally in abundance , the stable isotope 19F . It has a high magnetogyric ratio and exceptional sensitivity to magnetic fields ; because it is also the only stable isotope , it is used in magnetic resonance imaging . Seventeen radioisotopes with mass numbers from 14 to 31 have been synthesized , of which 18F is the most stable with a half @-@ life of 109 @.@ 77 minutes . Other radioisotopes have half @-@ lives less than 70 seconds ; most decay in less than half a second . The isotopes 17F and 18F undergo β + decay , lighter isotopes decay by electron capture , and those heavier than 19F undergo β − decay or neutron emission . One metastable isomer of fluorine is known , 18mF , with a half @-@ life of 234 nanoseconds .
= = Occurrence = =
= = = Universe = = =
Among the lighter elements , fluorine 's abundance value of 400 ppb ( parts per billion ) – 24th among elements in the universe – is exceptional : other elements from carbon to magnesium are twenty or more times as common . This is because stellar nucleosynthesis processes bypass fluorine , and any fluorine atoms otherwise created have high nuclear cross sections , allowing further fusion with hydrogen or helium to generate oxygen or neon respectively .
Beyond this transient existence , three explanations have been proposed for the presence of fluorine :
during type II supernovae , bombardment of neon atoms by neutrinos could transmute them to fluorine ;
the solar wind of Wolf – Rayet stars could blow fluorine away from any hydrogen or helium atoms ; or
fluorine is borne out on convection currents arising from fusion in asymptotic giant branch stars .
= = = Earth = = =
Fluorine is the thirteenth most common element in Earth 's crust at 600 – 700 ppm ( parts per million ) by mass . Elemental fluorine in Earth 's atmosphere would easily react with atmospheric water vapor , precluding its natural occurrence ; it is found only in combined mineral forms , of which fluorite , fluorapatite and cryolite are the most industrially significant . Fluorite or fluorspar ( CaF
2 ) , colorful and abundant worldwide , is fluorine 's main source ; China and Mexico are the major suppliers . The U.S. led extraction in the early 20th century but ceased mining in 1995 . Although fluorapatite ( Ca5 ( PO4 ) 3F ) contains most of the world 's fluorine , its low mass fraction of 3 @.@ 5 % means that most of it is used as a phosphate . In the U.S. small quantities of fluorine compounds are obtained via fluorosilicic acid , a phosphate industry byproduct . Cryolite ( Na
3AlF
6 ) , once used directly in aluminium production , is the rarest and most concentrated of these three minerals . The main commercial mine on Greenland 's west coast closed in 1987 , and most cryolite is now synthesized .
Other minerals such as topaz contain fluorine . Fluorides , unlike other halides , are insoluble and do not occur in commercially favorable concentrations in saline waters . Trace quantities of organofluorines of uncertain origin have been detected in volcanic eruptions and geothermal springs . The existence of gaseous fluorine in crystals , suggested by the smell of crushed antozonite , is contentious ; a 2012 study reported the presence of 0 @.@ 04 % F
2 by weight in antozonite , attributing these inclusions to radiation from the presence of tiny amounts of uranium .
= = History = =
= = = Early discoveries = = =
In 1529 , Georgius Agricola described fluorite as an additive used to lower the melting point of metals during smelting . He penned the Latin word fluorés ( fluo , flow ) for fluorite rocks . The name later evolved into fluorspar ( still commonly used ) and then fluorite . The composition of fluorite was later determined to be calcium difluoride .
Hydrofluoric acid was used in glass etching from 1720 onwards . Andreas Sigismund Marggraf first characterized it in 1764 when he heated fluorite with sulfuric acid , and the resulting solution corroded its glass container . Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele repeated the experiment in 1771 , and named the acidic product fluss @-@ spats @-@ syran ( fluorspar acid ) . In 1810 , the French physicist André @-@ Marie Ampère suggested that hydrogen and an element analogous to chlorine constituted hydrofluoric acid . Sir Humphry Davy proposed that this then @-@ unknown substance be named fluorine from fluoric acid and the -ine suffix of other halogens . This word , with modifications , is used in most European languages ; Greek , Russian , and some others ( following Ampère 's suggestion ) use the name ftor or derivatives , from the Greek φθόριος ( phthorios , destructive ) . The New Latin name fluorum gave the element its current symbol F ; Fl was used in early papers .
= = = Isolation = = =
Initial studies on fluorine were so dangerous that several 19th @-@ century experimenters were deemed " fluorine martyrs " after misfortunes with hydrofluoric acid . Isolation of elemental fluorine was hindered by the extreme corrosiveness of both elemental fluorine itself and hydrogen fluoride , as well as the lack of a simple and suitable electrolyte . Edmond Frémy postulated that electrolysis of pure hydrofluoric acid to generate fluorine was feasible and devised a method to produce anhydrous samples from acidified potassium bifluoride ; instead , he discovered that the resulting ( dry ) hydrogen fluoride did not conduct electricity . Frémy 's former student Henri Moissan persevered , and after much trial and error found that a mixture of potassium bifluoride and dry hydrogen fluoride was a conductor , enabling electrolysis . To prevent rapid corrosion of the platinum in his electrochemical cells , he cooled the reaction to extremely low temperatures in a special bath and forged cells from a more resistant mixture of platinum and iridium , and used fluorite stoppers . In 1886 , after 74 years of effort by many chemists , Moissan isolated elemental fluorine .
In 1906 , two months before his death , Moissan received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry , with the following citation :
[ I ] n recognition of the great services rendered by him in his investigation and isolation of the element fluorine ... The whole world has admired the great experimental skill with which you have studied that savage beast among the elements .
= = = Later uses = = =
The Frigidaire division of General Motors ( GM ) experimented with chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants in the late 1920s , and Kinetic Chemicals was formed as a joint venture between GM and DuPont in 1930 hoping to market Freon @-@ 12 ( CCl
2F
2 ) as one such refrigerant . It replaced earlier and more toxic compounds , increased demand for kitchen refrigerators , and became profitable ; by 1949 DuPont had bought out Kinetic and marketed several other Freon compounds . Polytetrafluoroethylene ( Teflon ) was serendipitously discovered in 1938 by Roy J. Plunkett while working on refrigerants at Kinetic , and its superlative chemical and thermal resistance lent it to accelerated commercialization and mass production by 1941 .
Large @-@ scale production of elemental fluorine began during World War II . Germany used high @-@ temperature electrolysis to make tons of the planned incendiary chlorine trifluoride and the Manhattan Project used huge quantities to produce uranium hexafluoride for uranium enrichment . Since UF
6 is as corrosive as fluorine , gaseous diffusion plants required special materials : nickel for membranes , fluoropolymers for seals , and liquid fluorocarbons as coolants and lubricants . This burgeoning nuclear industry later drove post @-@ war fluorochemical development .
= = Compounds = =
Fluorine has a rich chemistry , encompassing organic and inorganic domains . It combines with metals , nonmetals , metalloids , and most noble gases , and usually assumes an oxidation state of − 1 . Fluorine 's high electron affinity results in a preference for ionic bonding ; when it forms covalent bonds , these are polar , and almost always single .
= = = Metals = = =
Alkali metals form ionic and highly soluble monofluorides ; these have the cubic arrangement of sodium chloride and analogous chlorides . Alkaline earth difluorides possess strong ionic bonds but are insoluble in water , with the exception of beryllium difluoride , which also exhibits some covalent character and has a quartz @-@ like structure . Rare earth elements and many other metals form mostly ionic trifluorides .
Covalent bonding first comes to prominence in the tetrafluorides : those of zirconium , hafnium and several actinides are ionic with high melting points , while those of titanium , vanadium , and niobium are polymeric , melting or decomposing at no more than 350 ° C ( 660 ° F ) . Pentafluorides continue this trend with their linear polymers and oligomeric complexes .
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that Defined a Generation " by Blake J. Harris . He is also working on a movie adaptation of the book along with This is the End collaborator Evan Goldberg .
On April 12 , 2014 , Rogen hosted Saturday Night Live , with musician Ed Sheeran performing . That year , Rogen starred in Neighbors , with Rose Byrne and Zac Efron , directed by Nicholas Stoller , and released in May , and The Interview , opposite James Franco and Lizzy Caplan , released in December . Rogen and Evan Goldberg co @-@ wrote and co @-@ directed the latter film . In June 2014 , North Korea threatened a " merciless " retaliation on the USA if it did not ban The Interview , labelling the movie " an act of war " and a " wanton act of terror " , and Rogen himself a " gangster filmmaker " . On December 17 , 2014 , Sony Pictures announced that it was cancelling the release of the movie after a cyber attack on the studio , allegedly tied to North Korea and threats made subsequently by North Korean Leader Kim Jong @-@ un . As a result of criticism of this decision , Sony subsequently made the film available online and it allowed theatrical release on December 25 , 2014 . Rogen portrayed Apple Inc. co @-@ founder Steve Wozniak in the Danny Boyle @-@ directed Steve Jobs biopic ( 2015 ) , from a screenplay by Aaron Sorkin . His performance in the film was widely praised . In November 2015 , he starred in the Christmas @-@ themed comedy The Night Before , followed by reprising his voice role in Kung Fu Panda 3 ( 2016 ) and the upcoming Sausage Party , playing a sausage attempting to survive in the latter .
= = Personal life = =
Rogen began dating writer / actress Lauren Miller in 2004 . The two met while he was working on Da Ali G Show . The couple became engaged on September 29 , 2010 , and married on October 2 , 2011 in Sonoma County , California , USA , where they continue to reside . Miller has had minor on @-@ screen roles in a few of Rogen 's films .
Rogen has spoken out about awareness of Alzheimer 's disease . No one in his biological family has it but it runs in his wife 's side , and has affected her mother for several years . " I think until you see it firsthand , it 's kind of hard to conceive of how brutal it is , " Rogen said to CNN . " Until I saw it , you just don 't get kind of how heartbreaking it can be . " During the interview , he talked about how he tries to be emotionally supportive and around as much as he can for Miller 's mother . Both he and Miller spoke to Larry King for A Larry King Special , Unthinkable : The Alzheimer 's Epidemic , which aired in April 2011 . Rogen testified about the disease and his charity before the United States Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Labor , Health and Human Services on February 26 , 2014 .
Seth Rogen started Hilarity for Charity movement , to inspire change and raise awareness of Alzheimer ’ s disease among the millennial generation .
On February 25 , 2016 , Seth Rogen and Lauren Miller are being honored with the unite2gether accolade from unite4 : humanity for their work promoting awareness and raising money for Alzheimer ’ s research through their foundation Hilarity for Charity .
Rogen is also a member of NORML and an open marijuana user .
Rogen is a purported muse for the gay community , calling himself a " Bear Icon " in an appearance on Conan O 'Brien . He is the subject of an art book titled simply " Seth " , a side project of PINUPS magazine by print artist Christopher Schulz , which depicts Rogen in various sexual poses .
Rogen 's parents met on Kibbutz Beit Alfa , in Israel .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Reception = = =
Critical response to films Rogen has both starred in and produced .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= John Ericsson @-@ class monitor =
The John Ericsson @-@ class monitors were a group of five iron @-@ hulled monitors ; four were built for the Royal Swedish Navy and one for the Royal Norwegian Navy in the mid to late 1860s . They were designed under the supervision of the Swedish @-@ born inventor , John Ericsson , and built in Sweden . Generally the monitors were kept in reserve for the majority of the year and were only commissioned for several during the year . The ships made one foreign visit to Russia ( visits to Norway did not count as foreign as that country was in a personal union with Sweden ) in 1867 , but remained in Swedish or Norwegian waters for the rest of their careers . Two of the monitors , Thordon and Mjølner , ran aground , but were salvaged and repaired . Most of the monitors were reconstructed between 1892 and 1905 with more modern guns , but one was scrapped instead as it was not thought cost @-@ effective to rebuild such an old ship . The surviving ships were mobilized during World War I and sold for scrap afterwards .
= = Design and description = =
The John Ericsson @-@ class ironclads were designed to meet the need of the Swedish and Norwegian Navies for small , shallow @-@ draft armored ships capable of defending their coastal waters . The standoff between USS Monitor and the much larger CSS Virginia during the Battle of Hampton Roads in early 1862 roused much interest in Sweden in this new type of warship as it seemed ideal for coastal defense duties . A parliamentary committee set up earlier to investigate the state of the Swedish navy had already concluded that the existing fleet was obsolete and new construction would have to be steam @-@ powered and built of iron . John Ericsson , designer and builder of the Monitor , had been born in Sweden , although he had become an American citizen in 1848 , and offered to share his design with the Swedes . In response they sent Lieutenant John Christian d 'Ailly to the United States to study monitor design and construction under Ericsson . D 'Ailly arrived in July 1862 and toured rolling mills , gun foundries , and visited several different ironclads under construction . He returned to Sweden in 1863 having completed the drawings of a Monitor @-@ type ship under Ericsson 's supervision .
The ships measured 60 @.@ 88 meters ( 199 ft 9 in ) long overall , with a beam of 13 @.@ 54 meters ( 44 ft 5 in ) . They had a draft of 3 @.@ 4 meters ( 11 ft 2 in ) and displaced 1 @,@ 522 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 498 long tons ) . The ships were divided into nine main compartments by eight watertight bulkheads . Over time a flying bridge and , later , a full superstructure , was added to each ship between the gun turret and the funnel . Initially their crew numbered 80 officers and men , but this increased to 104 as the ships were modified with additional weapons .
Loke , the last @-@ built ship in the class , was somewhat larger than her half @-@ sisters . She was 64 @.@ 4 meters ( 211 ft 3 in ) long overall , with a maximum beam of 14 @.@ 03 meters ( 46 ft 0 in ) . The ship drew 3 @.@ 7 meters ( 12 ft 2 in ) and displaced 1 @,@ 620 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 590 long tons ) fully loaded .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The John Ericsson @-@ class ships had one twin @-@ cylinder vibrating lever steam engines , designed by Ericsson himself , driving a single four @-@ bladed , 3 @.@ 74 @-@ meter ( 12 ft 3 in ) propeller . Their engines were powered by four fire @-@ tube boilers at a working pressure of 40 psi ( 276 kPa ; 3 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 380 indicated horsepower ( 280 kW ) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ; 7 @.@ 5 mph ) in calm waters . The ships carried 110 tonnes ( 110 long tons ) of coal , enough for six day 's steaming .
= = = Armament = = =
The lead ship , John Ericsson , carried a pair of smoothbore 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) Dahlgren muzzleloaders , donated by John Ericsson , in her turret . Each gun weighed approximately 42 @,@ 000 pounds ( 19 @,@ 000 kg ) and fired 440 @-@ pound ( 200 kg ) solid shot and a 330 @-@ pound ( 150 kg ) explosive shell . The massive shells took 5 – 6 minutes to reload . They had a maximum muzzle velocity of 375 m / s ( 1 @,@ 230 ft / s ) . These guns were designated as the M / 65 by the Swedes , but they were not satisfied with their performance and replaced them with other guns in the later ships .
Thordön and Tirfing were briefly armed with a pair of 267 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 5 in ) M / 66 smoothbore guns before being rearmed in 1872 – 73 with two 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) M / 69 rifled breech loaders , derived from a French design . Loke , being the last ship delivered , was equipped with these guns while building . They weighed 14 @,@ 670 kilograms ( 32 @,@ 340 lb ) and fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 397 m / s ( 1 @,@ 300 ft / s ) . At their maximum elevation of 7 @.@ 5 ° they had a range of 3 @,@ 500 meters ( 3 @,@ 800 yd ) . An improved version was developed in the 1870s and John Ericsson was fitted with them when she was overhauled in 1881 . The guns were heavier , 16 @,@ 688 kilograms ( 36 @,@ 791 lb ) , but had a higher muzzle velocity of 413 m / s ( 1 @,@ 350 ft / s ) . Coupled with the increased elevation of 11 @.@ 29 ° , this gave them a range of 5 @,@ 000 meters ( 5 @,@ 500 yd ) . The other monitors gradually received their guns : Thordön in 1882 , Tirfing in 1885 and Loke in 1890 .
In 1877 each monitor received a pair of 10 @-@ barreled 12 @.@ 17 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 479 in ) M / 75 machine guns designed by Helge Palmcrantz . Each machine gun weighed 115 kilograms ( 254 lb ) and had a rate of fire of 500 rounds per minute . Its projectiles had a muzzle velocity of 386 m / s ( 1 @,@ 270 ft / s ) and a maximum range of 900 meters ( 980 yd ) . These guns were replaced during the 1880s by the 4 @-@ barreled 25 @.@ 4 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 00 in ) M / 77 Nordenfeldt gun , which was an enlarged version of Palmcrantz 's original design . The 203 @-@ kilogram ( 448 lb ) gun had a rate of fire of 120 rounds per minute and each round had a muzzle velocity of 490 m / s ( 1 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . Its maximum range was 1 @,@ 600 meters ( 1 @,@ 700 yd ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The John Ericsson @-@ class ships had a complete waterline armor belt of wrought iron that was 1 @.@ 8 meters ( 5 ft 11 in ) high and 124 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The armor consisted of five plates backed by 91 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) of wood . The lower edge of this belt was 74 @.@ 2 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 9 in ) thick as it was only three plates thick . The maximum thickness of the armored deck was 24 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) in two layers . The gun turret 's armor consisted of twelve layers of iron , totaling 270 millimeters ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) in thickness on the first four monitors . The armor on Loke 's turret was reinforced to a thickness of 447 millimeters ( 17 @.@ 6 in ) on its face and 381 millimeters ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) on its sides . The inside of the turret was lined with mattresses to catch splinters . The base of the turret was protected with a 127 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) glacis , 520 millimeters ( 20 @.@ 5 in ) high , and the turret 's roof was 127 millimeters thick . The conning tower was positioned on top of the turret and its sides were ten layers ( 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) ) thick . The funnel was protected by six layers of armor with a total thickness of 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) up to half its height .
= = Construction = =
= = Service = =
In July 1867 Crown Prince Oscar , later King Oscar II , inspected John Ericsson , Thordön , Tirfing , the steam frigates Thor and Vanadis , and the Norwegian monitor Skorpionen in the Stockholm archipelago before they departed for port visits in Helsingfors , later known as Helsinki , and Kronstadt in August , where they were visited by Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia , head of the Imperial Russian Navy . These were the only foreign visits ever made by the three Swedish monitors .
Generally the monitors were kept in reserve for the majority of the year ; only being commissioned for two to four months during the summer and fall . John Ericsson , named for the inventor , kept up the pattern between 1865 and 1873 , but remained in reserve afterward until 1882 . She was rearmed with the 240 @-@ millimeter M / 76 guns in 1881 and her original Dahlgren guns became part of the Ericsson monument at Filipstad . The ship was reactivated in 1882 and 1883 , but only sporadically thereafter . John Ericsson was reconstructed between 1892 and 1895 ; her gun turret was fixed in place and modified to serve as a barbette for her two new 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 in ) Bofors M / 89 guns . The guns could depress to − 5 ° and elevate to + 13 ° , and they had a firing arc of 290 ° . Two 57 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) Nordenfeldt M / 92 quick @-@ firing guns were also added on the superstructure . The ship 's boilers were replaced by new cylindrical ones that had a working pressure of 5 @.@ 5 kg / cm2 ( 539 kPa ; 78 psi ) and John Ericsson reached 8 @.@ 17 knots ( 15 @.@ 13 km / h ; 9 @.@ 40 mph ) on sea trials on 14 May 1901 . During the early 1900s the two 25 @-@ millimeter machine guns were removed and four , later six , more 57 @-@ millimeter guns added to the superstructure . The ship was assigned to the Karlskrona local defense force during 1913 – 18 , and she was sold to the Gotland Cement Company ( Swedish : Gotländska Kalkstenskompaniet ) in November 1919 . The company converted her to a barge and used her for the next forty years ; her final fate is unknown .
Thordön ( later spelled Tordön ) was laid up in reserve in 1868 and 1869 . She was rearmed with 240 @-@ millimeter M / 69 guns ( serial numbers 5 and 6 ) in 1872 , but was laid up again from 1874 to 1882 . The ship ran aground and sank on Lilla Rimö Island , off Norrköping , on 23 July 1883 . She was salvaged on 4 August and managed to proceed under her own power to Karlskrona Naval Dockyard for repairs . The subsequent court @-@ martial ordered the ship 's captain to pay for the costs of the salvage and repairs , despite a misplaced buoy that caused the ship to ground . She was recommissioned in 1885 and 1888 – 89 before being placed back in reserve . Tordön was reconstructed in 1903 – 05 ; she received a pair of new 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) Bofors M / 94 guns that were given elevation limits of − 7 ° and + 15 ° . The ship also received eight 57 @-@ millimeter guns and new boilers . She was reactivated during World War I and assigned to the Göteborg local defense flotilla . Thordön was decommissioned in 1922 and sold the following year . Her new owner converted her into a barge and used her in Stockholm harbor .
Tirfing was commissioned less often than the first two monitors . She was only active in 1867 , 1873 , 1880 , 1885 and 1888 – 89 before she was mobilized for World War I. Tirfing received her 240 @-@ millimeter M / 69 guns in 1873 . The ship was reconstructed at the same time and in a similar manner as was Tordön , except that she received eight 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) M / 95 quick @-@ firing guns taken from the Komet and Stierna @-@ class torpedo boats . Tirfing joined her sister Thordön as part of the Göteborg flotilla during World War I and shared her fate .
Loke made only seven cruises before she was finally placed in reserve in late 1880 . Funds were requested to rebuild her in 1903 and 1908 , but they were refused . She was decommissioned on 21 August 1908 and advertised for sale . The details of her fate are unknown , but presumably she was sold and scrapped .
The Norwegians had built one monitor @-@ type ship of their own , Skorpionen , in 1865 , and laid down several others , but the Norwegian Parliament authorized construction of Mjølner in 1867 in Sweden at the cost of 1 @,@ 102 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone . She was armed with a pair of steel 270 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) Armstrong rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns in her turret as well as a 80 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) gun . The ship ran aground in 1869 , but was only lightly damaged . She was visited by King Charles XV of Sweden on one occasion when visiting one of Sweden 's west @-@ coast ports in the early 1870s . Mjølner was reconstructed in 1897 : her turret was converted to a barbette and her main guns were replaced by a pair of Cockerill 120 @-@ millimeter quick @-@ firing guns . In addition two 124 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) and two 65 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) Cockerill guns were mounted in her superstructure as well as two 37 @-@ millimeter Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns . Mjølner spent most of her career in Oslo Fjord and was scrapped in 1909 .
= David Morrissey =
David Mark Morrissey ( born 21 June 1964 ) is an English actor , director , producer and screenwriter . At the age of 18 , he was cast in the television series One Summer ( 1983 ) . After making One Summer , Morrissey attended the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art , then acted with the Royal Shakespeare Company and the National Theatre for four years .
Throughout the 1990s , Morrissey often portrayed policemen and soldiers , though he took other roles such as Bradley Headstone in Our Mutual Friend ( 1998 ) and Christopher Finzi in Hilary and Jackie ( 1998 ) . More film parts followed , including roles in Some Voices ( 2000 ) and Captain Corelli 's Mandolin ( 2001 ) , before he played the critically acclaimed roles of Stephen Collins in State of Play ( 2003 ) and Gordon Brown in The Deal ( 2003 ) . The former earned him a Best Actor nomination at the British Academy Television Awards and the latter won him a Best Actor award from the Royal Television Society . In the years following those films , he had roles in Sense and Sensibility ( 2008 ) , Red Riding ( 2009 ) , Nowhere Boy ( 2009 ) and Centurion ( 2010 ) and produced and starred in the crime drama Thorne ( 2010 ) .
Morrissey returned to the stage in 2008 for a run of Neil LaBute 's In a Dark Dark House and played the title role in the Liverpool Everyman 's production of Macbeth in 2011 . He then starred in the British crime film Blitz , playing a morally dubious reporter in contact with the eponymous cop killer . The following year , he portrayed the Governor in AMC television series The Walking Dead as a series regular in the third and fourth seasons and the fifth season in a guest role . The British Film Institute describes Morrissey as being considered " one of the most versatile English actors of his generation " , and he is noted for his meticulous preparation for and research into the roles he plays .
Morrissey has directed short films and the television dramas Sweet Revenge ( 2001 ) and Passer By ( 2004 ) . His feature debut , Don 't Worry About Me , premiered at the 2009 London Film Festival and was broadcast on BBC television in March 2010 .
Morrissey was awarded an honorary doctorate by Edge Hill University in July 2016
= = Early life = =
Morrissey was born in the Kensington area of Liverpool , the son of Joe , a cobbler , and Joan , who worked for Littlewoods . He was their fourth child , following brothers Tony and Paul , and sister Karen Lane . The family lived at 45 Seldon Street , in the Kensington district of Liverpool . For National Museums Liverpool 's Eight Hundred Lives project , Morrissey wrote that the house had been in his family since around the turn of the 20th century . His grandmother had been married there and his mother was born there . In 1971 , the family moved to a larger , modern house on the new estates at Knotty Ash , and Seldon Street was later demolished .
As a child , Morrissey was greatly interested in film , television and Gene Kelly musicals . After seeing a broadcast of Kes on television , he decided to become an actor . At his primary school , St Margaret Mary 's School , he was encouraged by a teacher named Miss Keller , who cast him as the Scarecrow in a school production adapted from The Wonderful Wizard of Oz when he was 11 years old . Keller left the school soon after , leaving Morrissey without encouragement . His secondary school , De La Salle School , had no drama classes and was the sort of place where Morrissey thought the fear of bullying dissuaded pupils from participating in lessons . On the advice of a cousin , Morrissey joined the Everyman Youth Theatre . For the first couple of weeks , he was quite shy and did not join in the workshops . When he eventually participated , he appeared in the youth theatre 's production of Fighting Chance , a play about the riots in Liverpool . He went to the theatre on Tuesday and Wednesday nights .
By the age of 14 , Morrissey was one of two youth theatre members who sat on the board of the Everyman Theatre . Ian Hart , with whom he had been friends since the age of five , was one of his contemporaries , as were Mark and Stephen McGann and Cathy Tyson . Morrissey became friends with the McGann brothers , who introduced him to their brother Paul when Paul was on a break from studies at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art ( RADA ) . When Morrissey was 15 years old , his father developed a terminal blood disorder . He was ill for some time and eventually died of a haemorrhage at the age of 54 in the family home . After leaving school at the age of 16 , Morrissey joined a Wolverhampton theatre company , where he worked on sets and costumes .
= = Career = =
= = = Acting = = =
= = = = 1980s = = = =
In 1982 , Morrissey auditioned for One Summer , a television series by Willy Russell for Yorkshire Television and Channel 4 about two Liverpool boys who run away to Wales one summer . Russell had been attached to the Everyman for many years , and Morrissey had seen him while he was working behind the bar downstairs from the theatre , though the two had never been introduced . Morrissey went to at least eight auditions , and in one read for the part of Icky opposite Paul McGann , who was reading for Billy . McGann , five years older than Morrissey , believed that he was too old to be playing the part of 16 @-@ year @-@ old Billy , and stepped back from the production , leaving the role to go to Morrissey . Spencer Leigh got the part of Icky and Ian Hart played the supporting role of Rabbit . Russell had a professional disagreement with the director Gordon Flemyng and producer Keith Richardson over the casting of 18 @-@ year @-@ old Morrissey and Leigh ; he believed that the sympathy of 16 @-@ year @-@ olds running away was lost by casting older actors . Russell subsequently had his name removed from the credits of the original broadcast . After filming One Summer for five months , Morrissey went travelling in Kenya with his cousins . When he returned to Britain , One Summer was being broadcast , and he dealt with the new experience of being recognised in public .
Morrissey had planned to study at RADA in London , but his colleagues at the Everyman encouraged him not to as he already had his Equity card . His One Summer co @-@ star James Hazeldine convinced him otherwise , and he went to London for a year . He became homesick while there and did not enjoy the way RADA was turning him into a " bland actor " . On a visit back to Liverpool he told Paul McGann 's mother that he was considering leaving the college . Back in London , McGann met with him and reassured him that he had been through the same homesickness phase when he first went to RADA . Morrissey continued his studies at RADA and graduated on 1 December 1985 .
After a year at RADA , Morrissey went back to Liverpool to perform in WCPC at the Liverpool Playhouse . He then did Le Cid and Twelfth Night with Cheek by Jowl , and spent two years with the Royal Shakespeare Company ( RSC ) , principally with director Deborah Warner for whom he played the Bastard in King John in 1988 . He saw the role as a learning opportunity , as he had often wondered at RADA if he would ever have the chance to act in classical theatre . His performance has been described as " the most contentious characterisation of the production " ; he received negative critical reaction from Daily Telegraph and Independent critics , but a positive opinion from the Financial Times . In The Guardian , Nicholas de Jongh wrote , " The Bastard , who has the most complex syntax in early Shakespeare , half defeats David Morrissey . His slurred , sometimes unintelligible diction helps to deflate the Bastard , but his bawling rhetoric strikes as mere sham rather than fierce plain speaking . " Morrissey also spent time with the National , where he played the title role in Peer Gynt ( 1990 ) . Michael Billington praised the unkempt energy of his performance . During this time , he lived on the housing estate in White City , where he and his flatmates were the frequent victims of burglars .
Morrissey 's second television role came in 1987 when he played the 18 @-@ year old chauffeur George Bowman , whose obsession with his employer and lover Alma Rattenbury ( Helen Mirren ) leads him to murder her husband , in an Anglia Television adaptation of Terence Rattigan 's play Cause Célèbre . At the end of the 1980s , Morrissey met director John Madden for the first time . Madden was looking for an actor who could portray an ordinary man who turns out to be a mass murderer , in his film The Widowmaker ( 1990 ) . He knew Morrissey was right for the part in his first audition . The next year , Morrissey appeared as Theseus in an episode of The Storyteller directed by Madden ( " Theseus and the Minotaur " , 1991 ) , and as Little John in Robin Hood ( 1991 ) . Robin Hood 's cinema release clashed with that of Robin Hood : Prince of Thieves ( 1991 ) . The latter , starring Kevin Costner in the title role , was a box office hit and left Morrissey 's version forgotten . Morrissey was out of work in film and television for eight months after it was released . Eventually , he was cast in a leading role as a CID officer in the BBC television drama Clubland ( 1991 ) . He almost lost the role a week into rehearsals when his appendix ruptured . In order to keep the part , and a flat in Crouch End he had just bought , Morrissey performed while still in stitches .
= = = = 1990s = = = =
His role in The Widowmaker lead to him being offered and taking many obsessive character roles ; he played police officers in Black and Blue , Framed , Between the Lines and Out of the Blue , and soldier Andy McNab in The One That Got Away ( 1996 ) . Morrissey first met screenwriter Peter Bowker when he played Detective Sergeant Jim Llewyn in the second series of Bowker 's Out of the Blue . In 1994 , he played customs officer Gerry Birch in the first series of The Knock , and Stephen Finney in the six @-@ part ITV series Finney . In Finney , Morrissey assumed the role originated by Sting in Stormy Monday ( Mike Figgis , 1988 ) . He was the first choice for the part and had to learn to play the double bass .
Morrissey made his first appearance in a Tony Marchant drama playing Michael Ride in Into the Fire ( 1996 ) , and the following year played the lead role of Shaun Southerns in Marchant 's BBC series Holding On ( 1997 ) . Southerns , a crooked tax inspector , was the first of many " men in turmoil " roles for Morrissey , and it earned him a nomination for the Royal Television Society ( RTS ) Programme Award for Best Male Actor the next year . In 1998 , he appeared in Our Mutual Friend alongside Paul McGann . As he was a fan of the book , Morrissey asked director Julian Farino if he could play Eugene Wrayburn , but the role went to McGann . Farino had Morrissey in mind to play schoolmaster Bradley Headstone , a part Morrissey was reluctant to take until he read the script . He studied the role and decided to take it on the basis that the character was unloved and that his motivation by social class causes his mental health problems . His performance was described by a Guardian writer as bringing " unprecedented depth to a character [ ... ] who is more commonly portrayed as just another horrible Dickens git . " In the same year , he played Christopher " Kiffer " Finzi in Anand Tucker 's Hilary and Jackie . His roles in Our Mutual Friend and Hilary and Jackie were described as his breakthrough roles by Zoe Williams of The Guardian .
In 1999 , Morrissey returned to the theatre for the first and last time in nine years to play Pip and Theo in Three Days of Rain ( Robin Lefevre , Donmar Warehouse ) . He continued to take in offers for stage roles , but turned them down because he did not want to be away from his family for long periods . Writing in Time Out , Jane Edwardes suggested that his role as Kiffer in Hilary and Jackie had inspired his casting as Pip in Three Days of Rain as the characters have similarities with each other . Morrissey was attracted to the role because the play began with a long speech and the cast and crew had only two weeks ' rehearsal time . Next , he starred in Some Voices ( 2000 ) , playing Pete . Morrissey researched the character of Pete , a chef , by shadowing the head chef at the Terrace Restaurant in Kensington , London and chopping vegetables in the kitchen for two hours a day . An Independent critic called him " an instinctive actor who can use his whole body to convey an inner turbulence " . For his next film role as Nazi Captain Weber in Captain Corelli 's Mandolin ( 2001 ) , Morrissey researched the Hitler Youth and read Gitta Sereny 's biography of Albert Speer , Albert Speer : His Battle with Truth . Like for all of his roles , Morrissey created an extensive back story for Weber to build up the character .
= = = = 2000s = = = =
Morrissey returned to television in 2002 playing Franny Rothwell , a factory canteen worker who wants to adopt his dead sister 's son , in an episode of Paul Abbott 's Clocking Off . His performance was described as characteristically powerful in The Independent . He also played tabloid journalist Dave Dewston in the four @-@ part BBC serial Murder , and prison officer Mike in the part @-@ improvised single drama Out of Control . He researched the latter part by shadowing prison officers in a young offenders ' institution for a week . At the beginning of 2003 , he played the role of Richie MacGregor in This Little Life , a television drama about a mother who has to cope with her 16 @-@ week @-@ premature baby . Morrissey researched premature births by speaking to paediatricians at the Royal Free Hospital in Hampstead .
Morrissey 's next major leading role was as Member of Parliament ( MP ) Stephen Collins in Paul Abbott 's BBC serial State of Play ( 2003 ) . Morrissey received the scripts for the first three episodes and was keen to read the last three . They had not been completed when he originally requested them but Abbott told him how Collins ' story concludes . Unsure how to approach the role , Morrissey was advised by his friend , director Paul Greengrass , to get Collins ' job as politician right . Morrissey contacted State of Play producer Hilary Bevan Jones , who set up meetings between Morrissey and select committee members Kevin Barron and Fabian Hamilton . Both politicians educated Morrissey on how difficult it is to commute to London from a constituency outside the capital . Morrissey was also able to shadow Peter Mandelson around the House of Commons for a fortnight . He questioned Mandelson about his job as a cabinet minister but did not ask about his personal life . Mandelson told him about how politics can quickly " seduce " MPs who have worked hard to get into Parliament .
That same year , he played Gordon Brown in Peter Morgan 's single drama The Deal ( 2003 ) , about a pact made between Brown and Tony Blair ( Michael Sheen ) in 1994 . Unlike his research for the fictional State of Play , Morrissey discovered that no politicians wanted to talk to him for this fact @-@ based drama , so he turned to journalists Jon Snow and Simon Hoggart . He also travelled to Brown 's hometown of Kirkcaldy and immersed himself in numerous biographies of the man , including Ross Wilson 's documentary films on New Labour in the year surrounding the 1997 election . When speaking to many of Brown 's friends to gain insight into his " private persona " , Morrissey discovered that Brown was funny , approachable and charming , which were characteristics he did not see in his " public persona " . To look like Brown , Morrissey had his hair dyed and permed , and put on 2 stone ( 28 lb / 13 kg ) in body weight in six weeks . The director Stephen Frears originally wanted to cast a Scottish actor as Brown but was persuaded by other production staff to cast Morrissey .
His acting in State of Play and The Deal won him considerable acclaim ; he was nominated for the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor for his role as Collins but lost to his co @-@ star Bill Nighy . His performance in The Deal was acclaimed by Charlie Whelan , Gordon Brown 's former spin doctor , and Tim Allan , a deputy press secretary of Tony Blair . A BBC News Online writer praised Morrissey 's grasp of Brown 's physical tics in a review that criticised the rest of the film . Morrissey 's performance won the RTS Programme Award for Best Male Actor the next year , this time beating Nighy . The RTS jury wrote of Morrissey , " The strength of this performance brought to the screen , and to life , all of the characteristics and traits of the man he portrayed in a way that was both credible and convincing . " In 2009 , Morrissey declined the opportunity to play Brown again in The Special Relationship , Morgan 's third Blair film , as he did not want to get into the mindset of playing Brown for just one scene .
Morrissey was eager to play a comic role after starring in these dramas . He subsequently reunited with Peter Bowker for the BBC One musical serial Blackpool , in which he plays Blackpool arcade owner Ripley Holden . Bowker remembered Morrissey from Out of the Blue and wanted to build off the actor 's sense of humour and to cast him against type . Before filming began , Morrissey spent four days in Blackpool talking to the locals and finding out how the arcades worked . His performance was described in the Daily Telegraph as " a powerful mixture of barely suppressed danger and vulnerable , boyish charm . " A public poll on bbc.co.uk ranked him the second best actor of 2004 . Morrissey reprised the role in 2006 in the one @-@ off sequel Viva Blackpool ! . He was pleased to revive Ripley after filming dramatic roles since the original serial .
The following years saw Morrissey cast in two high @-@ profile feature films ; while filming the Brian Jones biopic Stoned ( 2005 ) , he got an audition for psychiatrist Dr. Michael Glass
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and punishing nature , Monaco has often thrown up unexpected results . In the 1982 race René Arnoux led the first 15 laps , before retiring . Alain Prost then led until four laps from the end , when he spun off on the wet track , hit the barriers and lost a wheel , giving Riccardo Patrese the lead . Patrese himself spun with only a lap and a half to go , letting Didier Pironi through to the front , followed by Andrea de Cesaris . On the last lap , Pironi ran out of fuel in the tunnel , but De Cesaris also ran out of fuel before he could overtake . In the meantime Patrese had bump @-@ started his car and went through to score his first Grand Prix win .
In 1983 the ACM became entangled in the disagreements between Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) and FOCA . The ACM , with the agreement of Bernie Ecclestone , negotiated an individual television rights deal with ABC in the United States . This broke an agreement enforced by FISA for a single central negotiation of television rights . Jean @-@ Marie Balestre , president of FISA , announced that the Monaco Grand Prix would not form part of the Formula One world championship in 1985 . The ACM fought their case in the French courts . They won the case and the race was eventually reinstated .
= = = = Prost / Senna era = = = =
For the decade from 1984 to 1993 the race was won by only two drivers , arguably the two best drivers in Formula One at the time- Frenchman Prost and Brazilian Ayrton Senna . Prost , already a winner of the support race for Formula Three cars in 1979 , took his first Monaco win at the 1984 race . The race started 45 minutes late after heavy rain . Prost led briefly before Nigel Mansell overtook him on lap 11 . Mansell crashed out five laps later , letting Prost back into the lead . On lap 27 , Prost led from Ayrton Senna 's Toleman and Stefan Bellof 's Tyrrell . Senna was catching Prost and Bellof was catching both of them . However , on lap 31 , the race was controversially stopped with conditions deemed to be undriveable . Later , FISA fined the clerk of the course , Jacky Ickx , $ 6 @,@ 000 and suspended his licence for not consulting the stewards before stopping the race . The drivers received only half of the points that would usually be awarded , as the race had been stopped before two thirds of the intended race distance had been completed .
Prost won 1985 after polesitter Senna retired with a blown Renault engine in his Lotus after overrevving it at the start , and Michele Alboreto in the Ferrari retook the lead twice , but he went off the track at Sainte @-@ Devote , where Brazilian Nelson Piquet and Italian Riccardo Patrese had a huge accident only a few laps previously and oil and debris littered the track . Prost passed Alboreto , who retook the Frenchman , and then he punctured a tire after running over bodywork debris from the Piquet / Patrese accident , which dropped him to 4th . He was able to pass his Roman countrymen Andrea De Cesaris and Elio de Angelis , but finished 2nd behind Prost . The French Prost dominated 1986 after starting from pole position , a race where the Nouvelle Chicane had been changed on the grounds of safety .
Senna holds the record for the most victories in Monaco , with six , including five consecutive wins between 1989 and 1993 , as well as eight podium finishes in ten starts . His 1987 win was the first time a car with an active suspension had won a Grand Prix . He managed to win this race after Briton Nigel Mansell in a Williams @-@ Honda went out with a broken exhaust . His win was very popular with the people of Monaco , and when he was arrested on the Monday following the race , for riding a motorcycle without wearing a helmet , he was released by the officers after they realised who he was . Senna dominated 1988 , and was able to get ahead of his teammate Prost while the Frenchman was held up for most of the race by Austrian Gerhard Berger in a Ferrari . By the time Prost got past Berger , he pushed as hard as he could and set a lap some 6 seconds faster than Senna 's- at which the Brazilian panicked ; he then set 2 fastest laps , and while pushing as hard as possible , he bit the barrier at the Portier corner and crashed into the Armco separating the road from the Mediterranean . Senna was so upset that he went back to his Monaco flat and was not heard from again ; Prost went on to win for the fourth time . Senna dominated 1989 while Prost was stuck behind backmarker has @-@ been Rene Arnoux and others ; the Brazilian also dominated 1990 and 1991 . At the 1992 event Nigel Mansell , who had won all five races held to that point in the season , took pole and dominated the race in his Williams FW14B @-@ Renault . However , with seven laps remaining , Mansell suffered a loose wheel nut and was forced into the pits , emerging behind Ayrton Senna 's McLaren @-@ Honda , who was on worn tyres . Mansell , on fresh tyres , set a lap record almost two seconds quicker than Senna 's and closed from 5 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 9 seconds in only two laps . The pair duelled around Monaco for the final four laps but Mansell could find no way past , finishing just two tenths of a second behind the Brazilian . Senna had a poor start to the 1993 event , he crashed in practice and qualified 3rd behind pole @-@ sitter Prost and the German rising star Michael Schumacher . The Brazilian Senna was again fortuitous to win in 1993 after getting to the first corner in third behind Prost and Schumacher . Prost had to serve a time penalty for jumping the start and Schumacher retired with hydrualic active suspension problems , and Senna won in front of the late Graham Hill 's son Damon . It was Senna 's fifth win at Monaco , equalling Graham Hill 's record . After Senna took his sixth win at the 1993 race , breaking Graham Hill 's record for most wins at the Monaco Grand Prix , runner @-@ up Damon Hill commented that " If my father was around now , he would be the first to congratulate Ayrton . "
= = = = Modern times = = = =
The 1994 race was an emotional and tragic affair ; it came 2 weeks after the tragic race at Imola where Austrian Roland Ratzenberger and Senna both died from massive head injuries from on @-@ track accidents on successive days . But during the Monaco event , Austrian Karl Wendlinger had an appalling accident in his Sauber in the tunnel ; he went into a coma and was to miss the rest of the season ; some feared for his life . But the German Schumacher won the 1994 Monaco event easily . The 1996 race saw Michael Schumacher take pole position before crashing out on the first lap after being overtaken by Damon Hill . Hill led the first 40 laps before his engine expired in the tunnel . Jean Alesi took the lead but suffered suspension failure 20 laps later . Olivier Panis , who started in 14th place , moved into the lead and stayed there until the end of the race , being pushed all the way by David Coulthard . It was Panis ' only win , and the last for his Ligier team . Only three cars crossed the finish line , but seven were classified .
Seven @-@ time world champion Schumacher would eventually win the race five times , matching Graham Hill 's record . Schumacher also holds the current lap record with a 1 : 14 @.@ 439 , set in 2004 . In his appearance at the 2006 event , he attracted criticism when , while provisionally holding pole position and with the qualifying session drawing to a close , he stopped his car at the Rascasse hairpin , blocking the track and obliging competitors to slow down . Although Schumacher claimed it was the unintentional result of a genuine car failure , the FIA disagreed and he was sent to the back of the grid .
In July 2010 , Bernie Ecclestone announced that a 10 @-@ year deal had been reached with the race organisers , keeping the race on the calendar until at least 2020 .
= = Circuit = =
The Circuit de Monaco consists of the city streets of Monte Carlo and La Condamine , which includes the famous harbour . It is unique in having been held on the same circuit every time it has been run over such a long period — only the Italian Grand Prix , which has been held at Autodromo Nazionale Monza during every Formula One regulated year except 1980 , has a similarly lengthy and close relationship with a single circuit .
The race circuit has many elevation changes , tight corners , and a narrow course that makes it one of the most demanding tracks in Formula One racing . As of 2015 , two drivers have crashed and ended up in the harbour , the most famous being Alberto Ascari in 1955 . Despite the fact that the course has had minor changes several times during its history , it is still considered the ultimate test of driving skills in Formula One , and if it were not already an existing Grand Prix , it would not be permitted to be added to the schedule for safety reasons . Even in 1929 , ' La Vie Automobile ' magazine offered the opinion that " Any respectable traffic system would have covered the track with < < Danger > > sign posts left , right and centre " .
Triple Formula One champion Nelson Piquet was fond of saying that racing at Monaco was " like trying to cycle round your living room " , but added that " a win here was worth two anywhere else " .
Notably , the course includes a tunnel . The contrast of daylight and gloom when entering / exiting the tunnel presents " challenges not faced elsewhere " , as the drivers have to " adjust their vision as they emerge from the tunnel at the fastest point of the track and brake for the chicane in the daylight . " . The fastest @-@ ever lap was set by Kimi Räikkönen in qualifying for the 2006 Grand Prix , at 1m 13 @.@ 532 .
= = = Viewing areas = = =
During the Grand Prix weekend spectators crowd around the Monaco Circuit . There are a number of temporary grandstands built around the circuit , mostly around the harbour area . The rich and famous arrive on their boats and the yachts in the harbour fill with spectators . Balconies around Monaco become viewing areas for the race too . Many hotels and residents cash in on the birds eye views of the race . Grand Prix organizers Automobile Club de Monaco officially voted the Ermanno Palace Penthouse the ‘ Best view of the Monaco Grand Prix ’ .
= = Organization = =
The Monaco Grand Prix is organized each year by the Automobile Club de Monaco which also runs the Monte Carlo Rally and the Junior Monaco Kart Cup .
It differs in several ways from other Grands Prix . The practice session for the race is held on the Thursday preceding the race instead of Friday . This allows the streets to be opened to the public again on Friday . Until the late 1990s the race started at 3 : 30 p.m. local time – an hour and a half later than other European Formula One races . In recent years the race has fallen in line with the other Formula One races for the convenience of television viewers . Also , earlier the event was traditionally held on the week of Ascension Day . It is now held on what is Memorial Day Weekend in the United States . For many years , the numbers of cars admitted to Grands Prix was at the discretion of the race organisers – Monaco had the smallest grids , ostensibly because of its narrow and twisting track . Only 18 cars were permitted to enter the 1975 Monaco Grand Prix , compared to 23 to 26 cars at all other rounds that year .
The erecting of the circuit takes six weeks , and the removal after the race takes three weeks . There is no podium as such at the race . Instead a section of the track is closed after the race to act as parc fermé , a place where the cars are held for official inspection . The first three drivers in the race leave their cars there and walk directly to the royal box where the ' podium ' ceremony is held , which is considered a custom for the race . The trophies are handed out before the national anthems ' of the driver and team are played , as opposed to other Grands Prix where the anthems are played first .
= = Fame = =
The Monaco Grand Prix is widely considered to be one of the most important and prestigious automobile races in the world alongside the Indianapolis 500 @-@ Mile Race and the 24 Hours of Le Mans . These three races are considered to form a Triple Crown of the three most famous motor races in the world . Graham Hill is the only driver to have won the Triple Crown , by winning all three races . The practice session for Monaco overlaps with that for the Indianapolis 500 , and the races themselves sometimes clash . As the two races take place on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean and form part of different championships , it is difficult for one driver to compete effectively in both during his career . Juan Pablo Montoya , who won the Monaco Grand Prix in 2003 and the Indianapolis 500 in 2000 and 2015 , is the only driver still racing in 2015 who has won two of the three races and thus is the closest to completing the Triple Crown .
In awarding its first Gold medal for motor sport to Prince Rainier III , the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) characterised the Monaco Grand Prix as contributing " an exceptional location of glamour and prestige " to motor sport . It has been run under the patronage of three generations of Monaco 's royal family : Louis II , Rainier III and Albert II , all of whom have taken a close interest in the race . A large part of the principality 's income comes from tourists attracted by the warm climate and the famous casino , but it is also a tax haven and is home to many millionaires , including several Formula One drivers .
Monaco has produced only three native Formula One drivers , Louis Chiron , André Testut and Olivier Beretta , but its tax status has made it home to many drivers over the years , including Gilles Villeneuve and Ayrton Senna . Of the 2006 Formula One contenders , several have property in the principality , including Jenson Button and David Coulthard , who was part owner of a hotel there . Because of the small size of the town and the location of the circuit , drivers whose races end early can usually get back to their apartments in minutes . Ayrton Senna famously retired to his apartment after crashing out of the lead of the 1988 race .
= = Winners = =
= = = Multiple winners ( drivers ) = = =
Embolded drivers are still competing in the Formula One championship
= = = Multiple winners ( constructors ) = = =
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.A cream background indicates an event which was part of the pre @-@ war European Championship.Embolded teams are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season .
= = = By year = = =
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.A cream background indicates an event which was part of the pre @-@ war European Championship .
= = Previous circuit configurations = =
= Florida International University =
Florida International University ( FIU ) is an American metropolitan public research university located in Greater Miami , Florida , United States . FIU has two major campuses in Miami @-@ Dade County , with its main campus in University Park . Florida International University is classified as a " tier @-@ one " research university with highest research activity by the Carnegie Foundation and a first @-@ tier research university by the Florida Legislature . Founded in 1965 , FIU is the youngest university to be awarded a Phi Beta Kappa chapter by the Phi Beta Kappa Society , the country 's oldest academic honor society .
FIU belongs to the 12 @-@ campus State University System of Florida and is one of Florida 's primary graduate research universities , awarding over 3 @,@ 400 graduate and professional degrees annually . The university offers 191 programs of study with more than 280 majors in 23 colleges and schools . FIU offers many graduate programs , including architecture , business administration , engineering , law , and medicine , offering 81 master 's degrees , 34 doctoral degrees , and 3 professional degrees .
FIU is the largest university in South Florida , the 2nd @-@ largest in Florida , and the 4th @-@ largest in the United States . Total enrollment in 2014 @-@ 2015 was 54 @,@ 099 students , including 7 @,@ 814 graduate students . According to U.S. News college rankings and reviews , 92 % of FIU students live off @-@ campus while only 8 % of students live in " college @-@ owned , college @-@ operated or college @-@ affiliated " housing .
Since 2007 , more valedictorians from South Florida choose to attend FIU than any other university in the country . As Miami 's public research university , competition to enroll at FIU has heightened as more students apply each year .
= = History = =
= = = Founding : 1943 – 69 = = =
The story of Florida International University 's founding began in 1943 , when state Senator Ernest ' Cap ' Graham ( father of future Florida governor and U.S. senator Bob Graham ) presented the state legislature with the initial proposal for the establishment of a public university in South Florida . While his bill did not pass , Graham persisted in presenting his proposal to colleagues , advising them of Miami 's need for a state university . He felt the establishment of a public university was necessary to serve the city 's growing population .
In 1964 , Senate Bill 711 was introduced by Florida Senator Robert M. Haverfield . It instructed the state Board of Education and the Board of Regents ( BOR ) , to begin planning for the development of a state university in Miami . The bill was signed into law by then @-@ governor W. Haydon Burns in June 1965 , marking FIU 's official founding .
FIU 's founding president Charles " Chuck " Perry was appointed by the Board of Regents in July 1969 after a nationwide search . At 32 years old , the new president was the youngest in the history of the State University System and , at the time , the youngest university president in the country . Perry recruited three co @-@ founders , Butler Waugh , Donald McDowell and Nick Sileo . Alvah Chapman , Jr . , former Miami Herald publisher and Knight Ridder chairman , used his civic standing and media power to assist the effort . In the 1980s , Chapman became chair of the FIU Foundation Board of Trustees .
The founders located the campus on the site of the original Tamiami Airport on the Tamiami Trail ( U.S. Route 41 ) between Southwest 107th and 117th Avenues , just east of where the West Dade Expressway ( now the Homestead Extension of Florida 's Turnpike ) was being planned . The abandoned airport 's air traffic control tower became FIU 's first building . It originally had no telephones , no drinking water , and no furniture . Perry decided that the tower should never be destroyed , and it remains on campus , where it is now known variously as the " Ivory Tower , " the " Tower Building , " or the " Public Safety Tower , " and is the former location of the FIU Police Department .
= = = Opening of the doors : 1969 – 75 = = =
In September 1972 , 5 @,@ 667 students entered the new state university , the largest opening day enrollment at the time . Previously , Miami had been the largest city in the country lacking a public baccalaureate @-@ granting institution . Eighty percent of the student body had just graduated from Dade County Junior College ( now Miami @-@ Dade College ) . A typical student entering FIU was 25 years old and attending school full @-@ time while holding down a full @-@ time job . Forty @-@ three percent were married . Negotiations with the University of Miami and Dade County Junior College led FIU to open as an upper @-@ division only school . It would be 9 years before lower @-@ division classes were added .
The first commencement , held in June 1973 , took place in the reading room of the ground floor of Primera Casa – the only place large enough on campus for the ceremony . More than 1 @,@ 500 family members and friends watched FIU 's first class of 191 graduates receive their diplomas .
By late 1975 , after seven years at the helm , Charles Perry felt he had accomplished his goal and left the University to become president and publisher of the Sunday newspaper magazine Family Weekly ( now USA Weekend ) , one of the country 's largest magazines . When he left , there were more than 10 @,@ 000 students attending classes and a campus with five major buildings and a sixth being planned .
= = = Crosby and Wolfe : 1976 – 86 = = =
Harold Crosby , the University 's second president and the founding president of the University of West Florida in Pensacola , agreed in 1976 to serve a three @-@ year " interim " term . Under his leadership , FIU 's North Miami Campus ( which was officially renamed the Bay Vista Campus in 1980 , the North Miami Campus in 1987 , the North Campus in 1994 , and the Biscayne Bay Campus in 2000 ) – located on the former Interama site on Biscayne Bay – was opened in 1977 . State Senator Jack Gordon was instrumental in securing funding for the development of the campus . President Crosby emphasized the university 's international character , prompting the launching of new programs with an international focus and the recruitment of faculty from the Caribbean and Latin America . President Crosby 's resignation in January 1979 triggered the search for a " permanent " president .
Gregory Baker Wolfe , a former United States diplomat and then @-@ president of Portland State University became FIU 's third president , from 1979 to 1986 . After stepping down as president , Wolfe taught in the university 's international relations department . The student union on the Biscayne Bay Campus is named in his honor .
= = = Maidique : 1986 – 2009 = = =
Cuban born Modesto A. Maidique assumed the presidency at FIU in 1986 , becoming the fourth in the university 's history . Maidique graduated with a Bachelor of Science , Master of Science , and PhD in Electrical Engineering from Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , before joining the private sector . He held academic appointments from MIT , Harvard and Stanford Universities , and has been named to several US Presidential boards and committees .
Under his leadership , FIU heralded in an era of unprecedented growth and prestige with all facets of university undergoing major transformations . Physically , the university tripled in size and its enrollment grew to nearly 40 @,@ 000 . During his 23 years as president , the school established the Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine , the FIU College of Law , the FIU School of Architecture and the Robert Stempel School of Public Health . Also during his tenure , endowment grew from less than $ 2 million to over $ 100 million .
During Maidique 's tenure , the university added 22 new doctoral programs . Research expenditures grew from about $ 6 million to nearly $ 110 million as defined by the National Science Foundation . In 2000 , FIU attained the highest ranking in the Carnegie Foundation classification system , that of " Doctoral / Research University @-@ Extensive . " FIU 's faculty has engaged in research and holds far @-@ reaching expertise in reducing morbidity and mortality from cancer , HIV / AIDS , substance abuse , diabetes and other diseases , and change the approaches to the delivery of health care by medical , public health , nursing and other healthcare professionals , hurricane mitigation , climate change , nano @-@ technologies , forensic sciences , and the development of biomedical devices .
The arts also flourished while Maidique was at the helm , with the university acquiring The Wolfsonian @-@ FIU Museum on Miami Beach and building the Patricia and Phillip Frost Art Museum on its main campus . In athletics , FIU made inroads in becoming a powerhouse athletic university during Maidique 's time as president and he championed the eventual establishment of a NCAA football program . Finally , the school earned membership into Phi Beta Kappa , the nation 's oldest honor society .
Maidique was the second longest @-@ serving research university president in the nation . Now President Emeritus , he currently serves as the Alvah H. Chapman , Jr . , Eminent Scholar Chair in Leadership and Executive Director of the Center for Leadership and Professor of Management at FIU .
= = = Recent history = = =
On November 14 , 2008 , Maidique announced that he would be stepping down and asked FIU 's Board of Trustees to begin the search of a new president . He said he would remain president until a new one was found . On April 25 , 2009 , Mark B. Rosenberg was selected to become FIU 's fifth president . He signed a five @-@ year contract with the Board of Trustees . On August 29 , 2009 , Rosenberg became FIU 's fifth president .
Having started as a two @-@ year upper division university serving the Miami area , FIU has grown into a much larger traditional university and serves international students . More than $ 600 million has been invested in campus construction , with the addition of new residence halls , the FIU Stadium , recreation center , student center , and Greek life mansions , as well as the fielding of the Division I @-@ A Golden Panthers football team in 2002 .
Since 1986 , the university established its School of Architecture , College of Law and College of Medicine ( named the Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine in 1999 after Herbert Wertheim donated $ 20 million to the college , which was matched by state funds and is the largest donation in the university 's history ) , and acquired the historic Wolfsonian @-@ FIU Museum in Miami Beach .
FIU now emphasizes research as a major component of its mission and is now classed as a " very high research activity " university under the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education . Sponsored research funding ( grants and contracts ) from external sources for the year 2007 – 2008 totaled some $ 110 million . FIU has a budget of over $ 649 million
FIU 's School of Hospitality & Tourism Management collaborated with China 's Ministry of Education to work on preparations for the 2008 Summer Olympics . FIU was the only university in the United States invited to do so . Royal Caribbean is building a $ 20 million 130 @,@ 000 sq. ft. training facility for its performers at the school . It is scheduled to open in 2015 . The buildings will serve architecture , art , and hospitality students including lighting , set design , marketing , and other internship and training opportunities .
On October 2 , 2014 , it was announced that Florida International University would play host to the Miss Universe 2014 pageant on January 25 , 2015 . FIU also hosted a talk from President Barack Obama in February 2015 .
= = = University presidents = = =
= = Academics = =
= = = Tuition = = =
For the 2015 @-@ 2016 academic year , tuition costs are :
Undergraduate
$ 205 @.@ 57 per credit hour for in @-@ state students , and $ 618 @.@ 87 per credit hour for out @-@ of @-@ state students . Total tuition / fees : $ 6 @,@ 771 @.@ 45 for in @-@ state and $ 19 @,@ 583 @.@ 74 for out of state
Graduate
$ 356 @.@ 93 per credit hour for in @-@ state students , and $ 793 @.@ 87 per credit hour for out @-@ of @-@ state students.Total tuition / fees : $ 11 @,@ 098 for in @-@ state and $ 24 @,@ 206 for out of state
Law School ( day )
$ 675 @.@ 67 per credit hour for in @-@ state students , and $ 1 @,@ 101 @.@ 87 per credit hour for out @-@ of @-@ state students . Total tuition / fees : $ 20 @,@ 660 for in @-@ state and $ 33 @,@ 446 for out of state
Law School ( night )
$ 506 @.@ 77 per credit hour for in @-@ state students , and $ 851 @.@ 40 per credit hour for out @-@ of @-@ state students . Total tuition / fees : $ 15 @,@ 593 for in @-@ state and $ 25 @,@ 932 for out of state
= = = Demographics = = =
In 2008 , 7 % of FIU students were international students . Of those , the most popular countries of origin were : China ( 20 % ) , India ( 13 % ) , Jamaica ( 10 % ) , Venezuela ( 6 % ) , Colombia ( 5 % ) , and Trinidad and Tobago ( 4 % ) .
Students from New York , New Jersey , and California make up the largest states for out @-@ of @-@ state students . Floridians make up 90 % of the student population . Miami @-@ Dade , Broward , Palm Beach , Hillsborough , and Orange County make up the largest Florida counties for in @-@ state students .
University Park accounted for 87 % of the student population and 94 % of housing students . The Biscayne Bay Campus accounted for about 13 % of the student population , mostly of lower @-@ division undergraduates and students of the School of Hospitality & Tourism Management . Fall 2009 , the average age for undergraduates was 23 and 31 for graduate students .
= = = Admissions = = =
Enrollment for Fall 2014 consisted of 54 @,@ 099 students , 45 @,@ 359 undergraduates and 7 @,@ 814 graduate students , including students enrolled in professional programs . Women accounted for 56 @.@ 2 % of student enrollment and minorities made up 88 % of total enrollment . Enrollment included students from all 50 U.S. states and more than 119 countries . The most popular College by enrollment is the College of Arts and Sciences . The freshman retention rate for 2009 was 83 % . The fall 2011 incoming freshman class had an average 3 @.@ 7 GPA , 1139 SAT score , and a 25 ACT score .
= = = = Graduate admissions = = = =
For Fall 2014 , 8 @,@ 762 students applied for graduate admissions throughout the university . Of those , 43 @.@ 2 % were accepted . The Wertheim College of Medicine admitted 4 @.@ 6 % of its applicants , and the College of Law admitted 19 % . Admission to the Wertheim College of Medicine is competitive , and the college has one of the highest number of applicants in the state , greater than the University of Florida . For Fall 2010 , 3 @,@ 606 students applied for 43 spots .
The FIU School of Architecture is the most competitive in Florida , with the lowest admission rate in the state at 14 % ( 2011 ) . For Fall 2009 , the School of Architecture received over 1 @,@ 000 applications for the first @-@ year Master of Architecture program , with 60 being accepted , giving the School of Architecture a 6 % admissions rate . The average high school GPA for the freshman class in the School of Architecture was 3 @.@ 98 , also making it one of the most selective schools at FIU .
FIU offers 191 academic programs , 60 baccalaureate programs , 81 master 's programs , 3 specialist programs , 34 doctoral programs , and 4 professional program in 23 colleges and schools . In addition , 97 % of the faculty have terminal degrees , and 50 % currently have tenure at the university with a student / teacher ratio of 27 : 1 .
= = = Rankings = = =
Florida International University was ranked the # 7 college in the United States by the Social Mobility Index college rankings . In 2010 , FIU was listed as one of 16 universities with the toughest grading system nationally .
In 2000 , FIU became the youngest university to be awarded a Phi Beta Kappa chapter , the country 's oldest and most distinguished academic honor society . FIU is one of only 78 universities nationwide to hold both designations .
U.S. News & World Report reported that FIU students are among the least indebted college students in the nation , and recognized the university as a " best buy " in higher education.The organization also reported FIU for having one of the safest campus in the United States .
In 2015 , FIU ranked 7th as one of the best values in public higher education in the country , according to a survey by Kiplinger 's Personal Finance magazine .
FIU is ranked 2nd in the U.S. for granting biology bachelor 's degrees , and 6th in granting master 's degrees to minorities , according to Diverse Issues in Higher Education .
From 2007 to 2016 , FIU ranked 1st in the State University System of Florida and the United States in energy conservation and sustainability .
= = = College of Business = = =
The College of Business is among the top 5 % of elite business schools worldwide accredited by the AACSB International – the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business .
U.S. News & World Report 's " America 's Best Colleges " ( 2015 ) ranks the undergraduate international business program 6th in the nation . It 2015 , it ranked the Chapman Graduate School of Business 15th in the nation for an International MBA . FIU is also the only university in Florida to be ranked in the top 15 for undergraduate international business .
Bloomberg Businessweek ranked the Landon Undergraduate School of Business in 2012 , 11th in Operations Management , and 99th for Accounting .
América Economía ranks the Chapman Graduate School of Business 48nd for an International MBA .
The Financial Times ( 2008 ) ranks the Executive MBA in the top 85 MBA programs in the world , and in the top 35 among U.S. Executive MBAs .
Hispanic Business ( since 1998 ) and Hispanic Trends ( since 2003 ) have placed the College of Business among the top 25 business schools for Hispanics . In 2008 , it was ranked # 8 .
Fortune Small Business recognized the college as among the best in the United States for entrepreneurship in its listing of " America 's Best Colleges for Entrepreneurs , " ( August 2007 ) , in the " Cross @-@ Disciplinary / Cross Pollination " category .
Hispanic Trends ranks the Executive MBA program 8th in its list of the best Executive MBA programs for Hispanics .
QS in 2015 ranked FIU 's MBA program 58th in North America .
= = = College of Law = = =
In 2014 , the College of Law was ranked 5th in bar passing rates in the state of Florida . In 2007 , the College of Law was ranked 1st in Florida in the Multistate Professional Responsibility Exam at 96 % . In July 2008 , the College of Law achieved a 90 @.@ 6 % passing rate , which placed it 2nd among Florida 's ten law schools . In February 2009 , the College of Law achieved an 81 @.@ 5 % passing rate , which placed it 1st among Florida 's ten law schools .
In 2010 , the FIU College of Law was ranked among the Top 10 Best Value schools by The National Jurist . The Best Value rating was based on three criteria : bar passage rate , average indebtedness after graduation , and employment nine months after graduation .
FIU College of Law also ranked 3rd amongst Florida schools for the scholarly impact of its faculties , behind University of Florida and Florida State University . According to the Leiter Rankings , the College of Law has already made a scholarly impact that dramatically outpaces its academic reputation .
FIU has jumped from 132nd to 113th place to currently being ranked 102nd place in the U.S. News & World Report 2015 Best Law Schools rankings .
= = = FIU Model United Nations Program = = =
The FIU Model United Nations Program is one of FIU 's premier academic programs . FIU MUN is a program of the School of International and Public Affairs and is housed within the Jack D. Gordon Institute for Public Policy and Citizenship Studies . Each year between 24 and 32 delegates participate in FIU MUN . The acceptance rate for new delegates is usually between 8 and 10 percent . FIU MUN is currently ranked as the 6th best Model UN Team in North America and is the top ranked team in the State of Florida .
FIU MUN also hosts an annual high school conference : Florida International Model United Nations ( FIMUN ) . The conference traditionally hosts over 400 high school students from 20 , or more , high schools from Miami @-@ Dade , Broward , and Palm Beach Counties .
= = = Other colleges and schools = = =
The Journal of Criminal Justice ranks the Criminal Justice program 10th in the U.S. ( November 2007 )
Faculty of the PhD program in social welfare rank 4th in the United States in their scholarly accomplishment , according to Academic Analytics . FIU faculty were the only social work faculty in Florida to rank in the Top 10 . ( December 2007 )
= = Campus = =
Florida International University has two major campuses in Miami , the main campus , University Park and its regional campus , the Biscayne Bay Campus , as well as several branch campuses and research facilities throughout South Florida , in Tianjin , China , and in Nervi and Genoa , Italy .
= = = University Park ( Modesto A. Maidique Campus ) = = =
The main campus , University Park , renamed Modesto Maidique Campus in 2009 , encompasses 344 acres ( 1 @.@ 4 km ² ) in the Miami neighborhood of University Park , ( from which the area derives its name ) .
University Park houses almost all of the university 's colleges and schools as well as all the administrative offices and main university facilities . University Park is also home to the Ronald Reagan Presidential House , the home of FIU 's president , the Wertheim Performing Arts Center , the Frost Art Museum , the International Hurricane Research Center , and the university 's athletic facilities such as FIU Stadium , FIU Arena , and the FIU Baseball Stadium .
Located five blocks north of University Park , is the 38 @-@ acre ( 145 @,@ 000 m2 ) Engineering Center which houses a part of the College of Engineering and Computing and is the home of FIU 's Motorola Nanofabrication Research Facility . The Engineering Center is serviced by the CATS Shuttle , FIU 's student buses , which run throughout the day on weekdays connecting the two parts of campus .
= = = = University Park history = = = =
The site of the campus was originally used for a general aviation airport called Tamiami Airport ( not to be confused with Kendall @-@ Tamiami Airport ) , which was in operation from the 1940s until 1967 . The airport had three runways and was used for pilot training , among other purposes . Construction on the FIU campus began in 1965 , and the airport closed in 1969 . At the time , very little was located around FIU , and the campus was referred to as University Park . As Miami grew west , the area came to be known as University Park after the university 's campus name .
Until the early 1990s , the runways , parking ramp and other features of Tamiami Airport were still visible on campus and clearly discernible in aerial photos . Construction has removed all of these features , and only the University Tower remains as a memory of the university 's past . University Park is a lush , heavily vegetated campus , with many lakes and a 15 @-@ acre nature preserve , as well as a palm arboretum and has over 90 buildings . As of late 2009 , current construction at University Park includes the Nursing and Health Sciences Building , the School of International and Public Affairs Building , and a fifth parking garage .
On June 12 , 2009 , FIU 's Board of Trustees voted unanimously to rename the University Park campus to the Modesto Maidique Campus . However , the change created a large backlash from the FIU community , as many felt it unfitting to name the campus after him . A campaign by FIU students and alumni was created to revert the name change , and to keep the name University Park . A Facebook group , " No to Maidique 's Campus " with over 2 @,@ 000 supporters has made national news , in many newspapers , TV news stations , and collegiate magazines , supporting to keep the name " University Park " .
= = = = Main University Park buildings = = = =
Source –
= = = Biscayne Bay Campus = = =
The Biscayne Bay Campus in North Miami is FIU 's second @-@ largest campus . It was opened in 1977 by Harold Crosby and occupies about 200 acres ( 809 @,@ 000 m ² ) , directly on the bay and adjacent to the Oleta River State Park , with which FIU has a research partnership . Access to these resources inspired the creation of a marine biology program on the Biscayne Bay Campus , which has become one of the university 's most recognized programs . The Biscayne Bay Campus also houses the School of Hospitality & Tourism Management , the School of Journalism and Mass Communication , the Aquatic Center , and the Kovens Conference Center . The Golden Panther Express , FIU 's student buses , connect the main campus and the Biscayne Bay Campus throughout the day on weekdays .
After closing Bay Visa Housing to students and long @-@ term leasing the facility to RCL for employee training , FIU is developing BayView Student Housing on the BBC campus . BBC 's first on @-@ campus new housing in 30 + years will house 408 students in a high rise overlooking Biscayne Bay .
= = = Regional centers = = =
FIU also has other smaller regional centers located throughout South Florida in both Miami @-@ Dade County and Broward County , serving the local communities in research , continuing studies , and in culture . In Broward County , there is the FIU Pines Center in Pembroke Pines , opened to satisfy the demand from Broward County residents . This center serves mostly night students in programs within the College of Business Administration . In Miami @-@ Dade County , there are four regional FIU facilities , the Downtown Miami Center , the Wolfsonian @-@ FIU Museum in Miami Beach ( Washington Avenue and 10th St ) , the FIU @-@ Florida Memorial research center in Miami Gardens , and a research site in Homestead .
= = = = Downtown Miami Center = = = =
FIU has a center on Brickell Avenue in Downtown Miami at 1101 Brickell Avenue dubbed " FIU Downtown on Brickell " . FIU 's College of Business Administration has had classes at the Burdines Building on Flagler Street and the Metropolitan Center had offices at 150 SE 2nd Ave since 2004 . In August 2011 , FIU expanded its
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as the music and audiovisual collections . The sixth and seventh floors are strictly quiet floors , and contain the general book collection plus numerous student study lounges . The eighth floor contains the library 's administration offices and technical services departments .
= = = = Engineering Library Service Center = = = =
The Engineering Library is located on the second floor of the main building of the Engineering Center .
= = = = Law Library = = = =
The Law Library opened in 2002 , and has three floors , with all three holding the library 's general collection . The third floor has a two @-@ story , quiet reading room , as well as numerous study lounges . Although the Law Library is restricted to Law students , other students may use the library for research purposes .
= = = = Medical Library = = = =
The FIU Medical Library opened in August 2009 at the same time as the opening of the Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine . The Medical Library offers a rich array of resources , services , and instructional support to advance the teaching and learning , discovery , and healthcare programs of the Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine and is currently located on the third floor of Green Library building . Future construction of buildings for the College of Medicine will include a new space for the Medical Library outside of Green Library , based upon funding and space availability .
= = = = Glenn Hubert Library = = = =
The Glenn Hubert Library , previously named the ' Biscayne Bay Library ' , is the library for the Biscayne Bay Campus . Although a smaller structure , three stories , the Hubert Library is nonetheless important to the research and information needs of the BBC Campus students and faculty . All services at the Green Library are available in the Hubert Library .
= = = = Wolfsonian Library = = = =
The Wolfsonian Library is located at the Wolfsonian @-@ FIU Museum in South Beach , on the corner of Washington Avenue and 10th Street . The collection focuses exclusively on architecture , art , design , and history of the Western World from 1885 to 1945 . The library serves mostly as a research library with an extensive collection of primary sources . For students , prior approval from the staff is needed to enter the library .
Together , the entire FIU university @-@ wide Library holdings include over 2 @,@ 097 @,@ 207 volumes , 52 @,@ 511 current serials , 3 @,@ 587 @,@ 663 microform units , and 163 @,@ 715 audio visual units .
= = = International Hurricane Research Center = = =
The International Hurricane Research Center ( IHRC ) is the nation 's only university @-@ based research facility dedicated to mitigating the damage tropical storms inflict on people , the economy , and the environment . The IHRC is home to four institutes : the Laboratory for Coastal Research ; the Laboratory for Social Science Research ; the Laboratory for Insurance , Financial & Economic Research ; and the Laboratory for Wind Engineering Research , as well as the FIU Wall of Wind . The 12 @-@ fan Wall of Wind ( WOW ) at FIU is the largest and most powerful university research facility of its kind and is capable of simulating a Category 5 hurricane – the highest rating on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . In 2015 the National Science Foundation selected the 12 @-@ fan WOW as one of the nation ’ s major “ Experimental Facilities ” under the Natural Hazards Engineering Research Infrastructure ( NHERI ) competition . Not to be confused with the National Hurricane Center ( also located at University Park ) , the IHRC is located on the western side of the campus .
= = = Construction and expansion = = =
In the early 2000s ( decade ) , emphasis at FIU was placed on growth in degree programs and student enrollment . Since 2005 however , student enrollment has been capped and emphasis is now being placed on improving the quality of the existing academic programs . With the addition of the College of Medicine , the demand for facilities and classroom space has greatly increased . Future projects and / or buildings under construction include :
= = = = Construction : 2012 and onward = = = =
Ambulatory Care Center ( Stempel Complex ) – completed in 2013
Expansion to FIU Stadium – Expansion for 45 @,@ 000 fans to be done in four separate phases ( Phase I and II have been completed , Phase III and IV are projected to be completed from around 2011 to 2013 )
Stocker Astroscience Center – completed in December 2012
Parkview Hall- 1 @,@ 200 @-@ bed residence hall
Stempel Medical Complex – completed in late 2013
Student Academic Support Center – completed in late 2013
Alumni Center - funding plans underway
= = = Campus transportation = = =
The main campus is located on the south side of the Tamiami Trail ( U.S. Route 41 / SW 8th Street ) between SW 107th and SW 117th Avenue next to Florida 's Turnpike and near the western terminus of the Dolphin Expressway .
Miami @-@ Dade Transit serves University Park with Metrobus lines 8 , 11 , 24 , and 71 . Metrobus lines 75 and 135 serve the Biscayne Bay Campus . Bus lines 8 , 11 and the 24 directly connect FIU with Downtown Miami .
Two distinct FIU @-@ operated bus lines are available . The CATS Shuttle runs between University Park and the Engineering Center , and the Golden Panther Express , from University Park to the Biscayne Bay Campus .
The CATS Shuttle connects University Park from the Graham Center bus stop and the Engineering and Computer Sciences Building , to the Engineering Center on Flagler Street and 107th Avenue . The CATS Shuttle is free and runs roughly every 30 minutes between 7am to 10pm Monday through Friday . The Golden Panther Express connects the Biscayne Bay Campus to University Park . It runs from 7am to 11pm Monday through Thursday , 7am to approximately 8pm on Fridays , and costs $ 2 @.@ 50 each way . The Golden Panther Express departs from the Graham Center bus stop at the main campus , and the Academic 1 bus stop at the Biscayne Bay Campus .
There has long been plans for Metrorail , the local heavy rail rapid transit system to be extended west , with two proposed lines terminating at Florida International University 's main campus . This would ease traffic and parking problems at and around the main campus .
= = Student life = =
= = = Greek life = = =
FIU has over 30 fraternities and sororities divided into four governing councils : the Interfraternity Council ( IFC ) , the Panhellenic Council ( PC ) , the National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council ( NPHC ) , and the Multicultural Greek Council ( MGC ) . The Order of Omega , a Greek honor society , has had a chapter at the university since 1991 and represents the academic top 3 % of FIU Greeks .
The Interfraternity Council ( IFC ) comprises 13 fraternities . The Panhellenic Council ( PC ) is made up of 7 sororities . The National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council ( NPHC ) comprises 6 historically black organizations , ( 4 fraternities and 2 sororities ) . The Multicultural Greek Council ( MGC ) consists of 9 cultural organizations for Latinos , Asians , and South Asians , ( 5 fraternities and 4 sororities ) .
= = = Student media = = =
FIUSM is the umbrella organization for The Beacon , the student @-@ run newspaper ; FIUSM.com , the student @-@ run news and media website ; and WRGP Radiate FM , the student @-@ run radio station . Each organization 's directors are selected by the Student Media board on a yearly basis .
The Beacon is the FIU student newspaper since 1965 . The Beacon is published thrice weekly in a compact format during the Fall and Spring semesters ( Monday , Wednesday and Friday ) and once a week on Wednesday during the Summer.The Beacon is available free campus @-@ wide in the residence halls , the Graham Center and all campus buildings .
FIUSM.com is the FIU student @-@ run media website since 2008 . FIUSM.com publishes content generated by the Student Media team , including text , audio , and video .
WRGP Radiate FM is FIU 's student @-@ run radio station since 1984 . It broadcasts on 95 @.@ 3 MHz at the University Park Campus and on 96 @.@ 9 MHz at the Biscayne Bay Campus . The signal originates in Homestead on 88 @.@ 1 MHz and a broadcast translator rebroadcasts WRGP 's signal to the University Park Campus and later again translated to the Biscayne Bay Campus .
= = = Arts and culture = = =
FIU has two museums , the Frost Art Museum and the Wolfsonian @-@ FIU Museum . The Frost Art Museum is located on Modesto A. Maidique campus and was opened in 1977 as The Art Museum at Florida International University . The Frost Art Museum 's Permanent Collection consists of a broad array of art objects from ancient cultural artifacts to contemporary works of art . The Wolfsonian @-@ FIU Museum is located in Miami Beach and promotes the collection , preservation and understanding of decorative art and design from the period from 1885 to 1945 . FIU also has a large sculpture collection , named the Sculpture Park at FIU , with sculptures from such prominent artists as Anthony Caro , Jacques Lipchitz , Daniel Joseph Martinez , and Tony Rosenthal . Many different art structures , statues , paintings and mosaics can be seen throughout campus in gardens , buildings , walkways , and on walls .
The School of Music presents an annual series of concerts that showcase talent in a variety of genres . School of Music at FIU offers a dynamic learning environment for informed , creative musicians . Students are fully involved in their chosen fields , where they can recognize clearly what they need to learn in order to become contributors to those fields . FIU 's School of Music embraces an evolving world for its possibilities and the new opportunities and challenges that it affords , while providing the tools necessary to empower young musicians in their quest to carve out careers . FIU School of Music 's concert season incorporates music of all styles including jazz , early music , chamber music , choral / vocal , contemporary music , wind , and opera theater performed by world class musicians and ensembles . Many masterclasses and lectures are also open to the public and offered at no charge . The season runs from August through April each year .
The Department Theatre presents a season of four professionally designed , produced and directed productions each year that serve as a laboratory for students to put their learning into practice . This Main Stage season is presented at the Herbert and Nicole Wertheim Performing Arts Center . In addition to Main Stage productions students write , direct and perform productions in the Student Theatre Lab Studio , the annual New Plays Festival , and the summer Alternative Theatre Festival . The summer Alternative Theatre Festival includes a development project of a new work by an established playwright , a faculty directed piece , one student directed piece , and may include Alumni showcase and reunion productions .
FIU annually hosts the Food Network South Beach Wine & Food Festival in South Beach through the School of Hospitality & Tourism Management , a major national culinary event .
= = = Student Government Association = = =
The Student Government Association presides over and funds the over 300 student clubs and organizations and honor societies at the university and has an operating budget of over $ 14 million . The Student Government Association is split into three branches , with the Executive , a Legislative Student Senate , and Judicial Supreme Court . Due to the unique nature of a multi @-@ campus university , the President of Modesto Maidique Campus ( University Park ) serves as the Student Representative on the University 's Board of Trustees , while the President for the Biscayne Bay Campus serves as a member of the Foundation Board .
The Student Government contains five separate governing councils- the Student Programming Council , the Council for Student Organizations , which represents the over 200 or more student clubs and organizations , the Homecoming Council , Black Student Union , and Panther Power , the student spirit group . The Panther Power group can be seen in all Golden Panthers athletic events along with the Golden Panthers Band , the Golden Dazzlers dance team and the Golden Panthers cheerleaders . In 2004 , MTV 's Campus Invasion Tour was held at FIU , bringing numerous bands such as Hoobastank to FIU .
= = = Order of the Torch = = =
The Order of the Torch is a semi @-@ secret honorary leadership society akin to other secret societies in the state such as Florida Blue Key at the University of Florida , and the Iron Arrow Honor Society at the University of Miami . The organization is rumored to have been founded in 2003 as a way of organizing student leadership to restructure student life to mirror that of a traditional university . Members now include students , faculty , staff and community members , including FIU alumni Miami @-@ Dade County Mayor Carlos Alvarez ( class of 1974 ) . Top leadership in Student Government , Homecoming , and the most elite campus fraternal organizations , rank among its members .
= = = Traditions = = =
= = = = Spirit traditions = = = =
FIU has many traditions from student spirit groups , alumni association events and student spirit events . Panther Rage , one of FIU 's largest student spirit groups are seen at all the athletics events .
FIU also holds many Golden Panther spirit events throughout the year . Some of these include , Panther Camp held in the Summer prior to the Fall term for incoming freshmen , where students spend a weekend in a retreat center learning all the traditional Golden Panther cheers , chants , traditions meeting other incoming students . Started in 2006 , Panther Camp has grown quickly in popularity from only 25 participants in 2006 to over 120 participants in 2007 . In 2008 , Panther Camp expanded to two camps with a combined total of 240 freshman participants . Panther Camp is expected to grow in size for Summer 2010 , as the waiting list has continued to double from year to year . Freshmen who participate are more likely to get involved in Student Life than other students .
Week of Welcome , usually held the first or second week of the Fall semester holds many spirit events , such as Trail of the Torch . Trail of the Torch is another university tradition that has continued to grow annually , where a pep rally is held in the Housing Quad with music , food , giveaways and dancing . After the pep rally , the torch of knowledge is lit and blue and gold candles are distributed to the crowd for the procession around the campus , trailing the torch from the Housing Quad to the torch in front of the Primera Casa building . Rage Week and Homecoming Week are other major back @-@ to @-@ back spirit weeks held in the Fall semester . They include the Homecoming Parade , Greek Row parties , Homecoming football game , Blue / Gold Party , pep rallies and other Panther Rage events .
= = = = Superstitions and legends = = = =
There are many other traditions at FIU that are not spirit @-@ related . The " Kissing Bridge " tradition in Turtle Pond in between the Ryder Business Building and Green Library . The tradition is that if you kiss someone on the bridge you will stay with them forever . The top floor of Green Library is said to be haunted ; students have reported a friendly ghost that wanders the halls minutes before the library closes at night . Another superstition is that if a student steps on the university seal engraved in front of the Graham Center and in the WUC at the Biscayne Bay Campus , the university 's student union , it is said that they will delay their graduation for many years , or never graduate at all , and thus even on crowded days , students go around the seal to avoid stepping on it ( a variation based on superstitions from hundreds of universities nationwide ) .
= = Athletics = =
Florida International University has seventeen varsity sports teams , named the Panthers . The Panthers ' athletic colors are blue and gold , and compete in the NCAA Division I as part of Conference USA in all sports . Three main sports facilities serve as home venues for Panther athletics . The Panthers football team plays at FIU Stadium ( " The Cage " ) , the men and women 's basketball and volleyball teams play at the FIU Arena , and the men 's baseball team plays at FIU Baseball Stadium . Other athletics venues include the Aquatic Center , Tennis Complex , softball fields , and various other recreational fields . FIU Arena underwent expansion to add more seating and a modernization of the exterior that was completed in late 2011 . On July 1 , 2013 , FIU became a member of Conference USA .
Traditional rivals of the FIU Panthers include Florida Atlantic University and the University of Miami . The Panthers football team competes in the annual Shula Bowl , a yearly football game played for the Don Shula Award against in @-@ state rival Florida Atlantic University . Due to this competition in the Shula Bowl , the rivalry between the two schools has grown , with the rivalry extending into the men 's baseball and basketball teams as well .
The Panthers football team plays home games at FIU Stadium nicknamed " The Cage " and are currently coached by Ron Turner . In 2005 , the Panthers moved to the Sun Belt Conference , making their transition from Division I @-@ FCS to Division I @-@ FBS complete . In their first season in the conference , the Panthers began by finishing 5 – 6 . FIU 's athletics department has produced many professional and Olympic athletes , including current players in Major League Baseball , Major League Soccer , National Basketball Association , National Football League and the Women 's National Basketball Association . Notable alumni include Mike Lowell ( Boston Red Sox ) , Raja Bell ( Utah Jazz ) , and Carlos Arroyo ( Boston Celtics ) .
In 2009 , FIU hired NBA Hall of Famer Isiah Thomas as head coach of the men 's basketball team . In 2010 , the Panthers football team finished the season # 1 as Sun Belt Conference champions , and went on to the Little Caesars Pizza Bowl against Toledo on December 26 , 2010 . The game was won 34 – 32 in a fourth quarter play that became known as the " Motor City Miracle . "
= = Notable alumni = =
FIU currently has over 180 @,@ 000 alumni around the world in more than 30 countries . FIU graduates more than 10 @,@ 000 students a year and confers more than half of all degrees awarded by universities in Miami . Alumni services is run by the Florida International University Alumni Association , which sponsors numerous alumni events , galas , and ceremonies annually .
In conjunction with the Office of Alumni Relations , the Division of External Affairs publishes a quarterly news and alumni magazine , " FIU Magazine " . FIU Magazine is distributed free of charge to all FIU alumni , faculty and donors .
= = FIU in television and entertainment = =
FIU 's campus has been the set for many films , television shows , and music videos . One of the earliest television shows to have filmed at FIU was Miami Vice in 1985 . In the episode , " The Fix " , the FIU Arena was used as one of the scenes . The TV show Burn Notice has also filmed various episodes at FIU , with scenes at the College of Business Buildings and the Diaz @-@ Balart College of Law Building . In 2007 , Chris Brown filmed the music video for his song " Kiss Kiss " at FIU , with scenes near the Frost Art Museum and around the Graham Center . Various telenovelas for Telemundo and Univision have filmed television episodes at FIU as well . In 2007 , Telemundo 's Pecados Ajenos was filmed in the Graham Center .
In 2009 , TLC 's What Not to Wear filmed an episode on campus at the Management and Advanced Research Center . In October 2009 , former CNN news anchor Rick Sanchez broadcast his CNN show from the Graham Center at FIU . The new A & E show The Glades shot an episode at University Park , using the Frost Art Museum as a background and the Health and Life Sciences building as the façade for a NASA Administrative Building .
In 2011 , the FIU Drumline appeared in the music video " Champion " by Nelly . The FIU Band and Drumline continue to take part in many parades , and shows , including appearances on Univision , the 2011 Florida Lottery commercial , and many others .
In 2012 , G4TV held the Northeast and Southeast regional qualifying rounds of the television show American Ninja Warrior at FIU . The competition took place in the traffic loop between the School of Architecture and the College of Business .
In 2015 , Florida International University hosted the Miss Universe 2014 pageant in the FIU Arena .
= Cyclone Xavier =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Xavier ( RSMC Nadi Designation : 01F , JTWC Designation : 01P ) was a strong pre @-@ season cyclone that formed on October 20 , 2006 to the north of the Santa Cruz Islands . During the next day it rapidly developed and was designated as Tropical Depression 01F later that day , before being designated as Tropical Cyclone Xavier while over Santa Cruz early on October 22 . Later on October 22 , Xavier intensified into a category 3 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale , before passing over Tikopia early the next day . Xavier then reached its peak wind speeds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 @-@ min ) , which made it a Category 4 cyclone early on October 24 . Xavier stayed at its peak wind speeds until early the next day when it started to rapidly weaken , becoming a depression early on October 26 . The remnants of Xavier persisted until October 28 before dissipating . There were no casualties reported as a result of the storm and little impact reported in the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu .
= = Meteorological history = =
During October 20 , 2006 the Fiji Meteorological Service and the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center started to monitor a tropical depression , that had developed within the South Pacific Convergence Zone to the north of Temotu Province in the Solomon Islands . The system was located within an area of low to moderate vertical wind shear and had a good outflow in its northern and eastern quadrants . Over the next day conditions surrounding the system rapidly became favourable for further development , with convection starting to wrap into a well defined low level circulation centre . As a result , the depression rapidly developed further and was named Xavier by the FMS during October 22 , after it had become a category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . After the system was named the JTWC initiated advisories on the system and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 01P , while it was located over the Santa Cruz Islands . Throughout October 22 , Xavier 's rapid intensification continued with it developing an eye feature and becoming a category 3 severe tropical cyclone . During that day the system performed a small cyclonic loop over Temotu Province and passed near or over the Santa Cruz Island of Tikopia .
The systems rapid intensification subsequently slowed down during October 23 , as an upper @-@ level anticyclone located to the northwest of the system impeded the systems outflow . The system also started to move south @-@ eastwards during that day , as a trough of low pressure created a break in the ridge of high pressure that was steering Xavier . The FMS subsequently estimated during October 24 , that the system had peaked as a Category 4 Severe Tropical Cyclone with 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , while it was located about 220 km ( 135 mi ) to the east of Vanua Lava in northern Vanuatu . The JTWC also estimated during October 24 , that the system had peaked with 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) , which made it equivalent to a category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . Over the next day the system maintained its peak intensity as it moved south @-@ eastwards , before it turned westwards during the next day towards Vanuatu and rapidly weakened after it moved into an area of cooler sea @-@ surface temperatures and strong vertical wind @-@ shear . As a result , during October 26 , The FMS and JTWC both reported that the system had weakened into a tropical depression , with the JTWC issuing their final advisory on the system as they expected it to dissipate within 12 hours . Xavier 's remnants were last noted by the FMS during October 28 , after the systems low level circulation centre was not able to be distinguished .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Early on October 22 , both RSMC Nadi and TCWC Brisbane started to issue special advisories to support the meteorological services of Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands in tracking the cyclone . As Xavier was over the islands of Santa Cruz the whole of Temotu Province was placed under a tropical cyclone gale warning , while cyclone watches were declared for Rennel , Bellona , and Vanuatu . During the next 24 hours , the Torres and Banks Islands , as well as Espirito Santo , Maewo , Ambae , were placed under a cyclone warning . The warnings for the Solomon Islands were then cancelled early the next day , while the warnings for Vanuatu were maintained until late on October 25 , when RSMC Nadi discontinued them .
There were no casualties as a result of Xavier . In the Solomon Islands , communications to the Temotu province were lost . When communications were restored on October 24 , it was reported that there was only minor tree damage on the islands of Utupua and Vanikolo . On Tikopia , crops sustained damage , though the effects were considered light given the circumstances . Strong and gusty winds , rough seas and moderate to heavy swells were reported within the eastern Vanuatuan islands , however , no significant damage was reported within the islands .
= SummerSlam ( 1988 ) =
SummerSlam 1988 was the first annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event . It was produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) and took place on August 29 , 1988 , in Madison Square Garden , located in New York City , New York . The pay @-@ per @-@ view was created to help the company compete against rival promotion World Championship Wrestling ( formerly Jim Crockett Promotions ) . It was one of the first four annual pay @-@ per @-@ view events produced by the WWF , along with WrestleMania , the Royal Rumble , and Survivor Series .
The event consisted of ten professional wrestling matches . The preliminary matches included a title defense by Intercontinental Champion The Honky Tonk Man against a surprise challenger , who turned out to be The Ultimate Warrior . The Ultimate Warrior won the match in approximately thirty seconds to end the longest Intercontinental Championship reign . The main event was a match pitting The Mega Powers ( Hulk Hogan and Randy Savage ) against their long @-@ time rivals , The Mega Bucks ( Ted DiBiase and André the Giant ) . Hogan and Savage won the match after Miss Elizabeth , Savage 's manager , distracted the André and DiBiase , by removing her skirt to reveal a bikini bottom .
= = Development = =
In the late 1980s , Vince McMahon 's World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) ' s main competition in the professional wrestling industry was from Jim Crockett Promotions . McMahon countered Jim Crockett 's successful Starrcade pay @-@ per @-@ view , which began airing in 1983 , by creating the WrestleMania franchise . After WrestleMania III in March 1987 , the most successful professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event in history , McMahon created the Survivor Series franchise , which aired the same day as Starrcade 1987 in November 1987 . After defeating Crockett in the ratings war , McMahon created the Royal Rumble , an event airing for free on the USA Network in January 1988 . The event set a ratings record for the network with eight million households tuning in to watch the event . In retaliation , Crockett created the Clash of the Champions event , which aired simultaneously with WrestleMania IV . WrestleMania IV garnered higher ratings , and not long after , Crockett filed for bankruptcy and sold his company to Ted Turner , who renamed it World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) .
As the WWF continued to replace its closed circuit programming with pay @-@ per @-@ view programming , McMahon added more pay @-@ per @-@ views to the lineup to capitalize on the success of his previous events . In addition to WrestleMania in March , Royal Rumble in January , and Survivor Series in November , McMahon created an event for August , which he named SummerSlam . To keep the WWF from having a pay @-@ per @-@ view market monopoly , Turner began airing monthly WCW pay @-@ per @-@ views . As a result , both companies brought in hundreds of millions of dollars of revenue . SummerSlam became one of World Wrestling Federation 's most successful events and one of the " Big Four " pay @-@ per @-@ views , along with WrestleMania , Survivor Series , and Royal Rumble . Those four events , along with the King of the Ring , are known as the " Classic Five " .
= = Background = =
Prior to SummerSlam , The Honky Tonk Man , a villainous character , had been the longest reigning Intercontinental Champion in WWF history . He was originally supposed to defend his championship against Brutus Beefcake , but Beefcake was unable to compete as a result of a ( storyline ) injury received from " Outlaw " Ron Bass the week before .
Also prior to the event , Demolition ( Ax and Smash ) held the WWF World Tag Team Championship , which they had won at WrestleMania IV after only a year in the WWF , and would defend their titles at SummerSlam against former champions The Hart Foundation ( Bret Hart and Jim Neidhart ) , who had become fan favorites a few weeks earlier by turning on their manager Jimmy Hart .
The on @-@ screen feud between Rick Rude and Jake Roberts began weeks before SummerSlam . As part of his gimmick , Rude would — after winning a match — invite a pre @-@ selected woman from the audience to kiss him in the ring . On one occasion , one of the women refused to comply , later identifying herself as Robert 's wife , Cheryl . As the feud intensified , Rude began wearing a pair of tights with a picture of Cheryl stenciled on them , prompting a furious Roberts to charge into the ring and strip the tights off Rude , appearing to television viewers to leave Rude naked , although the live audience saw him stripped to a g @-@ string instead .
For months prior to the pay @-@ per @-@ view , Hulk Hogan and undisputed WWF Heavyweight Champion Randy Savage , two of the WWF 's top crowd favorites , had feuded with André the Giant and Ted DiBiase , respectively . The two feuds first came together at WrestleMania IV , when — as the result of the vacating of the WWF Heavyweight Championship — a 14 @-@ man single @-@ elimination tournament was set up to crown a new champion . Hogan and André had been disqualified in their quarterfinal match , while Savage and DiBiase reached the championship match ; in that final match , Savage defeated DiBiase with help from Hogan . Savage and DiBiase feuded over the title throughout the spring and summer , but André did not become involved until mid @-@ summer when he and DiBiase helped instigate a 2 @-@ on @-@ 1 attack against Savage as he was delivering a promo . Savage quickly recovered and challenged André and DiBiase to a tag team match against him and a partner to be named . That partner later was revealed to be Hogan ; the team became known as " The Mega Powers . " The André @-@ DiBiase team — which dubbed itself " The Mega Bucks " — retaliated by announcing the guest referee would be someone they declared to be fair and neutral : Jesse Ventura , a color commentator on the WWF 's programs who favored the villains , though according to the main storyline , Ventura was chosen by WWF President Jack Tunney as the only person capable of handling such a match .
= = Event = =
The event began with a match between The British Bulldogs ( Davey Boy Smith and Dynamite Kid ) and The Fabulous Rougeaus ( Jacques and Raymond Rougeau ) . As soon as the bell rang to signify that the match had begun , Smith attacked Jacques . The two teams traded blows until The Rougeaus flipped Dynamite Kid over their heads so that he fell on his back to the mat . Dynamite Kid escaped another offensive maneuver before tagging in his partner , Smith , and The British Bulldogs performed a double @-@ team maneuver on Jacques . Despite having the upper hand , The Bulldogs failed to pin Jacques in time , and the match ended in a twenty @-@ minute time draw . The next match was between Bad News Brown and Ken Patera . Before the bell rang , however , Brown attacked Patera , who retaliated by performing a clothesline from the corner . Patera then slipped both of his arms underneath Brown 's armpits and locked his hands behind his neck , using a submission move known as a full nelson . At the end of the match , Brown defeated Patera by striking him in the back of the head with his finishing move , the Ghetto Blaster .
After the second match ended , Rick Rude and the Junkyard Dog made their way to the ring . Their match began as Rude attacked Junkyard Dog from behind , who retaliated by headbutting Rude several times . Subsequently , Rude climbed to the wrestling ring 's top rope and pulled down his tights to reveal another pair of tights with a picture of Cheryl Roberts on them . As a result , Jake Roberts , Cheryl Roberts ' husband , ran to the ring and attacked Rude , forcing the referee to disqualify the Junkyard Dog . The next match was a tag team match between The Powers of Pain ( The Barbarian and The Warlord ) , who were accompanied by their manager The Baron , and The Bolsheviks ( Boris Zhukov and Nikolai Volkoff ) , who were accompanied by Slick . Immediately , The Powers of Pain chased The Bolsheviks from the ring . Slick , however , distracted The Powers of Pain long enough to give The Bolsheviks an advantage . Zhukov was then slammed to the mat back @-@ first and headbutted from the top rope , which allowed The Barbarian to pin him .
The fifth match of the event was an Intercontinental Championship match between The Ultimate Warrior and the reigning champion The Honky Tonk Man , who was accompanied by Jimmy Hart . Before the match it had been announced that Honky 's original challenger , Brutus Beefcake , was unable to wrestle . Prior to the match , the Honky Tonk Man refused to be informed about Beefcake 's replacement and immediately before the match , even grabbed ring announcer Howard Finkel 's microphone and said " Give me someone out here to wrestle , I don 't care who it is " . His challenge was answered by The Ultimate Warrior . Warrior , who accidentally knocked Finkel to the floor when he rushed into the ring and hit the ropes , had the advantage from the beginning , attacking The Honky Tonk Man , who was still in his entrance attire . After body @-@ slamming him to the mat and following it up with a clothesline , The Warrior bounded to the ropes and landed stomach @-@ first on The Honky Tonk Man using his signature move , the Warrior Splash . The Ultimate Warrior then pinned The Honky Tonk Man after only thirty seconds to win the title . The longest Intercontinental title reign in WWF history had ended with one of the shortest IC title matches in history . This match was probably the one where the audience cheered the loudest ; the moment the Warrior defeated the hapless Honky Tonk Man , the fans erupted with cheers , with many even voting it the match of the year .
The following contest was a re @-@ match from WrestleMania IV between Dino Bravo and Don Muraco . Muraco , the crowd favorite , was in control for most of the match until Bravo 's manager Frenchy Martin distracted Muraco , allowing Bravo to use his side suplex and pin him for the win .
The seventh match of the night was for the WWF Tag Team Championship . Reigning champions Demolition ( Ax and Smash ) , accompanied by both Mr. Fuji and Jimmy Hart , were challenged by The Hart Foundation ( Bret Hart and Jim Neidhart ) . As soon as the bell sounded , The Hart Foundation attacked both members of Demolition . Their control was brief , as Demolition then gained the advantage over Neidhart . As Bret Hart was tagged into the match , Neidhart chased Jimmy Hart from ringside and returned to tag back into the match . When all four men began fighting inside the ring , Neidhart attacked Mr. Fuji , who was on the ring apron . At the end of the match , Bret Hart attempted a piledriver but Ax hit him with Jimmy Hart 's trademark megaphone . Smash then pinned Bret Hart for the win .
The next match was between the Big Boss Man , accompanied by Slick , and Koko B. Ware . With Slick as a distraction , the Big Boss Man took the early advantage in the match . After crushing Ware in between himself and the turnbuckle , Boss Man refused to pin him and finish the match . Instead , he attempted to climb to the top rope and land on Ware stomach @-@ first , but missed . Ware then retaliated by performing several dropkicks and attempted a pin . Boss Man got his shoulder up to save himself from being pinned , and he slammed his opponent into the mat , allowing him to pin Ware for the win . The second to last match of the night was between Jake Roberts and Hercules . When Roberts attempted to slam his opponent 's head on to the mat with a DDT , Hercules was able to escape the maneuver and take control of the match . As Hercules attempted to slam Roberts to the mat , Roberts reversed the move into a DDT , enabling him to pin Hercules for the win .
The last match of the night was the main event between The Mega Powers ( Hulk Hogan and Randy Savage ) , accompanied by Miss Elizabeth , and The Mega Bucks ( Ted DiBiase and André the Giant ) , accompanied by André 's manager Bobby Heenan and DiBiase 's bodyguard Virgil . Jesse Ventura was the special guest referee . The Mega Powers took the early advantage over DiBiase . After Hogan attacked André the Giant , who was on the ring apron , The Mega Bucks were able to regain control . After a while , all four men began brawling , and André knocked The Mega Powers out of the ring . Subsequently , as part of the scripted ending to the match , Miss Elizabeth began arguing with Ventura , the referee , and ripped off her skirt to reveal her underwear . While the Mega Bucks were distracted , Savage climbed to the top rope and dropped the Macho Elbow on DiBiase , followed by Hogan hitting the leg drop on DiBiase . As Hogan pinned DiBiase , Ventura , a villainous character aligned with The Mega Bucks ( despite being a long time on @-@ air Savage fan and his former tag @-@ team partner ) , began an obviously slow three @-@ count . As a result , Savage slammed Ventura 's arm down for the third time , indicating that Hogan and Savage had won the match .
= = Aftermath = =
The Mega Powers continued to team together after the event , until a new storyline was developed where Randy Savage became jealous over Hulk Hogan paying attention to Miss Elizabeth , and as the WWF World Heavyweight Champion felt slighted over his perceived lower billing in the Mega Powers ' pecking order . Several key events were developed to foreshadow their burgeoning feud . These included Hogan asking Elizabeth to accompany him to televised matches , where he would act overly friendly with her ; and accidentally eliminating Savage from the Royal Rumble in January 1989 by knocking him over the top rope and to the floor . The final falling out happened on The Main Event , when Elizabeth received an on @-@ screen injury during a tag team match . Savage , left alone in the ring while Hogan tended to Elizabeth , attacked Hogan backstage . This rivalry culminated in a match for Savage 's WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania V , where Hogan won the title by pinning Savage .
As WWF Intercontinental Champion , the Ultimate Warrior began receiving more on @-@ air time and more prominent matches . His feud with the Honky Tonk Man continued for several months , until Warrior was placed in a new feud with Rick Rude in early 1989 .
After retaining their title against The Hart Foundation , Demolition held the WWF Tag Team Championship for another 11 months , as part of a record @-@ breaking 16 @-@ month reign as champions , before eventually losing the title to The Brain Busters ( Tully Blanchard and Arn Anderson ) on the Saturday Night 's Main Event . During the midst of their title reign , despite being billed as villains , Demolition 's popularity with fans continued to grow , and the tag team eventually was turned face at the 1988 Survivor Series .
= = Production and reception = =
The event was produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) and took place on August 29 , 1988 in New York City 's Madison Square Garden . The pay @-@ per @-@ view had a 4 @.@ 5 buyrate , which means that 4 @.@ 5 % of pay @-@ per @-@ view subscribers ordered the event .
The original plan for SummerSlam was to bring Ric Flair over from the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) to the WWF . Vince McMahon , the owner of the WWF , wanted Flair to challenge Savage in the main event for the WWF Championship . Flair , however , felt obliged to the NWA and did not leave the promotion for the WWF . Therefore , Hogan and Savage were paired together to end their feuds with their respective on @-@ screen rivals .
In WWE.com 's 2007 list of the top ten SummerSlam moments in history , The Ultimate Warrior 's Intercontinental Championship title win was listed as number ten , while Miss Elizabeth 's distraction during the main event was listed at number nine .
Calum Waddell , in Fighting Spirit Magazine , called The Ultimate Warrior 's win over the Honky Tonk Man " genuinely captivating , " and he said the match between The British Bulldogs and The Fabulous Rougeaus was an " exciting battle " . In contrast , he had a negative reaction to the main event match , citing it as " predictably one @-@ dimensional " and " abysmal " . Similarly , Adam Nedeff of 411mania.com called the tag team match between The British Bulldogs and The Rougeaus " a solid match " but stated that the " lack of a finish was a disappointment " . Although he reviewed most of the matches negatively , he called the WWF World Tag Team Championship match a " good match " . Overall , he rated the event a 4 @.@ 5 out of 10 and stated , " Without Warrior 's big win and Elizabeth 's surprise finish , this is a totally forgettable show . "
= = Results = =
= Fatima Massaquoi =
Fatima Massaquoi @-@ Fahnbulleh ( 1904 – 1978 ) was a pioneering educator in Liberia . After completing her education in the United States , she returned to Liberia in 1946 , where she contributed much to the cultural and social life of the country .
Born into a family of African royalty , Massaquoi grew up in the care of an aunt in Njagbacca , in the Garwula District of Grand Cape Mount County of southern Liberia . After seven years , she returned to the northwestern part of the country in Montserrado County , where she began her schooling . In 1922 she accompanied her father , a diplomat , to Hamburg , Germany , where she completed her studies in medicine at the University of Hamburg in 1937 . She moved to the United States for further education , studying sociology and anthropology at Lane College , Fisk University and Boston University . While in the US , she collaborated on a dictionary of the Vai language and wrote her autobiography , though a legal battle ensued over the rights to her story . She won an injunction barring others from publishing and returned to Liberia in 1946 , immediately beginning collaboration to establish a university there , which would become the University of Liberia .
Committed to national cultural preservation and expansion , Massaquoi served as the director , later dean , of the Liberal Arts College and was the founding director of the Institute of African Studies . She co @-@ founded the Society of Liberian Authors , helped abolish the practice of usurping African names for Westernized versions , and worked towards standardization of the Vai script . In the late 1960s , Vivian Seton , Massaquoi 's daughter , had the autobiographical manuscript microfilmed for preservation . After Massaquoi 's death , her writings and notes were rediscovered , edited and published in 2013 as The Autobiography of an African Princess .
= = Early life and education = =
Massaquoi was born in Gendema in the Pujehun District of southern Sierra Leone in 1904 , the daughter of Momolu Massaquoi , who in 1922 became Liberia 's consul general in Hamburg , Germany , and Massa Balo Sonjo . At birth , she was given the name Fatima Beendu Sandimanni , but dropped the Beendu before it became part of her records . Her paternal grandfather was King Lahai Massaquoi of the Gallinas , and her paternal grandmother was Queen Sandimannie ( or Sandimani ) of Sierra Leone 's aristocratic Vai family . She was also the great @-@ great @-@ granddaughter of King Siaka of Gendema who ruled over the Gallinas in the 18th century .
Massaquoi spent her first seven years with her father 's sister , Mama Jassa , in Njagbacca in the Garwula District of Grand Cape Mount County . While she was there , one of her father 's six wives , Ma Sedia , seriously
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Brussels saw numerous dry periods , floods and a cholera epidemic , caused as much by the river itself as by the poverty and the lack of hygiene and potable water in the lower city . This forced the governments of the Province of Brabant and the City of Brussels to act .
= = Attempts at purification = =
The first studies and propositions to clean up the river date back to 1859 , and during the following years , many different commissions of engineers were assigned to examine possible solutions . Dozens of different ideas were submitted , many of which were completely unfeasible . Several of them proposed diverting large amounts of cleaner water from other rivers upstream to dilute the Senne , while greatly improving the drainage system in the city . Other proposals involved diverting the main course of the Senne completely to the Lesser Senne , which would then be enlarged and thus more useful for boat traffic and mills . Others considered any sort of sanitization impossible , and proposed covering the Senne without greatly changing its course . Among these was a proposal to double the size of the underground drainage tunnels , creating space for a subterranean railroad tunnel . The idea was ahead of its time , but would be implemented a century later with the North – South connection .
The municipal council chose the proposal by architect Léon Suys , submitted in 1865 , which had the backing of mayor Jules Anspach . The plan involved suppressing the secondary arm of the Senne by closing the Lesser Sluice Gate . The main branch would be channelled into underground tunnels , to be placed directly beneath a long , straight 30 m ( 100 ft ) wide boulevard , stretching from the Greater Sluice Gate to the Augustinian church ( now De Brouckère Square ) before splitting into two . One branch was to head towards the Brussels North railway station and present day Rogier Square , the other towards Antwerp Gate , thus forming a long , narrow " Y " shape .
Anspach 's backing of Suys ' proposal was a calculated decision , as he had radical plans to transform the city . Anspach saw the proposal as an unexpected boon , as it allowed him to accomplish several of his goals at once . It had long been his ambition to transform the impoverished lower city into a centre of business and commerce , suitable for a modern capital . He wanted to attract the middle class , most of whom had left the dingy downtown for the cleaner suburbs , including the Leopold Quarter ( now often called the European quarter ) and Avenue Louise , causing a large loss in tax revenue for the city . The elimination of the numerous alleys and dead @-@ ends in the lower town in favour of a large , straight , wide , open @-@ air boulevard , linking the two rapidly growing train stations , seemed both a necessity and an opportunity to beautify the city and improve both traffic circulation and hygiene .
= = Controversy and opposition = =
The Belgian Parliament had recently passed a law allowing the expropriation of privately owned land by the government when the land was to be used for the ' greater good . ' This could be done even if the project was still speculative in nature , and allowed for more land to be taken beyond what was strictly necessary for a project . The city expropriated large swathes of the lower town , counting on reselling the land for a profit , which , after the project was complete , would be on a grandiose modern boulevard in an upper @-@ class neighbourhood . The selling of land after the completion of the project was seen as a way of financing the project itself . That the poorer residents of the lower town were forced away into other already overcrowded districts or into the surrounding suburbs did not trouble the upper classes very much , as the displaced residents did not pay taxes or have the right to vote .
Even after Suys ' proposal was officially adopted , Anspach faced strong opposition to the project . This opposition came first from engineers who felt that the covering was incompatible with Brussels ’ s geology , would accumulate potentially dangerous gases and would not be able to handle enough water to prevent floods . Others opposed to the project complained about the high taxes resulting from its high cost , poor compensation for seized property and the lack of public input into the project . The press accused Anspach of being responsible for demolishing Brussels ' old town , and published numerous caricatures mocking him .
A liberal , Anspach feared the weakness and rigidity of the government and therefore gave the work of covering the river to a private British company , the Belgian Public Works Company ( the English name was used ) , which was created for the task . However , partway through construction , it was forced to relinquish control to the city of Brussels after an embezzlement scandal in which a company director allegedly attempted to steal 2 @.@ 5 million francs from the company . Anspach only barely kept his office in 1869 by @-@ elections .
= = Construction = =
Excluding the important sewers built upriver and downriver in the adjacent suburbs , the covered section itself was to be 2 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) in length . Constructed from bricks , the covering was to consist of two parallel 6 m ( 20 ft ) wide tunnels , and a set of two lateral drainage pipes , each taking in waste water from its respective side of the street .
The contract was signed on June 15 , 1866 and the expropriation of the first 1 @,@ 100 houses was completed in a few months . The work began on February 13 , 1867 . There were several technical difficulties that delayed the covering , many of which were due to the geology of Brussels , though they were not as bad as some engineers had forecast . The embezzlement scandal also caused a significant delay in construction , largely due to the change in control . The project was completed in 1871 , with the municipal council ceremonially opening the reconstructed sluice gates on November 30 .
= = The new central boulevards = =
The series of boulevards created by the project – Hainaut Boulevard ( now Maurice Lemonnier Boulevard ) , Central Boulevard ( now Boulevard Anspach ) , North Boulevard ( now Adolphe Max Boulevard ) , and Senne Boulevard ( now Émile Jacqmain Boulevard ) – were progressively opened to traffic from 1871 to 1873 .
The opening of these new routes offered a more efficient way to get into the lower town than the cramped streets of rue du Midi / Zuidstraat , rue des Fripiers / Kleerkopersstraat and rue Neuve and helped revitalize the lower quarters of the town . In order to accomplish this revitalization and attract investment , public buildings were constructed as part of the Léon Suys project including the Brussels Stock Exchange . The vast Halles Centrales / Centrale Hallen , a good example of metallic architecture , replaced unhygienic open @-@ air markets , though it was torn down in 1958 . The monumental fountain that was to break the monotony of the boulevards at Fontainas Square was abandoned for budgetary reasons .
The construction of private buildings on the boulevards and surrounding areas took place later . The middle class continued to prefer living in new suburbs rather than the cramped areas of the city center . The high prices of the land ( expected to finance part of the construction costs ) and the high rents were not within the means of the lower classes . Life in apartments was no longer desirable for residents of Brussels , who preferred to live in single family homes . The buildings constructed by private citizens had difficulty finding buyers .
To give builders an incentive to create elaborate and appealing facades on their works , an architecture competition was arranged in which twenty buildings built before January 1 , 1876 would win prizes . The first prize of 20 @,@ 000 francs was awarded to Henri Beyaert who designed the " Hier ist in den kater en de kat " ( Loosely , " House of Cats " ) on North Boulevard . Nonetheless , it took another 20 years , until 1895 , for buildings to solidly line the boulevards .
The former Augustinian church , built at the beginning of the 17th century in the baroque style , was the only remaining part of a convent destroyed in 1796 by French revolutionaries . After having been used as a Protestant church from 1815 to 1830 , it subsequently saw use as a concert hall , a commercial exchange , and a post office . At the center of de Brouckère square , the church ’ s façade was intended by Léon Suys to be one of the focal points of the new boulevards . The work to cover the river , which nearly surrounded the church , preserved the integrity of the building at great trouble and expense , but the church was finally demolished in 1893 , its style no longer popular with the people and its presence unsuitable for the area . The church was replaced by a fountain dedicated to the memory of Jules Anspach . The facade of the church , however , was preserved , being disassembled and moved to serve as the façade for the St. Trinity Church in the suburb of Ixelles .
= = Diversion and treatment = =
Although the original covering of the Senne resolved sanitary problems and flooding in Brussels ’ old city , this was not the case in peripheral areas . The Senne was still very polluted , despite work done to the sewers and spillways in the canal . The drainage into the canal was not able to completely stop the floods that regularly affected certain outer areas of the city .
In 1930 , a group was created whose objective was to channel the Senne into subterranean tunnels for nearly its entire course through the Brussels metropolitan area . This was done in order to expand the benefits that the covering achieved in the old city . In the centre , the course of the river was to be changed from the central boulevards to the peripheral boulevards of the small ring . The project , delayed by war and the work being done on the North – South connection , was only finished in 1955 .
The disused channels of the central boulevards later facilitated the construction of the north @-@ south line of the premetro , which opened in 1976 . The conversion of the existing tunnels to metro tunnels ensured that there was minimal disruption on the surface . Some of the former pipes also served as storm drains . The Anspach Fountain was transferred to the Quartier des Quais / Kaaien .
Actual purification of the waste water from the Brussels @-@ Capital Region was not completed until the 21st century , when two purification stations were built . The south station treats refuse water from 360 @,@ 000 inhabitants , which is about one third of the polluted water , and lies on the border of Anderlecht and Forest . The north station , completed in March 2007 , is located near the border of the Brussels @-@ Capital Region , between the Senne and the Charleroi @-@ Willebroek Canal , near Buda Bridge . A portion of the cost was footed by the Flemish Government , as 7 of the adjacent municipalities lie within the Flemish Region . This station is capable of treating the water of 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 inhabitants and should finally be capable of fully purifying the Senne , which had long caused much of the pollution of the Scheldt river .
= Euro =
The euro ( sign : € ; code : EUR ) is the official currency of the eurozone , which consists of 19 of the 28 member states of the European Union : Austria , Belgium , Cyprus , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Ireland , Italy , Latvia , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Malta , the Netherlands , Portugal , Slovakia , Slovenia , and Spain . The currency is also officially used by the institutions of the European Union and four other European countries , as well as unilaterally by two others , and is consequently used daily by some 337 million Europeans as of 2015 . Outside of Europe , a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency .
Additionally , 210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro . The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar . As of August 2014 , with more than € 995 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in circulation , the euro has the highest combined value of banknotes and coins in circulation in the world , having surpassed the U.S. dollar . Based on International Monetary Fund estimates of 2008 GDP and purchasing power parity among the various currencies , the eurozone is the second largest economy in the world .
The name euro was officially adopted on 16 December 1995 . The euro was introduced to world financial markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999 , replacing the former European Currency Unit ( ECU ) at a ratio of 1 : 1 ( US $ 1 @.@ 1743 ) . Physical euro coins and banknotes entered into circulation on 1 January 2002 , making it the day @-@ to @-@ day operating currency of its original members . While the euro dropped subsequently to US $ 0 @.@ 8252 within two years ( 26 October 2000 ) , it has traded above the U.S. dollar since the end of 2002 , peaking at US $ 1 @.@ 6038 on 18 July 2008 . Since late 2009 , the euro has been immersed in the European sovereign @-@ debt crisis which has led to the creation of the European Financial Stability Facility as well as other reforms aimed at stabilising the currency . In July 2012 , the euro fell below US $ 1 @.@ 21 for the first time in two years , following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spain 's troubled banking sector . As of 31 May 2016 , the euro – dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US $ 1 @.@ 1137 .
= = Administration = =
The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt @-@ based European Central Bank ( ECB ) and the Eurosystem ( composed of the central banks of the eurozone countries ) . As an independent central bank , the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy . The Eurosystem participates in the printing , minting and distribution of notes and coins in all member states , and the operation of the eurozone payment systems .
The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria , although not all states have done so . The United Kingdom and Denmark negotiated exemptions , while Sweden ( which joined the EU in 1995 , after the Maastricht Treaty was signed ) turned down the euro in a 2003 referendum , and has circumvented the obligation to adopt the euro by not meeting the monetary and budgetary requirements . All nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course .
= = Issuing modalities for banknotes = =
Since 5 January 2002 , the national central banks ( NCBs ) and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis . Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them . Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated . The ECB issues 8 % of the total value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem . In practice , the ECB 's banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs , thereby incurring matching liabilities vis @-@ à @-@ vis the ECB . These liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB . The other 92 % of the euro banknotes are issued by the NCBs in proportion to their respective shares in the capital key of the ECB , calculated using national share of European Union population and national share of European Union GDP , equally weighted .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Coins and banknotes = = =
The euro is divided into 100 cents ( sometimes referred to as euro cents , especially when distinguishing them from other currencies , and referred to as such on the common side of all cent coins ) . In Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s , notwithstanding normal English usage . Otherwise , normal English plurals are sometimes used , with many local variations such as centime in France .
All circulating coins have a common side showing the denomination or value , and a map in the background . Due to the linguistic plurality of Europe , the Latin alphabet version of euro is used ( as opposed to the less common Greek or Cyrillic ) and Arabic numerals ( other text is used on national sides in national languages , but other text on the common side is avoided ) . For the denominations except the 1- , 2- and 5 @-@ cent coins , the map only showed the 15 member states which were members when the euro was introduced . Beginning in 2007 or 2008 ( depending on the country ) the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway . The 1- , 2- and 5 @-@ cent coins , however , keep their old design , showing a geographical map of Europe with the 15 member states of 2002 raised somewhat above the rest of the map . All common sides were designed by Luc Luycx . The coins also have a national side showing an image specifically chosen by the country that issued the coin . Euro coins from any member state may be freely used in any nation that has adopted the euro .
The coins are issued in € 2 , € 1 , 50c , 20c , 10c , 5c , 2c , and 1c denominations . To avoid the use of the two smallest coins , some cash transactions are rounded to the nearest five cents in the Netherlands and Ireland ( by voluntary agreement ) and in Finland ( by law ) . This practice is discouraged by the Commission , as is the practice of certain shops to refuse to accept high value euro notes .
Commemorative coins with € 2 face value have been issued with changes to the design of the national side of the coin . These include both commonly issued coins , such as the € 2 commemorative coin for the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Rome , and nationally issued coins , such as the coin to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics issued by Greece . These coins are legal tender throughout the eurozone . Collector coins with various other denominations have been issued as well , but these are not intended for general circulation , and they are legal tender only in the member state that issued them .
The design for the euro banknotes has common designs on both sides . The design was created by the Austrian designer Robert Kalina . Notes are issued in € 500 , € 200 , € 100 , € 50 , € 20 , € 10 , € 5 . Each banknote has its own colour and is dedicated to an artistic period of European architecture . The front of the note features windows or gateways while the back has bridges , symbolising links between countries and with the future . While the designs are supposed to be devoid of any identifiable characteristics , the initial designs by Robert Kalina were of specific bridges , including the Rialto and the Pont de Neuilly , and were subsequently rendered more generic ; the final designs still bear very close similarities to their specific prototypes ; thus they are not truly generic . The monuments looked similar enough to different national monuments to please everyone .
= = = Payments clearing , electronic funds transfer = = =
Capital within the EU may be transferred in any amount from one country to another . All intra @-@ EU transfers in euro are treated as domestic transactions and bear the corresponding domestic transfer costs . This includes all member states of the EU , even those outside the eurozone providing the transactions are carried out in euro . Credit / debit card charging and ATM withdrawals within the eurozone are also treated as domestic transactions ; however paper @-@ based payment orders , like cheques , have not been standardised so these are still domestic @-@ based . The ECB has also set up a clearing system , TARGET , for large euro transactions .
= = = Currency sign = = =
A special euro currency sign ( € ) was designed after a public survey had narrowed the original ten proposals down to two . The European Commission then chose the design created by the Belgian Alain Billiet .
Inspiration for the € symbol itself came from the Greek epsilon ( Є ) – a reference to the cradle of European civilisation – and the first letter of the word Europe , crossed by two parallel lines to ' certify ' the stability of the euro .
The European Commission also specified a euro logo with exact proportions and foreground and background colour tones . While the Commission intended the logo to be a prescribed glyph shape , font designers made it clear that they intended to design their own variants instead . Typewriters lacking the euro sign can create it by typing a capital ' C ' , backspacing and overstriking it with the equal ( ' = ' ) sign . Placement of the currency sign relative to the numeric amount varies from nation to nation , but for texts in English the symbol ( or the ISO @-@ standard " EUR " ) should precede the amount .
There is no official symbol for the cent .
= = History = =
= = = Introduction = = =
The euro was established by the provisions in the 1992 Maastricht Treaty . To participate in the currency , member states are meant to meet strict criteria , such as a budget deficit of less than three percent of their GDP , a debt ratio of less than sixty percent of GDP ( both of which were ultimately widely flouted after introduction ) , low inflation , and interest rates close to the EU average . In the Maastricht Treaty , the United Kingdom and Denmark were granted exemptions per their request from moving to the stage of monetary union which would result in the introduction of the euro .
Economists who helped create or contributed to the euro include Fred Arditti , Neil Dowling , Wim Duisenberg , Robert Mundell , Tommaso Padoa @-@ Schioppa and Robert Tollison . ( For macroeconomic theory , see below . )
The name " euro " was officially adopted in Madrid on 16 December 1995 . Belgian Esperantist Germain Pirlot , a former teacher of French and history is credited with naming the new currency by sending a letter to then President of the European Commission , Jacques Santer , suggesting the name " euro " on 4 August 1995 .
Due to differences in national conventions for rounding and significant digits , all conversion between the national currencies had to be carried out using the process of triangulation via the euro . The definitive values of one euro in terms of the exchange rates at which the currency entered the euro are shown on the right .
The rates were determined by the Council of the European Union , based on a recommendation from the European Commission based on the market rates on 31 December 1998 . They were set so that one European Currency Unit ( ECU ) would equal one euro . The European Currency Unit was an accounting unit used by the EU , based on the currencies of the member states ; it was not a currency in its own right . They could not be set earlier , because the ECU depended on the closing exchange rate of the non @-@ euro currencies ( principally the pound sterling ) that day .
The procedure used to fix the conversion rate between the Greek drachma and the euro was different , since the euro by then was already two years old . While the conversion rates for the initial eleven currencies were determined only hours before the euro was introduced , the conversion rate for the Greek drachma was fixed several months beforehand .
The currency was introduced in non @-@ physical form ( traveller 's cheques , electronic transfers , banking , etc . ) at midnight on 1 January 1999 , when the national currencies of participating countries ( the eurozone ) ceased to exist independently . Their exchange rates were locked at fixed rates against each other . The euro thus became the successor to the European Currency Unit ( ECU ) . The notes and coins for the old currencies , however , continued to be used as legal tender until new euro notes and coins were introduced on 1 January 2002 .
The changeover period during which the former currencies ' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months , until 28 February 2002 . The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state . The earliest date was in Germany , where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001 , though the exchange period lasted for two months more . Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender , they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from several years to forever ( the latter in Austria , Germany , Ireland , Estonia and Latvia for banknotes and coins ; also , Belgium , Luxembourg , Slovenia and Slovakia will accept banknotes forever , but not coins ) . The earliest coins to become non @-@ convertible were the Portuguese escudos , which ceased to have monetary value after 31 December 2002 , although banknotes remain exchangeable until 2022 .
= = = Eurozone crisis = = =
Following the U.S. financial crisis in 2008 , fears of a sovereign debt crisis developed in 2009 among fiscally conservative investors concerning some European states , with the situation becoming particularly tense in early 2010 . This included eurozone members Greece , Ireland and Portugal and also some EU countries outside the area . Iceland , the country which experienced the largest crisis in 2008 when its entire international banking system collapsed , has emerged less affected by the sovereign @-@ debt crisis as the government was unable to bail the banks out . In the EU , especially in countries where sovereign debts have increased sharply due to bank bailouts , a crisis of confidence has emerged with the widening of bond yield spreads and risk insurance on credit default swaps between these countries and other EU members , most importantly Germany . To be included in the eurozone , the countries had to fulfil certain convergence criteria , but the meaningfulness of such criteria was diminished by the fact it was not enforced with the same degree of strictness from country to country .
According to the Economist Intelligence Unit in 2011 , " [ I ] f the [ euro area ] is treated as a single entity , its [ economic and fiscal ] position looks no worse and in some respects , rather better than that of the US or the UK " and the budget deficit for the euro area as a whole is much lower and the euro area 's government debt / GDP ratio of 86 % in 2010 was about the same level as that of the United States . " Moreover " , they write , " private @-@ sector indebtedness across the euro area as a whole is markedly lower than in the highly leveraged Anglo @-@ Saxon economies " . The authors conclude that the crisis " is as much political as economic " and the result of the fact that the euro area lacks the support of " institutional paraphernalia ( and mutual bonds of solidarity ) of a state " .
The crisis continued with S & P downgrading nine euro @-@ area countries , including France , then downgrading the entire European Financial Stability Facility ( EFSF ) fund .
In May 2012 , socialist François Hollande was elected as president of France and a month later the French socialist legislative position was strengthened , while German leader Angela Merkel " has appeared to be floundering and been badly let down by her advisers in recent months " , one commentator said . As such , " serious discord between French and German monetary decision @-@ makers was [ comparable to that of ] ... 1992 – 93 , at the height of the crisis over the European Monetary System , the forerunner to EMU " ( European Monetary Union ) . " [ H ] itherto relatively dormant signs of euro skepticism in German public opinion and throughout industry have been multiplying in recent months , making Hollande 's proposals increasingly unpalatable to a broad swathe of German opinion . Although considerable controversy will continue to swirl over Greece and Spain , the real battle lines over the future of the euro will be drawn up between Germany and France " , the commentary concluded . Another historical parallel – to 1931 when Germany was burdened with debt , unemployment and austerity while France and the United States were relatively strong creditors – gained attention in summer 2012 even as Germany received a debt @-@ rating warning of its own .
= = Direct and indirect usage = =
= = = Direct usage = = =
The euro is the sole currency of 19 EU member states : Austria , Belgium , Cyprus , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Ireland , Italy , Latvia , Lithuania , Luxembourg , Malta , the Netherlands , Portugal , Slovakia , Slovenia , and Spain . These countries constitute the " eurozone " , some 332 million people in total as of 2013 .
With all but two of the remaining EU members obliged to join , together with future members of the EU , the enlargement of the eurozone is set to continue . Outside the EU , the euro is also the sole currency of Montenegro and Kosovo and several European microstates ( Andorra , Monaco , San Marino and the Vatican City ) as well as in four overseas territories of EU members that are not themselves part of the EU ( Saint Barthélemy , Saint Pierre and Miquelon , the French Southern and Antarctic Lands and Akrotiri and Dhekelia ) . Together this direct usage of the euro outside the EU affects nearly 3 million people .
The Euro has been used as a trading currency in Cuba since 1998 , and Syria since 2006 . There are also various currencies pegged to the euro ( see below ) . In 2009 , Zimbabwe abandoned its local currency and used major currencies instead , including the euro and the United States dollar .
= = = Use as reserve currency = = =
Since its introduction , the euro has been the second most widely held international reserve currency after the U.S. dollar . The share of the euro as a reserve currency has increased from 18 % in 1999 to 27 % in 2008 . Over this period the share of the U.S. dollar fell from 71 % to 64 % and the Yen fell from 6 @.@ 4 % to 3 @.@ 3 % . The euro inherited and built on the status of the Deutsche Mark as the second most important reserve currency . The euro remains underweight as a reserve currency in advanced economies while overweight in emerging and developing economies : according to the International Monetary Fund the total of euro held as a reserve in the world at the end of 2008 was equal to $ 1 @.@ 1 trillion or € 850 billion , with a share of 22 % of all currency reserves in advanced economies , but a total of 31 % of all currency reserves in emerging and developing economies .
The possibility of the euro becoming the first international reserve currency is now widely debated among economists . Former US Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan gave his opinion in September 2007 that it is " absolutely conceivable that the euro will replace the US dollar as reserve currency , or will be traded as an equally important reserve currency " . In contrast to Greenspan 's 2007 assessment , the euro 's increase in the share of the worldwide currency reserve basket has slowed considerably since 2007 and since the beginning of the worldwide credit crunch related recession and European sovereign @-@ debt crisis .
= = = Currencies pegged to the euro = = =
Outside the eurozone , a total of 22 countries and territories that do not belong to the EU have currencies that are directly pegged to the euro including 13 countries in mainland Africa ( CFA franc ) , two African island countries ( Comorian franc and Cape Verdean escudo ) , three French Pacific territories ( CFP franc ) and three Balkan countries , Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark ) , Bulgaria ( Bulgarian lev ) and Macedonia ( Macedonian denar ) . On 28 July 2009 , São Tomé and Príncipe signed an agreement with Portugal which will eventually tie its currency to the euro . Additionally , the Moroccan dirham is tied to a basket of currencies , including the Euro and the US dollar , with the Euro given the highest weighting .
With the exception of Bosnia , Bulgaria , Macedonia ( which had pegged their currencies against the Deutsche Mark ) and Cape Verde ( formerly pegged to the Portuguese escudo ) , all of these non @-@ EU countries had a currency peg to the French Franc before pegging their currencies to the euro . Pegging a country 's currency to a major currency is regarded as a safety measure , especially for currencies of areas with weak economies , as the euro is seen as a stable currency , prevents runaway inflation and encourages foreign investment due to its stability .
Within the EU several currencies have a peg to the euro , in most instances as a precondition to joining the eurozone . The Bulgarian lev was formerly pegged to the Deutsche Mark ; one other EU member state has a direct peg due to ERM II : the Danish krone .
In total , as of 2013 , 182 million people in Africa use a currency pegged to the euro , 27 million people outside the eurozone in Europe , and another 545 @,@ 000 people on Pacific islands .
Since 2005 , stamps issued by the Sovereign Military Order of Malta have been denominated in euros , although the Order 's official currency remains the Maltese scudo . The Maltese scudo itself is pegged to the euro and is only recognised as legal tender within the Order .
= = Economics = =
= = = Optimal currency area = = =
In economics , an optimum currency area , or region ( OCA or OCR ) , is a geographical region in which it would maximise economic efficiency to have the entire region share a single currency . There are two models , both proposed by Robert Mundell : the stationary expectations model and the international risk sharing model . Mundell himself advocates the international risk sharing model and thus concludes in favour of the euro . However , even before the creation of the single currency , there were concerns over diverging economies . Before the late @-@ 2000s recession the chances of a state leaving the euro , or the chances that the whole zone would collapse , were considered extremely slim . However the Greek government @-@ debt crisis led to former British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw claiming the eurozone could not last in its current form . Part of the problem seems to be the rules that were created when the euro was set up . John Lanchester , writing for The New Yorker , explains it thus :
The guiding principle of the currency , which opened for business in 1999 , were supposed to be a set of rules to limit a country 's annual deficit to three per cent of gross domestic product , and the total accumulated debt to sixty per cent of G.D.P. It was a nice idea , but by 2004 the two biggest economies in the euro zone , Germany and France , had broken the rules for three years in a row .
= = = Transaction costs and risks = = =
The most obvious benefit of adopting a single currency is to remove the cost of exchanging currency , theoretically allowing businesses and individuals to consummate previously unprofitable trades . For consumers , banks in the eurozone must charge the same for intra @-@ member cross @-@ border transactions as purely domestic transactions for electronic payments ( e.g. , credit cards , debit cards and cash machine withdrawals ) .
The absence of distinct currencies also theoretically removes exchange rate risks , although the imposition of transfer restrictions in 2012 – 13 Cypriot financial crisis means that the situation is not quite so simple . The risk of unanticipated exchange rate movement has always added an additional risk or uncertainty for companies or individuals that invest or trade outside their own currency zones . Companies that hedge against this risk will no longer need to shoulder this additional cost . This is particularly important for countries whose currencies had traditionally fluctuated a great deal , particularly the Mediterranean nations .
Financial markets on the continent are expected to be far more liquid and flexible than they were in the past . The reduction in cross @-@ border transaction costs will allow larger banking firms to provide a wider array of banking services that can compete across and beyond the eurozone . However , although transaction costs were reduced , some studies have shown that risk aversion has increased during the last 40 years in the Eurozone .
= = = Price parity = = =
Another effect of the common European currency is that differences in prices — in particular in price levels — should decrease because of the law of one price . Differences in prices can trigger arbitrage , i.e. , speculative trade in a commodity across borders purely to exploit the price differential . Therefore , prices on commonly traded goods are likely to converge , causing inflation in some regions and deflation in others during the transition . Some evidence of this has been observed in specific eurozone markets .
= = = Macroeconomic stability = = =
Low levels of inflation are the hallmark of stable and modern economies . Because a high level of inflation acts as a tax ( seigniorage ) and theoretically discourages investment , it is generally viewed as undesirable . In spite of the downside , many countries have been unable or unwilling to deal with serious inflationary pressures . Some countries have successfully contained them by establishing largely independent central banks . One such bank was the Bundesbank in Germany ; as the European Central Bank is modelled on the Bundesbank , it is independent of the pressures of national governments and has a mandate to keep inflation low . Member countries that join the euro hope to enjoy the macroeconomic stability associated with low levels of inflation . The ECB ( unlike the Federal Reserve in the United States of America ) does not have a second objective to sustain growth and employment .
Many national and corporate bonds denominated in euro are significantly more liquid and have lower interest rates than was historically the case when denominated in national currencies . While increased liquidity may lower the nominal interest rate on the bond , denominating the bond in a currency with low levels of inflation arguably plays a much larger role . A credible commitment to low levels of inflation and a stable debt reduces the risk that the value of the debt will be eroded by higher levels of inflation or default in the future , allowing debt to be issued at a lower nominal interest rate .
Unfortunately , there is also a cost in structurally keeping inflation lower than in the United States , UK , and China . The result is that seen from those countries , the euro has become expensive , making European products increasingly expensive for its largest importers . Hence export from the euro zone becomes more difficult . This is one of the main reasons why economic growth inside the euro zone now lags behind growth in other large economies . This effect is strongest in European countries with a weak economy .
In general , those in Europe who own large amounts of euros are served by high stability and low inflation . Those who now need to earn euros , including those countries who need to pay interest on large debts , are likely better served with a slightly less strong euro leading to more export . Because with a lower euro , investors would see better chances for ( companies in ) southern European countries to grow themselves out of the crisis . As a result , investing there would become less risky , and that would push interest rates for southern countries more in line with the European average .
The contradiction here is that high macroeconomic stability in the form of ongoing historically low inflation over time leads to economic problems , creating higher interest rates and political and economic instability for the weaker partners .
= = = = Trade = = = =
A 2009 consensus from the studies of the introduction of the euro concluded that it has increased trade within the eurozone by 5 % to 10 % , although one study suggested an increase of only 3 % while another estimated 9 to 14 % . However , a meta @-@ analysis of all available studies suggests that the prevalence of positive estimates is caused by publication bias and that the underlying effect may be negligible . Furthermore , studies accounting for time trend reflecting general cohesion policies in Europe that started before , and continue after implementing the common currency find no effect on trade . These results suggest that other policies aimed at European integration might be the source of observed increase in trade .
= = = = Investment = = = =
Physical investment seems to have increased by 5 % in the eurozone due to the introduction . Regarding foreign direct investment , a study found that the intra @-@ eurozone FDI stocks have increased by about 20 % during the first four years of the EMU . Concerning the effect on corporate investment , there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has resulted in an increase in investment rates and that it has made it easier for firms to access financing in Europe . The euro has most specifically stimulated investment in companies that come from countries that previously had weak currencies . A study found that the introduction of the euro accounts for 22 % of the investment rate after 1998 in countries that previously had a weak currency .
= = = = Inflation = = = =
The introduction of the euro has led to extensive discussion about its possible effect on inflation . In the short term , there was a widespread impression in the population of the eurozone that the introduction of the euro had led to an increase in prices , but this impression was not confirmed by general indices of inflation and other studies . A study of this paradox found that this was due to an asymmetric effect of the introduction of the euro on prices : while it had no effect on most goods , it had an effect on cheap goods which have seen their price round up after the introduction of the euro . The study found that consumers based their beliefs on inflation of those cheap goods which are frequently purchased . It has also been suggested that the jump in small prices may be because prior to the introduction , retailers made fewer upward adjustments and waited for the introduction of the euro to do so .
= = = = Exchange rate risk = = = =
One of the advantages of the adoption of a common currency is the reduction of the risk associated with changes in currency exchange rates . It has been found that the introduction of the euro created " significant reductions in market risk exposures for nonfinancial firms both in and outside of Europe " . These reductions in market risk " were concentrated in firms domiciled in the eurozone and in non @-@ Euro firms with a high fraction of foreign sales or assets in Europe " .
= = = = Financial integration = = = =
The introduction of the euro seems to have had a strong effect on European financial integration . According to a study on this question , it has " significantly reshaped the European financial system , especially with respect to the securities markets [ ... ] However , the real and policy barriers to integration in the retail and corporate banking sectors remain significant , even if the wholesale end of banking has been largely integrated . " Specifically , the euro has significantly decreased the cost of trade in bonds , equity , and banking assets within the eurozone . On a global level , there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has led to an integration in terms of investment in bond portfolios , with eurozone countries lending and borrowing more between each other than with other countries .
= = = = Effect on interest rates = = = =
As of January 2014 , and since the introduction of the euro , interest rates of most members countries ( particularly those with a weak currency ) , have decreased . The countries whose interest rates fell most as a result of the adoption of the euro are Greece , Ireland , Portugal , Spain , and Italy . These very countries have had the most serious sovereign financing problems .
The effect of declining interest rates , combined with excess liquidity continually provided by the ECB , made it easier for banks within the countries in which interest rates fell the most , and their linked sovereigns , to borrow significant amounts ( above the 3 % of GDP budget deficit imposed on the eurozone initially ) and significantly inflate their public and private debt levels . Following the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis , governments in these countries found it necessary to bail out or nationalise their privately held banks to prevent systemic failure of the banking system when underlying hard or financial asset values were found to be grossly inflated and sometimes so near worthless there was no liquid market for them . This further increased the already high levels of public debt to a level the markets began to consider unsustainable , via increasing government bond interest rates , producing the ongoing European sovereign @-@ debt crisis .
= = = = Price convergence = = = =
The evidence on the convergence of prices in the eurozone with the introduction of the euro is mixed . Several studies failed to find any evidence of convergence following the introduction of the euro after a phase of convergence in the early 1990s . Other studies have found evidence of price convergence , in particular for cars . A possible reason for the divergence between the different studies is that the processes of convergence may not have been linear , slowing down substantially between 2000 and 2003 , and resurfacing after 2003 as suggested by a recent study ( 2009 ) .
= = = = Tourism = = = =
A study suggests that the introduction of the euro has had a positive effect on the amount of tourist travel within the EMU , with an increase of 6 @.@ 5 % .
= = Exchange rates = =
= = = Flexible exchange rates = = =
The ECB targets interest rates rather than exchange rates and in general does not intervene on the foreign exchange rate markets . This is because of the implications of the Mundell – Fleming model , which implies a central bank cannot ( without capital controls ) maintain interest rate and exchange rate targets simultaneously , because increasing the money supply results in a depreciation of the currency . In the years following the Single European Act , the EU has liberalised its capital markets , and as the ECB has chosen monetary autonomy , the exchange @-@ rate regime of the euro is flexible , or floating . The result of the ECB maintaining historically low interest rates and restricting money supply has been that over the last decade the euro has become expensive relative to the currency of Europe 's main trading partners . However , in 2010 , the euro started on a sharp decline . Starting at U.S $ 1 @.@ 60 in 2008 , and dropping to US $ 1 @.@ 04 in 2015 . The Canadian Dollar despite seeing a decline in value against the USD , has seen a growth in EURO - > [ CAD ] .
= = = Against other major currencies = = =
The euro is the second @-@ most widely held reserve currency after the U.S. dollar . After its introduction on 4 January 1999 its exchange rate against the other major currencies fell reaching its lowest exchange rates in 2000 ( 25 October vs the U.S. dollar , 26 October vs Japanese Yen , 3 May vs Pound Sterling ) . Afterwards it regained and its exchange rate reached its historical highest point in 2008 ( 15 July vs U.S. dollar , 23 July vs Japanese Yen , 29 December vs Pound Sterling ) . With the advent of the global financial crisis the euro initially fell , only to regain later . Despite pressure due to the European sovereign @-@ debt crisis the euro remained stable . In November 2011 the euro 's exchange rate index – measured against currencies of the bloc 's major trading partners – was trading almost two percent higher on the year , approximately at the same level as it was before the crisis kicked off in 2007 .
Current and historical exchange rates against 29 other currencies ( European Central Bank )
Current dollar / euro exchange rates ( BBC )
Historical exchange rate from 1971 until now
= = Linguistic issues = =
The formal titles of the currency are euro for the major unit and cent for the minor ( one hundredth ) unit and for official use in most eurozone languages ; according to the ECB , all languages should use the same spelling for the nominative singular . This may contradict normal rules for word formation in some languages , e.g. , those where there is no eu diphthong . Bulgaria has negotiated an exception ; euro in the Bulgarian Cyrillic alphabet is spelled as eвро ( evro ) and not eуро ( euro ) in all official documents . In the Greek script the term ευρώ ( evró ) is used ; the Greek " cent " coins are denominated in λεπτό / ά ( leptó / á ) . Official practice for English @-@ language EU legislation is to use the words euro and cent as both singular and plural , although the European Commission 's Directorate @-@ General for Translation states that the plural forms euros and cents should be used in English .
= = Criticism = =
= = = Unemployment = = =
Nobel memorial prize @-@ winning economist James Meade thought that a central bank should not make price stability the objective of aggregate demand management . When prices are likely to be pushed up due to increase of indirect taxes or adverse terms @-@ of @-@ trade shocks , the surge in prices must be cancelled out by decline in domestic money wage costs , as long as such a price stability policy is adopted . There would be unemployment in the all industrial sectors under a price stabilisation policy , suggesting that in the short run the elasticity of demand for labour is low .
Under the ECB 's price stabilisation policy , many people in the eurozone have difficulty finding a job . The unemployment rate of Spain is around 25 percent in 2014 , and an economic forecast says that the figure will not decrease below 20 percent until 2017 .
ELSTAT , the statistics agency of Greece , shows that Greece 's unemployment rate was 27 percent in June 2014 . OECD forecasts that Greece 's unemployment rate will remain around 27 percent until 2016 . Due to long @-@ term unemployment , skills of jobless persons have been depreciated and their motivation of finding jobs has been lost , which causes the country 's level of unemployment to remain high .
Spain 's youth unemployment rate is 53 @.@ 8 percent in July 2014 , and this is the highest figure in the eurozone . This figure is comparable to 53 @.@ 1 percent of the Greek youth unemployment in May 2014 .
In July 2014 , the averaged unemployment rate of the eurozone is 11 @.@ 7 percent , slight decrease from 11 @.@ 9 percent in 2013 .
Likewise , Paul Krugman argued that the existence of a single shared currency across the entire eurozone , in combination with tight money policies of the ECB ( motivated by insistence of Germany on low inflation ) , placed much of the Southern Europe in a state of permanent high unemployment . According to Krugman , during the period between the creation of the euro and the 2008 financial crisis , countries of Southern Europe experienced abnormally high rates of wage growth due to high influx of investor money . Between 2000 and 2008 , unit labor costs actually declined slightly in Germany , but rose by 30 % in Spain and Greece . This created an imbalance that put these countries at competitive disadvantage relative to Northern Europe . Returning to full employment at this point requires that the labor costs gap is somehow cancelled . If Spain and Greece had their own currencies , this would have easily happened through exchange rate adjustment . Since they don 't , it can either happen through a decrease in nominal wages in Spain and Greece , also known as " internal devaluation " , ( an extremely difficult and slow process , since nominal wages , in general , exhibit downward rigidity ) , or through an equal increase in nominal wages ( i.e. inflation ) in Northern Europe , which does not happen because of active resistance from Germany .
= María Teresa Ferrari =
María Teresa Ferrari ( 11 October 1887 – 30 October 1956 ) was an Argentine educator , medical doctor , and women 's rights activist . She was the first female university professor in Latin America and one of the first women allowed to teach medicine . She was a pioneering researcher in women 's health , studying the use of radiation therapy rather than surgery for uterine tumors and developing a vaginoscope which revolutionized women 's health care in Brazil . She established the first maternity ward and gynecological services at the Hospital Militar Central of Buenos Aires in 1925 , which provided the first incubation services in the country .
Born into a wealthy family , whose forebears had been involved in ensuring Argentina 's independence from Spain , she was not expected to work outside the home . Yet Ferrari not only chose to have a career , she insisted on participating in the male @-@ dominated medical profession . She first earned a teaching diploma and became a school teacher , then graduated in medicine in 1911 . After completing her residency , she applied to teach at the university level , but instead was offered a teaching post at the School of Midwifery . Outraged , she fought for 13 years against the prejudices which prevented her advancing in her career . In 1927 , Ferrari won her fight and was granted a professorship as an alternate . Finally in 1939 , she was awarded a full professorship .
Ferrari undertook additional medical study in Europe and the United States , learning pioneering techniques that she brought back to Argentina . She studied urinary tract monitoring at the Medical Faculty of Paris , earning the first diploma ever given to a woman . She designed a vaginoscope , studied radiation therapy at the Curie Institute , and performed a Caesarean section at Columbia University . She was responsible for bringing these innovations back with her to Argentina and implementing them at the maternity and gynecological unit she established at the Military Hospital . An ardent feminist , she established the Argentina Federation of University Women in 1936 , and pushed for recognition of both civil and political rights for women . When the government of Argentina took a conservative turn in the late 1930s , she was pushed out of the hospital and later , in the early 1950s , out of teaching . She died in 1956 .
= = Early life and education = =
María Teresa Ferrari Alvarado was born on 11 October 1887 in Buenos Aires , Argentina to David Ferrari White and Catalina Alvarado . Her family were among the founding citizens of Argentina : her paternal great @-@ grandfather , Guillermo Pío White had provided money to assist the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata in defeating the Spanish and her maternal great @-@ grandfather Rudesindo Alvarado had served in the Army of the Andes .
Ferrari enrolled at the Normal School Nº 1 of Buenos Aires , receiving her teaching certificate in 1903 . For a woman of Ferrari 's social class , paid work was unusual at the time . It was understood that in cases of financial necessity poor women might nurse or teach , because both were considered charitable , but upper class women were expected to be no more than wives and mothers . Ignoring convention , she embarked on a career in medicine , but also began teaching . Ferrari taught at the Colegio William Morris and the Escuela Nº 3 Bernardino Rivadavia . She had studied psychology in a cutting @-@ edge field known as " experimental psychology " and applied it to her classes , which caused the authorities to launch an investigation into her teaching methods . She was allowed to continue teaching , as her techniques of motivating students and encouraging them to learn proved effective .
In 1904 , Ferrari enrolled in medical school at the National University of Buenos Aires while continuing to teach . There had been five other women in the history of Argentina who had earned medical degrees , and though her enrollment was not desired , there was no legal precedent to bar her admittance . In her first year , she was assigned to work as an assistant to Joaquín Llambías in his pathology research , which inspired her continued participation in medical research . Ferrari graduated in 1911 , and that same year , she married another graduating doctor , Nicolás M. Gaudino . In 1918 the couple had their only child , Maurio Nicholás Gaudino . Ferrari was sometimes known as María Teresa Ferrari de Gaudino or simply María Teresa de Gaudino .
= = Career = =
= = = Struggle for a university professorship = = =
In 1914 , Ferrari started work at the obstetrics clinic of the Hospital Ramos Mejía of Buenos Aries . She applied to teach obstetrics at the university but was turned down . In the proceedings of the Honorable Consejo Directivo ( HCD ) on 23 June 1915 , it was stated : " Despite their qualifications , for physiological and psychological reasons people of the feminine sex do not meet the required conditions to be engaged as professors in the Faculty [ of Medicine ] " . The following year , she was permitted to teach at the School of Midwifery , but this lacked the prestige and credentials of a professorship at the university . When an opening for an alternate professorship appeared in 1919 , Ferrari reapplied to the university but was met with resistance . The members of the HCD delayed calling together the jurors to fill the vacancy until 1925 , altering evidence , ignoring recommendations , and evading a decision . In 1926 , she sent a detailed outline of her accomplishments to the committee , stating that she had taught in secondary schools for 20 years and had dedicated 15 years to her field of medicine , and had enrolled in university courses for nine years . One adviser , Dr. Speroni , having read her qualifications , sent a message to the dean imploring that they admit her , on the grounds that she was qualified , had shown dedication and the school was understaffed . It was not until 1927 , that the jurors met and her application for an alternate professorship was approved by a vote of thirteen to two . The news of the first female university professor in Latin America made headlines throughout Spanish @-@ speaking countries . Newspapers in Argentina including La Prensa , La Nación , La Razón and others of the capital , El Censor in Gualeguaychú , Los Andes in Mendoza , Buenos Aires Sud in Florencio Varela , and the Italian La Patria degli Italiani and Spanish El Diario Español carried stories of her triumph .
In the interim , rather than await a decision , Ferrari continued her studies . Between 1921 and 1923 she visited many clinics in Europe , including facilities in Austria , Belgium , England , France , Germany and Italy . She assisted in the clinic of Marie Curie in Paris as well as in the Columbia Hospital for Women and Lying @-@ In Asylum in Washington , DC . The Faculty of Medicine of Paris awarded her the first diploma ever given to a woman for studies in urinary tract monitoring . In 1924 , she designed a vaginoscope , which was much easier to sterilize and was more adaptable to multiple specula than previous models . The device significantly improved services which were available to women in Brazil , and was featured in the articles of the Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics of Rio de Janeiro . The innovation won the Grand Prize at the 1924 Congreso Hispano Lusitano Americano de Ciencias Médicas held in Seville , Spain .
Ferrari was particularly interested in investigating alternatives to surgery and her studies on radiation therapy at the Curie Institute became the basis for a 1928 thesis on " Treating Uterine tumors with radiation " . In 1925 , she was appointed as the Argentine governmental delegate to the First Child Welfare Congress in Geneva . One of the major topics of the conference was the training of midwives in labor and hygiene practices . When her professorship was finally approved and she returned to Argentina , a celebration was held on 11 August 1927 at the Jockey Club of Buenos Aires , attended by the Minister of the Interior , José P. Tamborini ; the Director of the Hospital Militar , Alberto Levenne ; her research mentor , Joaquín Llambías ; and many colleagues , peers , family members and friends . Ferrari was appointed head of gynecology and maternity at Hospital Militar in Buenos Aires , a post which she held until 1939 .
= = = Mid @-@ career development = = =
Ferrari traveled to Mexico , the United States , and Canada in 1929 , studying for eight months and attending conferences . In the United States , she participated in a Caesarean section at Columbia University , becoming the first Argentine to have performed a surgery in Washington , D.C .. The baby born as a result of the surgery was named " Argentina " . In 1930 , she served as the Argentine delegate for the VII Medical Congress of Latin America held in Mexico and presided over the first general session . She presented three papers ; one addressed uterine tumors and the other two were about syphilis . She was also the delegate for the 2nd Congress of the Pan @-@ American Medical Association in Panama . Between 1930 and 1932 she returned to the United States for additional studies which focused on colibacillosis , septicemia , puerperal infections , investigating whether vaccines could be developed to prevent the development of conditions resulting from childbirth or miscarriage .
In 1936 , Ferrari founded the Argentina Federation of University Women ( FAMU ) with the goal of improving the social and legal standing of women and specifically opening educational doors . She recruited professional women , including doctors , dentists and lawyers and organized scientific and cultural discussions and seminars . FAMU had regular courses in French , German , physical education and mathematics , which it offered to its nearly 100 members . The political and civic limitations that threatened these women 's careers was clearly a concern and the organization 's official statement supported enfranchisement as " not a mere political aspiration for women , but a real right acquired by suffering , work and deprivation experienced by women ... " In 1938 , the Argentine organization joined the International Federation of University Women , which had served as Ferrari 's inspiration .
= = = Military hospital and later career = = =
In 1925 , Ferrari was called to assist a military wife during childbirth at the Hospital Militar Central of Buenos Aires , which had no gynecological unit . After she proposed that one be developed , Ferrari started the facility with one bed and donated equipment and supplies . The military gazette began advertizing from June of that year that gynecological services were available from Mondays to Fridays at the hospital . As military wives became aware of the services , the growth was exponential and within five years Ferrari had expanded the service to two floors that housed a maternity unit with two delivery rooms , their own sterilization facility , a recovery unit , and forty beds in private rooms . She also developed a small sealed room with purified air and an incubator , the first of its kind in Argentina . Ferrari brought the techniques she had learned abroad to Argentina . Though radiology had been performed in other parts of the world for decades , there was resistance to implementing it by professionals who had no experience with it . Ferrari insisted it should be introduced and fought against the previous practice of surgical solutions for all cases , advocating that surgery only be used when absolutely necessary . A commemoration for the 10th anniversary of the maternity unit was attended by the Minister of War , the Director General of Health , the Hospital Director and other senior officials , as well as by children born over the past 10 years together with their families . A commission of the Marine wives who had received service from Ferrari 's unit made a substantial donation . Despite her success , the atmosphere at the hospital remained hostile . Following the 1930 coup d 'état of José Félix Uriburu with the country 's shift to a more conservative stance during the Infamous Decade , Ferrari ultimately was forced to leave the hospital in 1939 .
Ferrari 's disappointment at having to leave the hospital was offset in 1939 , when she was finally made a full professor , receiving the title " Profesor Extraordinario " of the Obstetrics Faculty . Throughout the 1940s she continued her education , traveling to Cuba , New York , Pennsylvania , Peru , and Puerto Rico , publishing her research in a variety of journals . In 1946 she resigned as president of the Argentina Federation of University Women , but continued to represent the organization at conferences , like the Primer Congreso Interamericano de Mujeres , which she attended in Guatemala City in 1947 .
After 43 years of teaching at Normal School Nº 3 , Ferrari was forced into retirement by the Ministry of Education because she refused to participate in a political contribution fund . She was also asked to resign from her position as Professor of Psychology at Colegio William Morris . In 1952 , rather than join the Peronista supporters and betray her ideals , she took full retirement . When elected , Perón had instituted a massive overhaul of the health system of Argentina . He appointed Ramón Carrillo as his health minister , and in the beginning , hospital beds were added , vaccination programs were instituted , a campaign against malaria was launched , and other improvements were made . However , by the early 1950s it was clear that policies were unevenly applied , implementation was erratic , and political cronyism was working against the provision of health services for those most in need . Two years after Ferrari resigned , Carrillo also resigned , disillusioned with the Perón administration .
Ferrari was a full member of the Argentine Association of Surgery , the Argentine Medical Association and the Argentine Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology of Buenos Aires . She also was a correspondent member of the Society of Medicine and Surgery of Rio de Janeiro .
Ferrari died on 30 October 1956 in Buenos Aires .
= = Selected works = =
Ferrari 's works were all in French or Spanish and outlined her research on various scientific and gynecological topics . They included the following :
" Contribución al estudio de la medicación hipofisiaria en Obstetricia " ( in Spanish ) . Buenos Aires : Facultad de Ciencias Médicas . 1912 .
" Infecciones puerperales . Tratadas por vacunas Coli " ( in Spanish ) . Buenos Aires : Anales de Sociedad de Obstetricia y Ginecología . 1914 .
" Vagido Uterino " ( in Spanish ) . Buenos Aires : Revista Argentina Obstetricia y Ginecología . 1917 .
" Tumores del ovario complicando el embarazo , el parto y el puerperio " ( in Spanish ) . Buenos Aires : La Semana Médica . 1921 .
" Siphilis et Mortalité " ( in Spanish ) . Buenos Aires : La Semana Médica . 1922 .
" Traitement de la sténose du col de l ’ uterus par Tige Iribarbe " ( in French ) . Paris : Boletín de la Société de Gynecolegie et d ’ Obstetrique de París . 1923 .
" Vaginoscopio " ( in Spanish ) . Buenos Aires : La Semana Médica . 1924 .
" Tratamiento de los Fibromas Uterinos por Radio " . Las Ciencias Buenos Aires ( in Spanish ) ( Buenos Aires : AG Bufarrini ) . 1928 .
" El Radio en la Fibromatosis Uterina " ( in Spanish ) . Buenos Aires : La Semana Médica . 1932 .
" El Radio frente a la cirugía en el Tratamiento de los Fibromas uterinos " . Acción Médica ( in
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Spanish ) ( Buenos Aires ) 22 . 1939 .
" Mme. Curie , la Radioactividad y sus proyecciones en a Física y la Terapéutica " . Vox Médica ( in Spanish ) ( Buenos Aires ) 10 . 1941 .
" 570 casos de Fibromas Uterins traités avec succés par la Curieteherapie " ( in French ) . Paris : Revue Gynecolegie et Ostetrique . 1947 .
" Fibromas Uterins traits avec success par la Curietherapie " ( in French ) . Praxis : Journal Suisse de Medicine . 1948 .
" Tratamiento de la Fibromatosis Uterina por el Radio " ( in Spanish ) 7 . Madrid : Toco Ginecología Práctica . 1948 .
= Kepier power station =
Kepier power station refers to a cancelled coal @-@ fired power station on the River Wear at Kepier , 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) north east of Durham , County Durham , North East England . Planned by the North Eastern Electric Supply Company ( NESCo ) in 1944 , it was never realised as the scheme faced stiff opposition from those who claimed it would obstruct views of the historic Durham Cathedral from the East Coast Main Line . A number of people supported the scheme as it would help meet the increasing demand for electricity and provide much needed jobs in the post @-@ depression , post @-@ war economy of Britain . The station , which had been designed by architect Giles Gilbert Scott , would have been operational by the late 1940s and would have generated 150 megawatts of electricity . However , following a public inquiry the plans were not approved and instead NESCo installed new capacity at their existing power stations .
= = Background = =
After several years of preliminary planning , surveying sites and drawing up plans , the North Eastern Electric Supply Company ( NESCo ) bought the site of a large rifle range , over both sides of the River Wear , at Kepier , 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) north east of the city of Durham , and in early 1944 publicly announced their plans to build a large coal @-@ fired power station on the site . The station was part of a post @-@ war plan by NESCo , and the scheme had a projected cost of £ 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . The site was chosen in the mid @-@ Durham area to be close to the coal supplies . It also needed to be a short distance from the River Wear , downstream of Durham , and on solid foundations . Mine workings in County Durham restricted the number of possible sites which could meet the requirement for solid foundations . The site also required good road and rail access .
The estimated build time for the station was around four years , and once completed the station was expected to employ around 300 people . In June 1944 , NESCo formally submitted their plans for consent of construction .
= = Design = =
The station 's site plans and elevations were designed by Giles Gilbert Scott . He had previously designed Battersea Power Station in London , and so the designs of the Kepier station were considered to have been of a very high architectural quality . NESCo claimed that the design of the station would be considered " a credit to the whole district " . The main station building was to be 135 feet ( 41 m ) in height .
The station would have burned between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 tonnes of low @-@ grade coal per week , to produce 150 megawatts ( MW ) of electricity . The coal was to be taken from mines in County Durham , and transported to the station by the Durham goods branch of the Leamside Line railway , which terminated at nearby Gilesgate . New sidings would have been required to reach the site from the railway line , which would have required cutting into the hillside above Kepier . Upon arriving at the station , coal would have been discharged from the wagons 135 feet ( 41 m ) above the station and transported via a conveyor belt over six arches down to the station itself .
The coal burnt would have had an estimated ash content of between 14 % and 22 % , and so at a cost of £ 160 @,@ 000 , the company were to install electrostatic precipitators , to remove 97 % of the dust from the smoke and waste gases from combustion , before leaving the two 350 feet ( 110 m ) high chimneys . The view at the time was that the remaining dust that would leave the chimney 's would not have caused " any appreciable pollution " , and the waste gases , consisting of carbon dioxide , were thought not to " cause any injury or harm to the inhabitants of the city , to buildings or to vegetation . "
Between 350 and 450 tonnes of bottom ash clinker would be produced by the station per week . NESCo intended to sell this on to local construction companies as a construction material and believed there was a ready market for this . Fly ash from the precipitators would also have built up , and NESCo claimed they would have spread this on land to the west of the station , and mixed it with soil to produce a 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) high spoil tip .
The station would have featured six 170 feet ( 52 m ) high cooling towers . It was said that there would be provision to prevent excessive amounts of steam leaving the cooling towers , with no haze coming from the towers on 95 % of days of the year .
= = Criticism and support = =
When the plans were first announced the county surveyor raised no objections , and it was not until October 1943 and onwards that the Ministry of Town and Country Planning began to increasingly warn of the opposition that was bound to arise against the scheme .
The plans were strongly opposed by Thomas Wilfred Sharp , an urban planner from Durham , who thought that the station would intrude on the city 's skyline . They were also opposed by The City of Durham Preservation Society ( now the City of Durham Trust ) which had been founded two years earlier . At the time the station had been given the go ahead by Durham City Council and the planning authority , but the Trust believed the station 's tall chimneys and cooling towers would dwarf the nearby Durham Cathedral .
NESCo argued that they thought the power station would enhance the city 's attractions , with people coming to see the power station itself . At the least , they tried to assure the public that if built , the station would take as little away from the city as possible . An official statement from the company stated :
" Consultants of every kind will be employed in connection with the construction , and the City Corporation can rest assured that every precaution will be taken both in the design and the working of the station to cause as little harm as possible to the amenities of the City . "
NESCo also argued that they had chosen the site to protect the city 's amenities , in that it was outside the city boundary , partially surrounded by higher ground , and in the lee of prevailing winds . They also said that much could be done architecturally to fit the station into its surroundings .
Local trade unions , Durham County Council , and even the Farmers ' Union were in support of the scheme , along with a number of private persons , the general reason being that it would bring a new form of employment to the city and surrounding areas . Opponents to the station however claimed that the new jobs at the power station would go to specialist technicians brought into the region , and that the positioning of the station near Durham would not be beneficial to the city 's electricity supply or make the cost of electricity any cheaper for those living near the station . Critics also claimed that wherever in the region a new power station were to be built , County Durham coal would be used in it , and that despite NESCo 's claims , there may be more suitable sites elsewhere . The critics claimed that Durham 's functioning as a cultural , educational , administrative and tourist centre , would be ultimately destroyed by heavy industrialisation .
At a meeting of Durham County Council on 26 July 1944 , J.W. Foster , chairman of the Finance Committee of the council , spoke in favour of the proposals , claiming they would fulfill the Government 's White Paper on Employment Policy , and its policy on the rehabilitation of depressed areas . At the outbreak of war , the north of the country had still not fully recovered from the Great Depression of the 1930s , and Foster believed the employment the station 's construction and maintenance provided would help prevent a return to those conditions . It was also seen that the station would generally improve the supply of electricity for industry . He pointed out that the criticism of the scheme was based entirely on assumption that the station would " destroy the Medieval charm of the city " , without taking into account the thoughts of the experts who designed the station . He also pointed out that the critics made their comments without any suggestion of an alternative , and that their campaign against the scheme had attracted publicity through a BBC broadcast .
Foster also claimed that if any other feasible site could be found , then it should be used to avoid any violation of the view . However , he warned that the interest of the county 's economy should be put in front of the concerns of " those ill @-@ informed critics , who view Durham from the railway ... passing from one more fortunate district to another . " Durham MP Charles Grey later referred to the development as " vital to the well being of the County of Durham " .
British architect Frederick Gibberd published a diagrammatic comparison of Durham Cathedral alongside a power station typical of the design of the time , like the one planned at Kepier . This made clear that , although the Cathedral was one of the largest in the country , it still would looked small next to the projected power station . It was argued that as long as the two structures were viewed simultaneously , the visual juxtaposition would be detrimental to the Cathedral . Somewhat ironically , Gibberd 's Didcot Power Station would later be voted the third worst eyesore in Britain in 2003 .
Although geographically located 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north east and 100 feet ( 30 m ) lower , it was thought that Kepier power station would dominate any view into which it entered and that it would enter into most of the views in the city . A Northern Echo reader summarised these ideas in 1944 :
" As the traveller by train approaches Kepier and Durham from the North there would meet his eye in the foreground this vast power station . Kepier , a local beauty spot , and the picturesque remains of Kepier Hospital , a building of much historic interest , would be blotted out , the Castle and Cathedral beyond would be dwarfed by an incongruous mass of concrete buildings ill sorting with the landscape . "
= = Inquiry = =
After the suggestion by the head of the Ministry of War Transport Cyril Hurcomb to conduct a joint local hearing chaired by an outsider was turned down by the Government due to much greater means being needed , the Government agreed that a public inquiry should be opened . A public inquiry into the plans was opened in December 1944 , with the hearing lasting for three days . The Ministry of Town and Country Planning appointed Hurcomb as the chairman of the inquiry . The Electricity Commissioners appointed George Pepler and C.G. Morley New . The key opponents of the scheme were the City of Durham Preservation Society , chaired by Cyril Alington .
NESCo were represented by Craig Henderson and Sydney Turner . The NESCo representatives argued that although the company already supplied around 85 % of the North East region , a great deal more generating capacity would need to be built to meet the demand for years to come , and that the mid @-@ Durham area was the best place to erect a new station . Henderson claimed the only real opposition to the scheme was that it would interfere with the amenities of Durham . John Hacking , chief engineer of the Central Electricity Board , backed NESCo because if the scheme were declined , and consent and new arrangements had to be made , they would have no new plant in operation until after 1948 .
A 11 @.@ 8 kilograms ( 26 lb ) Plasticine model of the station , city and surroundings was used in the inquiry . It was accompanied by a certificate of essentiality , issued by the Electricity Commissioners . Photographs of the city were also shown with the power station superimposed .
During the hearing , Hurcomb pointed out a letter published in The Times in July 1944 , in which the Bishop and Dean of Durham , and Warden of the Durham Colleges , had given the misleading impression that the proposed station would ruin views from the railway line , an idea compounded by the publication a few days later of a photograph taken from the proposed site . He acknowledged that a number of views from parts of the river would be ruined , and that the station would be visible from the Cathedral and church , Hurcomb emphasised that the majority of the beautiful views around the city would remain . Pepler also found that from the railway station , the power station and the Cathedral could not be viewed simultaneously . The members of the inquiry initially concluded that the station should be given the go @-@ ahead , based on the grounds that a more suitable site could not be decided upon .
The City of Durham Preservation Society , however , argued that with so many of Europe 's finest monuments being destroyed in the Second World War , Durham and its Cathedral was a gem which had survived both the war and the " industrial despoliation which had laid waste so much of the rest of the County " . Pepler supported the view that Durham was more suited as an administrative , shopping , and tourist centre , than it was for large @-@ scale industrial development .
Legal and political difficulties caused a long delay in reaching a decision . An important issue was whether or not the inquiry was subject to the new Town and Country Planning Act of 1944 . NESCo from the beginning challenged the right of the Minister of Town and Planning , W. S. Morrison , to convene an inquiry at all . The initial legal advice to the Government was that it was not subject , and the inquiry was convened with terms of reference that they were to consider whether a proposed new or extended station could supply sufficient electricity to meet the needs of consumers at no greater cost than any alternative source of supply . In Hurcomb 's view the inquiry could not refuse consent if these conditions were met . A later decision by the Treasury Solicitor that the inquiry was , in fact , subject to the Act had the effect of paralysing decision making .
If Hurcomb persisted in adhering to his terms of reference and approved the power station , but Durham Rural District Council then withheld planning consent on the grounds of the objections , NESCo would be entitled to compensation for their losses due to the delay and building on a new site . The District Council would be liable for this but it was out of the question that they would be able to afford the large amount involved and the Government wished to avoid stepping in to pay themselves . If the inquiry could be persuaded to find against NESCo then no compensation would be payable and Hurcomb came under pressure from Ministers to do just that . Hurcomb argued that this would be denying compensation to those entitled to it and by April 1945 the decision on the station was still being delayed . The chairman of NESCo at the time voiced his anger in The Times , and Frank Tribe , secretary of the Ministry of Fuel and Power , wrote to Hurcomb asking if anything could be done to bring the inquiry to a decision .
Eventually , Hurcomb put forward at a ministerial meeting a solution whereby the members of the inquiry would inform NESCo that on purely technical grounds they would have approved the scheme , but due to the opposition of Morrison , they had decided not to proceed to a decision . Although NESCo were initially hostile , in June 1945 they agreed to drop the scheme on condition that they received a letter from Morrison agreeing that they had satisfied the commissioners on technical grounds , thus entitling them to compenstation . The Government thought the site was open to well founded objections , and even if the scheme had proceeded past the inquiry stage , they would have refused consent anyway .
= = Outcome = =
Ultimately , the decision of the inquiry went against NESCo and those in support of the station , and the company dropped their plans . NESCo received an ex gratia payment of £ 6 @,@ 650 from the Ministry of Town and Country Planning for the expenditure incurred to that point . The site itself was inherited by the nationalised British Electricity Authority in 1948 and they eventually sold it . On 9 October 1945 , Minister of Town and Country Planning Lewis Silkin made clear in the House of Commons that NESCo had begun extending their existing power stations by installing additional generating plant at sites other than Kepier , sufficing the demand for electricity , and meaning no station was needed at Kepier .
= Brummer @-@ class cruiser =
The Brummer class consisted of two light mine @-@ laying cruisers built for the Imperial German Navy in World War I : SMS Brummer and SMS Bremse . When the war broke out , the Germans had only two older mine @-@ laying cruisers . Although most German cruisers were fitted for mine @-@ laying , a need for fast specialized ships existed . The Imperial Russian Navy had ordered a set of steam turbines for the Borodino @-@ class battlecruiser Navarin from the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin . This machinery was confiscated on the outbreak of war and used for these ships . Both vessels were built by AG Vulcan .
The two ships laid a series of minefields during their career , though their most significant success came in October 1917 , when they attacked a British convoy to Norway . They sank two escorting destroyers and nine of the twelve merchant ships from the convoy . They escaped back to Germany without damage . The two ships were interned at Scapa Flow after the end of the war , and were subsequently scuttled by their crews on 21 June 1919 . Brummer was sunk in deep water and was never raised , but Bremse was brought up in 1929 and broken up for scrap in 1932 – 1933 .
= = Design and construction = =
In 1914 , AG Vulcan in Stettin was building two sets of high @-@ powered steam turbines for the Russian Navy for use in their new battlecruiser Navarin , then under construction in Russia . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , which saw Germany and Russia on opposing sides , the German government seized the turbines . At that time , the Kaiserliche Marine possessed only two cruisers equipped for mine @-@ laying operations , the cruisers Nautilus and Albatross . The Kaiserliche Marine ordered AG Vulcan to split Navarin 's propulsion system in half and to design a pair of cruiser hulls around the engines . The ships were to be fast mine @-@ layers , capable of mining an area under cover of darkness and quickly returning to port before they could be intercepted . They were designed to resemble the British Arethusa class cruisers to aid in their ability to operate off the British coast .
Design work on the ships was completed quickly in 1914 . Brummer was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in early 1915 . Work proceeded quickly , and the ship was launched on 11 December 1915 . After the completion of fitting @-@ out work , the ship was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 2 April 1916 . Bremse followed her sister the same year at AG Vulcan . She was launched on 11 March 1916 and completed in less than four months ; the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 1 July 1916 . During construction , the shape of their bow and its resemblance to British cruisers was covered by sheet metal .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Brummer and Bremse were 135 meters ( 443 ft ) long at the waterline and 140 @.@ 40 m ( 460 ft 8 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 13 @.@ 20 m ( 43 ft 4 in ) and a draft of 6 m ( 19 ft 8 in ) forward and 5 @.@ 88 m ( 19 ft 3 in ) aft . The ships had a designed displacement of 4 @,@ 385 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 316 long tons ) , and at full combat load , they displaced 5 @,@ 856 t ( 5 @,@ 764 long tons ) . Their hulls were built with longitudinal steel frames . The hulls were divided into twenty @-@ one watertight compartments and incorporated a double bottom that extended for forty @-@ four percent of the length of the keel . Brummer differed slightly , as she had a row of portholes amidships that her sister Bremse did not have .
Brummer and Bremse were fitted with masts similar to the British Arethusa @-@ class cruisers , and similarly to the British ships , the masts could be lowered and stored on the superstructure deck . Their bow was also modeled on the Arethusa @-@ class ships to further disguise the vessels . The ships had a complement of 16 officers and 293 enlisted men . They carried several smaller vessels , including one picket boat , one barge , and two dinghies . The German Navy regarded the ships as excellent sea boats , having gentle motion . The ships were highly maneuverable and had a tight turning radius , and only lost slight speed in a head sea . In hard turns , they lost up to sixty percent speed . They were very crank , however .
= = = Machinery = = =
The two ships ' propulsion systems consisted of two turbines powered by two coal @-@ fired Marine Doppelkessel double @-@ ended boilers and four oil @-@ fired Öl @-@ Marine double @-@ ended boilers . The turbines drove a pair of three @-@ bladed screws , which were 3 @.@ 20 m ( 10 ft 6 in ) in diameter . The engines were rated at 33 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . On trials , Brummer reached 42 @,@ 797 shp ( 31 @,@ 914 kW ) while Bremse made 47 @,@ 748 shp ( 35 @,@ 606 kW ) ; they averaged a top speed of 30 @.@ 2 knots ( 55 @.@ 9 km / h ; 34 @.@ 8 mph ) with a light load . The ships were capable of speeds up to 34 knots ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) , though only in short bursts .
Coal storage was 300 t ( 300 long tons ; 330 short tons ) as designed , though up to 600 t ( 590 long tons ; 660 short tons ) could be carried . Fuel oil was initially 500 t ( 490 long tons ; 550 short tons ) , and could be similarly increased to 1 @,@ 000 t ( 980 long tons ; 1 @,@ 100 short tons ) . At a cruising speed of 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , the ships could steam for 5 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 700 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) . At a higher speed of 25 kn ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) , the range fell considerably , to 1 @,@ 200 nmi ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) . Electrical power was provided by two turbo generators and one diesel generator . Steering was controlled by a single , large rudder .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships were armed with four 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts ; all four were placed on the centerline so all four guns could fire on the broadside . One was placed forward on the forecastle , a second was located between the first and second funnel and two were arranged in a superfiring pair aft . These guns fired a 45 @.@ 3 @-@ kilogram ( 100 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 742 ft 9 in ) . They were supplied with 600 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . Brummer and Bremse also carried two 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels . These guns fired a 10 kg ( 22 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 750 to 770 m / s ( 2 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 500 ft / s ) . The ships were also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with four torpedoes in a swivel mount amidships . Designed as mine @-@ layers , they carried up to 450 mines , depending on the type . Two rails ran down the main deck to the stern to allow the mines to be dropped behind the ship .
The Brummer @-@ class cruisers ' armor was fabricated from Krupp cemented steel . The ships were protected by a waterline armored belt that was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick amidships ; the bow and stern were not armored . The deck was covered with 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick armor plate . Gun shields 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick protected the 15 cm gun battery crews . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick roof . Atop the conning tower was the bridge , which included a splinter @-@ proof chart house . All three funnels were equipped with a steel glacis for splinter protection .
= = Service = =
After their commissioning , Brummer and Bremse served with the High Seas Fleet , including on a sortie into the North Sea in October 1916 . The ships laid a minefield off Norderney in January 1917 and guarded minesweepers between March and May that year . In October 1917 , Admiral Reinhard Scheer sent the two ships to attack a British convoy to Norway to divert forces protecting convoys in the Atlantic . Scheer chose Brummer and Bremse because of their high speed and large radius of action . Shortly after dawn on 17 October , the two cruisers attacked the convoy , which consisted of twelve merchant ships , two destroyers , and two armed trawlers . The German ships quickly sank the escorting destroyers and nine of the twelve cargo vessels . The British Admiralty was not informed of the attack until Brummer and Bremse were safely steaming back to Germany .
Along with the most modern units of the High Seas Fleet , Brummer and Bremse were included in the ships specified for internment at Scapa Flow by the victorious Allied powers . The ships steamed out of Germany on 21 November 1918 in single file , commanded by Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , and so he ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to scuttle his ships . Brummer sank at 13 : 05 ; she was never raised for scrapping and remains on the bottom of Scapa Flow . Bremse sank at 14 : 30 and was ultimately raised on 27 November 1929 and broken up for scrap in 1932 – 1933 in Lyness .
= Bolokhoveni =
Bolokhoveni , also Bolokhov , Bolokhovens , or Bolokhovians ( Romanian : Bolohoveni ; Ukrainian : Болохівці ) , were a 13th @-@ century ethnic group that resided in the vicinity of the Rus ' principalities of Halych , Volhynia and Kiev . Their ethnic identity is uncertain ; although their ethnonym identifies them as Romanians ( who were called Vlachs in the Middle Ages ) , archeological evidence and the Hypatian Chronicle ( which is the only primary source that documents their history ) suggest that they were a Slavic people . Their princes , or knyazi , were in constant conflict with Daniil Romanovich , Prince of Halych and Volhynia , between 1231 and 1257 . After the Mongols sacked Kiev in 1240 , the Bolokhoveni supplied them with troops , but the Bolokhoveni princes fled to Poland . The Bolokhoveni disappeared after Romanovich defeated them in 1257 .
= = Etymology = =
According to a scholarly theory , the name " Bolokhoveni " may have derived from Voloch , the East Slavic term for Romanians , or Vlachs . If this theory is correct , the Bolokhoveni were Romanians living in the western regions of Kievan Rus ' . Place names , hydronyms , and personal names of Romanian origin abound in written sources relating to those regions . However , this theory is contradicted by archaeological evidence , which indicates that the Bolokhoveni 's material culture resembled that of its contemporaries in the western parts of Kievan Rus ' . Furthermore , it is well @-@ documented that the Bolokhoveni princes had family ties with boyars of the Principality of Halych .
The ethnonym seems to be connected to the name Bolokhovo , an early medieval settlement that the Hypatian Chronicle – an accurate source of the history of Kievan Rus ' – mentioned around 1150 . According to historian Victor Spinei , this town may have been the same town as Borokhov , which was recorded by the same chronicle in 1172 . Alternatively , Spinei states , Bolokhovo may be the same town as Bolechow ( now Bolekhiv , Ukraine ) , which was mentioned as the " town called ' the Vlachs ' " in a Polish charter from 1472 .
= = Geography = =
The Hypatian Chronicle refers to the " land of Bolokhoveni " only once . Based on the chronicle , modern historians say that this land bordered the principalities of Halych , Volhynia and Kiev . Bozh 'skyy , along with other Bolokhoveni towns mentioned in the chronicle , were situated along the Buzhok and Sluch rivers . According to the Encyclopedia of Ukraine , the Bolokhoveni inhabited the region around the sources of the Teteriv , Boh , Horyn and Sluch rivers .
On the other hand , historian Alexandru V. Boldur believes that the Bolokhoveni 's land was located between the Dniester and Dnieper rivers . He also says that the Bolokhoveni were located southeast of the present @-@ day town of Ushitsa ( Romanian : Ușița ) .
= = History = =
The Hypatian Chronicle first refers to the " princes of the Bolokhoveni " when documenting a war between Daniil Romanovich , Prince of Halych and Volhynia , and the Hungarians in 1231 . The Bolokhoveni princes fought in alliance with the Hungarians . The Bolokhoveni princes supported a rebellion against Daniil Romanovich , and they besieged an important stronghold , Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi , in 1233 or 1235 . However , the princes were captured and brought to the court of Daniil Romanovich in Vladimir . When Mikhail , Prince of Chernigov , and Iziaslav , Prince of Novgorod @-@ Seversk , requested their release , they referred to the princes of the Bolokhoveni as their " brothers " .
After the Mongols destroyed Kiev in 1240 , the Mongols moving westward did not attack the " land of Bolokhoveni " . However , they did force the Bolokhoveni to supply their army with crops . At the same time , the Bolokhoveni princes fled to the Duchy of Masovia ( now in Poland ) . They promised Duke Bolesław I of Masovia that they would accept his suzerainty , but the duke captured them . They were released after Daniil Romanovich and his brother , Vasilko Romanovich , promised to give Duke Bolesław I many gifts .
The Mongol invasion of Rus ' did not end the conflicts among the local rulers . The Bolokhoveni princes supported Rostislav Mikhailovich when he besieged Bakota , a major town held by Daniil Romanovich 's officials , in 1241 . In revenge for the attack , Daniil Romanovich invaded and pillaged the land of the Bolokhoveni , and destroyed their fortified towns . Archaeological research at Gubin and Kudin , two Bolokhoveni towns , shows that the town walls were dug up by Romanovich 's army . However , no corpses or traces of fire were found , implying that Romanovich took the towns ' inhabitants to his own principality . Their defeat by Romanovich 's troops in 1257 was the last recorded event of the Bolokhoveni 's history .
= Mannargudi =
Mannargudi is a town in Tiruvarur district in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu . It is the headquarters of the Mannargudi taluk . The town is located at a distance of 20 km ( 12 mi ) from the district headquarters Tiruvarur and 310 km ( 190 mi ) from the state capital Chennai . Mannargudi is known for the Rajagopalaswamy temple , a prominent Vaishnavite shrine .
Mannargudi was founded as an agraharam village by the Medieval Cholas during the 11th century . The town was subsequently ruled by various dynasties including the Vijayanagar Empire , Delhi Sultanate , Thanjavur Nayaks , Thanjavur Marathas and the British Empire . Mannargudi was a part of the erstwhile Tanjore district until India 's independence in 1947 and Thanjavur district until 1991 and subsequently a part of the newly formed Tiruvarur district . The town is known for agriculture , metal working and weaving . The region around Mannargudi has considerable mineral deposits .
Mannargudi is administered by a municipality established in 1866 . As of 2011 , the municipality covered an area of 11 @.@ 55 km2 ( 4 @.@ 46 sq mi ) and had a population of 66 @,@ 999 . Mannargudi comes under the Mannargudi assembly constituency which elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years and it is a part of the Nagappattinam constituency which elects its Member of Parliament ( MP ) once in five years . Roadways are the major mode of transportation to the town and it also has rail connectivity . The nearest seaport , Nagapattinam Port , is located 52 km ( 32 mi ) from Mannargudi , while the nearest airport , Tiruchirappalli International Airport , is located 97 km ( 60 mi ) from the town .
= = Etymology = =
The word Mannargudi is derived from the Tamil word Mannar referring to Vishnu and gudi referring to a place , meaning the " Place of Vishnu " . The town was also called " Mannarkovil " or " Rajamannarkoil " after the Rajagopalaswamy temple . The town is locally referred as " Mannai " . Hindus refer the place as " Dakshina Dwarka " , meaning Southern Dwarka . The town was known during the period of Nayaks for the 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) tall compound wall around the Rajagopalaswamy temple , leading to the adage Mannargudi Mathil Azhagu , ( meaning " the walls of Mannargudi are beautiful " ) . The town is also called " Koil mattrum Madil Nagaram " referring to the compound wall around the temple .
= = History = =
Mannargudi was founded as an agraharam village as Rajadhiraja Chaturvedimangalam by the Medieval Chola king Rajadhiraja Chola ( 1018 – 1054 CE ) , who constructed the Jayam Kondanathar temple and the Rajathirajeswara temple . The Rajagopalaswami temple is believed to have been constructed by Kulothunga Chola I ( 1070 – 1125 CE ) , with bricks and mortar , indicated by various stone inscriptions found at the site . The town started to grow around the temple . Successive kings of the Chola empire , Rajaraja Chola III ( 1216 – 56 CE ) and Rajendra Chola III ( 1246 – 79 CE ) , and Thanjavur Nayak king Achyuta Deva Raya ( 1529 – 1542 CE ) expanded the temple . The temple contains inscriptions of the Hoysala kings and information about grants by Vijayanagara kings , and many records of the later Nayaks and Marathas . A fort was constructed under the rule of the Hoysala kings , and Hindu temples were built under the leadership of both Hoysala and Pandya rulers .
Mannargudi was conquered by the Delhi Sultanate in 1311 CE . Following brief occupations by the Madurai Sultanate and the Hoysalas , it became a part of the Vijayanagar Empire . After the decline of Vijayanagar Empire , Mannargudi was ruled by the Thanjavur Nayaks . The Thanjavur Nayaks made the temple as their dynastic and primary shrine and made significant additions . The current temple structure , hall of thousand pillars , main gopuram ( temple gateway tower ) and the big compound wall around the temple were built by the king Vijaya Raghava Nayak ( 1532 – 1575 CE ) . Raghunathabhyudayam , a doctrine by Nayaks explains the donation of an armour studded with precious stones to the main deity of the temple by the king . It is believed Vijaya Raghava Nayak erected the large tower in front of the temple so that he could view the Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple . He was also called " Mannarudasan " as he carried out extensive renovations of the Rajagopalaswami temple complex and is credited by some to have reclaimed the land from the surrounding forest .
The Thanjavur Marathas gained control during the later part of 18th century until its annexation by the British East India Company in 1799 . It was constituted as a municipality during 1866 and was a part of the erstwhile Tanjore district . The town was the headquarters and the only town in Mannargudi taluk . The town emerged as one of the chief centres of inland trade in the district during the British rule . Rice , betel leaves , groundnut , oil , metal articles and clothes were the major exports . A Methodist mission was established in the town during the third decade of the 19th century . During 1944 , Chinese copper coins were unearthed from Thaliketti village in the region , dated to Sui period ( 585 CE ) to the end of Song period ( 1275 CE ) . The coins indicate a possible Buddhist influence in the region . Mannargudi continued to be part of Tanjore district until India 's independence in 1947 and Thanjavur district until 1991 and subsequently a part of the newly formed Tiruvarur district .
= = Geography and climate = =
Mannargudi is located at 10 @.@ 67 ° N 79 @.@ 43 ° E / 10 @.@ 67 ; 79 @.@ 43 . It has an average elevation of 6 m ( 20 ft ) . Mannargudi is situated on the banks of Pamaniyar River , a tributary of the Vettar and is covered with fertile soil conducive for rice cultivation . The topography is completely flat and the town is a part of the fertile Cauvery Delta . Mannargudi is situated at a distance of 300 km ( 190 mi ) from the state capital Chennai and 28 km ( 17 mi ) from Tiruvarur , the district headquarters . The nearest airport is at Tiruchirappalli , 90 km ( 56 mi ) away from the town . The nearest seaport is at Nagappattinam , located 52 km ( 32 mi ) from Mannargudi .
Like in the rest of the state , the period from November to February in Mannargudi has a climate full of warm days and cool nights . The onset of summer is from March to the end of June . The average temperature range from 37 ° C ( 99 ° F ) in January to 22 @.@ 5 ° C ( 72 @.@ 5 ° F ) in May and June . Summer rains are sparse and the first monsoon , the South @-@ West monsoon , usually sets in June and continues until September . North @-@ East monsoon usually sets in October and continues until January . The rainfall during North @-@ East monsoon is relatively higher and is beneficial to the district at large because of the heavy rainfall and the Western ghats feeding the river Cauvery . The average rainfall is 37 inches ( 940 mm ) , most of which is contributed by the North @-@ East monsoon . The most common trees planted in the town are jack fruit , coconut , tamarind and palmirah .
= = Economy = =
Agriculture is the principal occupation of the people of Mannargudi . Mannargudi is also known for cloth weaving and metal industries . Being an agricultural town , Mannargudi 's economy largely depends on the income from agriculture . The crops cultivated include paddy , cotton , sugarcane , and pulses like urad and mung bean . The agriculture around the town mainly depends on the rivers Koraiyaru , Mullaiyar and Pamaniyar , while the other sources of irrigation are bore @-@ wells . There are no big industries around the town , while there are a few small scale industries like a sugarcane factory , a fertilizer industry , a beer factory and a chemical factory in and around the town . There is a gas treatment and filling plant in Edayarnatham , a village in the outskirts of Mannargudi . A 107 @.@ 8 MW Combined Cycle Power plant of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) functions at Thirumakkottai , a village 18 km ( 11 mi ) away from Mannargudi .
Mannargudi town has one of the largest coal reserves in the country . The total quantity of lignite reserves identified in the area is around 19 @,@ 500 million tonnes . Exploration of coal bed methane in the area was not started until 2008 . The commercial exploration of the coal bed methane reserves located under built up and agricultural areas became difficult with the protest of farmers in the region .
= = Demographics = =
According to 2011 census , Mannargudi had a population of 66 @,@ 999 with a sex @-@ ratio of 1 @,@ 018 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 6 @,@ 174 were under the age of six , constituting 3 @,@ 135 males and 3 @,@ 039 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 8 @.@ 39 % and 1 @.@ 16 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the town was 82 @.@ 92 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . The town had a total of 17372 households . There were a total of 22 @,@ 640 workers , comprising 1 @,@ 131 cultivators , 1 @,@ 546 main agricultural labourers , 534 in house hold industries , 17 @,@ 682 other workers , 1 @,@ 747 marginal workers , 66 marginal cultivators , 215 marginal agricultural labourers , 75 marginal workers in household industries and 1 @,@ 391 other marginal workers . Like in the rest of the state , Tamil is the most common language spoken in the town .
As per the religious census of 2011 , Mannargudi had 90 @.@ 13 % Hindus , 6 @.@ 82 % Muslims , 2 @.@ 62 % Christians , 0 @.@ 08 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 01 % Buddhists , 0 @.@ 22 % Jains , 0 @.@ 1 % following other religions and 0 @.@ 02 % following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference .
As of 2008 , a total 4 @.@ 006 km2 ( 990 acres ) ( 34 @.@ 68 % ) of the land was used for residential , 0 @.@ 314 km2 ( 78 acres ) ( 2 @.@ 72 % ) for commercial , 0 @.@ 35 km2 ( 86 acres ) ( 3 @.@ 07 % ) for industrial , 4 @.@ 136 km2 ( 1 @,@ 022 acres ) ( 35 @.@ 81 % ) for public & semi public purposes including educational and open spaces . As of 2008 , there were a total of 28 notified slums , with 12 @,@ 275 comprising 19 @.@ 97 % of the total population residing in those .
= = Culture = =
Mannargudi has three prominent Hindu temples , namely , Jayamgondanatha temple , Rajathi Rajeswara temple and Raja Gopalaswamy temple . Rajagopalaswamy temple is the most prominent landmark in the town . During the Tamil months of Panguni ( March – April ) , the most prominent festival of the temple , namely , Pangunith Thirivuzha , is celebrated . Theppothsavam , the float festival , celebrated during the Tamil month of Aani ( June – July ) and Adipooram , the chariot festival , celebrated during the Tamil month of Aadi ( July @-@ Aug ) are other prominent festivals of the temple that attract visitors from nearby villages and towns to Mannargudi . The Nayak kings of the 15th century promoted music in the temples . Instruments like Mukhavina , Dande , Kombu , Chandravalaya , Bheri and Nagaswaram were commonly used in the temple service . Haridra Nadhi , the temple tank associated with the Rajagopalaswamy temple , is one of the largest temple tanks in the state . Hindu pilgrims take a holy dip in the tank during festive occasions .
Mannargudi has four mosques , located at Theradi , Keela Raja Veethi , Big Bazar Street and Thamari Kuzlam Vada Karai .
Mallinatha Swamy temple is a Jain temple located in the town . Mallinathar is the 19th Tirthankara of the Jainism . It is an ancient temple built during the reign of the Chola dynasty in the twelfth century and is one of the prominent ancient Jain temples in the state . Apart from the idol of Mallinathar , there are idols of Dharma Devi , Saraswathi Devi , Padmavathy Devi , Jawalamalini Amman among others .
The Vaduvoor Bird Sanctuary , located 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) is a prominent visitor attraction for the people of Mannargudi . Muthupet Lagoon , a mangrove forest located 29 km ( 18 mi ) away from the town , is another tourist attraction for the citizens of the town .
= = Administration and politics = =
The municipality of Mannargudi was established in 1866 with a committee of twelve members during British rule . Until the early years of the 20th century , Mannargudi remained the smallest municipality in erswhile Tanjore district . As of 2008 , the municipality covered an area of 11 @.@ 55 km2 ( 4 @.@ 46 sq mi ) and had a total of 33 members . The functions of the municipality is devolved into six departments : General , Engineering , Revenue , Public Health , Town planning and the Computer Wing . All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the supreme executive head . The legislative powers are vested in a body of 33 members , one each from the 33 wards . The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson assisted by a Deputy Chairperson . The municipality has allocated a budget of ₹ 8 @,@ 751 @,@ 164 for the year 2010 – 11 .
Mannargudi comes under the Mannargudi State Assembly Constituency and it elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years . From the 1977 elections , the assembly seat was won by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) twice during the 1989 and 2011 elections , the Communist Party of India five times during the 1977 , 1980 , 1996 , 2001 and 2006 elections and the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( AIADMK ) twice during the 1984 and 1991 elections . The current Member of Legislative Assembly ( MLA ) of the constituency is T. R. B. Rajaa from the DMK Party .
Mannargudi is a part of the Thanjavur Lok Sabha constituency and elects a member to the Lok Sabha , the lower house of the Parliament of India , once every five years . R. Venkataraman , who served as the President of India from 1987 to 1992 , was elected from the constituency during the 1951 elections .
= = Education = =
There are 17 schools and three arts colleges in Mannargudi . The Findlay Higher Secondary School ( formerly Findlay College ) , founded by the Wesleyan Mission in 1845 , is the oldest educational institution in the town . Originally started as a secondary school , the college was upgraded to a high school and a college in 1883 . It was affiliated to the Madras University in 1898 . There are two engineering colleges and two polytechnic colleges in the town . The Mannai Rajagopalaswami Government Arts College , founded in 1971 , and the Sengamala Thayar Educational Trust Women 's College are the two colleges in the town .
= = Utility services = =
Electricity supply to Mannargudi is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . The town and its suburbs forms the Trichy Electricity Distribution Circle .
Historically , water supply to the town was provided from a 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) long channel dug from the Vadavar canal . Water supply is provided by the municipality of Mannargudi from groundwater through feeders . In 2010 – 2011 , a total of 3 @.@ 53 million litres of water was supplied every day for households in the town .
About 24 metric tonnes of solid waste are collected from Mannargudi every day by door @-@ to @-@ door collection . Subsequently the source segregation and dumping is carried out by the sanitary department of the municipality . The coverage of solid waste management had an efficiency of 83 % as of 2001 . There is limited underground drainage system in the town and the major sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks , open drains and public conveniences . The municipality maintains 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) of storm water drains and 35 km ( 22 mi ) kutcha drains in Mannargudi .
There are three hospitals , two maternity centres and eight private hospitals and clinics . There are 2 @,@ 609 street lamps in Mannargudi : 584 sodium lamps , 2 @,@ 013 tube lights and five high mast beam lamp . The municipality operates four markets , namely vegetable markets , weekly market , farmer 's market ( uzhavar santhai ) and fish market that cater to the needs of the town and the rural areas around it .
= = Transportation = =
The State Highway SH @-@ 63 connecting Thanjavur with Kodikkarai , SH @-@ 66 connecting Kumbakonam with Adirampattinam , SH @-@ 202 connecting the district headquarters Tiruvarur with Muthupet and SH @-@ 146 connecting Mannargudi with Sethubavachatram , are the major highways connecting Mannargudi with other towns . There are two bus stands in the town , with the major bus stand having 19 bus bays and a TNSTC ticket reservation counter . The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation operates daily services connecting cities to Mannargudi . The corporation operates a computerised reservation centre in the bus stand . The State Express Transport Corporation operates long distance buses connecting the town to cities like Chennai and Bengaluru . The major inter @-@ city bus routes are to towns like Kumbakonam , Mayiladuthurai , Nagapattinam , Thanjavur , Tiruvarur , Karaikal , Muthupet , and Pattukottai . Now the Ring Road about 22 km is under progress due to reduce traffic .
Mannargudi is connected to Nidamangalam rail line by a branch line covering a distance of 18 km ( 11 mi ) . The expansion of the line to broad gauge was completed and opened to passenger traffic on 27 September 2011 , with an express train to Chennai . The nearest railway junction is Needamangalam Junction . There are daily passenger trains to Thanjavur and Mayiladuthurai and an express train each to Coimbatore and Chennai from Mannargudi. and Express Train to Rajasthan also from mannargudi . The Railway link from Mannargudi to Pattukkottai is under progress .
The nearest seaport is Nagapattinam Port , 52 km ( 32 mi ) away , while the nearest airport is the Tiruchirappalli International Airport , 97 km ( 60 mi ) from the town .
= So It 's Come to This : A Simpsons Clip Show =
" So It 's Come to This : A Simpsons Clip Show " is the eighteenth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April Fools ' Day , 199
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reacted to a hypothesis that Homer is still in a coma and all episodes since this one have been imaginary , hence a perceived surrealism and frequent guest appearances . He said that the hypothesis belongs in the " intriguing but false file " .
= Trylon Microcinema =
The Trylon Microcinema is a 50 @-@ seat movie theater in the Longfellow neighborhood of Minneapolis , Minnesota . The microcinema was founded and is currently run by Take @-@ Up Productions , a group of volunteers who got their start at the Oak Street Cinema before establishing the Trylon in a former storefront . Since opening in 2009 , the theater has featured a variety of regular programming ranging from career retrospectives of famous directors to B movies and cult films . The Trylon has been well received by critics who have praised its film lineup , intimacy , and atmosphere .
= = History = =
Minneapolis 's Oak Street Cinema , a volunteer @-@ run repertory cinema , ran films seven days per week until cutbacks in programming had to be made for financial reasons . A collective of the Oak Street volunteers formed Take @-@ Up Productions , which was established to promote showing films not typically screened in larger movie houses . The organization began with outdoor screenings , starting with Watermelon Man , which was projected against a white brick wall behind a coffee shop , and then began to rent out theaters throughout the Minneapolis – Saint Paul area , including the Riverview , Heights , and Parkway . Some screenings , such as that of Lawrence of Arabia and a series of Alfred Hitchcock films , drew hundreds of viewers .
Barry Kryshka of Take @-@ Up Productions owns and manages the Trylon . The Microcinema sits in an old storefront in the Longfellow neighborhood along Minnehaha Avenue that was rented , in 2009 , at a rate of $ 800 a month . Kryshka contracted Bright Star Systems , Inc. to retrofit the space with 50 old rocking seats purchased from a nearby cinema chain , a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) projection screen , two 35 mm movie projectors , and a minute concessions stand . Trylon acquired its name from an eponymous theater in Kryshka 's native Queens , New York , itself named for the Trylon sculpture at the 1939 New York World 's Fair . The Trylon opened on the weekend of July 17 – 18 , 2009 , with a showing of Sherlock Jr. featuring live musical accompaniment from Dreamland Faces , a local accordion – musical saw duo . Each of the venue 's first 12 showings sold out .
= = Programming and reception = =
Every three months , the Trylon Microcinema publishes a full schedule of screenings , approximately 10 percent of which are of first run films . The venue features a variety of regular exhibitions , ranging from the Trash Film Debauchery series of B movies , to the Defenders in which local cinephiles curate and defend screenings of personal favorite cult films , to Sound Unseen , a documentary project covering behind @-@ the @-@ scenes aspects of musicians ' creative processes . The Trylon also hosts showcases of the films throughout various directors ' careers . Take @-@ Up Productions continues to use other venues such as the Heights and the Riverview for screenings necessitating larger houses . The Microcinema is staffed entirely with volunteers .
Critical reception for the Trylon has been positive . It was voted the best movie theater in the Minneapolis – Saint Paul area in 2011 and 2012 by City Pages , who wrote in 2011 that " no theater in the Twin Cities can match [ the Trylon 's ] passion and energy for the movies . " In an unranked list of Minneapolis – Saint Paul 's best cinemas written for WCCO , Eric Henderson called the Trylon the " pluckiest upstart in the Twin Cities " and described the experience of walking into the theater as " stepp [ ing ] onto the set of a Michel Gondry fantasy @-@ noir about a scrappy theater thriving in the midst of a Prohibition @-@ style ban on the moviegoing experience . " J. L. Sosa lauded the Trylon on Film School Rejects , praising the concessions selection , the physical intimacy of the space , and the cinema 's programmers for their " impeccable taste in both high- and lowbrow culture . "
= Azerbaijan =
Azerbaijan ( / ˌæzərbaɪˈdʒɑːn / AZ @-@ ər @-@ by @-@ JAHN ; Azerbaijani : Azərbaycan [ ɑzærbɑjdʒɑn ] ) , officially the Republic of Azerbaijan ( Azerbaijani : Azərbaycan Respublikası ) , is a country in the Transcaucasian region , situated at the crossroads of Southwest Asia and Southeastern Europe . It is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east , Russia to the north , Georgia to the northwest , Armenia to the west and Iran to the south . The exclave of Nakhchivan is bounded by Armenia to the north and east , Iran to the south and west , while having a short border with Turkey in the north west .
The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic proclaimed its independence in 1918 . The country was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920 as the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic . The modern Republic of Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence on 30 August 1991 , before the official dissolution of the USSR . In September 1991 , the disputed Armenian @-@ majority Nagorno @-@ Karabakh region re @-@ affirmed its willingness to create a separate state as the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Republic . The region and seven adjacent districts outside it became de facto independent since the ending of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War in 1994 , these regions are internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan until a final solution to status of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh is found through negotiations facilitated by the OSCE .
Azerbaijan is a unitary semi @-@ presidential republic . The country is a member state of the Council of Europe , the OSCE and the NATO Partnership for Peace ( PfP ) program . It is one of the six independent Turkic states , being an active member of the Turkic Council and the TÜRKSOY community . Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries and holds membership in 38 international organizations . It is one of the founding members of GUAM , the Commonwealth of Independent States ( CIS ) and Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons . A member of the United Nations since 1992 , Azerbaijan was elected to membership in the newly established Human Rights Council by the United Nations General Assembly on 9 May 2006 ( the term of office began on 19 June 2006 ) . Azerbaijan is also a member state of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement , holds observer status in World Trade Organization and is a correspondent at the International Telecommunication Union .
The Constitution of Azerbaijan does not declare an official religion , and all major political forces in the country are secularist , but the majority of people and some opposition movements adhere to Shia Islam . Azerbaijan has a high level of human development which ranks on par with most Eastern European countries . It has a high rate of economic development and literacy , as well as a low rate of unemployment . However , corruption in Azerbaijan is widespread , especially in the public service . The ruling party , New Azerbaijan Party , has been accused of authoritarianism and human rights abuses .
= = Etymology = =
According to a modern etymology , the name of Azerbaijan derives from that of Atropates , a Persian satrap under the Achaemenid Empire , who was later reinstated as the satrap of Media under Alexander the Great . The original etymology of this name is thought to have its roots in the once @-@ dominant Zoroastrian religion . In the Avesta , Frawardin Yasht ( " Hymn to the Guardian Angels " ) , there is a mention of âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide , which literally translates from Avestan as " we worship the Fravashi of the holy Atropatene . "
Atropates ruled over the region of Atropatene ( present Iranian Azerbaijan ) . The name " Atropates " itself is the Greek transliteration of an Old Iranian , probably Median , compounded name with the meaning " Protected by the ( Holy ) Fire " or " The Land of the ( Holy ) Fire " . The Greek name is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus and Strabo . Over the span of millennia the name evolved to Āturpātākān ( Middle Iranian ) then to Ādharbādhagān , Ādharbāyagān , Āzarbāydjān ( New Persian ) and present @-@ day Azerbaijan . In Armenia , the country is called Adrbejan , yet another archaic form . Ultimately , the name Azerbaijan comes from Azar @-@ Payegan . This word is translatable as Guardian of Fire , " The Treasury " and " The Treasurer " of fire or " The Land of Fire " in Modern Persian . The name was changed to Azerbaijan following the Arab conquest in the 7th century AD ; Arabic lacked the letters G and P , so Arabic speakers modified the spelling of Azer @-@ payegan .
= = History = =
= = = Antiquity = = =
The earliest evidence of human settlement in the territory of Azerbaijan dates back to the late Stone Age and is related to the Guruchay culture of the Azykh Cave . The Upper Paleolithic and late Bronze Age cultures are attested in the caves of Tağılar , Damcılı , Zar , Yataq @-@ yeri and in the necropolises of Leylatepe and Saraytepe .
Early settlements included the Scythians in the 9th century BC . Following the Scythians , Iranian Medes came to dominate the area to the south of the Aras . The Medes forged a vast empire between 900 – 700 BC , which was integrated into the Achaemenid Empire around 550 BC . The area was conquered by the Achaemenids leading to the spread of Zoroastrianism . Later it became part of Alexander the Great 's Empire and its successor , the Seleucid Empire . During this period , Zoroastrianism spread in the Caucasus and Atropatene . Caucasian Albanians , the original inhabitants of northeastern Azerbaijan , ruled that area from around the 4th century BC , and established an independent kingdom that came under the cultural influence of the Armenians .
In the 4th and 3rd centuries BC , following the overthrow of the Achaemenid Empire , the southwestern part of modern Azerbaijan was part of the Kingdom of Armenia ruled by the Orontid Dynasty ; between the years 189 BC and 428 AD the western half of modern Azerbaijan , including the exclave of Nakhchivan , were included into the Kingdom of Greater Armenia ruled by Armenia 's Artaxiad and Arsacid dynasties , the latter itself a branch of the eponymous Arsacid dynasty of Parthia .
After the partition of the Kingdom of Armenia by Persia and Byzantium in 387 AD , the provinces of Artsakh and Utik , which had an ethnically mixed population , passed to Caucasian Albania .
= = = Feudal era = = =
The Persian Sassanids turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state in AD 252 , while King Urnayr officially adopted Christianity as the state religion in the 4th century . Despite Sassanid rule , Albania remained an entity in the region until the 9th century , while fully subordinate to Sassanid Persia , and retained its monarchy . In the first half of the 7th century AD , the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate repulsed both the Sassanids and Byzantines from the Caucasus region and turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state after the Christian resistance , led by King Javanshir , was suppressed in 667 . Caucasian Albania however , came already under nominal Muslim rule through the Muslim conquest of Persia , as it made up part of the Sassanid territory upon advent of the Muslim conquest . The power vacuum left by the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate was filled by numerous local dynasties such as the Sallarids , Sajids , Shaddadids , Rawadids and Buyids . At the beginning of the 11th century , the territory was gradually seized by waves of Turkic Oghuz tribes from Central Asia . The first of these Turkic dynasties established was the Seljuqs , which entered the area now known as Azerbaijan by 1067 .
The pre @-@ Turkic population that lived on the territory of modern Azerbaijani Republic spoke several Indo @-@ European and Caucasian languages , among them – Armenian and an Iranian language called the Old Azari language , which was gradually replaced by a Turkic language , the early precursor of the Azerbaijani language of today . To distinguish it from the Turkic Azerbaijani or Azeri language , this Iranian language , is designated as the Azari language ( or Old Azari language ) , because the Turkic language and people are also designated as " Azarbaijani " or " Azari " in the Persian language . However some linguists have also designated the Tati dialects of Iranian Azerbaijan and the Republic of Azerbaijan , like those spoken by the Tats , as a remnant of Azari . Locally , the possessions of the subsequent Seljuq Empire were ruled by Atabegs , who were technically vassals of the Seljuq sultans , being sometimes de facto rulers themselves . Under the Seljuq Turks , local poets such as Nizami Ganjavi and Khagani Shirvani gave rise to a blossoming of Persian literature on the territory of present @-@ day Azerbaijan . The next ruling state of the Jalayirids was short @-@ lived and fell under the conquests of Timur .
The local dynasty of the Shirvanshahs became a vassal state of Timur 's Empire , and assisted him in his war with the ruler of the Golden Horde Tokhtamysh . Following Timur 's death , two independent and rival states emerged : Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu . The Shirvanshahs returned , maintaining a high degree of autonomy as local rulers and vassals from 861 until 1539 . During their conquest and persecution by the Iranian Safavids in 1501 , the last dynasty imposed Shia Islam upon the formerly Sunni population , as it did over its territories in modern @-@ day Iran , as it was battling against the Sunni Ottoman Empire . This , in combination with another series of events , the Safavids laid the foundation for the fact that both the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan and Iran are the only Shia majority countries ever since . Despite efforts of the Safavids , the Ottomans briefly managed to occupy swaths of present @-@ day Azerbaijan twice over the centuries . Also , Baku and its environs were briefly managed by the Russians in the early 18th century through the consequences of the Russo @-@ Persian War . Despite these very brief intermissions by Safavid Iran 's neighboring rivals , the land of what is nowadays Azerbaijan remained under intermittent Iranian rule from the earliest advent of the Safavids up to the course of the 19th century .
= = = Modern era = = =
After the Safavids , the area was ruled by the Iranian dynasties of Afshar and Zand and briefly by the Qajars , until the latters forced ceding to Russian empire in the course of the 19th century . However self @-@ ruling khanates with various forms of independence emerged in the area , especially following the collapse of the Zand dynasty and in the early Qajar era . These khanates , though often self @-@ ruling , were vassals and subjects of the Iranian shah ( King ) . The khanates exercised control over their affairs via international trade routes between Central Asia and the West . From the late 18th century and on , Imperial Russia changed to a more aggressive geo @-@ political stance towards its two neighbors ( and rivals ) to the south , namely Iran and Turkey . Following a chain of events that started with the re @-@ subjugation of Georgia into Iran in 1795 , Russia would now actively contest and battle with the latter over possession of the Caucasus region which was , for most of its part , in the hands of Iran . The successful Russian campaigns in the later stages of the Russo @-@ Persian War ( 1804 – 13 ) were concluded with the Treaty of Gulistan , in which the shah 's claims to some of the Khanates of the Caucasus were dismissed by Russia on the ground that they had been de facto independent long before their Russian occupation .
Following Qajar Iran 's loss in the 1804 – 1813 war , it was forced to concede suzerainty over most of the khanates ( alongside Georgia and Dagestan ) to the Russian Empire per the Gulistan treaty . The area to the north of the river Aras , amongst which the territory of the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan , was Iranian territory until it was occupied by Russia in the course of the 19th century . Under the Treaty of Turkmenchay which finalised the Russo @-@ Persian War , Qajar Iran was forced to recognize Russian sovereignty over the Erivan Khanate , the Nakhchivan Khanate and the remainder of the Lankaran Khanate , comprising the last parts of the soil of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic that were still in Iranian hands . After incorporation of all Caucasian territories from Iran into Russia , the new border between the two was set at the Aras River , which , upon the Soviet Union 's disintegration , subsequently became part of the border between Iran and the Azerbaijan Republic .
Qajar Iran was forced to cede its Caucasian territories to Russia in the 19th century , which thus included the territory of the modern @-@ day Azerbaijan Republic , while as a result of that cession , the Azerbaijani ethnic group is nowadays parted between two nations : Iran and Azerbaijan . Furthermore , the number of ethnic Azerbaijanis in Iran far outnumber those in neighbouring Azerbaijan .
After the collapse of the Russian Empire during World War I , Azerbaijan , together with Armenia and Georgia became part of the short @-@ lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic .
It was followed by the March Days massacres that took place between 30 March and 2 April 1918 in the city of Baku and adjacent areas of the Baku Governorate of the Russian Empire . When the republic dissolved in May 1918 , Azerbaijan declared independence as the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic ( ADR ) . The ADR was the first modern parliamentary republic in the Muslim world . Among the important accomplishments of the Parliament was the extension of suffrage to women , making Azerbaijan the first Muslim nation to grant women equal political rights with men . Another important accomplishment of ADR was the establishment of Baku State University , which was the first modern @-@ type university founded in Muslim East .
By March 1920 , it was obvious that Soviet Russia would attack the much @-@ needed Baku . Vladimir Lenin said that the invasion was justified as Soviet Russia could not survive without Baku 's oil . Independent Azerbaijan lasted only 23 months until the Bolshevik 11th Soviet Red Army invaded it , establishing the Azerbaijan SSR on 28 April 1920 . Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had just broken out in Karabakh , Azerbaijanis did not surrender their brief independence of 1918 – 20 quickly or easily . As many as 20 @,@ 000 Azerbaijani soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest .
On 13 October 1921 , the Soviet republics of Russia , Armenia , Azerbaijan , and Georgia signed an agreement with Turkey known as the Treaty of Kars . The previously independent Naxicivan SSR would also become an autonomous ASSR within the Azerbaijan SSR by the treaty of Kars . On the other hand , Armenia was awarded the region of Zangezur and Turkey agreed to return Gyumri ( then known as Alexandropol ) .
During World War II , Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy of Soviet Union , with most of the Soviet Union 's oil on the Eastern Front being supplied by Baku . By the Decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in February 1942 , the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the oil industry of Azerbaijan was awarded orders and medals . Operation Edelweiss carried out by the German Wehrmacht targeted Baku because of its importance as the energy ( petroleum ) dynamo of the USSR . A fifth of all Azerbaijanis fought in the Second World War from 1941 to 1945 . Approximately 681 @,@ 000 people with over 100 @,@ 000 of them women went to the front , while the total population of Azerbaijan was 3 @.@ 4 million at the time . Some 250 @,@ 000 people from Azerbaijan were killed on the front . More than 130 Azerbaijanis were named Heroes of the Soviet Union . Azerbaijani Major @-@ General Azi Aslanov was twice awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union .
= = = Republic era = = =
Following the politics of glasnost , initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev , civil unrest and ethnic strife grew in various regions of the Soviet Union , including Nagorno @-@ Karabakh , an autonomous region of the Azerbaijan SSR . The disturbances in Azerbaijan , in response to Moscow 's indifference to already heated conflict , resulted in calls for independence and secession , which culminated in Black January in Baku . Later in 1990 , the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped the words " Soviet Socialist " from the title , adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty of the Azerbaijan Republic and restored flag of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic as the state flag . On 18 October 1991 , the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration of Independence which was affirmed by a nationwide referendum in December 1991 , when the Soviet Union officially ceased to exist on 26 December 1991 .
The early years of independence were overshadowed by the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh war with the ethnic Armenian majority of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh backed by Armenia . By the end of hostilities in 1994 , Armenians controlled up to 14 – 16 percent of Azerbaijani territory , including Nagorno @-@ Karabakh itself . During the war many atrocities were committed including the massacre at Malibeyli and Gushchular , the Garadaghly , Agdaban and the Khojaly massacres . Furthermore , an estimated 30 @,@ 000 people had been killed and more than a million people had been displaced . Four United Nations Security Council Resolutions ( 822 , 853 , 874 , and 884 ) demand for " the immediate withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of Azerbaijan . " Many Russians and Armenians left Azerbaijan during the 1990s . According to the 1970 census , there were 510 @,@ 000 ethnic Russians and 484 @,@ 000 Armenians in Azerbaijan .
In 1993 , democratically elected president Abulfaz Elchibey was overthrown by a military insurrection led by Colonel Surat Huseynov , which resulted in the rise to power of the former leader of Soviet Azerbaijan , Heydar Aliyev . In 1994 , Surat Huseynov , by that time a prime minister , attempted another military coup against Heydar Aliyev , but Huseynov was arrested and charged with treason . A year later , in 1995 , another coup was attempted against Aliyev , this time by the commander of the OMON special unit , Rovshan Javadov . The coup was averted , resulting in the killing of the latter and disbanding of Azerbaijan 's OMON units . At the same time , the country was tainted by rampant corruption in the governing bureaucracy . In October 1998 , Aliyev was reelected for a second term . Despite the much improved economy , particularly with the exploitations of Azeri @-@ Chirag @-@ Guneshli oil field and Shah Deniz gas field , Aliyev 's presidency was criticized due to suspected vote fraud and corruption .
Ilham Aliyev , the son of Heydar Aliyev , assumed as the chairmen of the New Azerbaijan Party as well as the office of presidency when his father died in 2003 . He was reelected to a third term as president in October 2013 . He then launched a crackdown on opposition elements . In November , he put two prominent opponents on trial for inciting riots ten months earlier : Ilgar Mammadov , the chairman of the opposition Republican Alternative ( REAL ) ; and Ilgar Mammadov , the deputy chairman of the New Equality Party ( Musavat ) . In addition the dissident Islamic theologian Taleh Bagirzada was sentenced to two years ’ imprisonment . The opposition newspaper Azadiq was closed down . Three men were sentenced to life in prison on charges of plotting attacks in Baku in a conspiracy with Iran .
= = Geography = =
Azerbaijan is in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia , straddling Western Asia and Eastern Europe . It lies between latitudes 38 ° and 42 ° N , and longitudes 44 ° and 51 ° E. The total length of Azerbaijan 's land borders is 2 @,@ 648 km ( 1 @,@ 645 mi ) , of which 1007 kilometers are with Armenia , 756 kilometers with Iran , 480 kilometers with Georgia , 390 kilometers with Russia and 15 kilometers with Turkey . The coastline stretches for 800 km ( 497 mi ) , and the length of the widest area of the Azerbaijani section of the Caspian Sea is 456 km ( 283 mi ) . The territory of Azerbaijan extends 400 km ( 249 mi ) from north to south , and 500 km ( 311 mi ) from west to east .
Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan : the Caspian Sea , whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east ; the Greater Caucasus mountain range to the north ; and the extensive flatlands at the country 's center . There are also three mountain ranges , the Greater and Lesser Caucasus , and the Talysh Mountains , together covering approximately 40 percent of the country . The highest peak of Azerbaijan is mount Bazardüzü ( 4 @,@ 466 m ) , while the lowest point lies in the Caspian Sea ( − 28 m ) . Nearly half of all the mud volcanoes on Earth are concentrated in Azerbaijan , these volcanoes were also among nominees for the New7Wonders of Nature .
The main water sources are surface waters . However , only 24 of the 8 @,@ 350 rivers are greater than 100 km ( 62 mi ) in length . All the rivers drain into the Caspian Sea in the east of the country . The largest lake is Sarysu ( 67 km ² ) , and the longest river is Kur ( 1 @,@ 515 km ) , which is transboundary . Azerbaijan 's four main islands in the Caspian Sea have a combined area of over thirty square kilometers .
Since the independence of Azerbaijan in 1991 , the Azerbaijani government has taken drastic measures to preserve the environment of Azerbaijan . But national protection of the environment started to truly improve after 2001 when the state budget increased due to new revenues provided by the Baku @-@ Tbilisi @-@ Ceyhan pipeline . Within four years protected areas doubled and now make up eight percent of the country 's territory . Since 2001 the government has set up seven large reserves and almost doubled the sector of the budget earmarked for environmental protection .
= = = Landscape = = =
Azerbaijan is home to a vast variety of landscapes . Over half of Azerbaijan 's land mass consists of mountain ridges , crests , yailas , and plateaus which rise up to hypsometric levels of 400 – 1000 meters ( including the Middle and Lower lowlands ) , in some places ( Talis , Jeyranchol @-@ Ajinohur and Langabiz @-@ Alat foreranges ) up to 100 – 120 meters , and others from 0 – 50 meters and up ( Qobustan , Absheron ) . The rest of Azerbaijan 's terrain consist of plains and lowlands . Hypsometric marks within the Caucasus region vary from about − 28 meters at the Caspian Sea shoreline up to 4 @,@ 466 meters ( Bazardüzü peak ) .
The formation of climate in Azerbaijan is influenced particularly by cold arctic air masses of Scandinavian anticyclone , temperate of Siberian anticyclone , and Central Asian anticyclone . Azerbaijan 's diverse landscape affects the ways air masses enter the country . The Greater Caucasus protects the country from direct influences of cold air masses coming from the north . That leads to the formation of subtropical climate on most foothills and plains of the country . Meanwhile , plains and foothills are characterized by high solar radiation rates .
Nine out of 11 existing climate zones are present in Azerbaijan . Both the absolute minimum temperature ( − 33 ° C or − 27 @.@ 4 ° F ) and the absolute maximum temperature ( 46 ° C or 114 @.@ 8 ° F ) were observed in Julfa and Ordubad . The maximum annual precipitation falls in Lankaran ( 1 @,@ 600 to 1 @,@ 800 mm or 63 to 71 in ) and the minimum in Absheron ( 200 to 350 mm or 7 @.@ 9 to 13 @.@ 8 in ) .
Rivers and lakes form the principal part of the water systems of Azerbaijan , they were formed over a long geological timeframe and changed significantly throughout that period . This is particularly evidenced by remnants of ancient rivers found throughout the country . The country 's water systems are continually changing under the influence of natural forces and human introduced industrial activities . Artificial rivers ( canals ) and ponds are a part of Azerbaijan 's water systems . In terms of water supply , Azerbaijan is below the average in the world with approximately 100 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 3 @,@ 531 @,@ 467 cubic feet ) per year of water per square kilometer . All big water reservoirs are built on Kur . The hydrography of Azerbaijan basically belongs to the Caspian Sea basin .
There are 8 @,@ 350 rivers of various lengths within Azerbaijan . Only 24 rivers are over 100 kilometers long . The Kura and Aras are the most popular rivers in Azerbaijan , they run through the Kura @-@ Aras Lowland . The rivers that directly flow into the Caspian Sea , originate mainly from the north @-@ eastern slope of the Major Caucasus and Talysh Mountains and run along the Samur – Devechi and Lankaran lowlands .
Yanar Dag , translated as " burning mountain " , is a natural gas fire which blazes continuously on a hillside on the Absheron Peninsula on the Caspian Sea near Baku , which itself is known as the " land of fire . " Flames jet out into the air from a thin , porous sandstone layer . It is a tourist attraction to visitors to the Baku area .
= = = Biodiversity = = =
The first reports on the richness and diversity of animal life in Azerbaijan can be found in travel notes of Eastern travelers . Animal carvings on architectural monuments , ancient rocks and stones survived up to the present times . The first information on the animal kingdom of Azerbaijan was collected during the visits of naturalists to Azerbaijan in the 17th century . Unlike fauna , the concept of animal kingdom covers not only the types of animals , but also the number of individual species .
There are 106 species of mammals , 97 species of fish , 363 species of birds , 10 species of amphibians and 52 species of reptiles which have been recorded and classified in Azerbaijan . The national animal of Azerbaijan is the Karabakh horse , a mountain @-@ steppe racing and riding horse endemic to Azerbaijan . The Karabakh horse has a reputation for its good temper , speed , elegance and intelligence . It is one of the oldest breeds , with ancestry dating to the ancient world . However today the horse is an endangered species .
Azerbaijan 's flora consists of more than 4 @,@ 500 species of higher plants . Due the unique climate in Azerbaijan , the flora is much richer in the number of species than the flora of the other republics of the South Caucasus . About 67 percent of the species growing in the whole Caucasus can be found in Azerbaijan .
= = Politics = =
The structural formation of Azerbaijan 's political system was completed by the adoption of the new Constitution on 12 November 1995 . According to the Article 23 of Constitution , the state symbols of the Azerbaijan Republic are the flag , the coat of arms and the national anthem . The state power in Azerbaijan is limited only by law for internal issues , but for international affairs is additionally limited by the provisions of international agreements .
The government of Azerbaijan is based on the separation of powers among the legislative , executive and judicial branches . The legislative power is held by the unicameral National Assembly and the Supreme National Assembly in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic . Parliamentary elections are held every five years , on the first Sunday of November . The Yeni Azerbaijan Party , and independents loyal to the ruling government , currently hold almost all of the Parliament 's 125 seats . During the 2010 Parliamentary election , the opposition parties , Musavat and Azerbaijani Popular Front Party , failed to win a single seat . European observers found numerous irregularities in the run @-@ up to the election and on election day .
The executive power is held by the president , who is elected for a five @-@ year term by direct elections , and the Prime Minister of Azerbaijan . The president is authorized to form the Cabinet , a collective executive body , accountable to both the President and the National Assembly . The Cabinet of Azerbaijan consists primarily of the Prime Minister , his Deputies and Ministers . The president does not have the right to dissolve the National Assembly , but he has the right to veto its decisions . To override the presidential veto , the parliament must have a majority of 95 votes . The judicial power is vested in the Constitutional Court , Supreme Court and the Economic Court . The President nominates the judges in these courts .
The Security Council is the deliberative body under the president , and he organizes it according to the Constitution . It was established on 10 April 1997 . The administrative department is not a part of the president 's office but manages the financial , technical and pecuniary activities of both the president and his office .
Although Azerbaijan has held several elections since regaining its independence and it has many of the formal institutions of democracy , it remains classified as " not free " ( on border with " partly free " ) by Freedom House . In recent years , large numbers of Azerbaijani journalists , bloggers , lawyers , human rights activists have been rounded up and jailed for their criticism of President Aliyev and government authorities . A resolution adopted by the European Parliament in September 2015 described Azerbaijan as " having suffered the greatest decline in democratic governance in all of Eurasia over the past ten years , " noting as well that its dialogue with the country on human rights has " not made any substantial progress . "
Azerbaijan has been harshly criticized for bribing foreign officials and diplomats for promoting its causes abroad and legitimizing its elections at home , a practice which has been termed as ' caviar diplomacy ' .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
The short @-@ lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations with six countries , sending diplomatic representatives to Germany and Finland . The process of international recognition of Azerbaijan 's independence from the collapsing Soviet Union lasted roughly one year . The most recent country to recognize Azerbaijan was Bahrain , on 6 November 1996 . Full diplomatic relations , including mutual exchanges of missions , were first established with Turkey , Pakistan , the United States , Iran and Israel . Azerbaijan has placed a particular emphasis on its " Special Relationship " with Turkey .
Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries so far and holds membership in 38 international organizations . It holds observer status in the Non @-@ Aligned Movement and World Trade Organization and is a correspondent at the International Telecommunication Union . On 9 May 2006 Azerbaijan was elected to membership in the newly established Human Rights Council by the United Nations General Assembly . The term of office began on 19 June 2006 .
Foreign policy priorities of Azerbaijan include , first of all , the restoration of its territorial integrity ; elimination of the consequences of the loss of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh and seven other regions of Azerbaijan ; integration into European and Euro @-@ Atlantic structure ; contribution to international security ; cooperation with international organizations ; regional cooperation and bilateral relations ; strengthening of defense capability ; promotion of security by domestic policy means ; strengthening of democracy ; preservation of the ethnic and religious tolerance ; scientific , educational , and cultural policy and preservation of moral values ; economic and social development ; enhancing internal and border security ; and migration , energy , and transportation security policy .
The Azerbaijani government , in late 2007 , stated that the long @-@ standing dispute over the Armenian @-@ occupied territory of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh is almost certain to spark a new war if it remains unresolved . The Government is in the process of increasing its military budget . Furthermore , an attack by the Azerbaijani military in 2016 on Armenian villages in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh has caused physical damage and raised controversy over the future of peaceful relations between Azerbaijan and its neighbor , Armenia .
Azerbaijan is an active member of international coalitions fighting international terrorism . The country is contributing to peacekeeping efforts in Kosovo , Afghanistan and Iraq . Azerbaijan is an active member of NATO 's Partnership for Peace program . It also maintains good relations with the European Union and could potentially one day apply for membership .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
Azerbaijan is divided into 10 economic regions ; 66 rayons ( rayonlar , singular rayon ) and 77 cities ( şəhərlər , singular şəhər ) of which 12 are under the direct authority of the republic . Moreover , Azerbaijan includes the Autonomous Republic ( muxtar respublika ) of Nakhchivan . The President of Azerbaijan appoints the governors of these units , while the government of Nakhchivan is elected and approved by the parliament of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic .
Note : The cities under the direct authority of the republic in italics .
= = Military = =
The history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back to Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918 , when the National Army of the newly formed Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was created on 26 June 1918 . When Azerbaijan gained independence after the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan were created according to the Law on the Armed Forces of 9 October 1991 . The original date of the establishment of the short @-@ lived National Army is celebrated as Army Day ( 26 June ) in today 's Azerbaijan . As of 2002 , Azerbaijan had 95 @,@ 000 active personnel in its armed forces . There are also 17 @,@ 000 paramilitary troops . The armed forces have three branches : the Land Forces , the Air Forces and the Navy . Additionally the armed forces embrace several military sub @-@ groups that can be involved in state defense when needed . These are the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the State Border Service , which includes the Coast Guard as well . The Azerbaijan National Guard is a further paramilitary force . It operates as a semi @-@ independent entity of the Special State Protection Service , an agency subordinate to the President .
Azerbaijan adheres to the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe and has signed all major international arms and weapons treaties . Azerbaijan closely cooperates with NATO in programs such as Partnership for Peace and Individual Partnership Action Plan . Azerbaijan has deployed 151 of its Peacekeeping Forces in Iraq and another 184 in Afghanistan .
The defense budget of Azerbaijan for 2011 was set at US $ 3 @.@ 1 billion . In addition to that , $ 1 @.@ 36 billion was planned to be used for the needs of the defense industry , which bring up the total military spending to billion . Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev said on 26 June 2011 that the defence spending reached $ 3 @.@ 3 billion that year .
Azerbaijan 's defense budget for 2013 is $ 3 @.@ 7 billion .
Azerbaijani defense industry manufactures small arms , artillery systems , tanks , armors and noctovision devices , aviation bombs , pilotless vehicles , various military vehicles and military planes and helicopters .
= = Economy = =
After gaining independence in 1991 , Azerbaijan became a member of the International Monetary Fund , the World Bank , the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development , the Islamic Development Bank and the Asian Development Bank . The banking system of Azerbaijan consists of the Central Bank of Azerbaijan , commercial banks and non @-@ banking credit organizations . The National ( now Central ) Bank was created in 1992 based on the Azerbaijan State Savings Bank , an affiliate of the former State Savings Bank of the USSR . The Central Bank serves as Azerbaijan 's central bank , empowered to issue the national currency , the Azerbaijani manat , and to supervise all commercial banks . Two major commercial banks are UniBank and the state @-@ owned International Bank of Azerbaijan , run by Dr. Jahangir Hajiyev .
Pushed up by spending and demand growth , the 2007 Q1 inflation rate reached 16 @.@ 6 % . Nominal incomes and monthly wages climbed 29 % and 25 % respectively against this figure , but price increases in non @-@ oil industry encouraged inflation in the country . Azerbaijan shows some signs of the so @-@ called " Dutch disease " because of the fast @-@ growing energy sector , which causes inflation and makes non @-@ energy exports more expensive .
In the early years of this century the chronically high inflation was brought under control and this led to the launch of a new currency , the new Azerbaijani manat , on 1 January 2006 , to cement the acquisition of the economic reforms and erase the vestiges of an unstable economy .
In 2008 , Azerbaijan was cited as one of the top 10 reformers by the World Bank 's Doing Business Report .
Azerbaijan led the world as the top reformer in 2007 / 08 , with improvements on seven out of 10 indicators of regulatory reform . Azerbaijan started operating a one @-@ stop shop in January 2008 that halved the time , cost and number of procedures to start a business . Business registrations increased by 40 % in the first six months . Azerbaijan also eliminated the minimum loan cutoff of $ 1 @,@ 100 , more than doubling the number of borrowers covered by the credit registry . Also , taxpayers can now file forms and pay their taxes online . Azerbaijan 's extensive reforms moved it far up the ranks , from 97 to 33 in the overall ease of doing business .
Azerbaijan is also ranked 57th in the Global Competitiveness Report for 2010 – 2011 , which is above other CIS countries . By 2012 the GDP of Azerbaijan increased 20 @-@ fold relative to its 1995 level .
= = = Energy = = =
Two @-@ thirds of Azerbaijan is rich in oil and natural gas . The region of the Lesser Caucasus accounts for most of the country 's gold , silver , iron , copper , titanium , chromium , manganese , cobalt , molybdenum , complex ore and antimony . In September 1994 , a 30 @-@ year contract was signed between the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic ( SOCAR ) and 13 oil companies , among them Amoco , BP , ExxonMobil , Lukoil and Statoil . As Western oil companies are able to tap deepwater oilfields untouched by the Soviet exploitation , Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important spots in the world for oil exploration and development . Meanwhile , the State Oil Fund of Azerbaijan was established as an extra @-@ budgetary fund to ensure the macroeconomic stability , transparency in the management of oil revenue , and the safeguarding of resources for future generations .
Azeriqaz , a sub @-@ company of SOCAR , intends to ensure full gasification of the country by 2021 .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Azerbaijan has the largest agricultural basin in the region . About 54 @.@ 9 percent of Azerbaijan is agricultural lands . At the beginning of 2007 there were 4 @,@ 755 @,@ 100 hectares of utilized agricultural area . In the same year the total wood resources counted 136 million m ³ . Azerbaijan 's agricultural scientific research institutes are focused on meadows and pastures , horticulture and subtropical crops , green vegetables , viticulture and wine @-@ making , cotton growing and medicinal plants . In some lands it is profitable to grow grain , potatoes , sugar beets , cotton and tobacco . Livestock , dairy products , and wine and spirits are also important farm products . The Caspian fishing industry is concentrated on the dwindling stocks of sturgeon and beluga . In 2002 the Azerbaijani merchant marine had 54 ships .
Some portions of most products that were previously imported from abroad have begun to be produced locally ( among them are Coca Cola by Coca Cola Bottlers LTD , beer by Baki @-@ Kastel , parquet by Nehir and oil pipes by EUPEC Pipe Coating Azerbaijan ) .
= = = Tourism = = =
Tourism is an important part of the economy of Azerbaijan . The country was a well @-@ known tourist spot in the 1980s . However , the fall of the Soviet Union , and the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War during the 1990s , damaged the tourist industry and the image of Azerbaijan as a tourist destination .
It was not until the 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover , and the country has since experienced a high rate of growth in the number of tourist visits and overnight stays . In the recent years , Azerbaijan has also becoming a popular destination for religious , spa , and health care tourism . During winter , the Shahdag Mountain Resort offers skiing with state of the art facilities .
The government of Azerbaijan has set the development of Azerbaijan as an elite tourist destination as a top priority . It is a national strategy to make tourism a major , if not the single largest , contributor to the Azerbaijani economy . These activities are regulated by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Azerbaijan .
= = = Transportation = = =
The convenient location of Azerbaijan on the crossroad of major international traffic arteries , such as the Silk Road and the south – north corridor , highlights the strategic importance of transportation sector for the country 's economy . The transport sector in the country includes roads , railways , aviation , and maritime transport .
Azerbaijan is also an important economic hub in the transportation of raw materials . The Baku – Tbilisi – Ceyhan pipeline ( BTC ) became operational in May 2006 and extends more than 1 @,@ 774 kilometers through the territories of Azerbaijan , Georgia and Turkey . The BTC is designed to transport up to 50 million tons of crude oil annually and carries oil from the Caspian Sea oilfields to global markets . The South Caucasus Pipeline , also stretching through the territory of Azerbaijan , Georgia and Turkey , became operational at the end of 2006 and offers additional gas supplies to the European market from the Shah Deniz gas field . Shah Deniz is expected to produce up to 296 billion cubic meters of natural gas per year . Azerbaijan also plays a major role in the EU @-@ sponsored Silk Road Project .
In 2002 , the Azerbaijani government established the Ministry of Transport with a broad range of policy and regulatory functions . In the same year , the country became a member of the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic . The highest priority being ; upgrading the transport network and transforming transportation services into one of the key comparative advantages of the country , as this would be highly conducive to the development of other sectors of the economy .
In 2012 , the construction of Kars – Tbilisi – Baku railway expected to provide transportation between Asia and Europe through connecting the railways of China and Kazakhstan in the east with Turkey 's Marmaray to the European railway system in the west . Broad @-@ gauge railways in 2010 stretched for 2 @,@ 918 km ( 1 @,@ 813 mi ) and electrified railways numbered 1 @,@ 278 km ( 794 mi ) . By 2010 , there were 35 airports and one heliport .
= = = Science and technology = = =
In the 21st century , a new oil and gas boom helped to improve the situation in Azerbaijan 's science and technology sectors , and the government launched a campaign aimed at modernization and innovation . The government estimates that profits from the information technology and communication industry will grow and become comparable with those from oil production .
Azerbaijan has a large and steadily growing Internet sector , mostly uninfluenced by the global financial crisis ; rapid growth is forecast for at least five more years .
The country has also been making progress in developing its telecoms sector . The Ministry of Communications & Information Technologies ( MCIT ) , as well as being an operator through its role in Aztelekom , is both a policy @-@ maker and regulator . Public pay phones are available for local calls and require the purchase of a token from the telephone exchange or some shops and kiosks . Tokens allow a call of indefinite duration . As of 2009 , there were 1 @,@ 397 @,@ 000 main telephone lines and 1 @,@ 485 @,@ 000 internet users . There are four GSM providers : Azercell , Bakcell , Azerfon ( Nar Mobile ) , Nakhtel mobile network operators and one CDMA .
In the 21st century a number of prominent Azerbaijani geodynamics and geotectonics scientists , inspired by the fundamental works of Elchin Khalilov and others , designed hundreds of earthquake prediction stations and earthquake @-@ resistant buildings that now constitute the bulk of The Republican Center of Seismic Service .
The Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency launched its first satellite AzerSat 1 into orbit on 7 February 2013 from Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana at orbital positions 46 ° East . The satellite will cover Europe and significant part of Asian countries and Africa and will have transmission for TV , radio broadcasting and the internet . The launch of its own satellite on orbit is Azerbaijan 's first action in realizing prospective projects to turn itself into a country with a space industry .
= = Demographics = =
From the total population of 9 @,@ 165 @,@ 000 people as of July 2011 , nearly 52 % was urban population , the remaining 48 % was the rural population . 51 % of the total population were female . The sex ratio for total population in that year was therefore 0 @.@ 97 males per female .
The 2011 population growth @-@ rate was 0 @.@ 85 % , compared to 1 @.@ 09 % worldwide . A significant factor restricting the population growth is rather a high level of migration . In 2011 Azerbaijan saw migration of − 1 @.@ 14 / 1 @,@ 000 people .
The Azerbaijani diaspora is found in 42 countries and in turn there are many centers for ethnic minorities inside Azerbaijan , including the German cultural society " Karelhaus " , Slavic cultural center , Azerbaijani @-@ Israeli community , Kurdish cultural center , International Talysh Association , Lezgin national center " Samur " , Azerbaijani @-@ Tatar community , Crimean Tatars society , etc .
The ethnic composition of the population according to the 2009 population census : 91 @.@ 60 % Azerbaijanis , 2 @.@ 02 % Lezgians , 1 @.@ 35 % Armenians ( almost all Armenians live in the break @-@ away region of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh ) , 1 @.@ 34 % Russians , 1 @.@ 26 % Talysh , 0 @.@ 56 % Avars , 0 @.@ 43 % Turks , 0 @.@ 29 % Tatars , 0 @.@ 28 % Tats , 0 @.@ 24 % Ukrainians , 0 @.@ 14 % Tsakhurs , 0 @.@ 11 % Georgians , 0 @.@ 10 % Jews , 0 @.@ 07 % Kurds , other 0 @.@ 21 % .
Iranian Azerbaijanis are by far the largest minority in Iran . The number of ethnic Azerbaijanis in Iran furthermore far outnumber those in neighboring Azerbaijan . The CIA World Factbook estimates Iranian Azerbaijanis as comprising at least 16 % of Iran 's population .
= = = Urbanization = = =
In total , Azerbaijan has 77 cities , 64 smaller rayon @-@ class cities , and one special legal status city . These are followed by 257 urban @-@ type settlements and 4 @,@ 620 villages .
= = = Language = = =
The official language is Azerbaijani , which is spoken by approximately 92 % of the population as a mother tongue . It belongs to the Turkic language family . Russian and English play significant roles as second or third languages of education and communication . There are a dozen other languages spoken natively in the country . Armenian , Avar , Budukh , Georgian , Juhuri , Khinalug , Kryts , Lezgian , Rutul , Talysh , Tat , Tsakhur , and Udi are all spoken by minorities . Some of these language communities are very small and their numbers are decreasing . Armenian is almost exclusively spoken in the break @-@ away Nagorno @-@ Karabakh region .
= = = Religion = = =
Around 98 % of the population are Muslims . 92 % of the Muslims are Shia Muslims and 8 % Sunni Muslims , and the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second highest Shia population percentage after Iran . Other faiths are practised by the country 's various ethnic groups . Under article 48 of its Constitution , Azerbaijan is a secular state and ensures religious freedom . In a 2006 – 2008 Gallup poll , only 21 % of respondents from Azerbaijan stated that religion is an important part of their daily lives .
Of the nation 's religious minorities , Christians who estimated 280 @,@ 000 ( 3 @.@ 1 % ) are mostly Russian and Georgian Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic ( almost all Armenians live in the break @-@ away region of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh ) . In 2003 , there were 250 Roman Catholics . Other Christian denominations as of 2002 include Lutherans , Baptists and Molokans . There is also a small ethnic Azerbaijani Protestant community . Azerbaijan also has an ancient Jewish population with a 2 @,@ 500 @-@ year history ; Jewish organizations estimate that 10 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 Jews remain in Azerbaijan . Azerbaijan also is home to members of the Bahá 'í , Hare Krishna and Jehovah 's Witnesses communities , as well as adherents of the other religious communities . Some religious communities have been unofficially restricted from religious freedom . A U.S. State Department report on the matter mentions detention of members of certain Muslim and Christian groups , and many groups have difficulty registering with the SCWRA .
= = = Education = = =
A relatively high percentage of Azerbaijanis have obtained some form of higher education , most notably in scientific and technical subjects . In the Soviet era , literacy and average education levels rose dramatically from their very low starting point , despite two changes in the standard alphabet , from Perso @-@ Arabic script to Latin in the 1920s and from Roman to Cyrillic in the 1930s . According to Soviet data , 100 percent of males and females ( ages nine to forty @-@ nine ) were literate in 1970 . According to the United Nations Development Program Report 2009 , the literacy rate in Azerbaijan is 99 @.@ 5 percent .
Since independence , one of the first laws that Azerbaijan 's Parliament passed to disassociate itself from the Soviet Union was to adopt a modified @-@ Latin alphabet to replace Cyrillic . Other than that the Azerbaijani system has undergone little structural change . Initial alterations have included the reestablishment of religious education ( banned during the Soviet period ) and curriculum changes that have reemphasized the use of the Azerbaijani language and have eliminated ideological content . In addition to elementary schools , the education institutions include thousands of preschools , general secondary schools , and vocational schools , including specialized secondary schools and technical schools . Education through the eighth grade is compulsory .
= = Culture = =
The culture of Azerbaijan has developed as a result of many influences . Today , national traditions are well preserved in the country despite Western influences , including globalized on consumer culture . Some of the main elements of the Azerbaijani culture are : music , literature , folk dances and art , cuisine , architecture , cinematography and Novruz Bayram . The latter is derived from the traditional celebration of the New Year in the ancient Persian religion of Zoroastrianism . Novruz is a family holiday .
Azerbaijan folk consists of Azerbaijanis , the representative part of society , as well as of nations and ethnic groups , compactly living in various areas of the country . Azerbaijani national and traditional dresses are the Chokha and Papakhi . There are radio broadcasts in Russian , Armenian , Georgian , Kurdish , Lezgian and Talysh languages , which are financed from the state budget . Some local radio stations in Balakan and Khachmaz organize broadcasts in Avar and Tat . In Baku several newspapers are published in Russian , Kurdish ( Dengi Kurd ) , Lezgian ( Samur ) and Talysh languages . Jewish society " Sokhnut " publishes the newspaper Aziz .
= = = Music and folk dances = = =
Music of Azerbaijan builds on folk traditions that reach back nearly a thousand years . For centuries Azerbaijani music has evolved under the badge of monody , producing rhythmically diverse melodies . Azerbaijani music has a branchy mode system , where chromatization of major and minor scales is of great importance . Among national musical instruments there are 14 string instruments , eight percussion instruments and six wind instruments . According to The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , " in terms of ethnicity , culture and religion the Azerbaijani are musically much closer to Iran than Turkey . "
Mugham , meykhana and ashiq art are among the many musical traditions of Azerbaijan . Mugham is usually a suite with poetry and instrumental interludes . When performing mugham , the singers have to transform their emotions into singing and music . In contrast to the mugham traditions of Central Asian countries , Azerbaijani mugham is more free @-@ form and less rigid ; it is often compared to the improvised field of jazz . UNESCO proclaimed the Azerbaijani mugham tradition a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity on 7 November 2003 . Meykhana is a kind of traditional Azerbaijani distinctive folk unaccompanied song , usually performed by several people improvising on a particular subject .
Ashiq combines poetry , storytelling , dance and vocal and instrumental music into a traditional performance art that stands as a symbol of Azerbaijani culture . It is a mystic troubadour or traveling bard who sings and plays the saz . This tradition has its origin in the Shamanistic beliefs
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01 UK census , the suburb had a population of 8 @,@ 643 , falling marginally to 8 @,@ 636 at the 2011 census .
For centuries little more than part of a windswept , barren and treacherous heath , the settlement at Low Fell was initially established by a moderate influx of tinkers and miners in the 18th century . Considered a village in the historic County Durham for almost as long as it has been inhabited in measurable numbers , it was formally incorporated into the newly formed Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead by the Local Government Act 1972 which took effect on 1 April 1974 and is now instead a residential suburb .
One of the more populous of the two dozen or so villages which now comprise the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead , Low Fell has a long and rich history . In stark contrast to the industrial development of its near neighbour Sheriff Hill , the settlement at Low Fell developed through the building of a new road to bypass the steep turnpike road which ran through Sheriff Hill , which in turn encouraged both private enterprise ( particularly public houses ) and the incumbency of dozens of wealthy individuals who built substantial villas in which they could escape the dirt and grime of 19th century Newcastle upon Tyne .
Several of these villas remain today and contribute to the dozen Grade II listed buildings in the suburb , which has continued to develop into an affluent area with a village feel . The suburb is wholly contained within the Gateshead council ward of the same name and is represented locally by members of the Liberal Democrats party , though nationally the suburb is represented by the Labour party as part of the constituency of Gateshead . The suburb is home to several schools and churches . The principal landmark in the suburb is St Helen 's Church , although also located in the settlement is Underhill , the home of Sir Joseph Swan and the first domestic property in the world to be illuminated by electric light . England international cricketer Graham Onions is a current resident of the suburb .
= = History = =
= = = Gateshead Fell = = =
Prior to 1809 , Low Fell was part of Gateshead Fell ; itself a constituent part of the ancient County of Durham . Once described as a " windswept , barren and treacherous heath " , it took its name from nearby Gateshead and the fact that the area was " a fell or common contigious to it " . That portion of Gateshead Fell which would later become Low Fell was , in the 1640s , little more than boggy march and wetlands owned by the Bishop of Durham who simply divided the land into plots and rented them to the few tenants willing to pay for them . By the 18th century , the lower section of Gateshead Fell consisted broadly of sparsely populated farm and woodland , demarcated from the section of Gateshead Fell which was to become Sheriff Hill by a boundary formed by a mound of earth .
In 1771 , the number of settlers on Gateshead Fell increased as a result of the ' Great Flood of 1771 ' , during which the rivers Tyne , Wear and Tees all burst their banks , causing people to lose their homes . By this time , however , Gateshead Fell had become a place of considerable notoriety , both for the bleakness of the land and for the criminality undertaken upon it . When theologian John Wesley arrived in a blizzard in 1785 , he found a " pathless waste of white " inhabited predominantly by tinkers , gypsies , pitmen and quarrymen .
In 1809 an Act was obtained ordering the enclosure of Gateshead Fell .
= = = 1809 – Present Day = = =
The Inclosure Act separated Gateshead Fell into Wrekenton , Sheriff Hill and Low Fell . Commissioners were appointed to settle claims in land and to apportion Gateshead Fell accordingly . Plans were laid for the requisition and construction of wells ( including Carter 's Well ; located on Durham Road and accompanied today by a commemorative Gateshead blue plaque ) , quarries , drains , roads , watering places and other essential requirements . Progress was slow , with the last allotment disputes not settled until 1822 , but by the time of completion , Gateshead Fell was entirely enclosed and effectively consigned to history . The divisions of Gateshead Fell have remained more or less settled , so that the villages created by enclosure have survived , almost entirely intact , to the present day . After enclosure , " civilisation came to the Fell " . This began with the building of a new road . The only major road through Gateshead Fell was that which followed the same route of the ancient turnpike road which ran through what is now Sheriff Hill ( today this is Old Durham Road / Sheriffs Highway ) . The turnpike road was very steep and was deemed rather unsatisfactory :
Why should coaches have to labour up the long hill from Newcastle to the top of Gateshead Fell , and then go down the steep descent to the Coach & Horses inn just before Birtley , while those coming from the south had to climb and descend the hills in reverse ? There must be a new road with better gradients ...
Until 1824 there was still about a mile of farmland between Gateshead and Low Fell , though the land was far less severe than that leading to Sheriff Hill and Wrekenton , so plans were drawn to build a new road through the farmland , Low Fell and towards Durham . Work began on this new road on 6 December 1824 and took some eighteen months to complete so that the first mail coach travelled on the new road , today known as Durham Road , on 17 June 1826 . Thomas Wilson used to call this road " the road through the fields " ; a description which was said to have suited the road well until at least the turn of the 20th century .
The opening of the new road saw people drawn to an area which now attracted considerable trade , travel and through – fare . Robert Clements , proprietor of the Old Cannon Inn at Sheriff Hill , quickly foresaw the likely detrimental effect that the new road would have on his business and opened the New Cannon Inn on the corner of Durham Road and Buck Lane ( now Beaconsfield Road ) in 1826 – the same year that the Sheriff 's March was re – routed from Sheriff Hill to the new road through Low Fell . Despite the cessation of the Sheriff 's March in 1838 , Clements ' establishment became " the social centre of the growing village , where concerts , dinners and meetings of all kinds were held " .
New , adjoining roads gradually began to appear , such as Lamesley Road , which later became Kells Lane , and Low Fell Road , which became Beaconsfield Road and Belle Vue Bank . In January 1841 , local poet Thomas Wilson bought land on Durham Road and opened literary rooms which were opened in November 1841 . The upper section of the literary rooms was used as a school for local children until the opening of a new school on a site at Kells Lane in 1895 . In the 1880s there was a decade of intensive building and the population of the village increased accordingly . The relative tranquility of the village , coupled with scenic views of surrounding hills and countryside , attracted rich industrialists from nearby Newcastle – upon – Tyne , seeking an alternative to the dirt and noise of industrial Newcastle and Gateshead . These individuals duly built and lived in mansion property in the area . One such property , Heathfield , was a mansion located on Durham Road which was built and owned by a wealthy chemical manufacturer who kept bears in his substantial adjoining grounds .
Through the early 20th century , the village continued to expand towards Gateshead , though even in the interwar – years " children could play marbles on Durham Road in perfect safety " . However , by the turn of World War II in 1945 , Gateshead itself has expanded so much that the urban sprawl had removed much of the scenic panorama which had delighted settlers in the suburb a century earlier . In spite of these developments :
By 1939 , Low Fell had become the select suburb of Gateshead and had substantial and independent shopping facilities . All of the houses between Shipcote and the village were private and the owners added ' Low Fell ' to their addresses , at times not even mentioning Gateshead , although , if we adhere to the original boundaries , they did not live in Low Fell at all " .
The village changed little in either character or structure after the end of World War II , though in 1965 plans were drawn for the further development of Durham Road which drew criticism from residents . In 1974 , Low Fell was incorporated into the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead and had transformed from those early , village days and was by that time a bustling suburb with a considerable independent commercial hub attracting a high volume of vehicular traffic . That character is relatively unchanged today , but Low Fell remains one of the most attractive places to live in the North East of England , retaining a distinctive village feel and containing a thriving community of shops , restaurants , schools and churches .
= = Governance = =
Low Fell is a local council ward in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead . This ward is approximately 2 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 77 sq mi ) in area and has a population of 8 @,@ 643 . The Low Fell ward is represented by three councillors . In April 2012 , these were Ron Beadle , Frank Hindle and Susan Craig .
Low Fell is now part of the Westminster parliamentary constituency of Gateshead . It had previously formed part of the Gateshead East and Washington West constituency which was abolished by boundary changes prior to the 2010 UK General Election .
The present incumbent MP is Ian Mearns , who lives in nearby Saltwell , Gateshead , Tyne and Wear . Mearns , a member of the Labour party , replaced former incumbent Sharon Hodgson MP , who successfully campaigned for election in the newly formed constituency of Washington and Sunderland West . In the 2010 UK General Election , Mearns was elected with a majority of 12 @,@ 549 votes over the second placed candidate , Frank Hindle . The swing from the Labour party to the Liberal Democrats was 3 @.@ 9 % .
Low Fell is part of one of the safest Labour parliamentary seats in the United Kingdom . Mearns ' success in 2010 followed the return of Sharon Hodgson in the 2005 UK General Election after she had polled over 60 % of the total votes cast whilst in 2001 , Joyce Quin was returned to parliament with a majority of 53 @.@ 3 % .
= = Geography and topography = =
Low Fell , at a latitude of 54 @.@ 93 ° N and a longitude of 1 @.@ 60 ° W , lies on the eastern side of the Team Valley , some 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) south of the centre of Gateshead town centre on " one of the main link roads " into the centre of both Gateshead and Newcastle – upon – Tyne , England . The distance from Low Fell to London is 254 miles ( 409 km ) . Low Fell occupies an elevated position which slopes down from east to west . Though the principal routes through Durham Road and Kells Lane are of gentle slope , some parts of the suburb are quite steeply sloped – notably those which border Sheriff Hill to the east ( Church Road particularly ) . The land upon which the settlement is built contains predominantly sandstone , grindstone and clay .
After the enclosure of Gateshead Fell , Low Fell developed firstly into a village but following the subsequent large urban expansion of Gateshead , Low Fell was enveloped so that " now it is surrounded by suburban Gateshead , which has developed in dense form around it with little visual delineation " and in 1974 the village was formerly incorporated into the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead by the Local Government Act 1972 . Until the implementation of that Act , Low Fell was considered part of County Durham . It is now bordered by a number of settlements which also now form part of the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead . These are Sheriff Hill to the east , Saltwell / Shipcote to the north , Allerdene to the south and the Team Valley Trading Estate to the west . The precise boundaries of the suburb are difficult to ascertain , though the southern boundary was fixed with certainty at the junction of Kells Lane and Durham Road by the Parliamentary Boundaries Act 1832 and the eastern border with Sheriff Hill is clearly demarcated by Sheriff 's Highway / Old Durham Road .
Though the urbanisation of Gateshead around it has detracted from the panoramic views of western Gateshead that were once enjoyed by residents , at elevated positions views of Lobley Hill , Team Valley and Dunston Hill can be glimpsed . Although now a suburb of the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead , the openness and greenspace prevalent in Low Fell means that the suburb continues to enjoy a rural feel , which is an unusual trait in the modern Gatshead conurbation .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Low Fell has a population of 8 @,@ 643 . 51 % of the population are female , slightly below the national average , whilst 49 % are male . Only 1 % of the population are from a Black or other Minority Ethnic Group ( BME ) , as opposed to 9 @.@ 1 % of the national population . Of the BME group in the settlement , 40 % are from the Asian or Asian – British ethnic group . Low Fell has a very low proportion of lone parent households at some 4 % of all households in the settlement . This is the lowest figure in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead and compares very favourably with a Borough average of 11 @.@ 5 % and a national average of 9 @.@ 5 % . Some 26 % of households have dependent children , as opposed to 29 @.@ 5 % nationally and 28 @.@ 4 % in Gateshead . The Index of Multiple Deprivation , which divides England into 32 @,@ 482 areas and measures quality of life indicators to indicate deprivation , does not include any part of Low Fell in any of the areas marked as deprived .
Low Fell compares very favourably with the wider Gateshead area in respect of adults with educational qualifications . Only 23 % of adults in the settlement have no educational qualifications ( the lowest figure in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead ) , compared to 38 @.@ 4 % across the whole of Gateshead and the England average of 28 @.@ 9 % . 55 % of adults have at least five or more GCSEs or equivalent at A * – C ( compared to 46 @.@ 6 % nationally ) and , of these , 28 % are qualified to degree level .
= = Economy = =
Prior to enclosure , Low Fell was predominantly inhabited by a small number of tinkers and hawkers but after enclosure the character of the suburb changed rapidly as people moved to be close to the new turnpike road . Although neighbouring Sheriff Hill thrived through an influx of heavy industry , built upon a colliery and pottery particularly , by 1827 new allotment owners on Low Fell had spent heavily to improve land so that sod cottages were a rarity and the last remaining pit heaps had been removed . The result was that numerous wealthy individuals were drawn to the area and it was this influx which helped shape and grow the early settlement , as opposed to the more usual means of growth allied to work and industry . The 1880s were a decade of considerable building in the village , fueled by the completion of a tramway with nearby Gateshead in 1883 and this brought some light industry to the area ; in the same year Mawson & Swan built their dry plate works in Kells Lane and this proved to be the first of several light industries to locate in that area . These smaller industries , allied to several farms in the Dryden Road area of the village ( Dryden Farm , Orchard Cottage Dairy Farm and Derwent Crook Farm all survived in this area until the Second World War ) , generated a small economy in an area where inhabitants had built and settled predominantly to escape the dirt and grime of industrial Tyneside .
As Gateshead expanded southward to meet the village , Low Fell became a residential suburb of Gateshead but one which has , through its atypical development , has retained a rural village character . In 1897 , the first shops were built on Durham Road . These expanded substantially so that by 1939 the villagers were able to forgo travel to nearby Gateshead for commercial purposes . Today the Durham Road area is " a vibrant commercial hub with thriving shops , bars and restaurants " as well as some banks and small offices . These now act as the principle commercial centre for the area though the townscape in this area varies greatly and the unsympathetic development at the crest of Albert Drive in the 1960s is uncommon and has been said to detract from the suburb . A smaller commercial area developed at Kells Lane , again predominantly built through small enterprise , and today the area contains a butcher 's shop , a bakery , hair dressers and a greengrocers .
The unemployment levels in the suburb are very low compared to both local and national levels at 2 @.@ 6 % . The overall level of economic activity in Low Fell in 2004 was 69 % , as compared to 61 % in Gateshead overall and 67 % in England . Manufacturing is the largest sector of employment for residents in the suburb . 15 % of all working residents of the suburb do so in a managerial capacity ; again , this is the highest figure in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead .
= = Culture = =
= = = Buildings and Landmarks = = =
Low Fell is home to numerous buildings listed by English Heritage .
Underhill , at 99 Kells Lane , is a Grade II * listed building . It was the home of Sir Joseph Swan between 1869 – 1883 and was the site of many pioneering experiments in photographic processing and in electricity . Described as " a large , unlovely polychrome villa " , Underhill is triple gabled and built of roughly dressed sandstone and was the first private residence in the world to be lit by electric light . It later became a school , and is now retirement sheltered housing .
231 Kells Lane is the location of Home House . This fine early 19th century , symmetrical , ashlar and sandstone property was the family home of the Dodds sisters and is also a Grade II listed building . At the southern edge of Durham Road is Carter 's Well , the first of the notable buildings and items of interest on that road . No.516 Durham Road houses " a stone building with a domestic air " . This Grade II listed building was the literary room built by local subscription at the instigation of Thomas Wilson in 1841 . Designed by Thomas Oliver , the building was used as a bank but is now derelict . Immediately adjacent to the Literary Rooms is a Grade II listed South African War memorial , dated 1903 and signed ' Morrison ' . Located close to the main shopping centre on Durham Road lies Whinney House , a large villa built in 1865 by local resident Edward Joicey . It is now being converted into Luxery flats . An impressive hexagonal based , stone fountain which has grade II listed status is still in evidence .
Travelling further along Durham Road towards Gateshead are two more Grade II listed buildings . The first is Heathfield House , a two story villa built by John Wardle ( designer of St Helen 's Church ) in 1865 and Musgrave House , an ashlar villa with raised quoins built in 1854 – 5 which has been used as a school but is no longer so . Both buildings are now converted to private flats .
= = = Churches = = =
The most prominent church in the suburb is St Helen 's Church , a Gothic revival church built from rock – faced sandstone with ashlar details . Costing £ 13 @,@ 000 and paid for " by the laudable benevolence of Edward Joicey " , the foundation stone of St Helen 's was laid on 29 October 1873 and the church was consecrated on 29 August 1876 . The result is " a lovely church " located on Belle Vue Bank which benefits from a number of high quality , stained – glass windows. and a Father Willis organ , built for the church and rebuilt in 1949 by H Vincent of Sunderland . St Helen 's is now a Grade II * listed building .
Also a Grade II listed building is the Wesley Memorial Methodist Church . Built on a steeply sloping site on Durham Road in 1882 and opened in January 1883 , this church is a " pleasing and individual adaptation of early Gothic design " , built in tooled sandstone with Welsh slate roof – tiles . There are two further churches in the suburb . These are Denewell Avenue Church and St Peter 's . The former was a presbyterian church - now United Reformed Church , located on the corner of Denewell Avenue and Dryden Road which was formed originally in 1907 when a wood and corrugated iron building was erected on a site purchased for £ 480 . This building was soon demolished and replaced with a new building which opened on Good Friday , 10 April 1914 . St Peter 's , meanwhile , is a Roman Catholic located on Kells Lane which opened in 1962 .
= = = Venues = = =
Low Fell is home to numerous public houses . The New Cannon was established on Durham Road in 1826 and soon became something of a social hub for the village , hosting travelling troupes , lessons in quadrille dancing and hosting plays from visiting theatre as early as the 1820 – 30 's . So successful was the New Cannon that in those formative years it " monopolised trade on the new major route and was , in fact , the centre of village life " . The Cannon Inn still survives today , along with other public houses such as the Black Horse on Kells Lane , the Buck ( now The Beaconsfield ) on Beaconsfield Avenue ( formerly Buck Lane ) , the Crown ( now the Tap at Carters Well ) and the Gateshead Arms on Durham Road . All of these venues were in existence prior to 1858 .
The suburb was also once home to a pair of cinemas ; the Classic and the Capitol ( confusingly , this cinema was also later named ' The Classic ' ) . The original Classic was located on Kells Lane and was opened in 1928 , whilst the Capitol was located on Durham Road and opened in 1936 . Both closed prior to the turn of the 21st century .
= = Notable residents = =
Arguably the most notable resident of Low Fell was Sir Joseph Swan . Swan , most famous as the inventor of the incandescent light – bulb ( though also instrumental in improvements to photographic film and rechargeable batteries ) , lived at Underhill , 99 Kells Lane in Low Fell between 1869 and 1883 .
Other notable former residents include J. Thomas Looney , an elementary school master whose controversial text ' Shakespeare Identified ' founded the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship and Thomas Wilson , a local poet most famous for his 1843 work The Pitman 's Pay . Ruth Dodds was a prominent Labour politician in Gateshead who , along with her sisters Hope and Sylvia Dodds , funded the building of the Little Theatre Gateshead . All three lived in Low Fell their entire lives .
Socialist singer / songwriter Alex Glasgow , the so – called " bard of Tyneside " , is best remembered for writing and singing the theme tune to the BBC television classic When the Boat Comes In . Glasgow lived at 59 Church Road in Low Fell until he emigrated to Australia in 1981 . A Gateshead Blue Plaque was erected on the wall of his old house in February 2006 England international cricketer Graham Onions lives in Low Fell having previously played for nearby Gateshead Fell Cricket Club .
= = Transport = =
Low Fell is on the A167 Durham Road , a former route of the Great North Road and the A1 before it was diverted first to the Tyne Tunnel and then to its present route on the ' Western Bypass ' . The journey time by car or bus to Gateshead town centre is approximately seven minutes , with a further five minutes ' journey taking travellers into the centre of Newcastle upon Tyne .
The nearest mainline railway station to the settlement is Newcastle Central Station . This is located 2 @.@ 78 miles ( 4 @.@ 47 km ) away . The nearest Metro station is Gateshead
The settlement lies on a busy bus route in and out of Gateshead and is served by several bus services , such as the ' Angel ' which continues into Durham the ' Orbit 52 ' and the " 69 Pulse " which travels into the western Gateshead villages of Whickham and Blaydon . It is also part of the 93 / 94 ' loop ' network . All of the buses which serve Low Fell are operated under the administration of Nexus .
= = Education = =
The education provisions in the suburb during the 19th century was rather piecemeal and relied largely upon the contribution of local residents such as Thomas Wilson , whose literary rooms on Durham Road provided education classes for residents . It wasn 't until 1895 that the School Board decided to create a permanent education provision in Low Fell , with Kells Lane the chosen location .
Today , Low Fell contains several educational institutions . The oldest of these is the aforementioned Kells Lane Primary School . Catering for a mix of boys and girls aged 4 – 11 , Kells Lane Primary is today a popular school which is both larger than usual and oversubscribed. which teaches a variety of subjects across Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2 . The school is a successful and progressive institution ; in 2004 an OFSTED inspection resulted in a positive report which in 2007 was superseded by an inspection which concluded that the school was an outstanding one which generated an excellent learning environment for both pupils and staff .
Opening in 1938 , St Peter 's RC Primary is located on Dryden Road and serves the local Catholic parishes of St Peter 's and Our Lady of the Annunciation . Although the pupil age – range and subject – range is the same as Kells Lane Primary , St Peter 's Primary has a smaller than average cohort but according to the most recent OFSTED inspection , it too is an outstanding school . On the outskirts of the suburb lies Oakfield Junior school , which was built in 1967 and is situated on Chowdene Bank . This is an average sized junior school catering to pupils aged between 7 – 11 years . Though attainment of pupils meets only the minimum acceptable standard , Oakfield is still considered by OFSTED to be a good school whose pupils benefit from a high standard of internal leadership . Near by , on Saltwell Road South is the Joseph Swan Academy , catering for pupils 11 @-@ 18 .
The suburb is also served by two specialist schools . Cedars School is situated on Ivy Lane and caters for students demonstrating special educational needs . Though the age range of pupils was 3 – 16 in 2010 , the local authority had plans to re – designate the school as suitable only for pupils aged 11 – 16 . Cedar 's is a " good , happy , safe and effective school " . The Dryden School at Shotley Gardens , provides similar provision for pupils aged between 11 – 18 and is also , according to the latest report , a good school .
= = = Academic Texts = = =
= Terry Pratchett =
Sir Terence David John " Terry " Pratchett , OBE ( 28 April 1948 – 12 March 2015 ) was an English author of fantasy novels , especially comical works . He is best known for his Discworld series of 41 novels . Pratchett 's first novel , The Carpet People , was published in 1971 ; after the first Discworld novel , The Colour of Magic , was published in 1983 , he wrote two books a year on average . His 2011 Discworld novel Snuff was at the time of its release the third @-@ fastest @-@ selling hardback adult @-@ readership novel since records began in the UK , selling 55 @,@ 000 copies in the first three days . His final Discworld novel , The Shepherd 's Crown , was published in August 2015 , five months after his death .
Pratchett , with more than 85 million books sold worldwide in 37 languages , was the UK 's best @-@ selling author of the 1990s . He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in 1998 and was knighted for services to literature in the 2009 New Year Honours . In 2001 he won the annual Carnegie Medal for The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents , the first Discworld book marketed for children . He received the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement in 2010 .
In December 2007 , Pratchett announced that he was suffering from early @-@ onset Alzheimer 's disease . He later made a substantial public donation to the Alzheimer 's Research Trust ( now Alzheimer 's Research UK ) , filmed a television programme chronicling his experiences with the disease for the BBC , and also became a patron for Alzheimer 's Research UK . Pratchett died on 12 March 2015 , aged 66 .
= = Early life = =
Pratchett was born on 28 April 1948 in Beaconsfield in Buckinghamshire , England , the only child of David and Eileen Pratchett , of Hay @-@ on @-@ Wye and he attended Holtspur School . His family moved to Bridgwater , Somerset , briefly in 1957 , following which he passed his eleven plus exam in 1959 , earning a place in High Wycombe Technical High School ( now John Hampden Grammar School ) where he was a key member of the debating society and wrote stories for the school magazine . Pratchett described himself as a " non @-@ descript student " and , in his Who 's Who entry , credits his education to the Beaconsfield Public Library .
His early interests included astronomy . He collected Brooke Bond tea cards about space , owned a telescope and wanted to be an astronomer but lacked the necessary mathematical skills . He developed an interest in reading science fiction and began attending science fiction conventions from about 1963 – 1964 , but stopped when he got his first job a few years later . His early reading included the works of H. G. Wells , Arthur Conan Doyle , and " every book you really ought to read " , which he later regarded as " getting an education " .
Pratchett published his first short story entitled " Business Rivals " in the High Wycombe Technical School magazine in 1962 . It is the tale of a man named Crucible who finds the Devil in his flat in a cloud of sulphurous smoke . " The Hades Business " which was published in the school magazine when he was 13 was published commercially when he was 15 .
Pratchett earned five O @-@ levels and started A @-@ level courses in Art , English and History . His initial career choice was journalism and he left school at 17 in 1965 to start working for the Bucks Free Press , where he wrote , amongst other things , several stories for the Children 's Circle section under the name Uncle Jim . One of these episodic stories contains named characters from The Carpet People ( 1971 ) . The stories are currently part of a project by the Bucks Free Press to make them available online . While on day release he finished his A @-@ Level in English and took a proficiency course for journalists .
= = Early career = =
Pratchett had his writing breakthrough in 1968 when he interviewed Peter Bander van Duren , co @-@ director of a small publishing company , Colin Smythe Ltd . During the meeting , Pratchett mentioned he had written a manuscript , The Carpet People . Colin Smythe Ltd published the book in 1971 , with illustrations by Pratchett . The book received strong , if few , reviews and was followed by the science fiction novels The Dark Side of the Sun ( 1976 ) and Strata ( 1981 ) .
After various positions in journalism , in 1980 Pratchett became Press Officer for the Central Electricity Generating Board in an area which covered four nuclear power stations . He later joked that he had demonstrated " impeccable timing " by making this career change so soon after the Three Mile Island nuclear accident in Pennsylvania , US , and said he would " write a book about my experiences , if I thought anyone would believe it " .
The first Discworld novel , The Colour of Magic , was published in hardback by Colin Smythe Ltd in 1983 . The paperback edition was published by Corgi , an imprint of Transworld , in 1985 . Pratchett 's popularity increased when the BBC 's Woman 's Hour broadcast The Colour of Magic as a serial in six parts , and later Equal Rites . Subsequently , the hardback rights were taken by the publishing house Victor Gollancz Ltd , which remained Pratchett 's publisher until 1997 , and Colin Smythe became Pratchett 's agent . Pratchett was the first fantasy author published by Gollancz .
Pratchett gave up working for the CEGB to make his living through writing in 1987 , after finishing the fourth Discworld novel , Mort . His sales increased quickly and many of his books occupied top places on the best @-@ seller list . According to The Times , Pratchett was the top @-@ selling and highest earning UK author in 1996 . Some of his books have been published by Doubleday , another Transworld imprint . In the US , Pratchett is published by HarperCollins .
According to the Bookseller 's Pocket Yearbook ( 2005 ) , in 2003 Pratchett 's UK sales amounted to 3 @.@ 4 % of the fiction market by hardback sales and 3 @.@ 8 % by value , putting him in second place behind J. K. Rowling ( 6 % and 5 @.@ 6 % , respectively ) , while in the paperback sales list Pratchett came 5th with 1 @.@ 2 % and 1 @.@ 3 % by value ( behind James Patterson ( 1 @.@ 9 % and 1 @.@ 7 % ) , Alexander McCall Smith , John Grisham , and J. R. R. Tolkien ) . His sales in the UK alone are more than 2 @.@ 5 million copies a year .
= = Later life = =
Pratchett married Lyn Purves in 1968 , and they moved to Rowberrow , Somerset , in 1970 . Their daughter Rhianna Pratchett , who is also a writer , was born there in 1976 . In 1993 , the family moved to Broad Chalke , a village west of Salisbury , Wiltshire . He listed his recreations as " writing , walking , computers , life " . He described himself as a humanist and was a Distinguished Supporter of the British Humanist Association and an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society . He was the patron of the Friends of High Wycombe Library . In 2013 he gave a talk at Beaconsfield Library which he had visited as a child and donated the income from the event to it . On a number of occasions he also visited his former school to speak to the students and look around .
Pratchett was well known for his penchant for wearing large , black fedora hats , as seen on the inside back covers of most of his books . His style has been described as " more that of urban cowboy than city gent . "
Concern for the future of civilisation prompted him to install five kilowatts of photovoltaic cells ( for solar energy ) at his house . Having been interested in astronomy since childhood , he had an observatory built in his garden . An asteroid ( 127005 Pratchett ) is named after him .
On 31 December 2008 , it was announced that Pratchett was to be knighted ( as a Knight Bachelor ) in the Queen 's 2009 New Year Honours . He formally received the accolade at Buckingham Palace on 18 February 2009 . Afterwards he said , " You can 't ask a fantasy writer not to want a knighthood . You know , for two pins I 'd get myself a horse and a sword . " In late 2009 , he did make himself a sword , with the help of his friends . He told a Times Higher Education interviewer that " At the end of last year I made my own sword . I dug out the iron ore from a field about 10 miles away – I was helped by interested friends . We lugged 80 kilos of iron ore , used clay from the garden and straw to make a kiln , and lit the kiln with wildfire by making it with a bow . ' Colin Smythe , his long @-@ term friend and agent , donated some pieces of meteoric iron – ' thunderbolt iron ' has a special place in magic and we put that in the smelt , and I remember when we sawed the iron apart it looked like silver . Everything about it I touched , handled and so forth ... And everything was as it should have been , it seemed to me . "
= = = Alzheimer 's disease = = =
In August 2007 , Pratchett was misdiagnosed as having had a minor stroke in 2004 or 2005 , which doctors believed had damaged the right side of his brain . While his motor skills were affected , the observed damage had not impaired his ability to write . On 11 December 2007 , Pratchett posted online that he had been newly diagnosed with early @-@ onset Alzheimer 's disease , which had been responsible for the " stroke " . He had a rare form of the disease , posterior cortical atrophy ( PCA ) , in which areas at the back of the brain begin to shrink and shrivel .
Describing the diagnosis as an " embuggerance " in a radio interview , Pratchett appealed to people to " keep things cheerful " and proclaimed that " we are taking it fairly philosophically down here and possibly with a mild optimism . " He stated he felt he had time for " at least a few more books yet " , and added that while he understood the impulse to ask " is there anything I can do ? " , in this case he would only entertain such offers from " very high @-@ end experts in brain chemistry . " Discussing his diagnosis at the Bath Literature Festival in early 2008 , Pratchett revealed that by then he found it too difficult to write dedications when signing books . In his later years Pratchett wrote by dictating to his assistant , Rob Wilkins , or by using speech recognition software .
In March 2008 , Pratchett announced he would donate US $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( about £ 494 @,@ 000 ) to the Alzheimer 's Research Trust , and that he was shocked " to find out that funding for Alzheimer 's research is just 3 % of that to find cancer cures . " He said : " I am , along with many others , scrabbling to stay ahead long enough to be there when the Cure comes along . "
In April 2008 , Pratchett worked with the BBC to make a two @-@ part documentary series about his illness , Terry Pratchett : Living With Alzheimer 's . The first part was broadcast on BBC Two on 4 February 2009 , drawing 2.6m viewers and a 10 @.@ 4 % audience share . The second , broadcast on 11 February 2009 , drew 1.72m viewers and a 6 @.@ 8 % audience share . The documentary won a BAFTA award in the Factual Series category . Pratchett also made an appearance on The One Show on 15 May 2008 , talking about his condition . He was the subject and interviewee of the edition of 20 May 2008 of On the Ropes ( Radio 4 ) , discussing Alzheimer 's and how it had affected his life .
On 8 June 2008 , news reports indicated that Pratchett had an experience which he described as : " It is just possible that once you have got past all the gods that we have created with big beards and many human traits , just beyond all that , on the other side of physics , there just may be the ordered structure from which everything flows " and " I don 't actually believe in anyone who could have put that in my head " . He went into further detail on Front Row , in which he was asked if this was a shift in his beliefs : " A shift in me in the sense I heard my father talk to me when I was in the garden one day . But I 'm absolutely certain that what I heard was my memories of my father . An engram , or something in my head ... This is not about God , but somewhere around there is where gods come from . "
On 26 November 2008 , Pratchett met the Prime Minister Gordon Brown and asked for an increase in dementia research funding . From August 2008 , Pratchett tested a prototype device to address his condition . Despite some apparent improvements , the ability of the device to alter the course of the illness has been met with scepticism from Alzheimer 's researchers .
In an article published mid @-@ 2009 , Pratchett stated that he wished to die by assisted suicide ( although he disliked that term ) before his disease progressed to a critical point . He later said he felt " it should be possible for someone stricken with a serious and ultimately fatal illness to choose to die peacefully with medical help , rather than suffer . " Pratchett was selected to give the 2010 BBC Richard Dimbleby Lecture , entitled Shaking Hands With Death , broadcast on 1 February 2010 . Pratchett introduced his lecture on the topic of assisted death , but the main text was read by his friend Tony Robinson because Pratchett 's condition made it difficult for him to read . In June 2011 Pratchett presented a one @-@ off BBC television documentary , Terry Pratchett : Choosing to Die , about assisted suicide . It won the Best Documentary award at the Scottish BAFTAs in November 2011 .
In September 2012 Pratchett stated : " I have to tell you that I thought I 'd be a lot worse than this by now , and so did my specialist . " In the same interview , he stated that the cognitive part of his mind was " untouched " and his symptoms were physical ( normal for PCA ) . However , in July 2014 he cancelled his appearance at the biennial International Discworld Convention , saying : " the Embuggerance is finally catching up with me , along with other age @-@ related ailments " .
= = = Death = = =
Pratchett died at his home on the morning of 12 March 2015 from his Alzheimer 's , according to his publisher . The Telegraph reported an unidentified source as saying that despite his previous discussion of assisted suicide , his death had been natural . After Pratchett 's death , his assistant , Rob Wilkins , wrote from the official Terry Pratchett Twitter account :
AT LAST , SIR TERRY , WE MUST WALK TOGETHER .
Terry took Death 's arm and followed him through the doors and on to the black desert under the endless night .
The End .
The use of small capitals is a reference to how the character of Death speaks in Pratchett 's works .
Many public figures paid tribute following Pratchett 's death , including British Prime Minister David Cameron and the comedian Ricky Gervais , and authors including Nick Harkaway , Ursula Le Guin , Terry Brooks , Margaret Atwood , George R. R. Martin , and Neil Gaiman . Pratchett was memorialised in a graffito in East London , and the video game company Frontier Developments added a space station to Elite : Dangerous named " Pratchett 's Disc " . Developers of Dota 2 , Valve Corporation , added an item to their game called " Octarine Core , " in reference to Pratchett 's novel " The Colour of Magic . " Users of the social news site Reddit organised a tribute by which an HTTP header , " X @-@ Clacks @-@ Overhead : GNU Terry Pratchett " , is added to a site 's responses , a reference to the Discworld novel Going Postal .
Pratchett 's humanist funeral service was held on 25 March 2015 .
= = Interests = =
= = = Computers and the Internet = = =
Pratchett started to use computers for writing as soon as they were available to him . His first computer was a Sinclair ZX81 ; the first computer he used properly for writing was an Amstrad CPC 464 , later replaced by a PC . Pratchett was one of the first authors routinely to use the Internet to communicate with fans , and was a contributor to the Usenet newsgroup alt.fan.pratchett from 1992 . However , he did not consider the Internet a hobby , just another " thing to use " . He had many computers in his house , with a bank of six monitors rigged up to ease writing . When he travelled , he always took a portable computer with him to write .
His experiments with computer upgrades are reflected in Hex .
Pratchett was also an avid video game player , and collaborated in the creation of a number of game adaptations of his books . He favoured games that are " intelligent and have some depth " , citing Half @-@ Life 2 and fan missions from Thief as examples . Additionally , he played Oblivion , which he described as " wonderful " , and used many of its non @-@ combat @-@ oriented , fan @-@ made mods . He is also said to have enjoyed playing the first Tomb Raider game .
= = = Natural history = = =
Pratchett had a fascination with natural history that he referred to many times , and he owned a greenhouse full of carnivorous plants .
In 1995 , a fossil sea @-@ turtle from the Eocene epoch of New Zealand was named in honour of him Psephophorus terrypratchetti by the palaeontologist Richard Köhler .
In 2016 , Pratchett fans petitioned the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) to name chemical element 117 , currently referred to as Ununseptium , as Octarine , with the proposed symbol Oc ( pronounced " ook " ) .
= = = = Orangutans = = = =
Pratchett was a trustee for the Orangutan Foundation UK but was pessimistic about the animal 's future . His activities included visiting Borneo with a Channel 4 film crew to make an episode of " Jungle Quest " in 1995 , seeing orangutans in their natural habitat . Following Pratchett 's lead , fan events such as the Discworld Conventions have adopted the Orangutan Foundation as their nominated charity , which has been acknowledged by the foundation . One of Pratchett 's most popular fictional characters , the Librarian of the Unseen University 's Library , is a wizard who was transformed into an orangutan in a magical accident and decides to remain in that condition as it is so convenient for his work .
= = = Amateur astronomy = = =
Pratchett had an observatory in his back garden and was a keen astronomer from childhood . He made an appearance on the BBC programme The Sky at Night .
= = = Terry Pratchett First Novel Award = = =
Pratchett sponsored a biennial award for unpublished science fiction novelists , the Terry Pratchett First Novel Award . The prize is a publishing contract with his publishers Transworld . In 2011 the award was won jointly by David Logan for Half Sick of Shadows and Michael Logan for Apocalypse Cow . In 2013 the award was won by Alexander Maskill for The Hive .
= = = Sir Terry Pratchett Memorial Scholarship = = =
In 2015 , the estate of the late Sir Terry Pratchett announced an in @-@ perpetuity endowment to the University of South Australia . The Sir Terry Pratchett Memorial Scholarship supports a Masters scholarship at the University 's Hawke Research Institute .
= = Writing career = =
= = = Awards = = =
Pratchett received a knighthood for " services to literature " in the 2009 UK New Year Honours list . He was previously appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire , also for " services to literature " , in 1998 . Following this , Pratchett commented in the Ansible SF / fan newsletter , " I suspect the ' services to literature ' consisted of refraining from trying to write any , " but added , " Still , I cannot help feeling mightily chuffed about it . "
Pratchett was the British Book Awards ' ' Fantasy and Science Fiction Author of the Year ' for 1994 .
Pratchett won the British Science Fiction Award in 1989 for his novel , Pyramids , and a Locus Award for Best Fantasy Novel in 2008 for Making Money .
Pratchett was awarded ten honorary doctorates : University of Warwick in 1999 , the University of Portsmouth in 2001 , the University of Bath in 2003 , the University of Bristol in 2004 , Buckinghamshire New University in 2008 , the University of Dublin in 2008 , Bradford University in 2009 , University of Winchester in 2009 , The Open University in 2013 for his contribution to Public Service and his last , from the University of South Australia , in May 2014 .
Pratchett won the 2001 Carnegie Medal from the British librarians , recognising The Amazing Maurice and His Educated Rodents as the year 's best children 's book published in the UK .
Night Watch won the 2003 Prometheus Award for best libertarian novel .
In 2003 , BBC conducted The Big Read to identify the " Nation 's Best @-@ loved Novel " and finally published a ranked list of the " Top 200 " . Pratchett 's highest @-@ ranking novel was Mort , number 65 , but he and Charles Dickens were the only authors with five in the Top 100 ( four of his were from the Discworld series ) . He also led all authors with fifteen novels in the Top 200 .
Three of the five Discworld novels that centre on the " trainee witch " Tiffany Aching won the annual Locus Award for Best Young Adult Book in 2004 , 2005 and 2007 .
In 2005 , Going Postal was shortlisted for the Hugo Award for Best Novel ; however , Pratchett recused himself , stating that stress over the award would mar his enjoyment of Worldcon .
Pratchett received the NESFA Skylark Award in 2009 and the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement in 2010 . In 2011 he won Margaret A. Edwards Award from the American Library Association , a lifetime honour for " significant and lasting contribution to young adult literature " . The librarians cited nine Discworld novels published from 1983 to 2004 and observed that " Pratchett 's tales of Discworld have won over generations of teen readers with intelligence , heart , and undeniable wit . Comic adventures that fondly mock the fantasy genre , the Discworld novels expose the hypocrisies of contemporary society in an intricate , ever @-@ expanding universe . With satisfyingly multilayered plots , Pratchett 's humor honors the intelligence of the reader . Teens eagerly lose themselves in a universe with no maps . "
He was made an adjunct Professor in the School of English at Trinity College Dublin in 2010 , with a role in postgraduate education in creative writing and popular literature .
I Shall Wear Midnight won the 2010 Andre Norton Award for Young Adult Science Fiction and Fantasy presented by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America ( SFWA ) as a part of the Nebula Award ceremony . In 2016 , SFWA announced that Sir Terry would be the recipient of the Kate Wilhelm Solstice Award , presented at the 2016 SFWA Nebula Conference .
= = = Fanbase = = =
Pratchett 's Discworld novels have led to dedicated conventions , the first in Manchester in 1996 , then worldwide , often with the author as guest of honour . Publication of a new novel was sometimes accompanied by an international book signing tour ; queues were known to stretch outside the bookshop as the author continued to sign books well after the intended finishing time . His fans were not restricted by age or gender , and he received a large amount of fan mail from them . Pratchett enjoyed meeting fans and hearing what they think about his books , saying that since he was well paid for his novels , his fans were " everything " to him .
= = Writing = =
Pratchett said that to write , you must read extensively , both inside and outside your chosen genre and to the point of " overflow " . He advised that writing is hard work , and that writers must " make grammar , punctuation and spelling a part of your life . " However , Pratchett enjoyed writing , regarding its monetary rewards as " an unavoidable consequence " , rather than the reason for writing .
= = = Fantasy genre = = =
Although during his early career he wrote for the sci @-@ fi and horror genres , Pratchett later focused almost entirely on fantasy , and said : " It is easier to bend the universe around the story . " In the acceptance speech for his Carnegie Medal he said : " Fantasy isn 't just about wizards and silly wands . It 's about seeing the world from new directions " , pointing to J. K. Rowling 's Harry Potter novels and J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings . In the same speech , he acknowledged benefits of these works for the genre .
Pratchett believed he owed " a debt to the science fiction / fantasy genre which he grew up out of " and disliked the term " magical realism " which , he said , is " like a polite way of saying you write fantasy and is more acceptable to certain people ... who , on the whole , do not care that much . " He expressed annoyance that fantasy is " unregarded as a literary form " , arguing that it " is the oldest form of fiction " ; he described himself as " infuriated " when novels containing science fiction or fantasy ideas were not regarded as part of those genres . He debated this issue with novelist A. S. Byatt and critic Terry Eagleton , arguing that fantasy is fundamental to the way we understand the world and therefore an integral aspect of all fiction .
On 31 July 2005 , Pratchett criticised media coverage of Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling , commenting that certain members of the media seemed to think that " the continued elevation of J. K. Rowling can be achieved only at the expense of other writers " . Pratchett later denied claims that this was a swipe at Rowling , and said that he was not making claims of plagiarism , but was pointing out the " shared heritage " of the fantasy genre . Pratchett also posted on the Harry Potter newsgroup about a media @-@ covered exchange of views with her .
= = = Style and themes = = =
Pratchett is known for a distinctive writing style that included a number of characteristic hallmarks . One example is his use of footnotes , which usually involve a comic departure from the narrative or a commentary on the narrative , and occasionally have footnotes of their own .
Pratchett 's earliest Discworld novels were written largely to parody classic sword @-@ and @-@ sorcery fiction ( and occasionally science @-@ fiction ) ; as the series progressed , Pratchett dispensed with parody almost entirely , and the Discworld series evolved into straightforward ( though still comedic ) satire .
Pratchett had a tendency to avoid using chapters , arguing in a Book Sense interview that " life does not happen in regular chapters , nor do movies , and Homer did not write in chapters " , adding " I 'm blessed if I know what function they serve in books for adults . " However , there have been exceptions ; Going Postal and Making Money and several of his books for younger readers are divided into chapters . Pratchett offered explanations for his sporadic use of chapters ; in the young adult titles , he said that he must use chapters because ' [ his ] editor screams until [ he ] does ' , but otherwise felt that they were an unnecessary ' stopping point ' that got in the way of the narrative .
Characters , place names , and titles in Pratchett 's books often contain puns , allusions and culture references . Some characters are parodies of well @-@ known characters : for example , Pratchett 's character Cohen the Barbarian , also called Ghengiz Cohen , is a parody of Conan the Barbarian and Genghis Khan , and his character Leonard of Quirm is a parody of Leonardo da Vinci .
Another hallmark of his writing was the use of capitalised dialogue without quotation marks , used to indicate the character of Death communicating telepathically into a character 's mind . Other characters or types of characters were given similarly distinctive ways of speaking , such as the auditors of reality never having quotation marks , Ankh @-@ Morpork grocers never using punctuation correctly , and golems capitalising each word in everything they say . Pratchett also made up a new colour , octarine , a ' fluorescent greenish @-@ yellow @-@ purple ' , which is the eighth colour in the Discworld spectrum — the colour of magic . Indeed , the number eight itself is regarded in the Discworld as being a magical number ; for example , the eighth son of an eighth son will be a wizard , and his eighth son will be a " sourcerer " ( which is one reason why wizards are not allowed to have children ) .
Discworld novels often included a modern innovation and its introduction to the world 's medieval setting , such as a public police force ( Guards ! Guards ! ) , guns ( Men at Arms ) , submarines ( Jingo ) , cinema ( Moving Pictures ) , investigative journalism ( The Truth ) , the postage stamp ( Going Postal ) , modern banking ( Making Money ) , and the steam engine ( Raising Steam ) . The " clacks " , the tower @-@ to @-@ tower semaphore system that sprang up in later novels , is a mechanical optical telegraph ( used in Napoleon 's Era successfully ) before wired electric telegraph chains , with all the change and turmoil that such an advancement implies . The resulting social upheaval driven by these changes serves as the setting for the main story .
= = = Influences = = =
Pratchett made no secret of outside influences on his work : they were a major source of his humour . He imported numerous characters from classic literature , popular culture and ancient history , always adding an unexpected twist . Pratchett was a crime novel fan , which was reflected in frequent appearances of the Ankh @-@ Morpork City Watch in the Discworld series . Pratchett was an only child , and his characters are often without siblings . Pratchett explained , " In fiction , only @-@ children are the interesting ones " .
Pratchett 's earliest inspirations were The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame , and the works of Isaac Asimov and Arthur C. Clarke . His literary influences have been P.G. Wodehouse , Tom Sharpe , Jerome K. Jerome , Roy Lewis , Alan Coren , G. K. Chesterton , and Mark Twain .
= = = Publishing history = = =
While Pratchett 's UK publishing history remained quite stable , his relationships with international publishers were turbulent ( especially in America ) . He changed German publishers after an advertisement for Maggi soup appeared in the middle of the German @-@ language version of Pyramids .
= = Works = =
= = = The Discworld series = = =
Pratchett began writing the Discworld series in 1983 to " have fun with some of the cliches " and it is a humorous and often satirical sequence of stories set in the colourful fantasy Discworld universe . The series contains various story arcs ( or sub @-@ series ) , and a number of free @-@ standing stories . All are set in an abundance of locations in the same detailed and unified world , such as the Unseen University and ' The Drum / Broken Drum / Mended Drum ' public house in the twin city Ankh @-@ Morpork , or places in the various continents , regions and countries on the Disc . Characters and locations reappear throughout the series , variously taking major and minor roles .
The Discworld itself is described as a large disc resting on the backs of four giant elephants , all supported by the giant turtle Great A 'Tuin as it swims its way through space . The books are essentially in chronological order , and advancements can be seen in the development of the Discworld civilisations , such as the creation of paper money in Ankh @-@ Morpork .
Many of the novels in Pratchett 's Discworld series parody real @-@ world subjects such as film making , newspaper publishing , rock and roll music , religion , philosophy , Ancient Greece , Egyptian history , the Gulf War , Australia , university politics , trade unions , and the financial world . Pratchett also included further parody as a feature within the stories , including such subjects as Ingmar Bergman films , numerous fiction , science fiction , and fantasy characters , and various bureaucratic and ruling systems .
= = = Other Discworld books = = =
Pratchett wrote or collaborated on a number of Discworld books that are not novels in themselves but serve to accompany the series .
The Discworld Companion , written with Stephen Briggs , is an encyclopaedic guide to Discworld . The third edition was renamed The New Discworld Companion , and was published in 2003 . The fourth and most recent edition of the companion , Turtle Recall was published on 18 October 2012 . Briggs also collaborated with Pratchett on a series of fictional Discworld " mapps " . The first , The Discworld Mapp ( 1995 ) , illustrated by Stephen Player , comprises a large , comprehensive map of the Discworld itself with a small booklet that contains short biographies of the Disc 's prominent explorers and their discoveries . Three further " mapps " , have been released , focusing on particular regions of the Disc : Ankh @-@ Morpork , Lancre , and Death 's Domain .
Between 1997 and 2015 , ten Discworld Diaries were published as collaborations with Briggs or the Discword Emporium . Pratchett and Tina Hannan collaborated on Nanny Ogg 's Cookbook ( 1999 ) . The design of this cookbook , illustrated by Paul Kidby , was based on the traditional Mrs Beeton 's Book of Household Management , but with humorous recipes . Pratchett and Bernard Pearson collaborated on The Discworld Almanak , for the Year of the Prawn , with illustration by Paul Kidby , Pearson and Sheila Watkins .
Collections of Discworld @-@ related art have also been released in book form . The Pratchett Portfolio ( 1996 ) and The Art of Discworld ( 2004 ) are collections of paintings of major Discworld characters by Paul Kidby , with details added by Pratchett on the character 's origins .
In 2005 , Pratchett 's first book for very young children was Where 's My Cow ? Illustrated by Melvyn Grant , this is a realisation of the short story Sam Vimes reads to his child in Thud ! .
The Unseen University Cut Out Book was published in 2006 developed with Alan Bately and Bernard Pearson . The book contains cut @-@ out templates of seven of the major buildings in the Unseen University .
Following on from the release of Sky 's adaptation of Hogfather , Terry Pratchett 's Hogfather , The Illustrated Screenplay was released in 2006 . It was written by Vadim Jean and " mucked about with by Terry Pratchett " . It contains the final shooting script , pictures from the film and additional illustrations by Stephen Player . It was published by Gollancz .
Pratchett and the Discworld Emporium published The Compleat Ankh @-@ Morpork City Guide in 2012 which combined a trade directory , gazetteer , laws and ordinances together with a fully revised city map with artwork by Bernard Pearson , Ian Mitchell and Peter Dennis .
A number of publications have been released on the back of Pratchett 's novels with the participation of the Discworld Emporium :
The World of Poo ; a book by Miss Felicity Beedle who features in Snuff ( 2012 )
Mrs Bradshaw 's Handbook : an illustrated guide to Discworld railway ( Raising Steam , 2014 )
Pratchett resisted mapping the Discworld for quite some time , noting that a firmly designed map restricts narrative possibility ( i.e. , with a map , fans would complain if he placed a building on the wrong street , but without one , he could adjust the geography to fit the story ) .
= = = = The Science of Discworld = = = =
Pratchett wrote four Science of Discworld books in collaboration with Professor of mathematics Ian Stewart and reproductive biologist Jack Cohen , both of the University of Warwick : The Science of Discworld ( 1999 ) , The Science of Discworld II : The Globe ( 2002 ) , The Science of Discworld III : Darwin 's Watch ( 2005 ) , and The Science of Discworld IV : Judgement Day ( 2013 ) .
All four books have chapters that alternate between fiction and non @-@ fiction : the fictional chapters are set within the Discworld universe , where characters observe , and experiment on , a universe with the same physics as ours . The non @-@ fiction chapters ( written by Stewart and Cohen ) explain the science behind the fictional events .
In 1999 , Pratchett appointed both Cohen and Stewart as " Honorary Wizards of the Unseen University " at the same ceremony at which the University of Warwick awarded him an honorary degree .
= = = = Folklore of Discworld = = = =
Pratchett collaborated with the folklorist Dr Jacqueline Simpson on The Folklore of Discworld ( 2008 ) , a study of the relationship between many of the persons , places and events described in the Discworld books and their counterparts in myths , legends , fairy tales and folk customs on Earth .
= = = Other novels and writing = = =
Pratchett 's first two adult novels , The Dark Side of the Sun ( 1976 ) and Strata ( 1981 ) , were both science @-@ fiction , the latter taking place partly on a disc @-@ shaped world . Subsequent to these , Pratchett mostly concentrated on his Discworld series and novels for children , with two exceptions : Good Omens ( 1990 ) , a collaboration with Neil Gaiman ( which was nominated for both Locus and World Fantasy Awards in 1991 ) , a humorous story about the Apocalypse set on Earth , and Nation ( 2008 ) , a book for young adults .
After writing Good Omens , Pratchett began to work with Larry Niven on a book that would become Rainbow Mars ; Niven eventually completed the book on his own , but states in the afterword that a number of Pratchett 's ideas remained in the finished version .
Pratchett also collaborated with British science fiction author Stephen Baxter on a parallel earth series . The first novel , entitled The Long Earth was released on 21 June 2012 . A second novel , The Long War , was released on 18 June 2013 . The Long Mars was published in 2014 . The fourth book in the series , The Long Utopia , was published in June 2015 , and the fifth , The Long Cosmos , in June 2016 .
In 2012 , the first volume of Pratchett 's collected short fiction was published under the title A Blink of the Screen . In 2014 , a similar collection was published of Pratchett 's non @-@ fiction , entitled A Slip of the Keyboard .
= = = Juvenile literature = = =
Pratchett 's first children 's novel was also his first published novel : The Carpet People in 1971 , which Pratchett substantially rewrote and re @-@ released in 1992 . The next , Truckers ( 1988 ) , was the first in The Nome Trilogy of novels for young readers , about small gnome @-@ like creatures called " Nomes " , and the trilogy continued in Diggers ( 1990 ) and Wings ( 1990 ) . Subsequently , Pratchett wrote the Johnny Maxwell trilogy , about the adventures of a boy called Johnny Maxwell and his friends , comprising Only You Can Save Mankind ( 1992 ) , Johnny and the Dead ( 1993 ) and Johnny and the Bomb ( 1996 ) . Nation ( 2008 ) marked his return to the non @-@ Discworld children 's novel , and this was followed in 2012 by Dodger , a children 's novel set in Victorian London . On 21 November 2013 Doubleday Children 's released Pratchett 's Jack Dodger 's Guide to London .
In September 2014 an anthology of children 's stories , Dragons at Crumbling Castle , written by Pratchett , and illustrated by Mark Beech , was published .
= = = Collaborations and contributions = = =
The Unadulterated Cat ( 1989 ) is a humorous book of cat anecdotes written by Pratchett and illustrated by Gray Jolliffe .
Digital Dreams , edited by David V Barrett ( 1990 ) , contains the science fiction short story ' " # ifdefDEBUG + " world / enough " + " time " .
Good Omens , written with Neil Gaiman ( 1990 )
After the King : Stories In Honour of J.R.R. Tolkien edited by Martin H. Greenberg ( 1992 ) contains " Troll Bridge " , a short story featuring Cohen the Barbarian . This story was also published in the compilation The Mammoth Book of Comic Fantasy ( 2001 , edited by Mike Ashley ) .
Now We Are Sick , written by Neil Gaiman and Stephen Jones ( 1994 ) , includes the poem called " The Secret Book of the Dead " by Pratchett .
The Wizards of Odd , a short @-@ story compilation edited by Peter Haining ( 1996 ) , includes a Discworld short story called " Theatre of Cruelty " .
The Flying Sorcerers , another short @-@ story compilation edited by Peter Haining ( 1997 ) , starts off with a Pratchett story called " Turntables of the Night " , featuring Death ( albeit not set on Discworld , but in our " reality " ) .
Knights of Madness ( 1998
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Singles Chart . It spent the following three consecutive weeks in the top ten of the singles chart and later charted at number ten in its sixth week . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) awarded " Girl " with a gold certification for selling 35 @,@ 000 copies in that region . On the New Zealand Singles Chart the single reached number six in its second week of charting on May 16 , 2005 . It further spent five weeks at number nine and was last seen on the chart on August 1 at number 38 .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Girl " was directed by Bryan Barber and released in mid @-@ February along with the video for " Cater 2 U " . It was inspired by Sex and the City , containing elements and influences of the sitcom in many scenes . The clip is split into two different sets : Destiny 's Child in Beyoncé 's apartment and the same trio on a fictional television show . It begins with Williams and Rowland entering Beyoncé 's apartment as she writes on her laptop . They settle down with snacks and wine as they watch a fictional show styled after Sex and the City . After the opening credits , Beyoncé and Williams meet Rowland on the TV for lunch at a restaurant . Throughout the video , the women at home respond to the events of the program through gestures and actions , while , on the television , the dialogue of the song matches their conversations in the restaurant . Beyoncé confronts Rowland about her sad demeanor and suspected boyfriend problems , but she feigns shock and insists that nothing is wrong ; however , neither Williams nor Beyoncé are convinced . Viewers can see that , on one occasion , her boyfriend took very long to come home without explanation and , when he finally arrived , a hurt Rowland threw his food away before running upstairs avoiding him .
Rowland admits to some problems , while making excuses for her boyfriend , such as his busy schedule and her own moodiness . Beyoncé , however , rolls her eyes at the thin excuses , and assures Rowland that she and Williams love her and she does not need not to suffer alone . At this , Rowland begins to cry and laugh at the same time . Williams goes on to tell her of the day she confronted her boyfriend when she saw him browsing through jewelry with another woman . During the last minute of the video , Rowland can seen be seen looking cold and angry as her boyfriend comes home . He arrives apologetic , but she perks up , dangling a pair of fuzzy handcuffs . He smiles and begins to follow her upstairs . In the following scene , he is naked except for a pair of boxers ( in some versions , his rear @-@ end is blurred out ) and handcuffed to the balcony . With her bags packed and the handcuff key in hand , she leaves — laughing happily leaving her partner shocked and angry . The girls are finally seen walking down the city street , holding hands , as an image of the album cover of Destiny Fulfilled passes by on a city bus .
Rashaun Hall of MTV News compared Beyoncé 's role to Sarah Jessica Parker 's portrayal of Carrie Bradshaw in Sex and the City due to the heels designed by Manolo Blahnik she wore in the video . Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz from Billboard described it as " adorable " . Mike Wass from the website Idolator felt that the clip was " dubious " . Lindsay Weber writing on behalf of the blog Vulture , noted that it was a " cheesy play " on Sex and the City . Stylus Magazine 's Thomas Inskeep opined that the song itself has been " bettered by its Sex and the City homage of a video " . The music video is featured on the bonus DVD of the Destiny Fulfilled Tour edition as well as on the Japanese version of the DVD Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta . In 2013 it was included on the album Destiny 's Child Video Anthology which contained every music video the group had filmed during their career .
= = Live performances and usage as sample = =
Destiny 's Child sang " Girl " during the British show Top of the Pops on April 29 , 2005 . They later appeared on the programme CD : UK where they performed the song . On July 2 , 2005 , " Girl " was part of Destiny 's Child 's set list during the Live 8 concert in Philadelphia as the closing song . Gil Kaufman reporting for MTV News noted , " The ladies in the audience sang their hearts out during ... ' Girl . ' " The trio gave a live rendition of the song again at the Today show on July 29 , 2005 as part of the " Toyota Concert Series on Today " . At the beginning of the performance , Beyoncé announced that the band wrote the song " for all the girlfriends out there " and later " I 'll Take You There " ( 1972 ) was incorporated during the end .
In 2005 , " Girl " was part of the set list of the group 's final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It . The performance was preceded by a video interlude , during which Beyoncé , Williams and Rowland appeared on the screen on the stage . The former two started discussing about the latter 's relationship who also joined them after hearing their opinions . Their discussions were similar to the lyrical content of the song with the two trying to convince her the relationship is wrong and the latter defending her love interest . After the interlude finished , the group appeared onstage performing " Girl " mixing it with " I 'll Take You There " . While reviewing a concert in the UK , Adenike Adenitire of MTV News praised the performance , concluding " They borrowed the ' Sex and the City ' theme for the ' Girl ' video , but they lean more toward ' Girlfriends ' when taking it on the road , with a light comedy moment that may see TV execs thinking seriously about a Destiny 's Child sitcom . " In contrast , Barbara Ellen of The Observer criticized the segment during which " Girl " was performed , writing " ... no amount of ' girlpower ' rabble @-@ rousing can disguise the fact the songs are wet @-@ paper @-@ bag weak ; giving the impression of three bored young women dozing off at a slumber party , whining in their jim @-@ jams about men who ' done them wrong ' , or men who ' done someone else wrong ' , or just men doing wrong , period . " The song was included on the track listing of the group 's live album Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta ( 2006 ) chronicling a concert from the tour in that city .
In 2015 , " Girl " was sampled along with Brandy and Monica 's " The Boy Is Mine " ( 1998 ) on 99 Souls 's " The Girl Is Mine " . The track was released as a single in late 2015 and managed to peak at number five in the UK and the top forty in other European countries .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of the album Destiny Fulfilled .
Lead vocals : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams
Vocal production : Knowles and Rowland
Recorded by : Jim Caruna at Sony Music Studios , NYC
Audio mixing : Dave " Hard Drive " Pensado
Audio mastering : Tom Coyne
= = Track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Classy Christmas =
" Classy Christmas " is the collective name for the eleventh and twelfth episodes of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 137th and 138th episodes overall . Written by Mindy Kaling and directed by Rainn Wilson , the episode originally aired on December 9 , 2010 on NBC . " Classy Christmas " guest stars Jack Coleman as Senator Robert Lipton , Rob Huebel as A.J. , Mark Proksch as Nate , and marks the return of Amy Ryan as Holly Flax .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is overjoyed about the return of his old love , Holly Flax ( Ryan ) . Michael forces Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) to plan a second Christmas party on the day Holly returns to Scranton . Meanwhile , Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) convinces his daughter to attend the party in hopes of meeting Santa Claus . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) agrees to a snowball fight with Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) , which he later regrets .
The scenes that were filmed outdoors in Los Angeles had to be crafted to look as if it were cold ; in reality , temperatures reached into 90 degrees Fahrenheit , and above . The snowmen used in the episode took a day to create and used over 100 tons of chipped ice . " Classy Christmas " was viewed by 7 @.@ 18 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 7 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , marking a slight drop in the ratings when compared to the previous week . Despite this , the episode was the highest @-@ rated NBC series on the night that it aired . It received largely positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) learns that Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) will be taking a leave of absence to go on jury duty for the Scranton Strangler trial , leading the corporate office to send Holly Flax ( Amy Ryan ) to cover for him . Michael forces Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) to plan a second , classier Christmas party on the day Holly returns to Scranton . Michael welcomes Holly back , but becomes upset when she tells him that she and A.J. ( Rob Huebel ) are still in a relationship . Holly then tells the women of the office that she 's giving A.J. an ultimatum : either propose to her by year 's end or their relationship is over . Michael lies to Holly and tells her that he 's seeing a woman named Tara from New York , and Holly shows curiosity , but Michael interprets this as potential jealousy . When Michael gets further upset over hearing about Holly 's relationship with A.J. , he takes her toy Woody from Toy Story — a present from A.J. — throws it in the trash , and pours his coffee on it . When Holly demands to know who did it , Michael comes forward and admits that he is upset and still has feelings for her . A.J. arrives in Scranton to surprise Holly , and Michael welcomes him politely . After cleaning Holly 's Woody , he leaves the office and Pam follows him out , where he breaks down . In order to lift his spirits , Pam tells him about Holly 's ultimatum , suggesting their relationship is not going to last very long . He returns to the party where he overhears Holly and A.J. talking about Woody , with Holly fabricating a story to cover for Michael 's actions .
Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) is upset that his daughter Jada would rather spend Christmas with her mother than him . At the party , Jada begins to lose interest , but Pam and Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) try to find fun activities for her ; however , Andy ends up ruining most of them . Darryl then takes her to the break room , where she is impressed with the snacks in the vending machines . They take out the snacks and hand them to employees . When she hands one to Michael , he decides to dress up as Santa again so she can tell him what she wants for Christmas as Holly looks on with admiration .
Pam says that her husband Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) always makes her great Christmas gifts so she wants to make him one too . She creates a hand @-@ drawn comic book about Jim who gets attacked by a radioactive bear and takes its powers . She asks for others ' opinions before giving it to Jim , but most of them give her harsh critiques . Jim gives Pam a beautiful bracelet and he is equally amazed at the comic book she gives him . Meanwhile , Jim agrees to a snowball fight with Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) . When he is first challenged outside , however , he finds the doors chained . Dwight then emerges from a snowman , throwing multiple snowballs at Jim and leaving him with a bloody nose . Throughout the day , Dwight torments Jim with increasingly elaborate snowball ambushes . Jim tries to surrender , but Dwight refuses . At the end of the day , Jim is too afraid to go outside . He and Pam find multiple snowmen , and Jim attacks them all hoping to find Dwight . Dwight , however , is on the roof of the building , claiming that the most powerful snowball in a snowball fight is fear , and smilingly wishes the camera " Merry Christmas " .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Mindy Kaling , her eighteenth writing credit for the series . Rainn Wilson , who portrays Dwight Schrute on the series , directed the episode , his second directing credit of the series after the sixth @-@ season episode " The Cover @-@ Up " . The episode was also the first of several season seven episodes that saw the return of Amy Ryan as Holly . Kaling purposely made Dwight " complicated " and " mean " in the script ; she wanted to avoid a situation wherein Jim and Dwight become best friends , calling it something that would happen in a " crappy sitcom feel @-@ good formula . " She wanted to stress the fact that " Jim [ and Dwight ] are not friends . " Kaling specifically wrote Jim to be " off @-@ guard [ and ] surprised " in the episode , because she reasoned that " perfect isn 't always nearly as fun to play or watch as flawed . " The episode was filmed in early November and was shot out of order . This required the assistant directors of The Office to re @-@ dress " the sets from white , spare ' classy Christmas ' look to the elaborate , colorful ' regular Christmas look . ' "
According to Kaling , the group had to pretend like it was cold during the outdoor scenes when it was actually warm . The snow that was used for the snowballs was artificial , and did not cooperate well . According to Kaling , the snowballs would " ' explode ' before they made contact " . While Krasinski and Wilson did not hold back during the fights , neither one was injured ; the blood on Jim 's face and shirt was artificial . The snowmen featured at the end of the episode took a day to construct . In addition , the artificial snow had to be maintained , and footprints had to " be tracked constantly " to maintain continuity . The snowmen were crafted out of 100 tons of chipped ice , and the show 's special effects team created molds and hand @-@ crafted the creations . The scenes featuring the snowmen were shot on the hottest day of the episode 's shoot in Los Angeles , with temperatures reaching above 90 degrees Fahrenheit . The entire crew was outfitted UV @-@ protectant glasses because " snow @-@ blindness was a real possibility . " To prevent heat @-@ related injuries , an on @-@ set medic monitored the staff and crew ; anyone who was slated to appear outside was " slathered in sunscreen " and kept inside until " moments " before each shot .
The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include more scenes of Kelly giving out the Sabre gifts , extended scenes of Toby discussing the Scranton Strangler trial , Jim asking Erin for the first aid kit , and Pam talking about Holly 's ultimatum .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael claims that , to a person from New Hampshire , a fake tree is the same as a burning cross . Darryl mentions that he has a fondness for the Nickelodean series iCarly , specifically complimenting the voice of Freddie Benson , played by Nathan Kress . A line that was cut from the scene features Darryl harshly criticizing the Disney Channel series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody . The gifts that Kelly decides to give to her staff members on Corporate 's behalf are laptop sleeves , featuring the popular fictional character Hello Kitty , which is produced by the Japanese company Sanrio . Holly 's gift from A.J. is a replica of Woody from Toy Story , the 1995 animated Pixar film about friendly toys coming to life when no one is around . When Michael claims he heard Holly would be single , he blames " Nora Ephron and every romantic comedy ever " . Andy disguises himself as the Grinch and steals the Christmas tree 's star for the sake of Jada 's entertainment .
= = Reception = =
" Classy Christmas " first aired on December 9 , 2010 . The episode received 3 @.@ 7 / 10 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 – 49 according to Nielsen ratings . This means that 3 @.@ 7 percent of all households with an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old living in it watched the episode , and ten percent had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 18 million viewers , dropping in viewers from the previous week , although ratings were adjusted down for NBC due to NFL game local broadcasts in Indianapolis and Nashville . Despite this , the episode was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night that it aired .
This episode received mostly positive reviews . James Poniewozik of Time magazine said , " ' Classy Christmas ' may not have been one of the show 's most hilarious episodes ever , but it did recall the best era of the show , when it was able to deliver with storylines that were as much drama as comedy . " He also said that " it was an initially good payment " . TV Fanatic 's Dan Forcella said that " Classy Christmas " was an enjoyable episode and " watching Jim suffer as Dwight jumped out of a snowman and pummeled him with snow ball after snow ball was absolutely hilarious . " Despite this , he also said he wasn 't as good as the second season episode " Christmas Party " . IGN writer Matt Fowler named it the third best Christmas episode of the series calling it a " good episode , with a sweet ending " .
Alan Sepinwall of HitFix called the episode " another standout holiday episode " , and applauded the return of Holly , calling her " welcome " . He enjoy the episode largely because it was full of " darkness " ; he noted that " I like when The Office aims for something non @-@ comic , so long as it takes its characters seriously , which it did here . " Sepwinwall also complimented that subplot featuring Jim being terrorized by Dwight , applauding both Kaling 's writing and Wilson 's directing . Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste magazine argued that the reappearance of Holly — a signal that Steve Carell 's exit was approaching — " gifted [ the viewers ] with some of the show 's best writing in a long time . "
Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club gave it a slightly more critical review , awarded it a " B " . He compared the episode the third season episode " A Benihana Christmas " , writing that " both deal with Michael ’ s heart being broken and the somewhat self @-@ destructive ways he deals with it . " However , he felt that the episode " struggles greatly if you have no emotional connection to Holly and Michael " because it " isn 't funny , by any real stretch of the term , nor is it really intended to be funny . " He went on to say " I like episodes like this one in general and don 't necessarily need the show to make me laugh , but I would say that I wanted this hour to be slightly more ... pleasant . "
= Michael J. Fox =
Michael Andrew Fox , OC ( born June 9 , 1961 ) , known as Michael J. Fox , is a Canadian @-@ American actor , author , producer , and activist . With a film and television career spanning from the 1970s , Fox 's roles have included Marty McFly from the Back to the Future trilogy ( 1985 – 1990 ) ; Alex P. Keaton from NBC 's Family Ties ( 1982 – 1989 ) , for which he won three Emmy Awards and a Golden Globe Award ; and Mike Flaherty in ABC 's Spin City ( 1996 – 2001 ) , for which he won an Emmy , three Golden Globes , and two Screen Actors Guild Awards .
Fox was diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease in 1991 , at age 29 , and disclosed his condition to the public in 1998 . Fox semi @-@ retired from acting in 2000 as the symptoms of his disease worsened . He has since become an advocate for research toward finding a cure ; he created the Michael J. Fox Foundation , and on March 5 , 2010 , Sweden 's Karolinska Institutet gave him a honoris causa doctorate for his work in advocating a cure for Parkinson 's disease .
Since 2001 , Fox has mainly worked as a voice @-@ over actor in films such as Stuart Little and Disney 's Atlantis : The Lost Empire . On the CBS TV show The Good Wife , he earned Emmy nominations for three consecutive years for his recurring role as crafty attorney Louis Canning . Fox has also taken recurring guest roles and cameo appearances in Boston Legal , Scrubs , Curb Your Enthusiasm and Rescue Me . He has released three books : Lucky Man : A Memoir ( 2002 ) , Always Looking Up : The Adventures of an Incurable Optimist ( 2009 ) , and A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Future : Twists and Turns and Lessons Learned ( 2010 ) . He was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada in 2010 . He also was inducted into Canada 's Walk of Fame in 2000 .
= = Early life = =
Fox was born on June 9 , 1961 , in Edmonton , Alberta , Canada , to Phyllis ( née Piper ) , an actress / payroll clerk , and William Fox , a police officer and Canadian Forces member .
Fox 's family lived in various cities and towns across Canada because of his father 's career . The family finally moved to the Vancouver suburb of Burnaby , British Columbia , when his father retired in 1971 . His father died on January 6 , 1990 , from a heart attack . Fox attended Burnaby Central Secondary School , and now has a theatre named for him in Burnaby South Secondary . Fox , at age 15 , starred in the Canadian television series Leo and Me produced by the CBC , and in 1979 , at age 18 , he moved to Los Angeles to further his acting career . Shortly after his marriage , he decided to move back to Vancouver . Fox is one of four members of the Leo and Me cast and crew who eventually developed Parkinson 's disease in mid @-@ life , an unusually high number that led to some investigation as to whether an environmental factor may have played a role .
Fox was discovered by producer Ronald Shedlo and made his American television debut in the television film Letters from Frank , credited under the name " Michael Fox " . He intended to continue to use the name , but when he registered with the Screen Actors Guild , which requires unique registration names to avoid credit ambiguities , he discovered that Michael Fox , a veteran character actor , was already registered under the name . As he explained in his autobiography , Lucky Man : A Memoir and in interviews , he needed to come up with a different name . He did not like the sound of " Michael A. Fox " during a time when " fox " was coming to mean " attractive " and because his middle initial sounded too much like the Canadian " eh ? " He also didn 't like the sound of " Andrew " or " Andy , " so he decided to adopt a new middle initial and settled on " J " , as an homage to actor Michael J. Pollard .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Fox 's first feature film roles were Midnight Madness ( 1980 ) and Class of 1984 ( 1982 ) , credited in both as Michael Fox . Shortly afterward , he began playing " Young Republican " Alex P. Keaton in the show Family Ties which aired on NBC for seven seasons , 1982 – 89 . In an interview with Jimmy Fallon in April 2014 , Fox stated he negotiated the role at a payphone at Pioneer Chicken . He received the role only after Matthew Broderick was unavailable . Family Ties had been sold to the television network using the pitch " Hip parents , square kids , " with the parents originally intended to be the main characters . However , the positive reaction to Fox 's performance led to his character becoming the focus of the show following the fourth episode . At its peak , the audience for Family Ties drew one @-@ third of America 's households every week . Fox won three Emmy awards for Family Ties , in 1986 , 1987 and 1988 . He also won a Golden Globe Award in 1989 .
Brandon Tartikoff , one of the show 's producers , felt that Fox was too short in relation to the actors playing his parents , and tried to have him replaced . Tartikoff reportedly said that " this is not the kind of face you 'll ever find on a lunch @-@ box . " After his later successes , Fox presented Tartikoff with a custom @-@ made lunch @-@ box with the inscription " To Brandon , this is for you to put your crow in . Love and Kisses , Michael J. Fox . " Tartikoff kept the lunch @-@ box in his office for the rest of his NBC career .
While filming Family Ties , Fox met his wife , Tracy Pollan , who portrayed his girlfriend , Ellen . When Fox left the TV series Spin City , his final episodes made numerous allusions to Family Ties : Michael Gross ( who played Alex 's father Steven ) portrays Mike Flaherty 's ( Fox 's ) therapist , and there is a reference to an off @-@ screen character named " Mallory " . Also , when Flaherty becomes an environmental lobbyist in Washington , D.C. , he meets a conservative senator from Ohio named Alex P. Keaton , and in one episode Meredith Baxter played Mike 's mother .
As a consequence of working in Family Ties , as well as his acting in Teen Wolf and Back to the Future , Fox became a teen idol , VH1 's show The Greatest later naming him among their " 50 Greatest Teen Idols . "
= = = Film career = = =
In January 1985 Fox was cast to replace Eric Stoltz as Marty McFly , a teenager who is accidentally sent back in time from 1985 to 1955 in Back to the Future . Robert Zemeckis , the director , originally wanted Fox to play Marty , but Gary David Goldberg the creator of Family Ties , which Fox was working on at the time , refused to allow Zemeckis even to approach Fox as he felt that as Meredith Baxter was on maternity leave at the time , Fox 's character Alex Keaton was needed to carry the show in her absence . Eric Stoltz was cast and was already filming Back to the Future , but Zemeckis felt that Stoltz was not giving the right type of performance for the humor involved . Zemeckis quickly replaced Stoltz with Fox whose schedule was now more open with the return of Meredith Baxter . He was considered for the role of Mark Kendall in Once Bitten , but it eventually went to Jim Carrey . During filming , Fox would rehearse for Family Ties from 10 a.m to 6 p.m , then rush to the Back to the Future set where he would rehearse and shoot until 2 : 30 a.m. This schedule lasted for two full months . Back to the Future was both a commercial and critical success . The film spent 8 consecutive weekends as the number @-@ one grossing movie at the US box office in 1985 and eventually earned a worldwide total of $ 381 @.@ 11 million . Variety applauded the performances , stating that Fox and his co @-@ star Christopher Lloyd imbued Marty and Doc Brown 's friendship with a quality reminiscent of King Arthur and Merlin . The film was later followed by two similarly @-@ successful sequels , Back to the Future Part II ( 1989 ) and Back to the Future Part III ( 1990 ) .
During and immediately after the Back to the Future trilogy , Fox starred in Teen Wolf ( 1985 ) , Light of Day ( 1987 ) , The Secret of My Success ( 1987 ) , Bright Lights , Big City ( 1988 ) and Casualties of War ( 1989 ) .
In The Secret of My Success , Fox played a recent graduate from Kansas State University who moves to New York City where he has to deal with the ups and downs of the business world . The film was successful at the box office , taking $ 110 million worldwide . Roger Ebert in The Chicago Sun Times wrote ; " Fox provides a fairly desperate center for the film . It could not have been much fun for him to follow the movie 's arbitrary shifts of mood , from sitcom to slapstick , from sex farce to boardroom brawls . "
In Bright Lights , Big City , Fox played a fact @-@ checker for a New York magazine , who spends his nights partying with alcohol and drugs . The film received mixed reviews , with Hal Hinson in The Washington Post criticizing Fox by claiming that " he was the wrong actor for the job " . Meanwhile , Roger Ebert praised the actor 's performance : " Fox is very good in the central role ( he has a long drunken monologue that is the best thing he has ever done in a movie ) " . During the shooting of Bright Lights , Big City , Fox co @-@ starred again with Tracy Pollan , his on @-@ screen girlfriend from Family Ties .
Fox then starred in Casualties of War , a dark and violent war drama about the Vietnam War , alongside Sean Penn . Casualties of War was not a major box office hit , but Fox , playing a private serving in Vietnam , received good reviews for his performance . Don Willmott on film critic 's website wrote ; " Fox , only one year beyond his Family Ties sitcom silliness , rises to the challenges of acting as the film 's moral voice and sharing scenes with the always intimidating Penn . "
In 1991 , he starred in Doc Hollywood , a romantic comedy about a talented medical doctor who decides to become a plastic surgeon . While moving from Washington , D.C. to Los Angeles , he winds up as a doctor in a small southern town in South Carolina . Michael Caton @-@ Jones , from Time Out , described Fox in the film as " at his frenetic best " . The Hard Way was also released in 1991 , with Fox playing an undercover actor learning from police officer James Woods . Between 1992 and 1996 , he continued making several films , such as For Love or Money ( 1993 ) , Life With Mikey ( 1993 ) and Greedy ( 1994 ) . Fox then played small supporting roles in political drama The American President ( 1995 ) and comedy Mars Attacks ! ( 1996 ) .
His last major film role was in The Frighteners ( 1996 ) , directed by Peter Jackson . The Frighteners tells the story of Frank Bannister ( Fox ) , an architect who develops psychic abilities allowing him to see , hear , and communicate with ghosts . After losing his wife , he uses his new abilities by cheating customers out of money for his " ghost hunting " business . However , a mass murderer comes back from Hell , prompting Frank to investigate the supernatural presence . Fox 's performance received critical praise , Kenneth Turan in The Los Angeles Times wrote ; " The film 's actors are equally pleasing . Both Fox , in his most successful starring role in some time , and [ Trini ] Alvarado , who looks rather like Andie MacDowell here , have no difficulty getting into the manic spirit of things . "
He voiced the American Bulldog Chance in Disney 's live @-@ action film Homeward Bound : The Incredible Journey and its sequel Homeward Bound II : Lost in San Francisco , the titular character in Stuart Little and its two sequels Stuart Little 2 and Stuart Little 3 : Call of the Wild , and Milo Thatch in Disney 's animated film Atlantis : The Lost Empire .
= = = Later career = = =
Spin City ran from 1996 to 2002 on American television network ABC . The show was based on a fictional local government running New York City , originally starring Fox as Mike Flaherty , a Fordham Law School graduate serving as the Deputy Mayor of New York . Fox won an Emmy award for Spin City in 2000 , three Golden Globe Awards in 1998 , 1999 and 2000 and two Screen Actors Guild Awards in 1999 and 2000 . During the third season of Spin City , Fox made the announcement to the cast and crew of the show that he had Parkinson 's disease . During the fourth season , he announced his retirement from the show to focus on spending more time with his family . He announced that he planned to continue to act and would make guest appearances on Spin City ( he made three more appearances on the show during the final season ) . After leaving the show , he was replaced by Charlie Sheen , who portrayed the character Charlie Crawford . Altogether , 145 episodes were produced . Fox also served as an executive producer during his time on the show , alongside co @-@ creators Bill Lawrence and Gary David Goldberg .
In 2004 , Fox guest starred in two episodes of the comedy @-@ drama Scrubs as Dr. Kevin Casey , a surgeon with severe obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder . The series was created by Spin City creator Bill Lawrence . In 2006 , he appeared in four episodes of Boston Legal as a lung cancer patient . The producers brought him back in a recurring role for Season three , beginning with the season premiere . Fox was nominated for an Emmy Award for best guest appearance .
In 2009 , he appeared in five episodes of the television series Rescue Me which earned him an Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series . Since 2000 Fox has released three books , Lucky Man : A Memoir ( 2002 ) , Always Looking Up : The Adventures of an Incurable Optimist ( 2009 ) and A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Future : Twists and Turns and Lessons Learned ( 2010 ) . Starting in 2010 , Fox played a recurring role in the US drama The Good Wife as crafty attorney Louis Canning and earned Emmy nominations for three consecutive years . In 2011 , Fox was featured as himself in the eighth season of the Larry David vehicle , Curb Your Enthusiasm . David 's character ( also himself ) becomes a temporary resident of the New York City apartment building that Fox resides in and a conflict arises between the two , whereby David believes that Fox is using his condition ( Parkinson 's disease ) as a manipulative tool . On August 20 , 2012 , NBC announced The Michael J. Fox Show , loosely based on his life . It was granted a 22 @-@ episode commitment from the network and premiered on NBC on September 26 , 2013 .
Fox also made several appearances in other media . At the 2010 Winter Olympics closing ceremony in Vancouver , Canada , he delivered comedy monologues , along with William Shatner and Catherine O 'Hara , in the " I am Canadian " part of the show . Along with Tatjana Patitz , Fox appears in the 2011 Carl Zeiss AG calendar , photographed by Bryan Adams in New York City in the summer of 2010 . Despite a sound @-@ alike , A.J Locascio , voicing his character of Marty McFly in the 2011 Back to the Future episodic adventure game , Fox lent his likeness to the in @-@ game version of Marty alongside Christopher Lloyd . Fox made a special guest appearance in the final episode of the series as an elder version of Marty , as well as his great @-@ grandfather Willie McFly .
= = Personal life = =
Fox married actress Tracy Pollan on July 16 , 1988 , at West Mountain Inn in Arlington , Vermont . The couple have four children : son Sam Michael ( born May 30 , 1989 ) , twin daughters Aquinnah Kathleen and Schuyler Frances ( born February 15 , 1995 ) , and daughter Esmé Annabelle ( born November 3 , 2001 ) . Fox holds dual Canadian @-@ US citizenship . On February 28 , 2010 , Fox provided a light @-@ hearted segment during the 2010 Winter Olympics ' closing ceremony in Vancouver , British Columbia , wherein he expressed how proud he is to be Canadian . On June 4 , 2010 , the city of Burnaby , British Columbia , honoured Fox by granting him the Freedom of the City . Fox and his family reside in Manhattan , New York .
= = = Health and activism = = =
Fox started displaying symptoms of early @-@ onset Parkinson 's disease in 1991 while shooting the movie Doc Hollywood , although he was not properly diagnosed until the next year . After his diagnosis , Fox began drinking more heavily than in the past ; however , he sought help and stopped drinking altogether . In 1998 , he decided to go public with his condition , and since then he has been a strong advocate of Parkinson 's disease research . His foundation , The Michael J. Fox Foundation , was created to help advance every promising research path to curing Parkinson 's disease , including embryonic stem cell studies .
Fox manages the symptoms of his Parkinson 's disease with the drug carbidopa / levodopa , and he also had a thalamotomy in 1998 .
His first book , Lucky Man , focused on how , after seven years of denial of the disease , he set up the Michael J. Fox Foundation , stopped drinking and began to be an advocate for people living with Parkinson 's disease .
In Lucky Man , Fox wrote that he did not take his medication prior to his testimony before the Senate Appropriations Subcommittee in 1999 ( full C @-@ Span video clip ) ;
In an interview with NPR in April 2002 , Fox explained what he does when he becomes symptomatic during an interview ;
In 2006 , Fox starred in a campaign ad for then State Auditor of Missouri Claire McCaskill ( D ) in her successful 2006 Senate campaign against incumbent Jim Talent ( R ) , expressing her support for stem cell research . In the ad , he visibly showed the effects of his Parkinson 's disease ;
The New York Times called it " one of the most powerful and talked about political advertisements in years " and polls indicated that the commercial had a measurable impact on the way voters voted , in an election that McCaskill won . His second book , Always Looking Up : The Adventures of an Incurable Optimist , describes his life between 1999 and 2009 , with much of the book centred on how Fox got into campaigning for stem @-@ cell research . On March 31 , 2009 , Fox appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show with Dr. Oz to publicly discuss his condition as well as his book , his family and his prime @-@ time special which aired May 7 , 2009 ( Michael J. Fox : Adventures of an Incurable Optimist ) .
His work led him to be named one of the 100 people " whose power , talent or moral example is transforming the world " in 2007 by Time magazine . On March 5 , 2010 , Fox received an honorary doctorate in medicine from Karolinska Institutet for his contributions to research in Parkinson 's disease . He has also received an honorary doctorate of laws from the University of British Columbia .
On May 31 , 2012 , he received an honorary degree of Doctor of Laws from the Justice Institute of British Columbia to recognize his accomplishments as a performer as well as his commitment to raising research funding and awareness for Parkinson 's disease . Fox recalled performing in role @-@ playing simulations as part of police recruit training exercises at the Institute early in his career .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = = Director = = =
= = = Producer = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
Canada 's Walk of Fame
2000 : Inducted , Canada 's Walk of Fame
Double Helix Medal
2012 : CSHL Double Helix Medal Honoree
Hollywood Walk of Fame
2002 : Star on the Walk of Fame – 7021 Hollywood Blvd .
Goldene Kamera
2011 : Goldene Kamera für Lebenswerk ( Lifetime Achievement Award ) , German film and TV award .
Grammy Awards
2010 : Won , Best Spoken Word Album – Always Looking Up : Adventures of An Incurable Optimist
Influential Canadian Expat Award
2009 : Awarded " Most Influential Canadian Expat " , Canadian Expat Association
Honorary Degrees
2008 : Doctor of Fine Arts , honoris causa , New York University
2008 : Doctor of Laws , honoris causa , University of British Columbia
2010 : Honoris causa doctorate , Karolinska Institutet
2012 : Doctor of Laws , honoris causa , Justice Institute of British Columbia
Golden Globe Awards
1986 : Nominated , Best Actor in a TV @-@ Series — Comedy / Musical – Family Ties
1986 : Nominated , Best Actor in a Motion Picture — Comedy / Musical – Back to the Future
1987 : Nominated , Best Actor in a TV @-@ Series — Comedy / Musical – Family Ties
1989 : Won , Best Actor in a TV @-@ Series — Comedy / Musical – Family Ties
1997 : Nominated , Best Actor in a TV @-@ Series — Comedy / Musical – Spin City
1998 : Won , Best Actor in a TV @-@ Series — Comedy / Musical – Spin City
1999 : Won , Best Actor in a TV @-@ Series — Comedy / Musical – Spin City
2000 : Won , Best Actor in a TV @-@ Series — Comedy / Musical – Spin City
2014 : Nominated , Best Actor in a TV @-@ Series — Comedy / Musical – The Michael J. Fox Show
Primetime Emmy Awards
1985 : Nominated , Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series – Family Ties
1986 : Won , Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Family Ties
1987 : Won , Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Family Ties
1988 : Won , Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Family Ties
1989 : Nominated , Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Family Ties
1997 : Nominated , Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Spin City
1998 : Nominated , Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Spin City
1999 : Nominated , Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Spin City
2000 : Won , Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series – Spin City
2006 : Nominated , Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series – Boston Legal
2009 : Won , Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series – Rescue Me : Sheila
2011 : Nominated , Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series – The Good Wife
2012 : Nominated , Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series – Curb Your Enthusiasm : Larry vs. Michael J. Fox
2012 : Nominated , Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series – The Good Wife
2013 : Nominated , Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series – The Good Wife
2015 : Nominated , Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series - The Good Wife
People 's Choice Awards
1997 : Won , Favorite Male Performer in a New Television Series
2012 : Nominated , Favorite TV Guest Star – The Good Wife
Satellite Awards
1997 : Nominated , Best Actor in a Television Series — Comedy or Musical – Spin City
1998 : Nominated , Best Actor in a Television Series — Comedy or Musical – Spin City
1999 : Nominated , Best Actor in a Television Series — Comedy or Musical – Spin City
Saturn Awards
1985 : Won , Best Actor – Back to the Future
Screen Actors Guild Awards
1999 : Won , Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series – Spin City
2000 : Won , Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series – Spin City
= = Books = =
Fox , Michael J. ( 2002 ) . " Lucky Man : A Memoir " . New York : Hyperion . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7868 @-@ 6764 @-@ 6 .
Fox , Michael J. ( 2009 ) . " Always Looking Up : The adventures of an Incurable Optimist " . New York : Hyperion . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4013 @-@ 0338 @-@ 9 .
Fox , Michael J. ( 2010 ) . " A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Future : Twists and Turns and Lessons Learned " . New York : Hyperion . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4013 @-@ 2386 @-@ 8 .
= Fort Ricasoli =
Fort Ricasoli ( Maltese : Forti Rikażli ) is a bastioned fort in Kalkara , Malta , which was built by the Order of Saint John between 1670 and 1698 . The fort occupies a promontory known as Gallows ' Point and the north shore of Rinella Bay , commanding the entrance to the Grand Harbour along with Fort Saint Elmo . It is the largest fort in Malta , and it has been on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1998 , as part of the Knights ' Fortifications around the Harbours of Malta .
Fort Ricasoli saw use during the French invasion of Malta in 1798 and the subsequent Maltese insurrection , after which it ended up in British hands . Ricasoli was the site of the Froberg mutiny in 1807 , and it was also used as a military hospital during the 19th century . It saw use once again in World War II , when parts of it were destroyed by aerial bombardment . After it was decommissioned in the 1960s , the fort was used for industrial purposes . Today , the fort remains mostly intact but in a dilapidated state , and it is used as a filming location and a tank cleaning facility .
= = Hospitaller rule = =
= = = Background = = =
Fort Ricasoli stands on the easternmost peninsula on the east side of the Grand Harbour . The promontory was originally known as Rinella Point or Punta Sottile . In 1531 , two slaves who had tried to take over Fort St. Angelo were hanged on the peninsula , which became known as Gallows ' Point afterwards . During the Great Siege of Malta in 1565 , the Ottomans built an artillery battery on the peninsula in order to bombard Fort St. Elmo .
On 18 January 1629 , the Italian knight Alessandro Orsi financed the construction of a tower on Gallows ' Point . The tower was officially called Torre San Petronio , but it was commonly known as Orsi Tower or Torri Teftef by the locals . The tower was round , and it was built to prevent the escape of slaves from the island . A semi @-@ circular battery , which was known as Orsi Battery or San Petronio Battery , was later built around the tower . The tower and battery were protected by a sea @-@ filled ditch and a drawbridge . They remained standing until they were destroyed by waves in a storm on 8 February 1821 , and today only the rock @-@ hewn ditch of the battery remains .
In 1644 , Giovanni de ’ Medici proposed that Fort St. Angelo in Birgu be abandoned and a new fort be constructed on Orsi Point . The new fort would have been also called Fort St. Angelo , and would be manned with the garrison of the old fort . He drew up plans for the proposed fort , but they were never implemented .
= = = Construction and modifications = = =
In 1669 , fears of an Ottoman attack rose after the fall of Candia , and the following year Grand Master Nicolas Cotoner invited Antonio Maurizio Valperga , the military engineer of the House of Savoy , to improve Malta 's fortifications . Valperga designed a new fort to be built on the headland , and despite some criticism from within the Order , the decision was eventually approved . The Florentine knight Fra Giovanni Francesco Ricasoli donated 20 @,@ 000 scudi to construct the fort , and it was named in his honour . The first stone was laid down on 15 June 1670 , and the initial stages of construction were supervised by Valperga himself . The fort received a skeleton garrison in June 1674 , although it was still incomplete . In 1681 , the Flemish engineer Carlos de Grunenbergh proposed some changes to the design of the fort , and these recommendations were implemented . The barracks , chapel and other buildings within the fort were constructed in the 1680s and 1690s , and the fort was officially declared complete and armed in May 1698 .
In 1714 , the French engineers René Jacob de Tigné , Charles François de Mondion and Philippe de Vendôme criticized the small size of the fort 's bastions , which they deemed ineffective . De Tigné proposed a number of alterations , including repairing the existing parapets and embrasures , as well as constructing a retrenchment within the fort . Vendôme proposed the construction of a canal separating the fort from the mainland . In 1722 , the repairs proposed by de Tigné were implemented , although the retrenchment and canal were never built due to a lack of funds . The fort was in a bad state by the mid @-@ 18th century , and some maintenance work was done in 1761 .
In 1785 , Ricasoli was armed with eighty cannon , including forty @-@ one 24 @-@ pounders , making it the most heavily armed fort in Malta . Parts of the fort 's enceinte were rebuilt under the direction of Antoine Étienne de Tousard in the 1790s .
The fort was also used as a prison prior to the construction of the Corradino Correctional Facility .
= = French occupation = =
Fort Ricasoli saw use during the French invasion of Malta in June 1798 , during the French Revolutionary Wars . At the time , it was commanded by the Bali de Tillet , and was garrisoned by the Cacciatori , who were a volunteer chasseur light infantry regiment . The fort repelled three French attacks , before surrendering after Grand Master Hompesch officially capitulated to Napoleon .
In the subsequent Maltese uprising and blockade , the fort remained in French hands . It continually fired at the insurgents ' San Rocco Battery , which was located about 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) away .
= = British rule = =
The fort continued to be an active military installation throughout the British period . It was the scene of a mutiny in 1807 when Albanian soldiers of the Froberg Regiment revolted and shut themselves up in Fort Ricasoli . Despite attempts at negotiation they eventually blew up the main gunpowder magazine , causing extensive damage to the fort in the process . The mutiny was quashed by loyal troops , and some of the mutineers were condemned to death by court martial . The damaged parts of the fort were repaired , but were not rebuilt to their original design . A new magazine was built in 1829 to replace the one destroyed in the mutiny .
The fort was also used as a temporary naval hospital in the late 1820s and early 1830s , before Bighi Hospital was opened . During the cholera epidemic of 1837 , patients who had contracted the disease at the Ospizio in Floriana were transferred to Ricasoli . Most of them died within a few days , and they were buried within the nearby Wied Għammieq cemetery . Another cholera epidemic broke out at Ricasoli in 1865 .
In 1844 , the fort was manned by 500 men . In 1848 , Sir John Fox Burgoyne inspected Malta 's fortifications , and considered Ricasoli as " impregnable . " In the 1850s , artillery of a higher calibre was introduced to the fort , and the guns were replaced a number of times over the following decades . The seaward enceinte had been completely overhauled by 1878 , and by the 1900s , new gun emplacements , searchlights and a torpedo station had been installed . In the 1930s , concrete fire control towers were built on No. 2 , No. 3 and No. 4 Bastions , and further searchlights were installed .
Fort Ricasoli was active in the defence of Malta during World War II , and on 26 July 1941 its guns helped repel an Italian attack on the Grand Harbour . In April 1942 , the gate and Governor 's House were destroyed by German aerial bombardment . After the war , the fort was commissioned as HMS Ricasoli between 1947 and 1958 , and was used as a naval barracks . In 1958 , the gate was rebuilt , although the design was slightly different from the original . The Governor 's House was never reconstructed , mainly for financial reasons . In 1964 , the Admiralty transferred control of the fort to the Government of Malta .
= = Recent history = =
= = = Industrial use = = =
After the fort was handed over to the Maltese government , it was initially abandoned but it later became a container depot for raw material arriving in Malta . In 1976 , part of the ditch near the Left Ravelin was filled in , and St. Dominic Demi @-@ Bastion was breached to make way for a new road .
In 1964 , the fort 's ditch became a tank cleaning farm for the Malta Drydocks . The depot , which is known as Ricasoli Tank Cleaning Facilities , treats liquid waste from ships arriving in the Grand Harbour and removes oil and other chemicals prior to releasing the waste into the sea . The facility was privatized in 2012 , and it is currently under the management of Waste Oils Co . Ltd .
The area around the fort eventually became an industrial park , which was known as Ricasoli Industrial Estate after the fort . The industrial estate was demolished in 2007 to make way for SmartCity Malta .
= = = Filming location = = =
Most of the fort is leased to the Malta Film Commission , and it has been used extensively as a location for various films and serials . In recent years , huge sets were built within its walls for the films Gladiator ( 2000 ) , Troy ( 2004 ) and Agora ( 2009 ) . In these films , the fort stood in as Rome , Troy and Alexandria respectively . The fort was also used in the filming of Assassin 's Creed ( 2016 ) .
The TV miniseries Julius Caesar ( 2002 ) and Helen of Troy ( 2003 ) were also partially filmed at Fort Ricasoli . A set dubbed as the Roman Road was built for Julius Caesar and this has been retained and used for other films .
The first season of HBO 's adaptation of George R. R. Martin 's Game of Thrones used various parts of the fort to represent the Red Keep .
= = = Present condition = = =
Today , Fort Ricasoli remains largely intact , although it is in a dilapidated state . The headland that it is built upon is prone to coastal erosion , and some of the walls between No. 3 and No. 4 Bastions have already collapsed into the sea . In 2004 , the Restoration Unit of the Ministry of Resources and Infrastructure removed , restored and re @-@ attached part of the fort 's walls , but nothing has been done to restore the entire fort .
In May 2015 , the Democratic Alternative and some NGOs suggested that the campus of the proposed American University of Malta should be split up between Fort Ricasoli and the nearby Fort Saint Rocco and Fort San Salvatore . This proposal will not be implemented , as the campus is to be split up between Dock No. 1 in Cospicua and Żonqor Point in Marsaskala .
As of 2015 , there is no public access to Fort Ricasoli .
= = Layout = =
Fort Ricasoli has an irregular plan following the coastline of the peninsula it is built upon . The fort consists of a bastioned land front and its outworks , an enceinte facing the sea , and a tenaille trace facing Rinella Bay of the Grand Harbour .
= = = Land front = = =
The land front consists of the following bastions and demi @-@ bastions , which are linked together by curtain walls :
St. Dominic 's Demi @-@ Bastion , also known as Left Demi @-@ Bastion or No. 5 Bastion – the demi @-@ bastion at the northern end of the land front . It was damaged during the Froberg mutiny of 1807 , when its magazine was blown up .
St. Francis Bastion , also known as Central Bastion or No. 6 Bastion – a pentagonal bastion at the centre of the land front . It contains a traverse and a covered abris .
St. John 's Demi @-@ Bastion , also known as Right Demi @-@ Bastion or No. 7 Bastion – the demi @-@ bastion at the southern end of the land front .
The land front contains casemates , which were used as barracks .
The land front is further protected by the following outworks :
a faussebraye in the form of a crownwork encircling the entire land front .
St. Dominic Counterguard – a casemated counterguard near the left extremity of the land front . It was heavily damaged by the action of seawater , with half of the structure having collapsed .
two triangular ravelins between the St. Francis Bastion and either of the demi @-@ bastions . The Left Ravelin contains a 6 @-@ inch ( 152mm ) breech @-@ loading ( BL ) gun emplacement .
two caponiers leading from the land front to each of the ravelins . Extensive modifications were made to their structures by the British .
The outworks are surrounded by a ditch , a covertway and a glacis .
= = = Sea front enceinte = = =
The enceinte facing the open sea is made up of the following bastions and curtain walls :
No. 1 Bastion – a demi @-@ bastion linked to a tenaille , forming Point Battery . It originally contained an echaugette but this was dismantled to make way for a Directing Station for the Brennan Torpedo System . A gun emplacement for a RML 12 @.@ 5 inch 38 ton gun is located on the bastion 's face .
No. 1 Curtain – curtain wall between No. 1 and No. 2 Bastions , containing a casemated battery and a searchlight emplacement .
No. 2 Bastion – an asymmetrical bastion containing embrasures , and various British gun emplacements , magazines and a Fire Control Tower .
No. 2 Curtain – curtain wall between No. 2 and No. 3 Bastions , containing embrasures , an expense magazine ( where ammunition intended for immediate use was stored ) and a searchlight emplacement .
No. 3 Bastion – a flat @-@ faced bastion , containing embrasures and various British gun emplacements , magazines and a Fire Control Tower .
a curtain wall near No. 4 Bastion , containing embrasures , magazines and a sally port . Part of the curtain wall has collapsed into the sea .
No. 4 Bastion – a small bastion , containing a gun emplacement , magazine , gun crew shelters and a Fire Control Tower .
No. 5 Curtain – curtain wall between No. 4 Bastion and St. Dominic Demi @-@ Bastion of the land front , containing gun emplacements , magazines and gun crew shelters .
A shallow rock @-@ hewn ditch extends from No. 1 to No. 3 Bastions .
= = = Harbour tenaille trace = = =
The enceinte along Rinella Bay is made up of a tenaille trace with high walls . The fort 's main gate is located within the enceinte . The Governor 's House ( now demolished ) and Chapel of St. Nicholas are located within the fort , close to the main gate . The fort also contained a windmill , which does not exist anymore .
The rock @-@ hewn ditch of Orsi Battery can still be seen at the northern end of the tenaille , at the tip of the peninsula .
The British built a Brennan Torpedo Station near the trace in the late 19th century .
= = In popular culture = =
The fort is featured in the 2013 book Ricasoli Soldier by Joe Scicluna , which centres around the Froberg mutiny of 1807 .
= Don Dufek =
Donald Patrick " Don " Dufek , Jr . ( born April 28 , 1954 ) is a former American football player who played safety and special teams for eight seasons with the Seattle Seahawks of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He had previously played for the Michigan Wolverines football team in Ann Arbor from 1973 – 1975 . He was chosen to serve as team captain for both the Seahawks and Wolverines .
At Michigan , he was following in the footsteps of his father Don Dufek , Sr. who had been a Wolverine team Most Valuable Player . As a graduate of Pioneer High School in Ann Arbor , Dufek was able to stay close to home while performing as a two @-@ sport star at the University of Michigan where he played for the Michigan Wolverines football and hockey teams . In football , he was a member of back @-@ to @-@ back Big Ten Conference championship teams at Michigan and became an All @-@ American as well as a team captain .
Dufek ,
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ina 's " Non ho cor che per amarti " for special praise . He points out the range of instruments used for special effects , and writes that " an examination of the score of this air would probably astonish some who think Handel 's orchestration is wanting in variety . "
Handel made more use than was then usual of orchestral accompaniment in arias , but in other respects Agrippina is broadly typical of an older operatic tradition . For the most part the arias are brief , there are only two short ensembles , and in the quartet and the trio the voices are not heard together . However , Handel 's style would change very little in the next 30 years , a point reflected in the reviews of the Tully Hall performance of Agrippina in 1985 , which refer to a " string of melodious aria and ensembles , any of which could be mistaken for the work of his mature London years " .
= = = Character = = =
Of the main characters , only Otho is not morally contemptible . Agrippina is an unscrupulous schemer ; Nero , while not yet the monster he would become , is pampered and hypocritical ; Claudius is pompous , complacent , and something of a buffoon , while Poppaea , the first of Handel 's sex kittens , is also a liar and a flirt . The freedmen Pallas and Narcissus are self @-@ serving and salacious . All , however , have some redeeming features , and all have arias that express genuine emotion . The situations in which they find themselves are sometimes comic , but never farcical — like Mozart in the Da Ponte operas , Handel avoids laughing at his characters .
In Agrippina the da capo aria is the musical form used to illustrate character in the context of the opera . The first four arias of the work exemplify this : Nero 's " Con raggio " , in a minor key and with a descending figure on the key phrase " il trono ascenderò " ( " I will ascend the throne " ) characterises him as weak and irresolute . Pallas 's first aria " La mia sorte fortunata " , with its " wide @-@ leaping melodic phrasing " introduces him as a bold , heroic figure , contrasting with his rival Narcissus whose introspective nature is displayed in his delicate aria " Volo pronto " which immediately follows . Agrippina 's introductory aria " L 'alma mia " has a mock @-@ military form which reflects her outward power , while subtle musical phrasing establishes her real emotional state . Poppaea 's arias are uniformly light and rhythmic , while Claudius 's short love song " Vieni O cara " gives a glimpse of his inner feelings , and is considered one of the gems of the score .
= = = Irony = = =
Grimani 's libretto is full of irony , which Handel reflects in the music . His settings sometimes illustrate both the surface meaning , as characters attempt to deceive each other , and the hidden truth . For instance , in her Act I aria " Non ho cor che per amarti " Agrippina promises Poppaea that deceit will never mar their new friendship , while tricking her into ruining Otho 's chances for the throne . Handel 's music illuminates her deceit in the melody and minor modal key , while a simple , emphasised rhythmic accompaniment hints at clarity and openness . In Act III , Nero 's announcement that his passion is ended and that he will no longer bound by it ( in " Come nube che fugge dal vento " ) is set to bitter @-@ sweet music which suggests that he is deceiving himself . In Otho 's " Coronato il crin " the agitated nature of the music is the opposite of what the " euphoric " tone of the libretto suggests . Contrasts between the force of the libretto and the emotional colour of the actual music would develop into a constant feature of Handel 's later London operas .
= = List of arias and musical numbers = =
The index of Chrysander 's edition ( see below ) lists the following numbers , excluding the secco recitatives . Variants from the libretto are also noted .
= 2002 – 03 Australian region cyclone season =
The 2002 – 03 Australian region cyclone season included Cyclone Inigo , which tied Cyclone Gwenda in 1999 as the most intense tropical cyclone on record in the Australian basin . It began on 1 November 2002 and ended on 30 April 2003 . The regional tropical cyclone operational plan also defines a tropical cyclone year separately from a tropical cyclone season , which runs from 1 July 2002 to 30 June 2003 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Australian region , which is defined as in the southern hemisphere between 90 ° E and 180 ° E. The season 's ten tropical depressions existed within these dates , with the first , designated as Tropical Cyclone 07S , entering the basin on 27 December 2002 . The last system , Cyclone Epi , dissipated on 6 June 2003 . Tropical cyclones in this area were monitored by four Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres ( TCWCs ) : the Australian Bureau of Meteorology ( BOM ) in Perth , Darwin , and Brisbane and one in Port Moresby , Papua New Guinea .
Tropical cyclogenesis in the season began when a tropical low developed in the Arafura Sea on 5 January and last until 24 January , after meandering over northern and Western Australia . On 1 February , weakening Cyclone Beni entered the Australian region and brought severe flooding to Queensland , before dissipating on 5 February . Severe Tropical Cyclone Fiona formed north of Western Australia on 3 February and later peaked as a Category 4 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . Cyclone Graham developed offshore Western Australia on 24 February and made landfall in a rural area of that state on 28 February , producing flooding in the area . Tropical Cyclone Harriet existed offshore of Western Australia from 1 March to 11 March .
On 1 March , Cyclone Erica formed offshore Queensland and strengthened as it moved in a parabolic path , before leaving the Australian region on 12 March . Erica caused only minor damage in Queensland . Cyclone Craig originated offshore Northern Territory on 8 March . The system subsequently struck the territory and eventually made another landfall in Queensland on 12 March , after crossing the Gulf of Carpentaria . Impact from Craig was generally minor . Cyclone Inigo formed on 30 March and caused severe impact in Indonesia , especially in Flores , Sumba , and West Timor . Inigo later deepened into the most intense tropical cyclone on record in the Australian region , tied with Cyclone Gwenda in 1999 . Inigo weakened significantly before striking Western Australia on 8 April and dissipating shortly thereafter . The final system , Tropical Cyclone Epi developed east of Papua New Guinea on 5 June and dissipated on the following day . Overall , the tropical cyclones of this season caused 60 deaths and about $ 12 million ( 2003 USD ) in damage .
= = Seasonal summary = =
The season began on 1 November 2002 and ended on 30 April 2003 , while the regional tropical cyclone operational plan also defines a tropical cyclone year from 1 July 2002 to 30 June 2003 . Eight cyclones entered or formed in the Australian region , which was below the 1970 @-@ 71 to 2001 @-@ 02 average of 13 per season . There was a major shift in tropical cyclone activity from the Australian region to the South Pacific , because of a moderate El Niño event . Only two cyclones occurred between 125 ° E and 150 ° E , which is east of Australia , and six formed between 150 ° E and 160 ° E. All of the tropical cyclone developed during Madden – Julian oscillation ( MJO ) pulses or Equatorial Rossby ( ER ) pulses . Overall , the tropical cyclones of this season resulted in 60 deaths and slightly less than $ 12 million in damage .
Activity began in December 2002 , when Tropical Cyclone 07S entered the Australian region from the southwestern Indian Ocean basin on 27 December . In January , an unnamed tropical cyclone existed for more than three weeks over the Arafura Sea , Northern Territory , and Western Australia . The basin became more active in February , with South Pacific Cyclone Beni entering the area on 1 February . This was followed by the development of Fiona on 3 February and Graham on 24 February ; both formed north of Western Australia . Two tropical cyclones – Harriet and Erica – both originated on 1 March ; the former developed northwest of Western Australia and the latter formed east of Queensland . About a week later , 8 March , Cyclone Craig developed near the coast of Northern Territory . The strongest tropical system of the season , Cyclone Inigo , originated over the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia on 30 March . At peak intensity , Inigo had a minimum barometric pressure of 900 mbar ( 27 inHg ) , making the most intense tropical cyclone in the Australian region on record , tied with Cyclone Gwenda in 1999 . Activity remained dormant until the development of Cyclone Epi on 5 June , which dissipated on the following day .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression 07S = = =
Tropical Cyclone 07S developed in the southwestern Indian Ocean on 25 December , while located about 1345 km ( 835 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Cocos Islands . It initially drifted southwest and then turned eastward on 27 December . Around this time , 07S entered Perth 's Area Of Responsibility ( AOR ) . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated that 07S peaked with 1 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The storm drifted erratically and by 1800 UTC on 28 December , the JTWC issued its final warning on 07S , while situated about 465 km ( 290 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Cocos Islands . However , TCWC Perth continued Tropical Weather Outlooks ( TWOs ) on the system until 3 January .
= = = Unnamed tropical cyclone = = =
A tropical low developed over the Arafura Sea on 4 January and strengthened into a tropical cyclone before passing near Elcho Island , Northern Territory . The storm then made landfall in Arnhem Land on 5 January . At 0900 UTC , the system peaked with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . It meandered over Northern Territory and the Gulf of Carpentaria for a few weeks . The system remained inland until moving offshore Kimberley on 21 January . A deep trough generated wind shear , which inhibited significant intensification . However , deep convection began to develop late on 24 January as it approached the north coast of Western Australia . Around 0300 UTC on 25 January , the storm made landfall near Port Hedland with winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . The system quickly weakened and dissipated by 1200 UTC .
Gale force winds caused damage vegetation , trees , vehicles , and buildings in Elcho Island , Gapuwiyak , Maningrida , and Ramingining . Wind @-@ driven waves at the mouth of the Rose River inundated workshops near Numbulwar . Torrential rains fell in the Roper @-@ McArthur River district , peaking at 880 mm ( 35 in ) at Wollogorang . A temporary evacuated occurred along the Waterhouse River at Beswick . Other rivers that overflowed inundated portions of highways such as the Carpentaria Highway and Tablelands Highway . After regenerating into a tropical cyclone , the storm brought up to 146 @.@ 6 mm ( 5 @.@ 77 in ) of rainfall in a 24 ‑ hour period in the Port Hedland area . This caused the Yule River to overflow its banks , which flooded the North @-@ West Highway . Operationally , the storm was thought to have been two separate systems and to have remained below tropical cyclone intensity .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Beni = = =
Beni originated from the South Pacific region in late January and its remnants crossed into the Australian region by 1 February . Upon reaching the Coral Sea , the remnants of Beni slowly began to redevelop . After strong convective bands formed , Brisbane TCWC initiated gale warnings . Located offshore Queensland on 4 February , the remnants of Beni regenerated into a tropical cyclone . However , strong vertical wind shear caused Beni to dissipated on 5 February , while situated offshore of Queensland near the city of Mackay .
Heavy rainfall accompanied Beni and its remnants , reaching 500 mm ( 20 in ) near Gladstone . One person drowned due to the flooding rains . Runoff on the Fitzroy River caused by Cyclone Beni resulted in a moderate flood with an estimated return period of four years at Rockhampton . The cyclone 's heavy rains helped ease drought problems in Queensland . Nine shires in Central Queensland were declared disaster areas . Additionally , strong winds left power outages in Agnes Water and 1770 . Overall , Beni resulted in damages of at least A $ 10 million ( US $ 6 million ) in Queensland .
= = = Tropical Low Isha = = =
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Fiona = = =
An area of convection began developing into a tropical low on 3 February , while located about 970 km ( 600 mi ) north of Karratha , Western Australia . Poorly @-@ defined convection was noted as well as good outflow and a weak circulation . The system drifted westward with minimal development until late on 4 February , when satellite imagery showed increasing convection near the center . Subsequently , the JTWC issued a TCFA for the system . With the developing low located in an environment of weak to moderate wind shear , TCWC Perth issued a warning . At 0700 UTC on 5 February , Perth named the system Fiona . The JTWC issued their first advisory on Fiona about five hours later . Fiona strengthened steadily and reached tropical cyclone intensity at 0600 UTC on 6 February . Continuing to intensify , TCWC Perth upgraded the storm to severe tropical cyclone status early on 7 February .
Early on 8 February , an eye became embedded within partial concentric convective bands . Later that day , TCWC Perth reported a peak intensity of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) at 1000 UTC . Shortly thereafter , the storm began weakening as dry air increased . By 1000 UTC on 9 February , TCWC Perth reduced the intensity of Fiona to 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Deep convection weakened somewhat and the eye had become cloud @-@ filled . Although the eye briefly redeveloped , water vapor imagery showed cooler and drier air entering the southern portion of the storm . Fiona began to turn southwestward as it neared the 90 ° E longitude . By late 12 February , Fiona weakened below gale force intensity . Moving steadily southward , it then re @-@ curved south @-@ southeastward along the 91 ° E. With the storm rapidly weakening , JTWC issued their final warning early on 13 February and Perth followed suit four hours later . The remnants of Fiona moved into the Great Australian Bight , leading to significant amounts of rainfall . The Eyre Peninsula and Adelaide recorded more rain in 24 hours than they had in 2002 and 2001 combined . The New South Wales saw major flooding events in towns such as Tamworth . Flooding also closed the Pacific Highway . Over 100 houses along the Gold Coast were damaged due to the torrential rains .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Graham = = =
In late February , an area of convection situated inland for roughly a week emerged over open waters along the northern coast of Australia . A tropical low formed on 24 February , and developed a banding feature by 25 February . Despite strong wind shear , the BOM began issuing warnings while the low was located several hundred kilometers north @-@ northeast of Port Hedland . The disturbance was initially nearly stationary . At 0700 UTC on 27 February , the JTWC designated the storm as Tropical Cyclone Graham . According to the JTWC , the storm had intensified late on 28 February , though the BOM noted the slight weakening of the storm . Graham reached its peak intensity that day with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , while nearing the coast . The storm made landfall at Eighty Mile Beach , Western Australia at 1400 UTC on 28 February . Graham weakened and dissipated on 1 March .
The storm dropped rainfall in Western Australia , with 175 mm ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) recorded at Telfer . The heavy rain caused flooding and road closures , and swelled a river passing through Fitzroy Crossing , though the river only topped its banks slightly . In nearby Blue Bush Creek , two men drowned as their group of people attempted to cross floodwaters . Both men were rescued , though one died before emergency services arrived . In addition to the flooding , a number of trees were downed .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Harriet = = =
A tropical low developed southwest of Christmas Island on 28 February . Perth TCWC issued a TWO on 1 March , which indicated an eastward @-@ moving 1 @,@ 005 mb ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) low . At 0600 UTC on 2 March , the JTWC initiated warnings on Tropical Cyclone 21S , estimating winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . The system maintained a well @-@ defined circulation , although deep convection diminished somewhat on 2 March . Later that day , Perth began issuing gale warnings on the low as it was expected to develop into a tropical cyclone . Moving eastward , convection increased near the center , though dry air inhibited much development . At 0400 UTC on 4 March , the TCWC Perth named the system Tropical Cyclone Harriet .
On 5 March , JTWC briefly decreased the intensity of Harriett to 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) , as deep convection diminished , probably due to persistent dry air . By late on 5 March , convection increased in coverage . Based on this , TCWC Perth upped their intensity to 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Late on 5 March , Harriet moved slowly southward and curved west @-@ southwestward . Although convection fluctuated , the cyclone maintained its intensity . After deep convection decreased slightly , the JTWC lowered the intensity of Harriett to 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . However , TCWC Perth suggested otherwise and on 8 March , Harriet peaked with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , while located over 480 km ( 300 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Carnarvon . Early on 9 March , JTWC issued their final advisory on Harriet . The storm became extratropical at 1000 UTC on 9 March , while located about 580 km ( 360 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Carnarvon . Strong winds from Harriet contributed to a large bushfire near Walpole , Western Australia .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Erica = = =
A monsoon trough strengthened into a tropical low on 1 March . The low then significantly organized and was named Erica on 4 March , just offshore Queensland . Early on 5 March , the JTWC began classifying the system as Tropical Cyclone 22S . Moving slowly southeastward and then northward under the influence of a weak mid @-@ level ridge to the east , Erica attained 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . However , Erica soon weakened due to strong wind shear . On 7 March , the cyclone degenerated into a tropical low . After the remnants curved eastward and then southeastward , wind shear abated and became favorable for tropical cyclogenesis . As a result , the low regenerated into a tropical cyclone . After attaining the equivalent to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , Erica entered the South Pacific basin on 12 March .
Severe Tropical Cyclone Erica was a powerful cyclone that severely affected New Caledonia and was considered the worst to affect the country since Cyclone Beti in 1996 . Early in its existence while just offshore Queensland , the predecessor to Erica brought strong winds to the coast . Several trees were uprooted , and others were defoilated . Power lines were also damaged .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Craig = = =
TCWC Darwin began monitoring a tropical low that developed west of Darwin on 5 March . Early on 8 March , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 24S . At 0300 UTC on 9 March , the storm became Tropical Cyclone Craig , while situated northwest of Cape Fourcroy . The storm deepened and drifted eastward and then southeastward . On 10 March , Craig made landfall on Melville Island with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Upon emerging into the Van Diemen Gulf on 10 March , Craig peaked with sustained winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Craig struck the Coburg Peninsula and began to slowly weaken inland . The storm reached the Gulf of Carpentaria on 11 March , where it accelerated southeastward . On 12 March at 0600 UTC , the cyclone made landfall south of Kowanyama . After moving inland , the storm quickly weakened and dissipated later that day .
In advance of the storm , tropical cyclone advisories were issued for communities between Weipa and Mornington Island . The government of the Tiwi Islands evacuated some residents to shelters . In the Darwin area , certain schools were closed temporarily as a precaution . Impact from Craig was generally minor . At Ramingining , 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) of rain fell in just 24 hours . Storm surge ran 2 to 2 @.@ 5 m ( 6 @.@ 6 to 8 @.@ 2 ft ) on Goulburn Island and the Cobourg Peninsula , while tides were estimated at 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) at Nhulunbuy . Strong winds at Maningrida and Kowanyama downed numerous trees , with one striking a house in the latter . Craig inflicted minor damage to small craft in the northwestern Gulf of Carpentaria . Throughout the region , roads were cut by the cyclone .
= = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Inigo = = =
An area of disturbed weather was located within the near @-@ equatorial trough near Papua New Guinea in late March . Despite easterly wind shear , a tropical low developed on 30 March , shortly before crossing the island of Flores . Decreasing wind shear allowed the low to strengthen into a tropical cyclone while crossing the Savu Sea on 1 April . Later that day , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 26S . On 2 April , BOM classified the low as Tropical Cyclone Inigo . An eye feature gradually organized as winds increased to 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) early on 3 April . As a result , the BOM began classifying Inigo as a severe tropical cyclone . Later on 3 April , low wind shear and strong divergence allowed the cyclone to undergo rapid intensification as the eye became well @-@ defined .
At 0600 UTC 4 April , Inigo peaked with sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , according to BOM . Based on the pressure @-@ wind relationship , it was estimated that Inigo reached a minimum barometric pressure of 900 mbar ( 27 inHg ) . Thus , the storm tied with Cyclone Gwenda as the most intense tropical cyclone in the Australian cyclone region . Simultaneously , JTWC indicated the Inigo peaked with sustained winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . However , later on 4 April , increasing wind shear began to weaken Inigo . On the following day , the eye became cloud @-@ filled and by 7 April , Inigo weakened to Category 2 status . Inigo made landfall in the Pilbara region of Western Australia on 8 April with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) . The circulation dissipated within 12 hours after moving ashore .
The precursor tropical disturbance dropped heavy rainfall in eastern Indonesia . In Kupang on West Timor , the system destroyed hundreds of homes and large fields of corn , bean , and rice crop . Heavy damage was reported near Ende , where flooding and mudslides destroyed 20 houses and destroyed the roads connecting to East Flores . In Ende , a total of 294 animals were killed . In East Flores Regency in eastern Flores Island , the system left 75 destroyed houses , along with 77 severely damaged and a further 56 receiving light damage . Damage in Indonesia totaled less than $ 6 million , and 102 injuries were reported . In addition , 58 fatalities were reported . In Australia , the storm dropped 128 mm ( 5 @.@ 04 in ) of rain in 80 minutes .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Epi = = =
In early June , an area of fairly persistent convection stretched from Papua New Guinea to just north of Fiji . Around 0630 UTC on 5 June , Epi developed near Woodlack Island , unusually close to the Equator . Initially , the storm appeared to be undergoing rapid deepening , prompting the JTWC to issue a TCFA . However , strong wind shear caused the system to quickly become less organized and the TCFA was soon cancelled . A very short lived cyclone , a Papua New Guinea warning during the late morning hour of 5 June placed Epi 's center about 130 km ( 80 mi ) northeast of Woodlack Island . Never recognized as a tropical cyclone by the JTWC , the third and final warning was issued later that day after winds fell below gale force .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all of the storms that have formed in the 2002 – 03 Australian region cyclone season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damages , and death totals . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all of the damage figures are in 2003 AUD and USD .
= Love Machine ( Girls Aloud song ) =
" Love Machine " is a song recorded by British girl group Girls Aloud from their second studio album , What Will the Neighbours Say ? ( 2004 ) . It was released by Polydor Records on 13 September 2004 , as the second single from the album . The song was written by Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Tim Powell , Nick Coler , Lisa Cowling , Myra Boyle , and Shawn Lee . The instrumentation was inspired by The Smiths , and created by Powell and Coler . " Love Machine " is an uptempo pop rock and teen pop song with elements of the 1980 synthpop . The single was received favourably by contemporary music critics , who deemed it as joyful track that was different from the single releases by other artists at the time . According to research carried out for Nokia in 2006 , " Love Machine " is the second " most exhilarating " song ever .
" Love Machine " debuted and peaked at number 2 on the UK Singles Chart , continuing the band 's string of hits by becoming their sixth consecutive single to chart within the top three . The song also peaked inside the top ten in Europe and Ireland . The accompanying music video was directed by Stuart Gosling , and portrays the five members in a nightclub / restaurant scene dancing and sipping champagne whilst singing their pop number . Girls Aloud performed " Love Machine " on all of their tours and on several live appearances , including at Disney Channel Kids Awards , TMF Awards 2005 , and at The Girls Aloud Party TV special in 2008 . English indie rock band Arctic Monkeys covered the song on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge .
= = Background and release = =
Following a brief hiatus , Polydor Records enlisted Brian Higgins and Xenomania to produce Girls Aloud 's second album in its entirety , following the success of their debut album Sound of the Underground . Higgins explained that Polydor were not going to continue with the group 's contract unless he produced songs for the album . He continued , saying that his initial reaction was that he thought he would only be required to produce a couple of songs , however Polydor insisted that he produce the album in its entirety and that they thought only he understood what they wanted . The album was recorded from April to September 2004 , although its lead single " The Show " was released in June 2004 . Bandmate Nicola Roberts said that " Love Machine " was recorded in 18 parts over three days . Roberts also revealed that the band initially was in disagreement with Polydor regarding its release as a single , with Sarah Harding adding that all the girls wanted to release " Deadlines & Diets " instead .
However , " Love Machine " was picked as the second single from What Will the Neighbours Say ? , being released on 13 September 2004 . " The pressure to come up with singles was , as always , immense . But [ ... ] we were able to have a lot of fun working on ideas that were maybe a little too odd to be on the radio , " Higgins said . It was released on three different CD single formats , as well as an additional 7 " picture disc , making it Girls Aloud 's first single available on vinyl . The first disc included a Flip & Fill remix of " The Show " . For the sleeve of the second CD , Artwork design group Form invented five fake magazines , one for each member , and used " Love Machine " lyrics as the headlines . The disc included an exclusive previously unreleased b @-@ side entitled " Androgynous Girls " , which had been initially considered to be released as the lead single of the album . The Gravitas Disco Mix of " Love Machine " was also included . The maxi @-@ CD also included a task @-@ based game , created by design agency Holler . The 7 " picture disc included the radio edit and Tony Lamezma Remix of " Love Machine " .
= = Composition = =
" Love Machine " was written by Miranda Cooper , Brian Higgins , Tim Powell , Nick Coler , Lisa Cowling , Myra Boyle , Shawn Lee . They came up with some of the song 's lyrics by singing " nonsense lyrics " over a backing track , which eventually evolved into real songwords . The instrumentation track was inspired by The Smiths , and created by Powell and Coler . It is a pop rock and teen pop written in C major with a time signature in common time and a tempo of 88 beats per minute . The vocal range from the band members spans from F3 to B4 . An early demo of " Love Machine " was included on the compilation album Popjustice : 100 % Solid Pop Music , and later on an official Girls Aloud singles boxset ; this version was sung by band members Cheryl Cole , Nadine Coyle and Sarah Harding only , and featured radically different lyrics from the released version , even excluding the phrase " Love Machine " . One of the song 's lyrics , " What will the neighbours say / This time ? " inspired the album 's title , and it is a reference to Girls Aloud 's debut single , where Cole sings , " Neighbours banging on the bathroom wall " . MusicOMH contributor John Murphy noted the track uses " a guitar line that sounds like it 's been nicked from an old rockabilly tune " , and compared its composition to other " ' 80s synth pop songs . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The track received generally favourable reviews from music critics . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian considered " The Show " and " Love Machine " as the " perfect examples of Xenomania 's uniquely rousing approach to pop , " adding that the latter " sounds , incredibly , like the Smiths ' Rusholme Ruffians colliding head @-@ on with that band 's musical nemesis , chirpy 1980s synth @-@ pop . " A reviewer for Virgin Media stated the song 's " bouncy drums , perky guitars and ditsy lyrics will probably cause a seizure , " and commented further , saying that " it sounds so unlike anything else in the charts right now ... proving once again that they 're still one of the most exciting bands in pop right now . " The song was a Track Pick from the Allmusic review of What Will the Neighbours Say ? by Sharon Mawer , while Robert Copsey of Digital Spy stated that , despite having many previous releases , it wasn 't until " Love Machine " , " a swinging , big band track with ludicrous lyrics – that they were thrust into the wider public consciousness . " A BBC Music critic , however , called it " upbeat but not particularly tuneful " . According to research carried out for Nokia in 2006 , " Love Machine " is the second " most exhilarating " song ever , after " Song 2 " by Blur .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the week ending 2 October 2004 , " Love Machine " debuted at number 2 on the UK Singles Chart , being held of the top spot by " Call on Me " by Eric Prydz . It stayed at the same position the following week , before falling to number 8 . The song also reached number six on the UK Downloads Chart , and eventually became the band 's 7th best @-@ selling single in the UK . " Love Machine " also debuted and peaked at number 8 on the European Hot 100 Singles , staying on the top ten for two weeks . In Ireland , the song debuted at number nine on 16 September 2004 , and remained at the same position for three weeks , becoming Girls Aloud 's first single to fail to enter the top five . It spent one last week in the top ten at number ten . " Love Machine " also entered the Dutch chart Single Top 100 on 14 May 2005 at number 52 , before falling of the chart after 4 weeks .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Love Machine " was directed by Stuart Gosling for Image Dynamic Pictures , and filmed at the Titanic restaurant on London 's Brewer Street . Gosling shot the project on 35mm film to give it the desired sleek , stylised , polished and glossy look . Girls Aloud members stopped in at Camden Post to view the footage and were impressed with the final results of it . The video depicts a nightclub / restaurant scene with the five women dancing and sipping champagne at the location whilst singing their pop number . A caption at the start of the video identifies the location as " The Eskimo Club " , which explains the otherwise meaningless song lyrics " Let 's go eskimo " .
= = Live performances = =
" Love Machine " was promoted through several live performances , including at the Disney Channel Kids Awards on 16 September 2004 , and at the Smash Hits Poll Winners Party in 2004 . They also performed it at the Carling Academy London on 10 February 2005 , and at the TMF Awards 2005 in Belgium . The same year , Girls Aloud went on their debut tour , What Will the Neighbours Say ? Live , where they performed " Love Machine " in schoolgirl uniforms . For 2006 's Chemistry Tour , there was an interlude where the group danced to " 1 Thing " by Amerie . There was a similar interlude during 2007 's The Sound of Girls Aloud : The Greatest Hits Tour , where a big band breakdown was included . Also in 2007 , the song was performed at the T4 on the Beach special . " Love Machine " was performed on 2008 's Tangled Up Tour , where the band members wore cabaret inspired costumes . Later that year , the band performed it at The Girls Aloud Party TV special held by ITV1 , and at the V Festival . For 2009 's Out of Control Tour , the song was given a brassier , retro arrangement and included a dance break . On 14 December 2012 , the band appeared on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge , performing the song to promote their greatest hits album Ten , and also at The Graham Norton Show the same day . To further promote the greatest hits , " Love Machine " was also included on a promotional megamix . In 2013 , the song was performed during the Ten : The Hits Tour . English indie rock band Arctic Monkeys covered the song on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Love Machine " .
= = Personnel = =
Nadine Coyle – co @-@ lead vocals
Cheryl Fernandez @-@ Versini – co @-@ lead vocals
Sarah Harding – co @-@ lead vocals
Nicola Roberts – co @-@ lead vocals
Kimberley Walsh – co @-@ lead vocals
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Doug Anthony All Stars =
The Doug Anthony All Stars ( or Doug Anthony Allstars , DAAS , D.A.A.S. or stylised as D ⋆ A † A ☭ S ) are an Australian musical comedy , alternative rock and vocal group who initially performed together between 1984 and 1994 . The band is an acoustic trio , originally comprising Paul McDermott and Tim Ferguson on main vocals and Richard Fidler on guitar and backing vocals . The 2014 DAAS Live reformation tour features Paul Livingston ( aka Flacco ) on guitar and vibes .
DAAS are known for their aggressive , provocative style ; their habit of involving audience members and their tendency to attack topical and sometimes controversial issues in their comedy .
DAAS began performing as buskers on the streets of Canberra in 1984 , while they were attending university . After winning the Pick of the Fringe award at the 1986 Adelaide Fringe Festival , the group relocated from Canberra to Melbourne , but it was not until they travelled to the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 1987 that they first achieved success . They quickly gained popularity in the United Kingdom , where they made numerous television appearances , but remained virtually unknown in Australia until 1989 when they were made regular performers on the Australian comedy show The Big Gig . These appearances gained them recognition , and they remained a popular feature of the show until 1991 when they left to create their own ABC comedy series , DAAS Kapital .
The group have released four live recordings and one studio album , DAAS Icon , which achieved some independent success in Australia but was briefly banned in Britain . They also released a collection of dark short stories in 1989 , entitled Book , which took a markedly different tone from their comedic stage performances . They also made two live concert videos and one film , The Edinburgh Years . The group split up in 1994 , following a final farewell tour of Australia . Although they reunited in 2003 to perform together at a benefit concert , were interviewed together in 2008 in support of their DVD , and reunited for a one @-@ off show to launch the DAAS Kapital DVD in 2013 , the three ruled out the suggestion of a reunion tour at the time .
In December 2013 , McDermott and Ferguson announced they would be performing " as DAAS " for the group 's 30th anniversary , at the Canberra Comedy Festival in March 2014 , with Paul Livingston performing the role of Fidler . This current line @-@ up has announced subsequent shows in Hobart , Melbourne , Wollongong , Perth , Brisbane and Bendigo , with more dates to follow .
= = Style = =
DAAS employ an aggressive , confrontational style , which author and journalist Geoff Bartlett describes as " [ pushing ] the boundaries of humour and good taste to their absolute limits " . They frequently delve into topical and taboo subject matter with songs such as " Commies for Christ " and " I Fuck Dogs " . " Long before anyone knew the term , one of our greatest driving forces was to be politically incorrect , " said Ferguson . Each band member developed distinctive onstage characters , with McDermott adopting a nasty , mean persona , while Ferguson played a narcissistic character who was " gorgeous but stupid " . Fidler initially played the straight man , but as the group became more aggressive he developed into a character who was naturally happy and caring but frequently victimised by his fellow band members .
The group drew inspiration from short @-@ lived punk bands like the Fat Sluts , The Lone Reagans and Forbidden Mule , whom Ferguson describes as " like all punk bands ... very fast and furious . " Much of the band 's provocative style emerged from their origins as street performers , where to get people 's attention they resorted to outrageous or theatrical tactics — the group would sometimes walk into the street and stop traffic to get noticed . " Sometimes we have to do really ugly or horrendous things to get people 's attention , and we 're not afraid to do that . We 'll hit someone if it gets a bit of discourse going , " said McDermott .
Neil Pigot , who did some work with the group , describes their style as " a sort of extension of the Python tradition , but very much in an Australian context . " He says that DAAS were " crucially important " in the development of Australian comedy , directly contributing to the styles of successful comedy shows such as The D @-@ Generation , Fast Forward and Wogs Out of Work . At the time DAAS emerged , Pigot says , comedy in Australia was dominated by joke @-@ tellers and impersonators . By contrast , DAAS were belligerent and confrontational , frequently attacking topical issues , invading people 's personal space and involving the audience in their act . Mark Trevorrow , who frequently collaborated with the group , described their work as " true genius . " " Their great shows were among the greatest evenings I 've witnessed in my life and their worst shows were among the worst , " he said . " They 'd whip up an audience and appeal to people 's darker side . It was very Dada , what they were doing . And what happens with that is you 're just as often likely to have people who want to kill you as applaud you . " In addition , ABC comedy producer Ted Robinson says that the group played an important role in raising the profile of Australian comedy overseas , particularly in Britain where DAAS were very popular . British comedian Al Murray said of seeing the group at the Edinburgh Festival in 1988 , " they came onstage with the attitude of feral invaders and left it with no taboo untouched . " Describing the All Stars as " an insanely hot act from Oz who sang , cursed , sweated and insulted each other and their audiences with a level of commitment and polish that seemed exotically charged and almost transgressive in the late 80s . "
DAAS were known for continuing to act , or to remain in character , during interviews . Much of this was just banter , but they also had serious messages . DAAS were often criticising the media and part of this was to tell outrageous lies to journalists during interviews and attempt to see them published as fact . In one of the best @-@ known instances of this , the group told British reporters that their namesake , former Australian politician Doug Anthony , was a much @-@ loved Prime Minister of Australia who had been assassinated on 11 November 1975 , by right wing extremists . ( In fact , Anthony is a former Deputy Prime Minister of Australia who had led the right @-@ of @-@ center National Party of Australia from 1971 to 1984 . ) The lie was printed in The Times , The Guardian and The Independent . This game continued undetected until in 1990 the group told a reporter that they had been cast in Batman and had become great friends with Jack Nicholson , both lies . The story was reported as fact in newspapers around Australia and appeared as a cover story in the TV guide of Melbourne 's Herald Sun before the media realised the hoax .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Tim Ferguson met Richard Fidler busking on the streets of Canberra in 1984 , while they were both attending university . Ferguson recalls : " Richard was playing the guitar — something from Cat Stevens — one day and I walked up to him and we did ' Wild Thing ' . I sang a few lyrics and jumped about like a mad thing . Lo and behold we made a stack of money in ten minutes . " The two began performing together and joined with another friend , Robert Piper , to form the Doug Anthony All Stars . They derived their name from Doug Anthony , a former Country Party leader and Deputy Prime Minister of Australia . According to Fidler , during their earlier gigs in clubs and as street performers , Ferguson was " a bit of an explosive hippie " while Fidler and Piper were more reserved . Robert Piper left the group in 1985 due to other commitments . Piper has gone on to a successful career with the United Nations and is now Deputy Special Coordinator for the Middle East Peace Process and the humanitarian coordinator for the Occupied Palestinian Territory .
With Piper 's departure , Paul McDermott , who performed at one of DAAS 's regular clubs , was invited to join . He accepted , although he did not like their material , which he considered too sweet . Fidler says McDermott changed the group 's dynamic ; he wrote the majority of their songs and prompted a darker tone . After winning the Pick of the Fringe award at the 1986 Adelaide Fringe Festival , the group relocated from Canberra to Melbourne , where they based themselves with a regular gig at the Prince Patrick Hotel in Collingwood , in an effort to save enough money to travel to the Edinburgh Fringe . Initially DAAS found that Melbourne audiences did not respond to their act and to provoke a reaction they became more aggressive , with McDermott and Ferguson adopting more abusive personas and often picking on Fidler 's naturally happy but stupid character . They made their first overseas performance at the Edinburgh Fringe in 1987 , to sold out crowds .
= = = Successes = = =
Following their Edinburgh Fringe shows , the group enjoyed considerable success in the United Kingdom , making appearances on numerous BBC comedy shows . In 1988 , the group was nominated for the Perrier Comedy Award for their performances at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe . Fidler says that the British people were more receptive to their act at the time than Australians had been . " The whole thing exploded for us when we got there , it was quite incredible . Within a very short time we were doing national television appearances in front of millions of people and playing these enormous shows , " he says . They played extensively in Canada , Germany , America and Britain , and finished their time in Britain by appearing on the final episode of the successful Friday Night Live . However , despite the acclaim they were receiving overseas , when they returned to Australia at the end of 1988 they remained unknown . Upon arriving in Melbourne , they struggled to gain a following and went back to busking on the streets .
This changed in 1989 when ABC comedy producer Ted Robinson invited them to appear on a new comedy show , The Big Gig . They became a popular feature on the series and appeared in every episode until 1991 . In 1989 the group also released a book entitled Book , which was a collection of dark short stories . Many of the stories had been written several years prior , even before the three had started performing together , and adopted a markedly different tone to their comedic , largely ad libbed live shows . Ferguson said that they had wanted to write something that people could read and enjoy without having seen DAAS perform . Book sold 30 @,@ 000 copies in England within the first two weeks of publication before being banned when DAAS refused to release an edited version of the book or permit a warning sticker on the cover . The issue was taken to court in the same year , where the ban was overturned .
DAAS released their first official album , DAAS Icon , in 1990 . Two of the featured songs , " I Want to Spill the Blood of a Hippy " and " Bottle " , were also released as singles . Icon went on to become the highest selling independent album in Australia , but was banned in the UK due to a reference to the IRA in the song " KRSNA " . This was later overturned by a British court . The group continued to appear weekly on The Big Gig until 1991 when their own series , DAAS Kapital , premiered on the ABC . A futuristic half @-@ hour @-@ long sitcom about the band 's adventures in an underwater history museum , DAAS Kapital ran for two seven @-@ episode seasons between 1991 and 1992 despite a poor critical reaction . From 1992 they became UK @-@ based , returning to Australia for a short time in 1993 to promote Dead & Alive , a live recording of one of their London shows which was released on CD and VHS . They played at the opening of the 1992 Barcelona Olympics and appeared regularly on Britain 's Channel 4 variety show Viva Cabaret .
= = = Break @-@ up and reformation = = =
The group held a final farewell tour of Australia in 1994 , which was recorded and released on CD by ABC Records as DAAS : The Last Concert . The break @-@ up sparked rumours of a falling out among the trio , although all three denied this , stating that it was simply time to move on . Richard Fidler described it as a matter of practicality : Ferguson wanted to return to Australia to be closer to his young family , while McDermott and Fidler wished to continue working in Britain as they felt they had done everything they had wanted to do in Australia .
In June 2010 , Tim Ferguson revealed that the break @-@ up was due in large part to personal health issues . Unknown to the public at the time , Ferguson had been diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in 1996 after experiencing symptoms for several years including a few severe episodes while touring in 1993 . The symptoms affected his mobility , causing him to struggle with choreography and physical routines onstage and eventually , he says , " it was clear I couldn 't remain a Doug Anthony Allstar with whatever this was " . Still coming to terms with his diagnosis , Ferguson chose to keep it private , telling few people outside of his close friends and family . " I didn 't want other people to know , " he says . " I didn 't want it to be coming up in conversation with strangers . "
In July 2003 , DAAS reunited for the first time since their break @-@ up to perform at a special gala comedy event called " For Holly " . Dedicated to the memory of Holly Robinson — a casting director for Home and Away and the daughter of The Big Gig 's Ted Robinson — who had died of cancer the month before , the concert was a fundraising benefit for research into the disease . At Holly 's request , the three also performed the Hunters & Collectors ' " Throw Your Arms Around Me " , a song they had frequently covered in the group 's later years , at her funeral .
A DAAS DVD entitled The Unlimited Uncollectible Sterling Deluxe Edition , a 2 @-@ disc collection of their performances from the first two seasons of The Big Gig , was released on 6 November 2008 . Ferguson , Fidler and McDermott recorded a commentary track for the DVD and made several media appearances together to promote its release , but the three ruled out the prospect of a reunion tour . " We certainly catch up for barbecues , but not as a comedy group , " McDermott said .
DAAS reunited for a one @-@ off show to launch the DVD of the TV series DAAS Kapital on 13 April 2013 as part of the Melbourne International Comedy Festival .
McDermott , Ferguson and Paul Livingston ( performing the role of Fidler ) performed " as DAAS " for their 30th anniversary at the Canberra Comedy Festival , held in March 2014 . They have since permanently reformed the band , and are doing an Australia @-@ wide tour . Although Fidler had been advocating for the group to reform for years , his work commitments with ABC Radio prevented him from participating and Livingston again filled his place as the group 's guitarist .
= = = Subsequent work = = =
Initially , McDermott was not interested in further pursuing comedy , which he came to regard as an " aberration " . However , in 1996 he returned to television after being recruited by Ted Robinson to host the satirical news @-@ based quiz show Good News Week . McDermott hosted the show until its cancellation in 2000 and returned to this role when the series was renewed in 2008 . He reunited with Robinson again in 2007 when he was named host of a new ABC variety program , The Sideshow , a show described as a successor to The Big Gig . Although it quickly built a strong cult audience , the show did not rate well and was cancelled after its initial run of 26 episodes .
In addition to his television work , McDermott has continued to be involved in live comedy . He has frequently participated in the Melbourne International Comedy Festival , having often captained one of the two competing teams in the festival 's Great Debate since his first debate appearance in 1994 . At the 2002 festival he not only presented a solo comedy show titled " Comedyoscopy " , but also performed with Cameron Bruce and Mick Moriarty in a music @-@ based comedy trio called GUD . McDermott described GUD as being in a similar vein to DAAS in that it revolved around music , comedy and the inter @-@ relationships between the band members onstage .
Ferguson also continued to pursue a career in television . In 1995 he hosted the Nine Network 's short @-@ lived game show Don 't Forget Your Toothbrush , and after the show 's cancellation Nine kept him on to develop new television pilots . However , the network was not sure how best to use his talents , and Ferguson left to pursue other work . During this time he wrote his first novel , Left , Right and Centre : A Tale Of Greed , Sex And Power , a political satire . His subsequent television credits have included Unreal TV , Big Brother , Funky Squad and Shock Jock , a 2001 cable sitcom which he also wrote and produced . He has also built a strong career as a corporate event performer and is a sessional lecturer at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology , where he teaches Narrative Comedy for the Professional Screenwriting Advanced Diploma and has run short courses on comedy writing since 2008 . In 2010 , he released a guide to comedy writing , The Cheeky Monkey : Writing Narrative Comedy . In 2010 , Ferguson hosted and co @-@ produced WTF – With Tim Ferguson , a comedy chat show on community television station C31 Melbourne .
After leaving DAAS , Fidler became heavily involved in computers and multimedia . In 1996 he wrote the award @-@ winning CD @-@ ROM Real Wild Child , a history of Australian rock and roll . Fidler also wrote a regular monthly column for internet.au magazine on the digital media world , and contributed an essay to the Australian Constitutional Convention website [ 1 ] . Although he had not initially intended to return to television , he has hosted various TV shows since 1996 , including Race Around the World , Aftershock , Mouthing Off and Vulture ; and spent three years in management as an editor of ABC TV comedy before deciding he " wasn 't cut out to be a manager " . In 2005 Fidler ventured into radio , fronting the 7 – 10pm shift on ABC Local Radio station 612 ABC Brisbane . Since 2006 , he has hosted the 11 am – 3pm shift on 612 ABC Brisbane , with the show 's first hour — known as The Conversation Hour — also broadcast on 702 ABC Sydney . He currently hosts Conversations with Richard Fidler [ 2 ] on ABC 's Radio National . In 2011 , Fidler co @-@ wrote a satirical book on Australian politics titled , Jack the Insider : The Insider 's Guide to Power in Australia , released by Random House Books , New Zealand [ 3 ] .
Original and founding member Robert Piper entered into a very successful
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" The Wrong Goodbye " is the 87th episode of The CW television series Gossip Girl . It is also the 22nd and final episode of the fourth season . The episode was directed by Patrick Norris and the second finale in the series written by Joshua Safran . This also marks the second time that the show filmed a scene in California . " The Wrong Goodbye " aired on the CW in the United States on May 16 , 2011 , and was viewed live by an audience of 1 @.@ 36 million Americans . Despite the low ratings , the episode garnered positive reviews from reviewers and critics .
" The Wrong Goodbye " picks up where the previous episode had left off . Chuck Bass ( Ed Westwick ) looks for a missing Blair Waldorf ( Leighton Meester ) who has been held hostage by an unstable Russell Thorpe ( Michael Boatman ) . An erratic Charlie Rhodes ( Kaylee DeFer ) escapes the humiliation of being rejected by Dan Humphrey ( Penn Badgley ) . Serena van der Woodsen ( Blake Lively ) and Vanessa Abrams ( Jessica Szohr ) reluctantly join forces after discovering the secret behind Charlie 's behavior . Georgina Sparks ( Michelle Trachtenburg ) unexpectedly turns up at the event looking for trouble .
Jessica Szohr makes her final appearance as Vanessa Abrams ; her exit was noted as her highlight of season 4 , with many critics praising Szhor 's acting in her phone conversation with Dan . This episode also marks Connor Paolo 's final appearance as Eric van der Woodsen until the series finale .
= = Plot = =
After discovering that Charlie has not been taking her medication , Serena and Vanessa reluctantly team up to find her . Chuck , Nate , Vanessa , and Serena soon encircle Dan , exclaiming that they need something from him . Chuck asks him where Blair is while Serena and Vanessa ask for Charlie 's whereabouts . One of Blair 's old friends reveals that Blair left the party . While accompanying Chuck to their apartment to look for Blair , Nate confesses that he told Raina ( Tika Sumpter ) everything behind her mother 's death . Chuck reprimands Nate until Raina interrupts them to apologize . Blair is held hostage by Russell in Chuck 's hotel . Pretending to escape , she calls Chuck on her phone , revealing her location . Russell explains his reason for kidnapping Blair : to burn down the hotel with her in it . A drunk Charlie is seen dancing wildly until Dan confronts her , but she escapes . Serena greets Headmistress Queller ( Jan Maxwell ) , who expresses her concern with Serena 's choice of staying in New York , having hoped that Serena would find her place outside of the Upper East Side . Georgina offers her aid in their scheme but Dan , Vanessa , and Serena reject her help , going their separate ways to find Charlie .
At Chuck 's hotel , Chuck saves Blair while Raina stops her father . With the police arriving , Chuck offers Blair a limo ride , and a homesick Raina breaks up with Nate , intending to return to Chicago . Chuck proposes avoiding the Constance party by going to a bar mitzvah in a similar fashion to Death Takes a Holiday , which Blair accepts . Chuck and Blair have sex while Prince Louis ( Hugo Becker ) waits for Blair at Constance . While looking for Charlie at the loft , Vanessa spots Dan 's novel and reads it . Dan calls her and is upset that she has been reading the novel , which she suggests that he publish despite the possible backlash . Realizing that he no longer cares about writing , Vanessa steals the novel after Dan angrily dismisses her . Serena stops Charlie from jumping off a window and Charlie expresses her envy towards Serena , aspiring to be like her until Serena admits her personal flaws to Charlie , who comforts her . Dan and Nate find Charlie and Serena and return to the party . Charlie makes a suspicious call to her mother and piques Georgina 's interest , who gives her her number . Blair finds herself in a dilemma as her feelings for Chuck have resurfaced , arriving at the party to inform Louis of her decision but Chuck interrupts her , informing him that he has their blessing . Blair confronts Chuck for making a decision for her , but the two eventually settle their issues , and he lets her go .
Three weeks later , Blair travels to Monaco to spend the summer with Louis while Serena goes to Montecito , Charlie departs for Miami , Chuck and Nate decide to travel together , and Lily ( Kelly Rutherford ) tells the family that her house arrest will end by autumn . Dan decides to spend summer in The Hamptons with Eric ( Connor Paolo ) and tells Rufus ( Matthew Settle ) that he has moved on from writing . Vanessa has Dan 's novel published and leaves for Spain . While in California , Serena runs into a man who has been trying to convert one of her favorite novels into a movie , but finds herself being given a job instead . In Miami , Carol ( Sheila Kelley ) pays Charlie , who is actually a con artist named Ivy that was hired to gain access to her daughter 's trust fund . Ivy 's bag shows that she has stolen money from Carol and plans on returning to New York . A later scene shows a positive pregnancy test in a trash can at Blair 's bathroom being thrown out by Dorota ( Zuzanna Szadkowski ) .
= = Production = =
" The Wrong Goodbye " is the second part of the two @-@ part season finale . Gossip Girl executive producer , Joshua Safran notes that the most important returning character of the show was Georgina Sparks and discussed working on a two @-@ part season finale for the first time on the show .
" I think that it 's really fun . It 's always fun to have Georgina around . She justs stirs the pot in a major way . She sort of threads through all the major stories [ ... ] sort of like a witness until she injects herself . And of course , returning to Constance , you can 't return without Georgina . [ ... ] So a lot of things are in play and a lot of things are happening [ ... ] , since we 've never done a two @-@ parter before , we wanted to load the gun with as many bullets as possible . "
Following her role in Green Lantern , news surfaced of Blake Lively leaving the show to further her acting career in Hollywood . IOL notes " Despite all talk of career trajectories and fanbase , Blake insists her choices are made through far simpler criteria and when asked about playing in a comic @-@ book film says : ' It ’ s not really a suitable question because the decisions I make on parts come from a more emotional place . It has to be a character I connect with or someone I can have empathy with . ' " New York Magazine and various media periodicals have also noted the possibility of Lively leaving the show . Serena and Georgina 's dresses were designed by Jenny Packham and Marchesa , respectively . Blair wore an Alexis Mabille dress while Chuck wore a Ralph Lauren suit .
= = = Casting = = =
Oscar @-@ winning director David O. Russell made a cameo appearance in the show . Actor Ethan Peck reportedly landed a role in the show . Both stars were seen filming with Blake Lively in California . Peck made his debut in the season finale together with Russell . Tony Award @-@ winning actress Jan Maxwell reprised her role as Headmistress Queller for the season finale . Hugo Becker remained ambiguous on whether he would be joining the series as a recurring or regular cast member during an interview with Zap2it , stating " the answer is in the finale . " and hinted the possibility of a recurring role . Cecily von Ziegesar makes a cameo appearance during the finale and filmed her scenes with Lively .
= = = Music = = =
The Airborne Toxic Event made a special appearance as the band for the Constance Billard Alumni party , playing the song " Changing " from their sophomore album , All at Once . The band announced that they would performing in the finale on their website .
= = Reception = =
The Wrong Goodbye received positive reviews from critics and garnered an audience of 1 @.@ 36 million viewers . New York Magazine drew out the references from past seasons and commented on how the season finale was written . " The Last Episode of the Fourth Season of the Greatest Show of Our Time felt in many ways like it might have been written to end the series , what with the many This Is Your Life moments ( such as the return of Georgina Sparks and Blair 's old minions Izzy and Kati ) , the wry references to episodes past , the wrapping up of story lines ( including the revelation that Dan has been secretly novelizing his observations of the Upper East Side for the entire time we 've thought we 've " known " him ) , and the meaningful departure of its most marketable star to none other than Hollywood . " Critical praise went to the storyline twist behind Charlie 's identity , citing her as " the big “ shocker ” of the Gossip Girl finale " and the cameo appearance of Gossip Girl author , Cecily von Ziegesar . Television Without Pity included the episode in its gallery of " Season Finales 2011 : The Best and Worst " , declaring the finale as one of the best and stating that it " had a lot of storylines pay off " and " was our own little version of a fairy tale . "
Television Without Pity and Steve Marsi of TV Fanatic praised the return of Georgina , stating " Michelle had some of the show 's funniest dialogue in a long time . She and Jack Bass have really made the last two weeks for me . It was great to have her back . " When reviewing the final scene , Marsi commended the appearance of the positive pregnancy test to the audience , calling the it " Quite the cliffhanger to leave us with after a finale that was already pretty darn entertaining . The show went out on a high note and next season could be even better . " New York Magazine commented on the pregnancy test , insisting that " we ’ re pretending that positive pregnancy test didn ’ t exist . "
The Los Angeles Times ' Judy Berman praised the finale , stating " [ ... ] this year went out with a bang . I had my doubts and reservations , largely concerning Blair and Chuck , but I am surprised and pleased to report that I found the end of " Gossip Girl " Season 4 both exciting and satisfying . " The return of Georgina Sparks was well @-@ received as with Serena 's development , with Berman citing Serena 's confession with Charlie before she could plunge to her death . " This debacle , along with the events of this season in general , seems to have given S some perspective . Friends , she apologizes to Nate and Dan for leading them on and confesses to Charlie that her decision @-@ making skills leave something to be desired ! Even if lazy writing results in Serena falling into old habits next season , it 's a pretty gratifying moment . " Berman also questioned Vanessa 's motive behind publishing Dan 's novel " [ ... ] it 's impossible to know whether she 's trying to do her old friend one last favor or profit from stirring up more drama in his life . Considering that Jessica Szohr won 't be returning to the show in the fall , we may never find out . " Berman also complimented the casting of director David O Russell calling it " one of the show 's most delightfully random cameos ever " . New York Magazine labeled Chuck and Blair 's relationship as the " Longest @-@ Delayed Breakup " of the season , adding that " the big news was that Blair and Prince Louis are somehow still together and engaged , with the wedding scheduled for November sweeps . We feel comfortable assuming that by then , Chuck will have regrouped enough to break things up more definitively . "
= British Library Philatelic Collections =
The British Library Philatelic Collections is the national philatelic collection of the United Kingdom with over 8 million items from around the world . It was established in 1891 as part of the British Museum Library , later to become the British Library , with the collection of Thomas Tapling . In addition to bequests and continuing donations , the library received consistent deposits by the Crown Agency and has become a primary research collection for British Empire and international history . The collections contain a wide range of artefacts in addition to postage stamps , from newspaper stamps to a press used to print the first British postage stamps .
= = History = =
The first notable philatelic donation was in 1890 by Hubert Haes of two albums of postage stamps collected by himself and Walter Van Noorden . It was donated with the request that the British Museum library ( now the British Library ) would create a philatelic collection .
The following year the Collections were established with the bequest of the Tapling Collection . The probate value of the Tapling Collection was set at £ 12 @,@ 000 but on arrival Richard Garnett ( Assistant Keeper of Printed Books ) estimated their value at more than £ 50 @,@ 000 and described the bequest as the most valuable gift since the Grenville Library in 1847 .
In 1900 the Crown Agents for the Colonies sent three albums of postage stamps made on their order for colonial governments and then sent specimens of all future stamps commissioned .
In 1913 , the Crawford Library was received which forms the cornerstone of the British Library 's philatelic literature collection , containing about 4500 works . The Crawford Library was donated by the Earl of Crawford in his Will and was the foremost collection of philatelic books in the world at the time .
In 1944 Mrs A. Cunningham donated her father 's collection ( Edward Mosley ) of African stamps and in 1949 Mrs. Clement Williams donated her late brother 's collection ( H. L 'Estrange Ewen ) of railway letter stamps , valued at £ 10 @,@ 000 . After being offered in 1942 but delayed due to the Collections being in secure war storage , in 1951 it was announced that Mrs Augustine Fitzgerald had donated an extensive air mail collection . The Mosley and Fitzgerald collections were valued at the time at £ 30 @,@ 000 .
The Department of Printed Books had been in charge of the Philatelic Collections by default rather than design . In 1936 there was an unsuccessful proposal to move the Collections to the Department of Prints and Drawings and in 1946 there was a further proposal for the Department of Coins and Medals to take charge . No decision could be agreed and Printed Books continued to manage the Collections until they were passed to the newly formed British Library in 1973 .
= = Curators = =
From 1948 , H.R. Holmes had been the curator but in the late 1950s had wished to relinquish the post . A replacement curator was not easily found and the care of the Collections was managed on a part @-@ time basis . A security crisis in 1959 developed after it was discovered that the contents of one of the frames in the Tapling Collection was missing . In 1961 James A. Mackay was recruited as a research assistant to take care of the Collections . In 1971 the police arrested Mackay ( promoted to Assistant Keeper in 1965 ) and charged him with stealing items from the British Museum Philatelic Collections on loan from the Crown Agents . The stolen progressive proofs ( test prints of stamp designs ) should have been returned to the Crown Agents for destruction and were valued at £ 7 @,@ 600 . Mackay had exchanged the proofs for Winston Churchill stamps worth £ 400 . He was fined £ 1 @,@ 000 and dismissed from the Museum . As a result of the thefts , security was improved by recruiting Bob Schoolley @-@ West , one of the investigating police officers . The Crown Agents withdrew their agreement for lending new stamps for display in the King 's Library .
David Beech joined the British Library as a philatelic curator in 1983 and was appointed Head of the Philatelic Collections in 1991 . Beech is a former President of The Royal Philatelic Society London and joint founder of the International Philatelic Libraries Association .
= = Description = =
The material is organized in 50 collections and archives which have been acquired by donation , bequest , or transfer from Government Departments . The Collections include postage and revenue stamps , postal stationery , essays , proofs , covers and entries , " cinderella stamp " material , specimen issues , airmails , some postal history materials and official and private posts for almost all countries and periods . Philately is interpreted in its widest sense and the more unusual artefacts include original unused artwork , horse licences and the pilot 's licence of Captain John Alcock .
A permanent exhibit of items from the Collections is on display in the British Library entrance area upper ground floor , which may be the best gallery of diverse classic stamps and philatelic material in the world . Approximately 80 @,@ 000 items on 6 @,@ 000 sheets may be viewed in 1 @,@ 000 display frames ; 2 @,@ 400 sheets are from the Tapling Collection . Other material , which covers the whole world , is available to students and researchers by appointment .
The British Library Philatelic Department Photograph Collection is a collection of photographs of philatelic material not in the Library 's collections . Mostly composed of material donated by philatelic auctioneers , the collection is an important resource for researchers .
As well as these collections , the library actively acquires literature on the subject . This makes the British Library one of the world 's leading philatelic research centres .
= = = Principal collections = = =
= = Selected notable items = =
The Collections include a unique proof sheet of 26 Revenue 1765 Newspaper and Pamphlet one penny impressions showing the registration certificate . These were issued to apply the Stamp Act of 1765 intended to raise taxes to fund the defence of the American Colonies from the French . The tax applied to legal documents , licences , newspapers , pamphlets and almanacs in the American Colonies , Quebec , Nova Scotia , Newfoundland , Florida , the Bahamas and the West Indian Islands . The taxes resulted in public protest and rioting . The tax was abandoned after a few months due to its unpopularity but the political damage contributed to the War of Independence in 1775 .
The largest object in the British Library is the Perkins D cylinder press developed by Jacob Perkins and patented in 1819 . This press was one of several used to print the first postage stamps of Great Britain and Ireland which were issued in 1840 . The press was used for printing many early stamps for British Colonial territories from 1853 including for Cape of Good Hope , Ceylon , Mauritius , St Helena , Trinidad , Western Australia , Ionian Islands , New Brunswick , New South Wales , New Zealand and Victoria .
The £ 1 stamp issued in Jamaica ( 1956 – 58 ) in the reign of King George VI shows Tobacco Growing and Cigar Making . The first stamp for Queen Elizabeth II was to be in the same design ( chocolate and violet ) but was abandoned after printing . There are only seven examples in existence .
The cover of the British Library pocket guide Treasures in Focus - Stamps features the 1913 King George V seahorse master dye proof , part of the Harrison Collection . The engraver , J.A.C. Harrison , took proofs during the creation of the die of which this image is one . The engraving was used on the high value stamps 2 / 6 , 5 / - , 10 / - and £ 1 .
The Collections feature these rarities which demonstrate international scope :
Gold Coast : 1883 ( May ) 1d on 4d magenta , unique
India : 1854 4 annas blue and pale red , error head inverted , two used on a cover , unique .
Mauritius 1847 1d red used on cover and 2d blue , the " Post Office " issue 1d. orange @-@ red , used on cover . The first British Colonial postage stamps were issued in Mauritius in 1847 .
New South Wales : 1850 1d and 3d essays of the Sydney View issue . The first stamps of New South Wales , being 1d , 2d and 3d values , were issued in 1850 .
Spain : 1851 2 reales , error of colour , one of three known .
St Helena : 1961 Tristan Relief Fund 5c . + 6d . , 7 ½ c . + 9d . , and 10c . + 1 / - , used on a postcard . Only the Colonial Office in London could authorize new stamps , a fact clearly unknown to the Governor , and the issue was withdrawn . These are among the rarest of modern stamps as only 434 sets were sold .
Switzerland : Zurich : 1843 4 rappen , the unique unsevered horizontal strip of five .
Uruguay : 1858 120 centavos blue and 180 centavos green , in tête @-@ bêche pairs , two of five known .
Western Australia : 1854 @-@ 55 4d blue , error frame inverted .
= Star Cops =
Star Cops is a British science fiction television series first broadcast on BBC2 in 1987 . It was devised by Chris Boucher , a writer who had previously worked on the science fiction television series Doctor Who and Blake 's 7 as well as crime dramas such as Juliet Bravo and Bergerac . Set in the year 2027 , a time where Interplanetary travel has become commonplace , it starred David Calder as Nathan Spring , commander of the International Space Police Force — nicknamed the “ Star Cops " — who provide law enforcement for the newly developing colonies of the Solar System . The series follows Nathan Spring and the rest of his multinational team as they work to establish the Star Cops and solve whatever crimes come their way . Operating in a relatively accurately realised hard SF , near @-@ future , space environment , many of the cases that the Star Cops investigate arise from opportunities for new crimes presented by the technologically advanced future society the series depicts and from the hostile frontier nature of the environment that the Star Cops live in .
In total nine episodes of Star Cops were made . A tenth episode , titled " Death on the Moon " , was planned but industrial relations difficulties during production led to it being abandoned shortly before recording was to commence . A combination of factors , including conflict between Boucher and producer Evgeny Gridneff and poor scheduling , meant that the series never found a satisfactory audience and the series was cancelled after one season . In recent years , Star Cops has undergone something of a critical re @-@ appraisal and is generally hailed for being " a pretty good attempt at a moderately realistic " High Frontier " SF series " .
= = Concept and setting = =
Spacemen are ten @-@ a @-@ penny . What they need out there is a good copper .
Star Cops is set in the year 2027 — some 40 years into the future at time of broadcast — a time in which space travel has become common and mankind is in the process of exploiting and colonising the Solar System . There are five permanently manned space stations orbiting the Earth and there are bases on the Moon and Mars . Approximately 3 @,@ 000 people are living and working in space . This near future setting was influenced by the potential for greater access to space promised by the burgeoning Space Shuttle programme and by the militarisation of space through the US Government 's Strategic Defense Initiative programme ( also known as " Star Wars " ) both of which were underway in the early 1980s . Accordingly , space travel and life in space is portrayed in a realistic manner with depictions of weightlessness and low gravity environments and lengthy space journeys ( months or years in cases of interplanetary travel ) as well as hazards such as spacesuit failures , radiation exposure and explosive decompression . This air of realism has led to Star Cops being frequently compared with the 1973 BBC drama series Moonbase 3 . Similarly , the pioneering spirit evoked by the process of colonising the Solar System seen in the series has led to comparisons with the Western genre among many commentators .
Law and order is provided by the International Space Police Force ( ISPF ) , twenty part @-@ time volunteers disparagingly nicknamed the " Star Cops " . The decision has been made to put the ISPF on a permanent full @-@ time footing and a new commander , Nathan Spring , has been appointed to accomplish this . Many of the series episodes deal with Spring 's efforts to establish the Star Cops — he sets up a base of operations on the Moonbase , recruits new staff , roots out and dismisses corrupt officers and works to extend the Star Cops ' reach first into the American space stations and then , at the end of the series , the far @-@ flung reaches of the Mars colonies , all the while investigating whatever crimes occur along the way .
Many of the crimes that the Star Cops investigate have a science fiction " twist " to them arising from the unconventional ( for a police show ) environment the series is set e.g. a murder in which the two victims are not yet dead , a ransom demand for kidnapped embryos , a hoax discovery of an alien civilisation , etc . It is out of these scenarios that one of the major themes of the series emerges : the conflict between human emotion and morality on the one hand and machine logic and rogue science on the other .
Another major theme of the series is the " sins of the father " : Spring ’ s first assignment as a detective was to arrest his father for industrial espionage , the villain in " Intelligent Listening for Beginners " is motivated by his inability to match his father ’ s reputation , Spring ’ s deputy , David Theroux , watched his father die of radiation poisoning , the kidnapper in " A Double Life " is seeking revenge for his father ’ s murder and Star Cop Anna Shoun betrays the multinational company which employs her ( and with whom she has a paternal relationship ) when she discovers their unethical behaviour .
= = Principal characters = =
Nathan Spring ( David Calder )
Nathan Spring is a 41 @-@ year @-@ old Chief Superintendent in the British police force who reluctantly accepts promotion to Commander of the International Space Police Force with the brief of turning them into a full @-@ time professional police force . Spring is a career policeman who has become disenchanted with the prevailing methods of policing which , he feels , are too dependent on computer logic and not on human instinct . His first job as a young detective was to arrest his own father , a computer salesman , for industrial espionage . Spring is a man who is driven but lonely , a man who doesn 't make friends easily and whose ability to do so is not easy on account of his choice of career and work environment . His constant companion is Box , a prototype handheld computer ( also voiced by Calder ) , bequeathed to him by his father . The conversations between Box and Spring provide insight into Spring 's emotional state and thought processes as Spring engages in " almost Jacobean @-@ style soliloquies " with the device .
David Theroux ( Erick Ray Evans )
Spring 's second in command is Chief Superintendent David Theroux , an American . Theroux , an engineer , started out in the US space program but quit and joined the European space effort instead . When he is introduced in the opening episode , " An Instinct for Murder " , he is working as a traffic controller and part @-@ time Star Cop on the European space station Charles de Gaulle . Movie buff Theroux generally tries to maintain an air of wise @-@ cracking , cool detachment which breaks down only when he is forced in " This Case to be Opened in a Million Years " to face his morbid fear of radioactivity .
Colin Devis ( Trevor Cooper )
When Spring 's girlfriend , Lee Jones , is killed in " Conversations with the Dead " , the task of investigating the murder is handed to Chief Inspector Colin Devis of the London Metropolitan Police , " one of the Department 's all @-@ time cretins " . Devis ' pursuit of the killer , an agent of the British Secret Service , costs him his job but Spring compensates him by hiring him , at the rank of Inspector , for the ISPF . Although Devis is not the sharpest investigator , his heart is in the right place and he is fiercely loyal to Spring . Overweight , sexist and bigoted , five times married Devis is the series ' main comedy element and frequently gets the best lines .
Pal Kenzy ( Linda Newton )
Australian Pal Kenzy is briefly glimpsed in " An Instinct for Murder " and then introduced properly in " Intelligent Listening for Beginners " where she is fired by Spring for corruption . Determined not to go quietly , Spring is forced to reinstate her when she foils an attempted hijacking on the Earth @-@ Moon shuttle . She has a stormy relationship with Spring who mistrusts her but over the course of the series they develop a close bond . By the end of the series it is apparent that Spring has saved her from falling into a pit of corruption whereas she has restored his faith in humanity .
Anna Shoun ( Sayo Inaba )
Rounding off the team is Dr Anna Shoun , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old general physician from Japan . Spring takes her on when she is fired for betraying her employers , the multinational Hanimed corporation , to the Star Cops in the episode " In Warm Blood " . The Shoun character has been criticised as a racial stereotype , a charge that has also been levelled at other aspects of the series such as depicting Italians as members of the Mafia , Arabs as Islamists and Americans as jingoistic warmongers .
Alexander Krivenko ( Jonathan Adams )
Finally , introduced in Trivial Games and Paranoid Pursuits , is Russian Alexander Krivenko , the commander of the Moonbase where the ISPF have their headquarters . A winner of the Nobel Prize for Medicine , it is Krivenko 's research into bone damage that has contributed to enabling humanity to access space easily . Although the Star Cops are independent , Spring 's relationship with Krivenko is often deferential and he frequently seems to capitulate to Krivenko 's wishes .
= = Production history = =
= = = Origins = = =
Chris Boucher began his television writing career in comedy , working on such programmes as Dave Allen at Large and Romany Jones , before moving on to write for drama series , including Shoestring , Juliet Bravo and Bergerac . He was no stranger to television science fiction , having written three serials for Doctor Who and having acted as script editor on the entire four season run of Blake 's 7 as well as writing nine episodes for it himself . Boucher originally pitched Star Cops to the BBC in 1981 as a radio series but , with James Follet 's epic Earthsearch serial in production that year , it was felt that science fiction was adequately served in the schedules and so Boucher tried to sell it to television instead . He sent the draft script of the first Star Cops story to Jonathan Powell , the Head of Drama at BBC television . Powell responded asking Boucher to write a second script and on the strength of this the series was commissioned . However , Powell insisted that the first story , which Boucher had intended to run over two episodes , be reworked into a single episode . This would be the first of many difficulties Boucher would have with how Star Cops was eventually realised for the screen . Boucher , who at this time was working as script editor on the crime series Bergerac , was also told by Powell he could work on Star Cops or on Bergerac but not on both and so chose to leave Bergerac .
= = = Production = = =
Assigned to produce Star Cops was Evgeny Gridneff , who had previously worked for the BBC on Tenko , Blott on the Landscape and Hold the Back Page . Gridneff and Boucher clashed over their respective visions for the series from the outset when , on their first meeting , Gridneff told Boucher that all his scripts would have to be rewritten . Boucher later remarked that their " relationship started out at the bottom and worked its way down " .
Boucher had intended to write all ten scripts for the series himself but the tight timescale under which the episodes had to be recorded meant he could only contribute five , with the rest written by John Collee ( three scripts ) and Philip Martin ( two scripts ) . Having previously qualified and worked as a doctor , Collee was a journalist who wrote for The Observer newspaper and later moved into films , most notably writing the screenplay for Master and Commander : The Far Side of the World . Martin was an experienced scriptwriter , best known for the controversial BBC drama series Gangsters , with previous experience in television science fiction , having written for Doctor Who . Two directors were assigned to the show : Christopher Baker , who had worked with Gridneff before on Hold the Back Page as well as BBC veterinarian dramas All Creatures Great and Small and One by One , and Graeme Harper who had directed two Doctor Who stories .
At the time , most British television drama was shot on a combination of film and videotape . Usually location shooting would be on film and studio work would be recorded on video . The effect of the change in medium from film to video ( or vice versa ) during a scene change in a programme could be jarring for some viewers . Boucher structured his scripts carefully so that all the Earth @-@ based scenes would be shot on film on location and all the space scenes would be recorded on video in the studio hoping that the effect would give the space scenes a unique look . He was disappointed , therefore , to discover that Gridneff had decided to record the entire series on videotape .
Cast as Nathan Spring was David Calder , an experienced character actor with a reputation for " tough @-@ guy " roles and best known at the time for his role as Detective Inspector George Resnick in the Lynda La Plante television serial Widows . Naming him Nathan after his youngest son , Boucher had originally written Spring as a much younger character , a high @-@ flyer in his early thirties who had risen rapidly through the ranks of the police . Despite this Boucher was pleased with Calder 's performance describing Calder as " a class act " whose " performance was immaculate " . Trevor Cooper was cast as Colin Devis at the suggestion of Graeme Harper who had worked with him on Doctor Who and in theatre . The rest of the cast , with the exception of Jonathan Adams ( who had a semi @-@ regular role on Bergerac ) , were relatively unknown .
Given that the series was set in the relatively near future , Gridneff took great pains to ensure that the space scenes were depicted as accurately as possible , seeking advice from NASA and other space agencies as well as arranging a set visit by astronaut Pete Conrad , the third man to set foot on the Moon . Conrad 's input proved useful in making the scenes set in weightlessness as convincing as the budget would allow . Assistance was also received from an aerospace manufacturer , the McDonnell Douglas Corporation , who provided stock footage of astronauts training in a water tank and received an on @-@ screen credit on the first episode " An Instinct for Murder " .
Recording of the series began on 12 August 1986 with the first block of episodes — " An Instinct for Murder " , " Conversations with the Dead " and " Intelligent Listening for Beginners " — directed by Christopher Baker . This was followed by a block directed by Graeme Harper comprising " Trivial Games and Paranoid Pursuits " , " This Case to be Opened in a Million Years " and " In Warm Blood " . Christopher Baker then returned to the director 's chair for " A Double Life " and " Other People 's Secrets " . Both directors had differing visions for the overall look and feel of the series , with the initial block directed by Baker favouring a pristine , brightly lit approach . This contrasted with the look preferred by Graeme Harper who drastically reduced the light levels ( leaving many scenes illuminated only by computer monitor screens ) and whose designer , Malcolm Thornton , dressed the sets in a messier and dingier fashion . When Baker returned for his second block of episodes , he sought to return to the brighter , cleaner look which led to some continuity problems . Meanwhile , Evgeny Gridneff and Chris Boucher 's professional relationship continued to be stormy with Gridneff deciding to introduce a new Star Cop , Anna Shoun , without consulting Boucher . The cast and crew were well aware of the behind the scenes conflicts and David Calder later recalled that there was " uncertainty as to which direction this series should go in " . Chris Boucher has been frequently critical of the way in which the series was realised and has since stated that , in retrospect , he wishes he had volunteered to produce the series himself . In response to Boucher 's criticisms , Gridneff has said , " I respect him as a writer and he 's professional and , you know , it 's his series and if it didn 't quite go the way he thought , you know , that 's unfortunate when you 're dealing , you know , you 're losing your baby " .
The final block was to be directed by Graeme Harper and would comprise the final two episodes " Death on the Moon " , written by Philip Martin , and " Information Received " , written by Chris Boucher . However industrial action at the BBC affected Star Cops and many other BBC programmes leaving a backlog of programmes once the strike had ended . Forced to prioritise and despite the fact that the episode had been cast , costumes made and sets constructed , the decision was taken to drop " Death on the Moon " and bring " Information Received " , now titled " Little Green Men and Other Martians " , forward . The three @-@ day recording block for this episode began on 16 February 1987 just two days after recording of episode 8 had finished . Recording was further complicated when Erick Ray Evans fell ill and his lines had to split amongst the rest of the cast at the last minute with most of Theroux 's dialogue going to Pal Kenzy . Production on Star Cops finally wrapped on 18 February 1987 .
The theme song for the series , titled " It Won 't be Easy " , was written and performed by Justin Hayward , the lead vocalist with the Moody Blues . The theme was produced by record producer Tony Visconti who also composed , with Hayward , the incidental music for every episode . Gridneff hoped that the theme would act as a gentle method of enticing casual viewers into the series . Reaction to the music and Hayward 's song in particular , has generally been negative . SFX magazine , in particular , has been highly critical of the theme tune : in one issue it was placed twenty @-@ ninth in a list article titled " The 50 Worst Things About SF Ever ! " while in another it was placed sixth in a list article titled " The 10 Worst Things About UK Telefantasy " . Writer and critic Kim Newman has described the theme as the " worst single theme tune of any TV show ever " . Chris Boucher has said that he " hated the music . The incidental music wasn 't appropriate and it didn 't have the style and feeling it should have had " .
= = = Transmission and viewer reaction = = =
Star Cops was broadcast on Monday nights at around 8 : 30pm starting on 6 July 1987 on BBC2 . Competition was provided on BBC One by sitcom Terry and June and The Nine O 'Clock News . The fifth episode , " This Case to be Opened in a Million Years " , was broadcast at the later time of 9.55pm. The BBC listings magazine Radio Times promoted the series , giving it the front cover of the 4 – 10 July 1987 edition accompanied by a four @-@ page article by Johnny Black inside . Star Cops performed poorly in the ratings with an average audience across the series of only 2 @.@ 2 million viewers . Chris Boucher has blamed the poor ratings on the timeslot the show was given , stating : " There is nothing that has ever gone out on BBC 2 at half @-@ past eight until twenty @-@ past nine ; it 's a grotesque period . It doesn 't synch with anything on BBC 1 ; it just doesn 't work in relation to anything . You had to badly want to see Star Cops in order to watch it because you had to sacrifice at least two hours of viewing to see it . I can see why people didn 't want to have that problem . " . He has also commented that the poor timeslot and the decision to air the series in July and August ( a time when viewing figures are traditionally lower due to the summer ) reflected the fact that Star Cops didn 't have the confidence of the BBC management . This view is echoed by star David Calder who has described the timeslot as " an act of sabotage and absurdity " .
Critical reaction to the show was generally negative : writing in The Times following the broadcast of " Conversations with the Dead " , Andrew Hislop wrote that " Star Cops has neither the campiness of Star Trek nor the imagination of Dr. Who to overcome its technological limitations " . Also in The Times , reviewing " Intelligent Listening for Beginners " , Martin Cropper found that " some of the individual plot @-@ lines show invention of a sort , but the script is uniformly feeble " . Meanwhile , in The Sunday Times , Patrick Stoddart was confused by the plot of " This Case to be Opened in a Million Years " asking readers " if you are following any of this , please write to me and explain " . Letter writers to the Radio Times were split on the merits of the show : some such as P. Tricker of Alpheton , Suffolk praising it for having " brilliant special effects , well @-@ written scripts and actors who were convincing " while others like Martin Bower of Allendale , Northumberland slated the " dated designs , poor music [ and ] cheap sets " and P. Curwen of Balloch , Dunbartonshire described it as " boring – too much talk and not enough action " . Science fiction fandom at the time was more positive with Anthony McKay in Time Screen describing the series as " one of the most refreshing telefantasy series for years " while the British Science Fiction Association gave the show their Media Award in 1987 . The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction stated " the low @-@ key realism of the show was efficient enough " but argued , in the end , that Star Cops " failed to imagine the future with any real vividness or depth " . The low ratings doomed the show to a single season and , although admired , it has never developed a significant following among science fiction aficionados . Boucher has stated that , in retrospect , he feels that the series was too outlandish for crime drama fans and not outlandish enough for science fiction fans and that ultimately it appealed to neither .
= = = Proposals for a second season = = =
When recording was completed , Gridneff asked Boucher if he had any ideas for a further season of Star Cops . Boucher felt that were the series to continue he would like to extend the setting further out into the Solar System , visiting the Mars colonies and the Big Ring space colonies under construction . He intended to achieve this either by transferring one of the existing regular characters to the Mars colony or by introducing a new regular who would be based there . The second season was never developed beyond these few basic notions as it was clear to Boucher from an early stage that there was little prospect of the series being renewed . Following Star Cops , Boucher went on to work as script editor on the long @-@ running ITV police drama The Bill before returning to freelance writing while Gridneff moved on to work on the BBC drama series The House of Eliott .
= = Legacy = =
The demise of Star Cops after just nine episodes has been seen as indicative of the decline of British television science fiction in the 1980s and , after Doctor Who followed Star Cops into cancellation in 1989 , there would be no British regular science fiction drama series on British television until Bugs began in 1995 . However , Star Cops has undergone something of a reappraisal – in science fiction circles at least – since it went off the air in 1987 . Reviewing the VHS releases for TV Zone in 1991 , Gary Russell stated that " Star Cops represents excellent science fiction " and recanted his original impression of the series upon broadcast that it was " Bergerac in spacesuits , complete with rather cruddy visual effects and boring performances " . A retrospective article penned by Keith Topping for Dreamwatch to mark the series ' 10th anniversary in 1997 described Star Cops as " a series that could ( and should ) have been one of the BBC 's most popular , influential and entertaining products of the era . On at least one of these points the series failed miserably , but , certainly when it came to entertainment , it succeeded magnificently " . In 1999 , when science fiction magazine SFX asked an expert panel from the SF field , including Terry Pratchett and Stephen Baxter , to compile a list of the top 50 SF shows of all time , Star Cops came thirteenth on the list , with SFX describing it as " the SF TV show SF writers love . It wasn 't perfect but it 's as close as TV will ever get to producing proper written SF " . Later , in 2005 , SFX went on to poll its readers for their list of the top 50 British telefantasy shows and Star Cops was voted into twenty @-@ seventh position on the list . The BBC themselves revisited Star Cops in a thirty @-@ minute retrospective documentary about the show , recorded as part of a series titled The Cult of ... , first broadcast on BBC Four on 28 November 2006 as part of that channel 's Science Fiction Britannia season . Reflecting on the show in the programme , the author and critic Kim Newman said that " the strength of Star Cops is the writing . I don 't think any of the episodes are realised as well on screen as they are on the page . [ ... ] If it had come back for another couple of seasons it might well have been the BBC 's best science fiction show " . The documentary concluded that Star Cops was an " overlooked gem " .
= = Episode guide = =
Star Cops comprised nine episodes and was first broadcast on Monday nights on BBC2 between 6 July 1987 and 31 August 1987 . A tenth episode " Death on the Moon " was planned but abandoned following industrial action at the BBC .
= = Merchandising = =
A very small amount of merchandising has been produced for Star Cops . To coincide with the broadcast of the series in 1987 , BBC Enterprises released Justin Hayward 's theme song " It Won 't Be Easy " as a 7 @-@ inch and 12 @-@ inch single . The 7 @-@ inch included the track " Outer Space " by Hayward and Tony Visconti , which was one of the incidental music tracks written for " An Instinct for Murder " , on the B @-@ side . The 12 @-@ inch had an extended version of " It Won 't Be Easy " on the A @-@ Side and the 7 @-@ inch version of " It Won 't Be Easy " and " Outer Space " on the B @-@ Side . " It Won 't Be Easy " was later released on compact disc as part of the compilation The Best of BBC TV 's Themes .
The entire series was released by BBC Video in three volumes , each containing three episodes , on VHS video tape in 1991 . Some purchasers of the VHS tapes also received embroidered ISPF and Moonbase patches made by Stewart Aviation .
Chris Boucher 's five Star Cops scripts have been semi @-@ professionally published in two volumes by Judith Proctor . The first volume An Instinct for Murder was adapted from the first Star Cops episode of the same name . The second volume Little Green Men and Other Stories included the four remaining Boucher scripts . There are some changes from the broadcast episodes – neither the characters of Alexander Krivenko nor Anna Shoun appear in these books . Krivenko is replaced by a Chinese character , Jiang Li Ho , as an attempt to update the Star Cops universe to reflect the ending of the Cold War in 1989 . Shoun is replaced by an Irish character , Dana Cogill – Boucher didn 't own the rights to use the Shoun character who had been created by John Collee .
The complete series was released on DVD by Network Video in a single , three @-@ disc volume in 2004 . This release contained a number of extras including commentaries by Chris Boucher on " An Instinct for Murder " and " Little Green Men and Other Martians " and by Philip Martin on " This Case to be Opened in a Million Years " as well as a making of documentary , interviews with Chris Boucher , Philip Martin and Trevor Cooper and behind the scenes footage .
= Poker Face ( Lady Gaga song ) =
" Poker Face " is a song by American singer Lady Gaga from her debut studio album , The Fame ( 2008 ) . Produced by RedOne , it was released as the album 's second single in late 2008 for some markets and in early 2009 for the rest of the world . " Poker Face " is an uptempo synthpop song in the key of G ♯ minor , following in the footsteps of her previous single " Just Dance " , but with a darker musical tone . The main idea behind the song is bisexuality and was a tribute by Gaga to her rock and roll boyfriends . Lyrically , the track is about a woman engaged in the practice of cockteasing .
" Poker Face " was acclaimed by most critics , who praised the robotic hook and the chorus . The song attained worldwide success , topping the charts in twenty countries including the United States , United Kingdom , Australia , New Zealand , Canada and many European countries . " Poker Face " is the best @-@ selling single of 2009 worldwide , with over 9 @.@ 5 million in sales . It is among the best @-@ selling singles of all time , having sold over 14 million copies . The accompanying music video for the song portrays Gaga singing it in various costumes and playing strip poker in a getaway villa .
Gaga performed the song for the eighth season of the television show American Idol as well as the Fame Ball and Monster Ball tours . The live performances included an electronic version and an acoustic version , which she played on the piano . It was nominated for both Song of the Year and Record of the Year at the 52nd Grammy Awards , and won the Award for Best Dance Recording .
= = Background = =
" Poker Face " was written by Gaga and RedOne , while production was handled also by RedOne . Gaga stated in an interview that " Poker Face " was written by her as a pop song and was a tribute to her " rock ' n ' roll boyfriends " . She also stated that the main idea behind the song was sex and gambling . In an interview with UK 's Daily Star , Gaga noted of the song , " It 's about a lot of different things . I gamble but I 've also dated a lot of guys who are really into sex and booze and gambling , so I wanted to write a record my boyfriends would like too . " In an interview with Rolling Stone magazine , when asked about the meaning of the line " bluffin ' with my muffin " , Gaga explained that it really was a metaphor for her vulva .
" Obviously , it 's my pussy 's poker face ! I took that line from another song I wrote but never released , called ' Blueberry Kisses . ' It was about a girl singing to her boyfriend about how she wants him to go down on her , and I used the lyric . [ Gaga sings ] ' Blueberry kisses , the muffin man misses them kisses ' . "
During her Fame Ball Tour performance at Palm Springs , California , on April 11 , 2009 , Gaga explained to the crowd the true meaning behind the term " Poker Face " used in the song . She suggested that the song dealt with her personal experience with bisexuality . The idea behind the song was to be with a man but fantasizing about a woman , hence the man in the song needs to read her " Poker Face " to understand what is going through her mind .
= = Composition = =
" Poker Face " is a synthpop song , and follows the footsteps of Gaga 's previous single " Just Dance " . Whereas " Just Dance " was predominately electropop , " Poker Face " carries a dark sound with clear vocals on the chorus and a pop hook while combining the synths from " Just Dance " and the more dance @-@ oriented beat of the next single " LoveGame " . According to Kerri Mason of Billboard , the composition " carr [ ies ] the pleather @-@ and @-@ sequins vibe of the downtown New York scene out of the underground and onto the FM dial without losing its smut and sass . "
According to the sheet music published in Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is set in the time signature of common time , with a fast tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is written in the key of G ♯ minor with Gaga 's vocal range spanning from the note G3 to the note C5 . It begins with a medium tempo followed by electronic chord arrangement and the " Mum @-@ mum @-@ mum @-@ mah " hook . The chords follow in this order : G ♯ m – E / G ♯ – F ♯ , and then for the chorus G ♯ m – E – B – F ♯ . This is followed by the sound of dance music , produced by a powerful beat from the instruments , and a stuttering hook following the chorus .
Lyrically , " Poker Face " is all about sexual innuendo and teasing . According to Daily Star , the chorus repeats two alternating lyrics . After the hook " Can 't read my Poker Face " the backup singer says " He 's got me like nobody " and then in the next line says " She 's got me like nobody " . Gaga explained in an interview with them that the line carries a bit of an undertone of confusion about love and sex . However , the liner notes from the album booklet indicate both these lines only repeat " she 's got me like nobody " . According to BBC , the " Mum @-@ mum @-@ mum @-@ mah " hook used in the song references Boney M. ' s 1977 hit " Ma Baker " .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , " Poker Face " received critical acclaim . Priya Elan from The Times , in a review for The Fame , said that " Poker Face " was one of the finest moments of the album with its " love @-@ as @-@ card @-@ game cheek " . BBC Music reviewed the " strut @-@ tastic " single as " expressing her overwhelming desire for celebrity and fortune . " Bill Lamb of About.com said , " ' Poker Face ' works well on pop radio , but with slight mixing alterations it would be equally at home in a dark , sweaty , late night party atmosphere . She has refreshed the pop world in the US and UK at one of the slowest times of the year . ' Poker Face ' keeps the motors humming as everyone waits for the next step forward from Lady Gaga . " Chris Williams of Billboard also gave a positive review of the song
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with difficulty . Short on leads , they contact Wiseman , who is intrigued by Kite 's bracelet . He suggests that Skeith and Innis are based on the " Cursed Wave " , an antagonistic force featured in the poem Epitaph of Twilight , upon which The World is based . Wiseman helps grant them access to Net Slum , a place known as a paradise for hackers and wandering AIs . Upon arrival , another Cursed Wave monster called Magus attacks them . They defeat it and return to the Root Town , where they discover that the computer virus has spread to The World 's main servers and into the real world .
In .hack / / Outbreak , Balmung realizes that he cannot end the situation on his own , and joins Kite 's quest . BlackRose tells Kite that her brother became comatose under similar circumstances as Orca , which renews both characters ' determination . Wiseman formulates a plan to combat the Cursed Wave , enlisting Helba 's assistance . Their teamwork destroys the Wave monster Fidchell , but the aftermath causes networks in the real world to malfunction . Aura contacts Kite again , but their meeting is cut short by Cubia 's reappearance . Lios , observing Cubia 's power , agrees to join Kite , Helba , and the others to combat the Cursed Wave . In the resulting operation , the team pools their resources to defeat another Wave monster called Gorre , with no repercussions in the real world .
.hack / / Quarantine sees the current server becoming increasingly unstable . To fix the problem , Helba replaces it with a copy of the Net Slum . At the bottom of a dungeon , Kite encounters Mia , a member of his party . He discovers that Mia is actually another Cursed Wave monster named Macha , whom he reluctantly defeats . Meanwhile , Cubia grows stronger , and Kite 's team barely fends off its latest attack . In contrast , Operation Orca is a success as they destroy Tarvos , the next Wave monster . Kite seeks the advice of Harald Hoerwick , the creator of the game who survives beyond death through his AI incarnations . Aura appears and hints that Cubia is the " shadow " of Kite 's Twilight Bracelet . Cubia ambushes them and destroys the AI Harald . In their final battle , Kite recalls Aura 's hint and has BlackRose destroy the bracelet , causing Cubia to fade away . Without the bracelet , the final Wave member , Corbenik , ambushes the party in Net Slum Root Town . With the aid of the spirits of the coma victims , Kite penetrates Corbenik 's barrier . Aura sacrifices herself to end the battle , restoring the network to normal and reviving all the coma victims .
= = Development = =
Development for .hack began in early 2000 with the aim of shocking and surprising the player and creating a distinctive product . CyberConnect2 's president Hiroshi Matsuyama played a key role in developing the concept for the series . A number of core ideas , including " slaying dragons or being a thief in London " were explored , but these were rejected in favor of an " offline / online game " . Matsuyama said that this would give young gamers an opportunity to experience online play without paying monthly fees or needing powerful Internet connections . The developers looked at a number of MMORPGs such as Phantasy Star Online , Ultima Online , and Final Fantasy XI for inspiration , and drew influences from the prior works of character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto ( Neon Genesis Evangelion ) and scenario writer Kazunori Itō ( Ghost in the Shell ) . Itō noted that casting the player into the role of a subscriber of The World creates a unique story @-@ telling situation which draws the player deeper into the plot .
From the start of its development , .hack was envisioned as a four @-@ part series intended to mirror the four @-@ volume story arcs found in manga . Matsuyama theorized that the act of transferring saved data across the four volumes would help to create a sense of the human drama embodied by the games ' story and invest the player into the narrative . The games were developed simultaneously alongside other elements of Project .hack such as .hack / / Sign to emphasize the multimedia aspect of the franchise . The three @-@ month gap between each game 's release allowed the developers to make minor changes in response to criticisms . The games were packaged with bonus DVDs featuring episodes of .hack / / Liminality , an original video animation ( OVA ) series that depicts events that occur concurrently with the games . The developers intended the OVA series to depict fictional events happening in the real world outside the game . Players in Japan who purchased all four games were rewarded with .hack / / Gift , an OVA parodying the .hack series . After the completion of the series , the development team produced .hack / / frägment , a game using the same engine as the .hack series with an online multiplayer component . The aims of .hack / / frägment were to allow the developers to watch player interactions in an online environment and to gauge interest in an .
= = Reception = =
By March 2004 , sales of the .hack games exceeded 1 @.@ 73 million , with 780 @,@ 000 copies sold in Japan . Critics gave the series mixed reviews . .hack / / Infection received the most positive reviews of the series ; critics were intrigued by the games ' unique premise . Jeremy Dunham of IGN was impressed by the game 's commitment to preserve the illusion of online and praised the character designs and the inclusion of the Japanese voice track , but criticized the camera manipulation and the game 's shortness and lack of difficulty . A Game Informer reviewer praised the way it captures the sense of community that a real MMORPG offers .
Many reviewers cited the game 's unusual setting as the counterbalance to the mediocre gameplay , repetitive environments and poor camera control . Overall , the first game was moderately well received , with reviewers overlooking gameplay flaws because of a compelling story . Christian Nutt of Gamespy awarded if four stars out of five and commended Bandai for breaking new ground and Cyber Connect 2 for providing an engrossing RPG experience . Gary Steinman of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine wrote , " [ a ] t its core , .hack is not a good game " , calling the battle systems " wildly unbalanced " and the graphics " spectacularly underwhelming " , but said the " mind @-@ bending " story allowed him to look past its obvious flaws and anticipate future games in the series . Greg Kasavin of GameSpot was less forgiving , deriding .hack / / Infection as a sub @-@ par version of Kingdom Hearts .
.hack / / Mutation also received mixed reviews , and many critics complained that little was done to address the problems of its predecessor . Fennec Fox of Gamepro said that game , " is simply an extension of Infection " , with " muddy graphics , questionable control , and a story concept that ’ s just interesting enough to keep you going . " Greg Kasavin of GameSpot gave it a rating of 6 @.@ 7 out of 10 and wrote , " not only does it bring you exactly the same sort of repetitive hack @-@ and @-@ slash gameplay , but it 's also similarly short and simple and once again offers little in the way of plot or character development . " Nutt found the second game to be more addictive than the first , despite its numerous shortcomings such as obvious padding towards the end of the story . He praised the " mixture of cool story and viscerally engaging RPG gameplay " , the accelerating story , gameplay progression and memorable boss battles . Other reviewers were encouraged by the MMORPG @-@ oriented details that contribute to the game 's presentation and built excitement for the future of the series . IGN also named .hack / / Mutation as PlayStation 2 Game of the Month for May 2003 .
.hack / / Outbreak represented a shift in the critical reception of the series as reviewers grew tired of the incremental or nonexistent improvements between titles . Kasavin rated it 6 @.@ 4 out of 10 , and wrote that it " just doesn 't make for a satisfying experience " . Dunham gave it an overall rating of 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 , praised the battle system and wrote that there had been a great improvement in the artificial intelligence of ally characters and enemies , although he was disappointed by the lack of any other changes . Nutt awarded .hack / / Outbreak three stars out of five , writing that the game 's " extremely challenging enemies and lots of solo missions give the game an edge that keeps it from becoming boring " . However , he criticized the four @-@ part game structure , observing , " we are paying Bandai $ 200 for one game " and that " the extreme lack of improvements from volume to volume is ... downright exploitative of the fans " .
Some critics called the final game , .hack / / Quarantine , a satisfying conclusion to a mediocre series , while others said it is a confusing mess of poor pacing and plot holes . Dunham awarded the game 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 and called the plot twists " shocking and clever " . Kasavin rated it 6 @.@ 1 out of 10 and wrote that , " [ o ] n its own merits , Quarantine isn 't a bad game , and [ loyal players ] should find it to have a satisfying conclusion that , sure enough , leaves the possibility for further adventures in The World " . He also called Bandai 's decision to add 60 to 80 hours of padding to the game , split it into four full @-@ priced products , and release these as a series disappointing . Nutt was similarly disappointed with the final game , awarding it two stars out of five . He wrote that the story was well @-@ presented and excellent , but that it was only present in the game 's first and last quarters . He was satisfied by the game 's ending and loved its story , style , and characters , but grew tired of the game 's " endless chains of chambers , these easily @-@ defeated enemies , this total lack of strategy " . The Game Informer reviewer hoped to see a more effective implementation of .hack 's concept in the future . Japanese magazine Famitsu Weekly gave the .hack games scores in the 29 to 30 out of 40 range , indicating average reviews . However , the Japanese Computer Entertainment Supplier 's Association ( CESA ) honored the series for its combination of different fictional media including games , anime , radio , and manga into a compelling whole at the 2002 @-@ 2003 CESA Awards .
= = Related media and legacy = =
The .hack video games are part of a multimedia franchise that includes novels , manga , and anime series . Set before the events of the video games , .hack / / Sign is an anime television series that establishes The World as a setting . .hack / / Another Birth is a series of novels that retells the story of the games from BlackRose 's perspective . .hack / / XXXX is a manga adaptation of the games ' story with changes to some elements , such as Cubia acting as a player character . The first official sequel to the games is the manga and anime series .hack / / Legend of the Twilight , which began serializing on July 30 , 2002 . It tells the story of Shugo and Rena — regular players who win avatars of Kite and BlackRose in a contest — and their exploration of The World and its secrets . .hack / / G.U. is a series of video games also released in multiple parts that forms the centerpiece of .hack Conglomerate , a new project set seven years after the events of Project .hack with a new version of The World .
= = = Music = = =
The games ' soundtrack , titled .hack / / Game Music Perfect Collection , was released as a double album in Japan on April 23 , 2003 . It features 68 compositions by Chikayo Fukuda , Seizo Nakata , and Norikatsu Fukuda . A special edition of this soundtrack includes a third disc featuring sound effects and clips used in the games . The album was released with fewer tracks in North America as .hack / / Game Music Best Collection . Patrick Gann of RPGFan wrote that the second disc , which contains music for cutscenes and special events , was stronger than the first disc 's generic town and battle themes . He called the soundtrack " techno meets opera " , singled out the volume intro tracks for particular praise . Gann noted that the North American release functions as a " Best of " album , but felt that " a lot of solid music [ is ] missing " in this release . Other reviewers were less enthusiastic ; Paul Koehler of RPGamer called the music " particularly bland " and IGN 's Dunham lamented that the second installment did not introduce many new pieces . However , he concluded that " the melodious piano and oboe themes were still brawny enough to convince us that we needed to buy the soundtrack sometime in the near future " .
.hack / / Game Music Perfect Collection
.hack / / Game Music Best Collection
= = = .hack / / frägment = = =
.hack / / frägment is a multiplayer online game based on the fictional MMORPG , The World . It was released only in Japan on November 23 , 2005 and online service ended on January 18 , 2007 , after being extended two months because of its popularity . Famitsu Weekly gave .hack / / frägment a cumulative score of 29 out of 40 over four reviews , much like its reviews of the main series . Designer Hiroshi Matsuyama described the game as a way to see how players would react to online play . The game uses the same game engine as the .hack video game series and thus , its gameplay is identical , with the exception of online mode . Players explore areas and fight monsters in real time . A major difference is that during online play , the action does not pause when the menu is opened . Players may still use the skill " Data Drain " to weaken monsters and collect rare items . The user interface and control scheme are otherwise unchanged .
Players may create their characters based on a number of preset body shapes and color schemes and may choose a class ( such as Wavemaster or Twin Blade ) and character name . In online mode , players may enter a lobby and search for a maximum of two other players to join them on an adventure . The game includes an expanded communication interface that allows players to chat , send e @-@ mail , post to an in @-@ game Bulletin Board System , and receive server news updates . It is possible to establish ad @-@ hoc chat rooms separate from the public @-@ access ones . Guilds are permanent , exclusive chat rooms for members . In offline mode , players may level up , obtain items , and learn new skills as one of their online mode characters without the need for an Internet connection . Players may invite characters from the .hack games , .hack / / Sign , and .hack / / Legend of the Twilight into their party . The " story mode " of .hack / / frägment is identical to that of the .hack games , with the player 's created character replacing Kite . While offline , players may use a PC utility called " HackServer " to create areas and dungeons and release them online . The creators of the most popular areas are given the ability to add strong monsters for players to defeat .
= Who 's That Girl ( 1987 film ) =
Who 's That Girl is a 1987 American screwball comedy film written by Andrew Smith and Ken Finkleman , and directed by James Foley . It stars Madonna and Griffin Dunne , and depicts the story of a street @-@ smart girl who is falsely accused of murdering her boyfriend and is sent to jail . After getting released , she meets a man , who is supposed to make sure she gets on her bus back to Philadelphia , and convinces him to help her catch those responsible for her confinement . While searching for the embezzler , they fall in love with each other .
After the failure of her 1986 film Shanghai Surprise , Madonna decided to sign another comedy film titled Slammer , which was later renamed to Who 's That Girl . However , she had to convince both Warner Bros. and the producers of the film that she was ready for the project . Madonna enlisted her friend James Foley to direct the film . Shooting began in New York in October 1986 , and continued until March 1987 . Production was halted during December due to snowfall in New York . Madonna utilized the time to work on her next tour and the soundtrack of the film .
The film was released on August 7 , 1987 , and was a box office bomb , grossing only $ 2 @.@ 5 million in its first week , with its final domestic total being about $ 7 @.@ 3 million . Critics were highly disappointed with the film , and Foley 's direction . Some went on to call it one of the worst films to be released , while others found Madonna 's comic timing to be one of the highlights .
However , the Who 's That Girl World Tour went on to be a critical and commercial success , grossing a total of US $ 25 million , and playing in front of audiences totaling 1 @.@ 5 million people . And the soundtrack of the film , though not acclaimed by the critics , enjoyed commercial success . Three of Madonna 's songs , the title track , " Causing a Commotion " and " The Look of Love " , were released as singles with the title track becoming Madonna 's sixth number one single on the US Billboard Hot 100 . The soundtrack album went on to sell six million copies worldwide .
= = Plot = =
Nikki Finn is a carefree young woman , who is always dressed in a leather jacket and skirt , with fire @-@ red lips , platinum bob hair and speaking in a high @-@ pitched voice . One day , her boyfriend Johnny uncovers two men stealing money out of a trust fund and takes pictures of the theft . Johnny puts the pictures in a safety deposit box and gives Nikki the key for safekeeping . The thieves catch Johnny and murder him , then frame Nikki by putting his body into the trunk of her car . Nikki is sentenced to seven years in prison . This is seen during the animated opening credits of the movie .
After four years , the story presents tax attorney Loudon Trott ( Griffin Dunne ) on a busy day . He is getting married to the daughter of one of the richest men in New York , Simon Worthington . Loudon 's bride Wendy Worthington ( Haviland Morris ) is a selfish woman who is more consumed in her wedding plans than in the well @-@ being of her fiancé . Loudon , on the other hand , has a number of duties entrusted to him by his boss ( and future father @-@ in @-@ law ) , Mr. Worthington ( John McMartin ) . First he has to pick up a cougar for an exotic animal activist named Montgomery Bell ( John Mills ) , then to pick up Nikki , and lastly he has to make sure that Nikki catches the next bus to her hometown of Philadelphia .
Nikki , meanwhile , is determined to catch the actual thieves and bring forth the truth . After meeting Loudon , Nikki cons him into taking her shopping . After taking a Rolls Royce into Harlem to buy a gun – and nearly being arrested during a police raid – she explains her story to Loudon who believes that she is innocent , and decides to help her . She 's also on the run from a pimp named Raoul ( Coati Mundi ) and his lackey Benny ( Dennis Burkley ) , the people who killed Johnny . Only after dangling off a car smashed through the top floor of a parking garage , does he tell her the bank and the box number of Nikki 's slain boyfriend .
Afterward Nikki vanishes with the cougar ( whom she names " Murray " ) . Loudon visits Mr. Bell to apologize for losing the animal , to find Nikki had delivered Murray and was waiting for him at Mr. Bell 's home . He has created a Brazilian rainforest filled with animals on top of his roof . There Nikki and Loudon — who had become close with each other on their journey — express their love for each other , and Murray finds a partner . Loudon delivers Nikki to the bus station the next morning , but Nikki becomes broken @-@ hearted , realizing that she has to go back to Philadelphia , leaving Loudon , who is about to get married . While on the bus , she opens an envelope in the security box and finds the photographs that prove that Mr. Worthington is an embezzler and he was the mastermind behind the theft . Nikki gate @-@ crashes the wedding , gets Mr. Worthington arrested and proclaims her love for Loudon . The film ends with Nikki and Loudon riding off into the sunset on a bus to Philadelphia , with Murray and his partner chasing after them .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Madonna 's 1986 studio album True Blue was a critical and commercial success , spawning five top @-@ five singles , and selling over eight million copies worldwide , by the year @-@ end . However , her film career was not as successful as she had hoped it would be . Following the commercially successful Desperately Seeking Susan , her 1986 film Shanghai Surprise — where she starred with her then husband Sean Penn — was a critical and box @-@ office failure , prompting Madonna to comment that she " struggled to come to terms with her character in Shanghai Surprise , because the innocence and repressed personality I was required to portray was so at variance with my own character . " Continuing to struggle with her film career , Madonna was unsure about of her ability to choose a good script , and film producers were less sure about backing her up .
Madonna felt that comedy was more of her repertoire , and proceeded to sign a comedy film titled Slammer , written by Andrew Smith and Ken Finkleman . She wanted to play the part of a street smart girl called Nikki Finn , who was jailed for a crime she did not commit . However , in light of the bad publicity surrounding her and Penn , and also of the very public failure of Shanghai Surprise , Madonna had to persuade producers Rosilyn Heller and Bernard Williams , as well as Warner Brothers , that she was up for the part . In addition , she wanted an old friend , James Foley to direct the film . Foley had previously been Penn 's best man at his marriage to Madonna , and had also directed the music videos of Madonna 's singles " Live to Tell " ( 1986 ) and " Papa Don 't Preach " ( 1986 ) . He was ecstatic at having the opportunity to make a major feature film , as previously he had only directed the small @-@ budgeted film At Close Range , starring Penn . As author Andrew Morton pointed out in his biography on Madonna , " the combination of a dubiously talented movie star and a first @-@ time movie director hardly guaranteed a box @-@ office hit , but the film received the go @-@ ahead from Warner , who wanted to encache more on Madonna 's success . " Madonna plowed gamely on , saying : " All Warner 's executives were real positive about the project . It was a process — with the writers — of honing the script , making it better . "
= = = Casting = = =
Casting for the film began as soon as Madonna had signed up for it . Griffin Dunne was signed to play the part of Loudon Trott , a lawyer whose job was to help Nikki get on a bus , after she was released . Initially Madonna had thought of asking Penn to play the part of Detective Bellson , but Penn was serving a 60 @-@ day jail term , having violated the probation he received in 1986 , for assaulting a friend of Madonna and attacking an extra on the set of At Close Range . The part went to Robert Swan , followed by the signing of John McMartin , Haviland Morris and Bibi Besch as Trott 's father @-@ in @-@ law , fiancée , and mother @-@ in @-@ law respectively . Madonna herself commented that she had a lot in common with the character Nikki . " She 's courageous and sweet and funny and misunderstood . But she clears her name in the last , and that 's always good to do . I 'm continuously doing that with the public . I liked Nikki 's tough side and her sweet side . The toughness is only a mask for the vulnerability she feels inside . " Madonna was also offered the lead role in the Blake Edwards comedy film Blind Date opposite to Bruce Willis , but she refused it in favor of Slammer . She said , " The thing I had planned to do after Shanghai Surprise was Blind Date at Tri @-@ Star . I was supposed to have the approval of the director and the leading man , but they didn 't tell me they 'd already hired Bruce Willis . That ... just didn 't work out . But I was really excited about doing a real physical , screwball comedy , so when Jamie brought this up , it was like my reward . " Coati Mundi , member of Kid Creole and the Coconuts , and Madonna 's long @-@ time friend joined the cast to play the role of Raoul , Nikki 's enemy . Costume designer Deborah Scott was signed to create the wardrobe for the film . Madonna , who visualized the character of Nikki as a dizzy screwball blond , started watching the screwball comedies of the sixties , especially the work of actors like Cary Grant , Clark Gable , Carole Lombard and Judy Holiday . She asked Scott to create comical rah @-@ rah and ballet tutu skirts for the character , with fishnet tights and loud make @-@ up . Scott also designed a glamorous Monroe @-@ esque dress for the love scene between her and Dunne .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began in New York in October 1986 . There was a huge crowd around the shooting location trying to get closer to her , whenever she stepped on the set . But Madonna was approachable , signing autographs for the children of the crew , joining in with the wisecracking and when not busy , she used to dance around a boom box with Mundi . When shooting commenced , Madonna would ask for five minutes to study the script and the scene they were shooting ; her idea of preparing for the part was not studied . For example , before a scene in which she needed to appear out of breath , she did a series of push @-@ ups before going on set . Always punctual and professional on the set , Madonna felt that her first takes were perfect and refused to appear for second or third takes . Dunne observed that " [ Madonna ] likes her first take best . I think my best is around fourth . She always says , ' You got it , you got it , ' and she was driving me crazy just like her character would . We had to make a compromise as to which take is the best . " Once Foley got down on one knee and kissed Madonna 's feet in order to encourage her to do a re @-@ take . Afterwards he noted , " She 's very instinctual , what comes out is unencumbered by analysis . "
Madonna was ready to take direction for her part , relying on Foley to give her all the cues . He , on the other hand , felt that in person , Madonna seemed to morph into a whole different body and self . He believed the process to be oddly elusive and commented that her persona morphing seemed to work most dramatically in Madonna 's music videos . " You 'd think that that would be the perfect attribute to have for screen acting . But although she ' acts ' very well sometimes , she doesn 't push the right buttons at the right times over the course of the film . The failure of Shanghai Surprise had left its mark " , said Foley . Regarding her acting abilities , Foley stressed on the fact that Madonna was very uptight and into every detail , determined to have the correct portrayal . " That 's probably why it wasn 't so good . In Desperately Seeking Susan , when she didn 't know what she was doing , she was being natural and at her best . "
As December arrived , production was halted for a few days due to snowfall in New York City . Madonna decided to utilize the time by working on the soundtrack of the film and also started to note ideas for her next concert tour . While recording the title track , Madonna decided to change the film 's name from Slammer to Who 's That Girl as she felt it to be a better title . Filming commenced in January 1987 , with a scene involving a cougar . But during the second take , the cougar accidentally escaped from the cage , resulting in shooting being paused for a few hours . Madonna remained calm , later noting the incident as " extremely frightening , but I did my best to have my composure . That freaked the others more . " Mundi felt that " she 's got a bit of that perfectionist thing in her . She doesn 't rest . She 's got the movie , and the soundtrack album , and also planning her Who 's That Girl Tour , doing all these stuff at the same time ! " By February 1987 , Madonna 's scenes were already shot although she proceeded to linger on the set to watch Foley and his team work . Foley commented , that having Madonna around the set and not acting was a " pain @-@ in @-@ the @-@ ass " as she " wont skimp especially on cost and she should know that Warner had a tight schedule and constraints on the budget . They still did not trust Madonna when it came to acting . Hell they even gave a greater percentage of the budget to the soundtrack . " Filming ended in March 1987 , with post @-@ production continuing till July 1987 . During the development of the starting credits , Madonna asked Foley if they could have a cartoon figure of her character introducing the film credits . Foley liked the idea , and Warner enlisted cartoonist April March to create the cartoon .
= = Release and promotion = =
The film was released on August 7 , 1987 , in United States to 944 theatres . Warner Bros. did not arrange for an advance screening , as they believed that Madonna 's appeal would draw moviegoers to come to the film . A pre @-@ release celebration was held on August 6 , 1987 , at Times Square in New York , where Madonna arrived to promote the film . A crowd of almost 10 @,@ 000 people assembled to watch Madonna . As an introduction to the day , the radio jockeys from New York 's WHTZ radio station played Madonna 's popular songs in the Square , atop a platform created for the event . The police closed off 43rd and 44th streets , but allowing the traffic to pass through Broadway and Seventh Avenue of Manhattan . Around 6 PM , limousines started to arrive at the Square , with celebrities and the actors of the film entering the fanfare . Madonna arrived in a low @-@ cut , low @-@ backed sequined evening gown and the short hair she had adopted for the film . Although she was late by about an hour , the crowd number continued increasing . Asking her fans good @-@ naturedly to " Shut up , so I can talk " , Madonna thanked everybody for coming to the opening of Who 's That Girl . She talked about her experience of arriving in Times Square eight years before , and said , " I was completely awestruck . Ten years later , I see all of you who have come to see me , and I 'm completely awestruck . Thank you , and I hope you like the movie . " Saying this Madonna departed from the platform , and walked to the National Theatre . Joseph A. Cincotti from The New York Times noted that most of the crowd were in their late teenage years and early 20 's . Some held up signs and photographs but he noticed the Madonna wannabes were absent , the adolescent girls who had imitated Madonna 's early lace @-@ and @-@ leather look . This was a result of Madonna 's more mature image from True Blue .
To further promote the film , Madonna embarked on the 1987 Who 's That Girl World Tour . It was Madonna 's first world tour , reaching Asia , North America and Europe . Musically and technically superior to her previous Virgin Tour , the Who 's That Girl tour incorporated multimedia components to make the show more appealing . Madonna trained herself physically with aerobics , jogging and weight @-@ lifting , to cope with the choreography and the dance routines . The stage was bigger than her previous tour , flanked with four video screens , multimedia projectors and a flight of stairs in the middle . Leonard became the music director and encouraged Madonna to go with the idea of rearranging her older songs and presenting them in a new format . Madonna named the tour as Who 's That Girl , when during rehearsals one @-@ day she looked at a gigantic image of herself , projected on a screen on the stage and mused about how much she has changed and " who was that girl on the screen ? " . The show consisted of seven costume changes , with song @-@ and @-@ dance routines , theatrics , addressing social causes — during " Papa Don 't Preach " — as well as an encore , consisting of the title song " Who 's That Girl " and " Holiday " . The tour was critically appreciated , who commented on the extravagant nature of the concert and complimented Madonna for her dancing , costume changes and dynamic pacing . Who 's That Girl was a commercial success , grossing in total of US $ 25 million by playing in front of 1 @.@ 5 million audience members . According to Pollstar , it was the second top selling female concert tour of 1987 , behind Tina Turner 's Break Every Rule Tour .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received negative reviews from critics , and has a rating of 23 % on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes . Vincent Canby from The New York Times noted that Madonna , left to her own devices and her own canny pace , is a very engaging comedian . " When Madonna 's no @-@ nonsense pragmatism isn 't being twisted into poses of lovable eccentricity , the actress is sexy and funny and never for a minute sentimental . At times she looks amazingly like Marilyn Monroe , but the personality is her own , more resilient and more knowing . As the WASP @-@ y sleeping prince , Mr. Dunne gives the most stylishly comic performance of a career that 's been largely underrated by the public . Though he seems to be Madonna 's foil , he provides the movie with its backbone , even in its most ludicrous moments . He may well be one of the most truly sophisticated straight men in the business today . " However , he ended the review by saying that the film was short on outright guffaws . Hal Hinson of The Washington Post gave to the film a mixed review , commenting that " you may not feel as if you 've seen a movie . You may not quite know what you 've seen " and that although he laughed too much , the film " is outrageously inept , but not in a routine manner " . Hinson also criticized the work of Foley , noting that he " doesn 't have the skill to sustain a cartoon style . " Philip Wuntch from The Dallas Morning News commented that the film is a deft and daffy comedy performance ; Madonna is great with the one @-@ liners . [ ... ] As a movie star , Madonna may be an acquired taste . But one thing is certain : acquiring this particular taste is going to be an enjoyable experience . " Jay Boyar from Orlando Sentinel gave a negative review saying , " Luckily for her , Madonna can sing , and use it to save herself from this disgrace of a movie . "
Jamie Waylett from The Advocate was more critical , saying " Madonna delivers the worst performance in recent memory as the heroine of an attempt at screwball comedy . Watching her try to look like Marilyn Monroe and sound like Betty Boop , though , is a sure sign that this film was a disaster in the making . At the same time , it seems inconceivable that anyone would sit down and plan something so dreadful . " Carole Kass from Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch felt that since " Madonna is the idol of teen @-@ agers . If they imitate her hair and her makeup , these ' wanna @-@ bes ' who want to be like Madonna and dress like Madonna may be cute . But , as a popular personality , Madonna has a responsibility to her fans . And shoplifting is something not to promote . Nor is smoking . " Dan Dinicola from The Schenectady Gazette felt that " Who 's That Girl is not simply an awful film , it is positively unbearable . It 's a movie without a head or a brain , a picture of such crass stupidity that it can 't even make you angry . Instead it numbs you to death with its moronic platitudes , its pretensions to comedy . [ ... ] It 's a vanity project which is so amateurly produced and conceived that it makes you want to cringe in shame . [ ... ] Madonna is no more than a novelty item . " Johanna Steinmetz from Chicago Tribune complimented Dunne 's acting and said : " Fortunately the film has Griffin Dunne . Dunne , working in a domain once ruled by Cary Grant , manages to be stuffy , naive and vulnerable but never undignified as Loudon Trott , the New York lawyer . " Jean Rosenbluth from Rolling Stone was harsh about the film , saying " The question posed by the film 's title was Who 's that girl ? The answer provided by the box @-@ office receipts was , alas , ' The same one who appeared in Shanghai Surprise and bored us to death ' . "
The picture was the recipient of five Razzie Award nominations , including Worst Director ( James Foley ) , Worst Original Song ( " El Coco Loco " ) , Worst Screenplay and Worst Picture , with Madonna winning Worst Actress .
= = = Box office = = =
The film was released to a total of 944 theatres , with an extra 66 being added later . In its opening weekend , the film grossed $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( $ 5 @,@ 207 @,@ 235 in 2016 dollars ) , becoming the tenth highest grossing film of that week . The next week it had a 60 % decline in sales . The film grossed a total of $ 7 @.@ 3 million ( $ 15 @,@ 205 @,@ 126 in 2016 dollars ) worldwide , and was a box office bomb . It was placed at 97 on the top 100 movies of 1987 list . Morton noted that although " Madonna 's comic talent was acknowledged , cinemagoers in the United States stayed away in droves . " The film was better accepted in the foreign released territories , prompting Madonna to defend herself , rather weakly , that her ideas were better accepted in Europe and Japan , rather than her home country . She added , " I think the movie did badly in America because I upstaged it with my tour . People were confused about the connection between the record , the tour and the movie because they all had the same title . I also think there are people who don 't want me to do well in both fields . I had to really fight to get any respect from the music business and now I guess there are some people who feel that I ought to be grateful for that respect and stick to music . " Nevertheless , Warner Bros. decided to release the film in home media in VHS on November 11 , 1987 , a decision not approved by Madonna .
Foley accepted the failure of the film saying , " I knew it was doomed before even filming started . The day before the first shoot , I sat in my hotel and looked to the script thinking , ' Damn , wish I could re @-@ write this whole thing . ' After the film released , my dad called me up saying ' you know The New York Times are calling it the worst film of the year . " He recalled that both he and Madonna chose to overlook the failure of the film , and remembered one incident when he met Madonna at a hotel lobby . " She just looked to me once and said , ' So it 's a flop right ? ' That 's the only time she ever mentioned the film . Even Sean also never mentioned it in front of her . " In another article in The New York Times , Vincent Canby noted that Madonna 's real personality is of a " knowing , shrewd , pragmatic young woman , a performer of invigorating energy who still looks a lot like Marilyn Monroe , even with short hair , but who has much more in common with the enthusiastic , unembarrassed , comic tartness of Jean Harlow , somehow let loose on the streets of New York in the 80 's . " However , he felt that Who 's That Girl failed to portray that image , leading to its failure . The first half of the film showed a different personality of Madonna , trying to be comical , which was not accepted by the public .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack from the film was released on July 21 , 1987 , by Sire Records , and contains four songs by Madonna , and others by her label mates Scritti Politti , Duncan Faure , Club Nouveau , Coati Mundi and Michael Davidson . It is considered a Madonna album by Warner Bros. Records since the majority of the songs are sung by her . Madonna began working on the soundtrack in December 1986 , and contacted Patrick Leonard and Stephen Bray , both producers of her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) . She needed uptempo and downtempo songs for the soundtrack . The uptempo song , composed by Leonard , ended up being the title track for the film ; together , Madonna and Leonard also developed the downtempo ballad " The Look of Love " . Two more songs were composed for the film with Bray , the first being the dance @-@ y tune " Causing a Commotion " , and the other being " Can 't Stop " , a track inspired by Sixties Motown and the group Martha and the Vandellas .
After its release , Who 's That Girl soundtrack received mostly negative reviews from critics , who called it plain and incomplete , although citing the title track and " The Look of Love " as its highlights . The soundtrack was a commercial success , reaching the top ten of the album charts of the United States , Austria , Canada , France , Italy , New Zealand , Sweden and the United Kingdom , while topping the charts of Germany , and Billboard 's European Album chart . Worldwide , the album went on to sell six million copies . Three of the Madonna tracks were released as singles . The title track became her sixth number one single on the Billboard Hot 100 , making her the first artist to accumulate six number @-@ one singles in the 1980s , and the first female performer to get that many number @-@ ones as a solo act . " Causing a Commotion " was the second single , and it reached number two on the Hot 100 , and the top ten of the charts of other nations . " The Look of Love " was a European market @-@ only release , reaching the top ten in United Kingdom . Another track , " Turn It Up " was a promotional release in United States , reaching the number 15 on the dance charts .
= Man of Science , Man of Faith =
" Man of Science , Man of Faith " is the first episode of the second season of Lost and the 26th episode overall . The episode was directed by Jack Bender and written by Damon Lindelof . It first aired on September 21 , 2005 , on ABC . The flashbacks focus on Jack Shephard 's struggle to heal Sarah , who would later become his wife . In real time , John Locke and Kate Austen decide to enter the now @-@ open hatch shaft .
While writing the season premiere , the producers decided to pick up the hatch storyline which was left hanging after season one 's finale " Exodus " , leaving the raft events to be explained in the following episode , " Adrift " . " Man of Science , Man of Faith " received positive reviews , and stands as the most @-@ watched episode of the series in North America , with 23 @.@ 47 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
= = = Introduction = = =
A man ( Henry Ian Cusick ) wakes up from his bunk bed and immediately presses a few keys on what appears to be a late 1970s @-@ era computer . He then gets dressed , and begins his day as the camera moves about the surrounding rooms , which contain an assortment of objects from the 1960s to the present . He puts on some music , begins an exercise routine , has a shower , makes himself some breakfast , and injects himself with a vaccine . He is interrupted by an explosion , spurring the man to arm himself before using a telescope @-@ and @-@ mirror system . His gaze reveals the faces of Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) and John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) standing around the now @-@ open Hatch shaft .
= = = Flashbacks = = =
Jack encounters his future wife , Sarah ( Julie Bowen ) , who has arrived in his emergency room after a car crash . Jack saves Sarah 's life , but goes on to tell her that due to spinal cord injury , it is unlikely that Sarah will regain the ability to walk .
After being chastised by his father ( John Terry ) about his pessimistic bedside manner , Jack operates on Sarah , and goes running a Tour de stade . While running he falls , and meets another runner named Desmond , who tells him that he is training for a race around the world . Jack shares with Desmond how he failed Sarah , and Desmond advises him about his need to feel and provide more hope . When Jack returns to Sarah 's room , he discovers that she has experienced a miraculous recovery .
= = = On the island = = =
At the Hatch entry , Locke says that they should not wait for the sun to come up to enter the Hatch . Jack , on the other hand , feels that their entry should be delayed . At the same time , at the caves , Shannon Rutherford ( Maggie Grace ) and Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) search the jungle for Walt 's ( Malcolm David Kelley ) dog , Vincent . During the search , Shannon has a vision of Walt , dripping wet and speaking incoherently . She talks about this with the rest of the survivors , but no one believes her .
Upon reaching the caves , Jack explains the situation to the survivors , promising them they will be all right along with Kate , as long as they stay together . Locke then appears , carrying cable and saying he is going into the hatch . Soon after , Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) follows behind him . While Locke is easing her down the shaft , Kate realizes and mysteriously disappears during a sudden burst of light from within the Hatch .
Back at the caves , after informing the survivors why they went into the jungle and that Dr. Arzt ( Daniel Roebuck ) is dead , Jack decides that he is going after Kate and Locke . Upon reaching the Hatch , he finds no one there and rappels down the shaft on his own . While exploring , he comes across a painted mural , and a wall where the key hanging around his neck is pulled by a strong magnetic force . Finally , after being surprised by a bright light and loud music , he enters what appears to be an underground geodesic dome with computer equipment , including an Apple II Plus computer with its prompt glowing and its shift key relabeled execute . As Jack is about to use it , Locke appears and tells Jack not to touch it . After Jack raises the gun and asks where Kate is , Locke is revealed to be at gunpoint . The gunman threatens that he will shoot Locke if Jack does not surrender . Jack refuses , instead taunting Locke about his destiny . Finally , the gunman steps out and Jack seems to recognize him . The gunman is Desmond .
= = Production = =
While " Man of Science , Man of Faith " alludes to a quote in the previous episode where Locke describes himself as a man of faith and Jack as a man of science , writer Damon Lindelof stated that the episode has the title to imply that Jack is both , with the flashback making the empiricist " man of science " facing a miracle while treating a patient . The episode was written to focus on the opening of the hatch , so the other cliffhanger left in " Exodus " , the destruction of Michael 's boat and the kidnapping of his son Walt by the Others , would be explained in the second episode , " Adrift " . The cliffhanger also influenced the tone : the protagonists are expecting an attack by the Others , but the audience knows the Others are not coming since they were going for the boat instead . To make the episode accessible to new viewers , many instances of dialogue recap events of the first season .
The producers decided to start the episode inside The Swan because they considered the audience would expect to pick up from Locke and Jack looking into the hatch shaft , so the opening instead is filmed in a place that does not reveal its location or period - Jack Bender stated it made him remember a San Francisco apartment - until the explosion of the hatch . For the flashbacks , director Jack Bender decided to avoid making the hospital scenes similar to ER , filming mostly with handheld cameras to give a " spontaneous feel " to the scene . Sarah 's operation was filmed in an actual surgery room in Oahu , while Aloha Stadium in Honolulu is used for Jack and Desmond 's tour de stade .
Starting in this episode , the castaways start abandoning the caves , which the producers considered a location hard to film and " not aesthetically good " . The Swan would become a centerpiece location because of its mysteries and the commodities given to the protagonists , such as electricity and food . The station was designed to invoke modernism of the 1970s , similar to how Disneyland 's Tomorrowland evokes what was modern in the 1960s , but with an appearance that decayed after decades without maintenance . Foreshadowing the fact that the station is used for dangerous means , the design added the concrete wall with a magnetic force . The hatch shaft was completely computer generated with shots filmed using a greenscreen .
This is the first episode to feature the song " Make Your Own Kind of Music " by Mama Cass , which is heard in many later episodes . Lindelof picked the song as it reminded him of his childhood , as his mother " used to listen to on Sunday mornings , when she ’ d put on music , vacuum and cry . " Lindelof also declared that the song " lyrically felt right " , and had a haunting feeling due to Mama Cass ' personal history .
= = Reception = =
The season premiere hit a ratings high for the series , with 23 @.@ 47 million American viewers . The episode was third in the weekly audience ranking , behind CSI : Crime Scene Investigation and Desperate Housewives , and stands as the most watched episode of Lost .
Critical reviews were positive . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly was frustrated at the episode not revealing what happened to the raft characters and unveiling of so many new mysteries , but liked the writing and symbolism considering that " the whole enigmatic enterprise seemed grounded in rich layers of meaning " . TV Squad 's Keith McDuffee said he was " held in suspense " throughout the episode . Chris Carabott of IGN rated " Man of Science , Man of Faith " 9 @.@ 3 out of 10 , praising the flashbacks for being " edited incredibly well with the on island content " and Julie Bowen 's performance as Sarah . The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan described the episode as " a wonderfully paced , terrific return to form " . Ryan Mcgee of Zap2it considered the introduction in the hatch and Desmond 's scene with Jack at the stadium to be the highlights of the season premiere .
Director of photography Michael Bonvillain was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single @-@ Camera Series for this episode . IGN ranked " Man of Science , Man of Faith " the 18th best episode of Lost , while a similar list by Los Angeles Times ranked the episode 11th , saying it had the best Jack flashback and demonstrated " a show confident in itself and at the height of its powers " .
= Mumbai =
Mumbai ( / mʊmˈbaɪ / ; also known as Bombay , the official name until 1995 ) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra . It is the most populous city in India and the ninth most populous agglomeration in the world , with an estimated city population of 18 @.@ 4 million . Along with the neighbouring regions of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region , it is one of the most populous urban regions in the world and the seсond most populous metropolitan area in India , with a population of 20 @.@ 7 million as of 2011 . Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour . In 2009 , Mumbai was named an alpha world city . It is also the wealthiest city in India , and has the highest GDP of any city in South , West , or Central Asia . Mumbai has the highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India .
The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies . For centuries , the islands were under the control of successive indigenous empires before being ceded to the Portuguese and subsequently to the British East India Company when in 1661 King Charles II married the Portuguese Catherine of Braganza , and as part of her dowry Charles received the ports of Tangier and seven islands of Bombay . During the mid @-@ 18th century , Bombay was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project , which undertook reclamation of the area between the seven islands from the sea . Along with construction of major roads and railways , the reclamation project , completed in 1845 , transformed Bombay into a major seaport on the Arabian Sea . Bombay in the 19th century was characterised by economic and educational development . During the early 20th century it became a strong base for the Indian independence movement . Upon India 's independence in 1947 the city was incorporated into Bombay State . In 1960 , following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement , a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as the capital .
Mumbai is the financial , commercial and entertainment capital of India . It is also one of the world 's top ten centres of commerce in terms of global financial flow , generating 6 @.@ 16 % of India 's GDP and accounting for 25 % of industrial output , 70 % of maritime trade in India ( Mumbai Port Trust and JNPT ) , and 70 % of capital transactions to India 's economy . The city houses important financial institutions such as the Reserve Bank of India , the Bombay Stock Exchange , the National Stock Exchange of India , the SEBI and the corporate headquarters of numerous Indian companies and multinational corporations . It is also home to some of India 's premier scientific and nuclear institutes like BARC , NPCL , IREL , TIFR , AERB , AECI , and the Department of Atomic Energy . The city also houses India 's Hindi ( Bollywood ) and Marathi film and television industry . Mumbai 's business opportunities , as well as its potential to offer a higher standard of living , attract migrants from all over India , making the city a melting pot of many communities and cultures .
= = Etymology = =
The name Mumbai is derived from Mumbā or Mahā @-@ Ambā — the name of the patron goddess ( Kuladevi ) Mumbadevi of the native Agri , Koli and Somvanshi Kshatriya communities — and ā 'ī meaning " mother " in the Marathi language , which is the mother tongue of the kolis and the official language of Maharashtra .
The oldest known names for the city are Kakamuchee and Galajunkja ; these are sometimes still used . Ali Muhammad Khan , in the Mirat @-@ i @-@ Ahmedi ( 1507 ) referred to the city as Manbai . In 1508 , Portuguese writer Gaspar Correia used the name Bombaim , in his Lendas da Índia ( " Legends of India " ) . This name possibly originated as the Old Portuguese phrase bom baim , meaning " good little bay " , and Bombaim is still commonly used in Portuguese . In 1516 , Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa used the name Tana @-@ Maiambu : Tana appears to refer to the adjoining town of Thane and Maiambu to Mumbadevi .
Other variations recorded in the 16th and the 17th centuries include : Mombayn ( 1525 ) , Bombay ( 1538 ) , Bombain ( 1552 ) , Bombaym ( 1552 ) , Monbaym ( 1554 ) , Mombaim ( 1563 ) , Mombaym ( 1644 ) , Bambaye ( 1666 ) , Bombaiim ( 1666 ) , Bombeye ( 1676 ) , Boon Bay ( 1690 ) , and Bon Bahia . After the English gained possession of the city in the 17th century , the Portuguese name was anglicised as Bombay .
By the late 20th century , the city was referred to as Mumbai or Mambai in the Indian statewise official languages of Marathi , Konkani , Gujarati , Kannada and Sindhi , and as Bambai in Hindi . The Government of India officially changed the English name to Mumbai in November 1995 . This came at the insistence of the Marathi nationalist Shiv Sena party , which had just won the Maharashtra state elections , and mirrored similar name changes across the country and particularly in Maharashtra . According to Slate magazine , " they argued that ' Bombay ' was a corrupted English version of ' Mumbai ' and an unwanted legacy of British colonial rule . " Slate also said " The push to rename Bombay was part of a larger movement to strengthen Marathi identity in the Maharashtra region . " While the city is still referred to as Bombay by some of its residents and by Indians from other regions , mention of the city by a name other than Mumbai has been controversial , resulting in emotional outbursts sometimes of a violently political nature .
A resident of Mumbai is called mumbaikar in the Marathi language , in which the suffix kar means resident of . The term has been in use for quite some time but it gained popularity after the official name change to Mumbai .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Mumbai is built on what was once an archipelago of seven islands : Bombay Island , Parel , Mazagaon , Mahim , Colaba , Worli , and Old Woman 's Island ( also known as Little Colaba ) . It is not exactly known when these islands were first inhabited . Pleistocene sediments found along the coastal areas around Kandivali in northern Mumbai suggest that the islands were inhabited since the Stone Age . Perhaps at the beginning of the Common era ( 2 @,@ 000 years ago ) , or possibly earlier , they came to be occupied by the Koli fishing community .
In the third century BCE , the islands formed part of the Maurya Empire , during its expansion in the south , ruled by the Buddhist emperor , Ashoka of Magadha . The Kanheri Caves in Borivali were excavated in the mid @-@ third century BCE , and served as an important centre of Buddhism in Western India during ancient Times . The city then was known as Heptanesia ( Ancient Greek : A Cluster of Seven Islands ) to the Greek geographer Ptolemy in 150 CE . The Mahakali Caves in Andheri were built between the 1st century BCE and the 6th century CE .
Between the second century BCE and ninth century CE , the islands came under the control of successive indigenous dynasties : Satavahanas , Western Kshatrapas , Abhiras , Vakatakas , Kalachuris , Konkan Mauryas , Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas , before being ruled by the Silhara dynasty from 810 to 1260 . Some of the oldest edifices in the city built during this period are , Jogeshwari Caves ( between 520 and 525 ) , Elephanta Caves ( between the sixth to seventh century ) , Walkeshwar Temple ( 10th century ) , and Banganga Tank ( 12th century ) .
King Bhimdev founded his kingdom in the region in the late 13th century and established his capital in Mahikawati ( present day Mahim ) . The Pathare Prabhus , among the earliest known settlers of the city , were brought to Mahikawati from Saurashtra in Gujarat around 1298 by Bhimdev . The Delhi Sultanate annexed the islands in 1347 – 48 and controlled it until 1407 . During this time , the islands were administered by the Muslim Governors of Gujarat , who were appointed by the Delhi Sultanate .
The islands were later governed by the independent Gujarat Sultanate , which was established in 1407 . The Sultanate 's patronage led to the construction of many mosques , prominent being the Haji Ali Dargah in Worli , built in honour of the Muslim saint Haji Ali in 1431 . From 1429 to 1431 , the islands were a source of contention between the Gujarat Sultanate and the Bahamani Sultanate of Deccan . In 1493 , Bahadur Khan Gilani of the Bahamani Sultanate attempted to conquer the islands but was defeated .
= = = Portuguese and British rule = = =
The Mughal Empire , founded in 1526 , was the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent during the mid @-@ 16th century . Growing apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun , Sultan Bahadur Shah of the Gujarat Sultanate was obliged to sign the Treaty of Bassein with the Portuguese Empire on 23 December 1534 . According to the treaty , the seven islands of Bombay , the nearby strategic town of Bassein and its dependencies were offered to the Portuguese . The territories were later surrendered on 25 October 1535 .
The Portuguese were actively involved in the foundation and growth of their Roman Catholic religious orders in Bombay . They called the islands by various names , which finally took the written form Bombaim . The islands were leased to several Portuguese officers during their regime . The Portuguese Franciscans and Jesuits built several churches in the city , prominent being the St. Michael 's Church at Mahim ( 1534 ) , St. John the Baptist Church at Andheri ( 1579 ) , St. Andrew 's Church at Bandra ( 1580 ) , and Gloria Church at Byculla ( 1632 ) . The Portuguese also built several fortifications around the city like the Bombay Castle , Castella de Aguada ( Castelo da Aguada or Bandra Fort ) , and Madh Fort . The English were in constant struggle with the Portuguese vying for hegemony over Bombay , as they recognised its strategic natural harbour and its natural isolation from land @-@ attacks . By the middle of the 17th century the growing power of the Dutch Empire forced the English to acquire a station in western India . On 11 May 1661 , the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza , daughter of King John IV of Portugal , placed the islands in possession of the English Empire , as part of Catherine 's dowry to Charles . However , Salsette , Bassein , Mazagaon , Parel , Worli , Sion , Dharavi , and Wadala still remained under Portuguese possession . From 1665 to 1666 , the English managed to acquire Mahim , Sion , Dharavi , and Wadala .
In accordance with the Royal Charter of 27 March 1668 , England leased these islands to the English East India Company in 1668 for a sum of £ 10 per annum . The population quickly rose from 10 @,@ 000 in 1661 , to 60 @,@ 000 in 1675 . The islands were subsequently attacked by Yakut Khan , the Siddi admiral of the Mughal Empire , in October 1672 , Rickloffe van Goen , the Governor @-@ General of Dutch India on 20 February 1673 , and Siddi admiral Sambal on 10 October 1673 .
In 1687 , the English East India Company transferred its headquarters from Surat to Bombay . The city eventually became the headquarters of the Bombay Presidency . Following the transfer , Bombay was placed at the head of all the Company 's establishments in India . Towards the end of the 17th century , the islands again suffered incursions from Yakut Khan in 1689 – 90 . The Portuguese presence ended in Bombay when the Marathas under Peshwa Baji Rao I captured Salsette in 1737 , and Bassein in 1739 . By the middle of the 18th century , Bombay began to grow into a major trading town , and received a huge influx of migrants from across India . Later , the British occupied Salsette on 28 December 1774 . With the Treaty of Surat ( 1775 ) , the British formally gained control of Salsette and Bassein , resulting in the First Anglo @-@ Maratha War . The British were able to secure Salsette from the Marathas without violence through the Treaty of Purandar ( 1776 ) , and later through the Treaty of Salbai ( 1782 ) , signed to settle the outcome of the First Anglo @-@ Maratha War .
From 1782 onwards , the city was reshaped with large @-@ scale civil engineering projects aimed at merging all the seven islands into a single amalgamated mass . This project , known as Hornby Vellard , was completed by 1784 . In 1817 , the British East India Company under Mountstuart Elphinstone defeated Baji Rao II , the last of the Maratha Peshwa in the Battle of Khadki . Following his defeat , almost the whole of the Deccan came under British suzerainty , and was incorporated into the Bombay Presidency . The success of the British campaign in the Deccan marked the liberation of Bombay from all attacks by native powers .
By 1845 , the seven islands coalesced into a single landmass by the Hornby Vellard project via large scale land reclamation . On 16 April 1853 , India 's first passenger railway line was established , connecting Bombay to the neighbouring town of Thana ( now Thane ) . During the American Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) , the city became the world 's chief cotton @-@ trading market , resulting in a boom in the economy that subsequently enhanced the city 's stature .
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 transformed Bombay into one of the largest seaports on the Arabian Sea . In September 1896 , Bombay was hit by a bubonic plague epidemic where the death toll was estimated at 1 @,@ 900 people per week . About 850 @,@ 000 people fled Bombay and the textile industry was adversely affected . As the capital of the Bombay Presidency , the city witnessed the Indian independence movement , with the Quit India Movement in 1942 and The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny in 1946 being its most notable events .
= = = Independent India = = =
After India 's independence in 1947 , the territory of the Bombay Presidency retained by India was restructured into Bombay State . The area of Bombay State increased , after several erstwhile princely states that joined the Indian union were integrated into the state . Subsequently , the city became the capital of Bombay State . On April 1950 , Municipal limits of Bombay were expanded by merging the Bombay Suburban District and Bombay City to form the Greater Bombay Municipal Corporation .
The Samyukta Maharashtra movement to create a separate Maharashtra state including Bombay was at its height in the 1950s . In the Lok Sabha discussions in 1955 , the Congress party demanded that the city be constituted as an autonomous city @-@ state . The States Reorganisation Committee recommended a bilingual state for Maharashtra – Gujarat with Bombay as its capital in its 1955 report . Bombay Citizens ' Committee , an advocacy group of leading Gujarati industrialists lobbied for Bombay 's independent status .
Following protests during the movement in which 105 people lost their lives in clashes with the police , Bombay State was reorganised on linguistic lines on 1 May 1960 . Gujarati @-@ speaking areas of Bombay State were partitioned into the state of Gujarat . Maharashtra State with Bombay as its capital was formed with the merger of Marathi @-@ speaking areas of Bombay State , eight districts from Central Provinces and Berar , five districts from Hyderabad State , and numerous princely states enclosed between them . As a memorial to the martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra movement , Flora Fountain was renamed as Hutatma Chowk ( Martyr 's Square ) , and a memorial was erected .
The following decades saw massive expansion of the city and its suburbs . In the late 1960s , Nariman Point and Cuffe Parade were reclaimed and developed . The Bombay Metropolitan Region Development Authority ( BMRDA ) was established on 26 January 1975 by the Government of Maharashtra as an apex body for planning and co @-@ ordination of development activities in the Bombay metropolitan region . In August 1979 , a sister township of New Bombay was founded by the City and Industrial Development Corporation ( CIDCO ) across the Thane and Raigad districts to help the dispersal and control of Bombay 's population . The textile industry in Bombay largely disappeared after the widespread 1982 Great Bombay Textile Strike , in which nearly 250 @,@ 000 workers in more than 50 textile mills went on strike . Mumbai 's defunct cotton mills have since become the focus of intense redevelopment .
The Jawaharlal Nehru Port , which currently handles 55 – 60 % of India 's containerised cargo , was commissioned on 26 May 1989 across the creek at Nhava Sheva with a view to de @-@ congest Bombay Harbour and to serve as a hub port for the city . The geographical limits of Greater Bombay were coextensive with municipal limits of Greater Bombay . On 1 October 1990 , the Greater Bombay district was bifurcated to form two revenue districts namely , Bombay City and Bombay Suburban , though they continued to be administered by same Municipal Administration .
From 1990 to 2010 , there has been an increase in violence in the hitherto largely peaceful city . Following the demolition of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya , the city was rocked by the Hindu @-@ Muslim riots of 1992 – 93 in which more than 1 @,@ 000 people were killed . On 12 March 1993 , a series of 13 co @-@ ordinated bombings at several city landmarks by Islamic extremists and the Bombay underworld resulted in 257 deaths and over 700 injuries . In 2006 , 209 people were killed and over 700 injured when seven bombs exploded on the city 's commuter trains . In 2008 , a series of ten coordinated attacks by armed terrorists for three days resulted in 173 deaths , 308 injuries , and severe damage to several heritage landmarks and prestigious hotels . The blasts that occurred at the Opera House , Zaveri Bazaar , and Dadar on 13 July 2011 were the latest in the series of terrorist attacks in Mumbai .
Mumbai is the commercial capital of India and has evolved into a global financial hub . For several decades it has been the home of India 's main financial services , and a focus for both infrastructure development and private investment . From being an ancient fishing community and a colonial centre of trade , Mumbai has become South Asia 's largest city and home of the world 's most prolific film industry .
= = Geography = =
Mumbai consists of two distinct regions : Mumbai City district and Mumbai Suburban district , which form two separate revenue districts of Maharashtra . The city district region is also commonly referred to as the Island City or South Mumbai . The total area of Mumbai is 603 @.@ 4 km2 ( 233 sq mi ) . Of this , the island city spans 67 @.@ 79 km2 ( 26 sq mi ) , while the suburban district spans 370 km2 ( 143 sq mi ) , together accounting for 437 @.@ 71 km2 ( 169 sq mi ) under the administration of Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai ( MCGM ) . The remaining areas belong to various Defence establishments , the Mumbai Port Trust , the Atomic Energy Commission and the Borivali National Park , which are out of the jurisdiction of the MCGM .
Mumbai lies at the mouth of the Ulhas River on the western coast of India , in the coastal region known as the Konkan . It sits on Salsette Island ( Sashti Island ) , which it partially shares with the Thane district . Mumbai is bounded by the Arabian Sea to the west . Many parts of the city lie just above sea level , with elevations ranging from 10 m ( 33 ft ) to 15 m ( 49 ft ) ; the city has an average elevation of 14 m ( 46 ft ) . Northern Mumbai ( Salsette ) is hilly , and the highest point in the city is 450 m ( 1 @,@ 476 ft ) at Salsette in the Powai – Kanheri ranges . The Sanjay Gandhi National Park ( Borivali National Park ) is located partly in the Mumbai suburban district , and partly in the Thane district , and it extends over an area of 103 @.@ 09 km2 ( 39 @.@ 80 sq mi ) .
Apart from the Bhatsa Dam , there are six major lakes that supply water to the city : Vihar , Lower Vaitarna , Upper Vaitarna , Tulsi , Tansa and Powai . Tulsi Lake and Vihar Lake are located in Borivili National Park , within the city 's limits . The supply from Powai lake , also within the city limits , is used only for agricultural and industrial purposes . Three small rivers , the Dahisar River , Poinsar ( or Poisar ) and Ohiwara ( or Oshiwara ) originate within the park , while the polluted Mithi River originates from Tulsi Lake and gathers water overflowing from Vihar and Powai Lakes . The coastline of
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ominated at five dollars , the one dollar pieces were " struck to commemorate the historic flight of the Space Shuttle Columbia in July 1999 " , according to Former Mint Director Ed Moy . The twelve surviving gold dollars were sent into space aboard Columbia on mission STS @-@ 93 in July 1999 . Following the return of the shuttle , the coins were placed in storage at Fort Knox , where they remained until 2007 , when they were exhibited at the American Numismatic Association World 's Fair of Money in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . After the event , the coins were returned to Fort Knox ; however , the Mint is currently planning to loan the coins to various museums throughout the country .
= = = Mule error = = =
In May 2000 , an error coin bearing the George Washington obverse design of a U.S. state quarter and the eagle reverse of a Sacagawea dollar was discovered in a roll of dollar coins purchased from a bank in Mountain Home , Arkansas . The undated coin , known as a double @-@ denomination mule , was the first of eleven discovered and authenticated . Mint officials estimate that the coins , which bear the ' P ' mint mark for Philadelphia , were struck from late April to early May 2000 . They were produced on dollar @-@ coin planchets clad with manganese bronze , not quarter planchets with copper @-@ nickel cladding .
Following the initial discovery , a bin containing several thousand of the error coins was impounded at the Philadelphia Mint , and all such coins within it were ordered melted . Some of the coins that had been released were eventually tracked back to a coin @-@ wrapping facility near Philadelphia . Employees at the wrapping facility were instructed to watch for any of the coins ; those discovered were turned over to the Mint .
A subsequent federal investigation into the incident found that the error coins had been struck accidentally , but two former Mint employees were guilty of selling some of the dollars , resulting in imprisonment and fines for both individuals . In 2002 , Mint officials announced that two of the ten coins then reported had entered circulation through legal channels , but the other eight were of dubious origins and might be seized . However , as of 2011 , the federal government has not attempted to seize the eight examples considered of dubious origin .
As of August 2011 , eight of the eleven error coins , including the one initially discovered in Arkansas , are owned by a New Mexico collector who purchased them between 2000 and 2003 , paying as high as $ 75 @,@ 000 for a single specimen . Of the other three documented mules , one is owned by its discoverer , a Missouri collector , another was purchased by an unnamed collector , and the third , first reported in 2011 , was purchased in 2011 by a Chicago dealer from an individual who had owned the coin for about ten years . Sale prices as high as $ 200 @,@ 000 have been reported . Three different die combinations have been identified among the eleven available error coins .
= = Reception = =
The coin received mixed reviews from the nation 's senators . In an interview with Associated Press columnist Suzanne Gamboa , Republican Senator Phil Gramm of Texas described United States currency as " crummy " . Gramm , who was one of the senators who voted for the bill containing the legislation that authorized it , praised the design of the Sacagawea dollar as being an improvement over the other coin designs then in production . Despite his praise of the design , Gramm condemned the Mint 's approach to marketing the coin , stating that if the United States Mint were the Franklin Mint , they would be " sued for deceptive advertisement . " He also noted his belief that the Mint had repeated the earlier mistakes of the Susan B. Anthony dollar by issuing a coin that was tailored to the requests of the vending machine industry rather than the average consumer . Texas Republican Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison criticized both the Sacagawea design as well the coin 's size in relation to the other coins in circulation at the time . Hutchison felt that the new coin lacked the necessary heft to easily distinguish it from the lower denominations , and that the dollar , as well as the other coins and currency then in circulation " looks like play money . " Senators Mike DeWine of Ohio and Byron Dorgan of North Dakota , Republican and Democrat respectively , praised the design and the distinctiveness of the golden color .
The series proved unpopular in everyday commerce . Mintage dropped by 90 % the following year . From 2002 through 2008 , Sacagawea dollars were only struck for sale to collectors . The Federal Reserve Bank ordered none of the Native American series after their issuance beginning in 2009 . In December 2009 , it was noted by a Federal Reserve official that there were currently 857 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ dollar coins ( including Presidential dollars ) in government storage vaults , an amount estimated to satisfy the demand for twelve years .
Despite their unpopularity in the United States , the coins proved popular for commerce in El Salvador and Ecuador , nations that use the United States dollar .
= = Mintage figures = =
= = Coin and Currency Sets = =
Besides the annual proof and uncirculated sets , Sacagawea dollars with special finishes have also been inserted into several mint packages . These include the following :
= Quatermass and the Pit =
Quatermass and the Pit is a British television science @-@ fiction serial transmitted live by BBC Television in December 1958 and January 1959 . It was the third and last of the BBC 's Quatermass serials , although the chief character , Professor Bernard Quatermass , reappeared in a 1979 ITV production called Quatermass . Like its predecessors , Quatermass and the Pit was written by Nigel Kneale .
The serial continues the loose chronology of the Quatermass adventures . Workmen excavating a site in Knightsbridge , London , discover a strange skull and what at first appears to be an unexploded bomb . Quatermass and his newly appointed military superior at the British Experimental Rocket Group , Colonel Breen , become involved in the investigation when it becomes apparent that the object is an alien spacecraft . The ship and its contents have a powerful and malign influence over many of those who come in contact with it , including Quatermass . It becomes obvious to him that the aliens , probably from Mars , had been abducting pre @-@ humans and modifying them to give them psychic abilities much like their own before returning them to Earth , a genetic legacy responsible for much of the war and strife in the world .
The serial has been cited as having influenced Stephen King and the film director John Carpenter . It featured in the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes compiled by the British Film Institute in 2000 , which described it as " completely gripping " .
= = Background = =
The Quatermass Experiment ( 1953 ) and Quatermass II ( 1955 ) , both written by Nigel Kneale , had been critical and popular successes for the BBC , and in early 1957 the corporation decided to commission a third serial . Kneale had left the BBC shortly before , but was hired to write the new scripts on a freelance basis .
The British Empire had been in transition since the 1920s , and the pace accelerated in the wake of the Second World War . More and more member states demanded independence , and a series of crises erupted during the 1950s , including the 1952 Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya and the Suez Crisis of 1956 . During the same period immigration into Britain from the Indian subcontinent and the Caribbean was on the increase , causing some resentment among elements of the native population . At the time Kneale was working on his scripts black communities in Nottingham and London came under attack from mobs of white Britons ; Kneale became keen to develop the serial as an allegory for the emerging racial tensions that culminated in the Notting Hill race riots of August and September 1958 .
= = Plot = =
Workmen discover a pre @-@ human skull while building in the fictional Hobbs Lane ( formerly Hob 's Lane , Hob being an antiquated name for the Devil ) in Knightsbridge , London . Dr Matthew Roney , a paleontologist , examines the remains and reconstructs a dwarf @-@ like humanoid with a large brain volume , which he believes to be a primitive man . As further excavation is undertaken , something that looks like a missile is unearthed ; further work by Roney 's group is halted because the military believe it to be an unexploded Second World War bomb .
Roney calls in his friend Professor Bernard Quatermass of the British Rocket Group to prevent the military from disturbing what he believes to be an archaeological find . Quatermass and Colonel Breen , recently appointed to lead the Rocket Group over Quatermass 's objections , become intrigued by the site . As more of the artefact is uncovered additional fossils are found , which Roney dates to five million years , suggesting that the object is at least that old . The interior is empty , and a symbol of five intersecting circles , which Roney identifies as the occult pentacle , is etched on a wall that appears to conceal an inner chamber .
The shell of the object is so hard that even a boron nitride drill makes no impression , and when the attempt is made , vibrations cause severe distress in people around the object . Quatermass interviews local residents and discovers ghosts and poltergeists have been common in the area for decades . A hysterical soldier is carried out of the object , claiming to have seen a dwarf @-@ like apparition walk through the wall of the artefact , a description that matches a 1927 newspaper account of a ghost .
Following the drilling , a hole opens up in the object 's interior wall . Inside , Quatermass and the others find the remains of insect @-@ like aliens resembling giant three @-@ legged locusts , with stubby antennae on their heads giving the impression of horns . As Quatermass and Roney examine the remains , they theorise the aliens may have come from a planet habitable five million years ago – Mars .
While clearing his equipment from the craft the drill operator triggers more poltergeist activity , and runs through the streets in a panic until he finds sanctuary in a church . Quatermass and Roney find him there , and he describes visions of the insect aliens killing each other . As Quatermass investigates the history of the area , he finds accounts dating back to medieval times about devils and ghosts , all centred on incidents where the ground was disturbed . He suspects a psychic projection of these beings has remained on the alien ship and is being seen by those who come into contact with it .
Quatermass decides to use Roney 's optic @-@ encephalogram , a device that records impressions from the optical centres of the brain , and see the visions for himself . Roney 's assistant , Barbara Judd , is most sensitive ; placing the device on her , they record a violent purge of the Martian hive to root out unwanted mutations . Quatermass concludes that in its most primitive phase mankind was visited by this race of Martians . Some apes and primitive pre @-@ humans were taken away and genetically altered to give them abilities such as telepathy , telekinesis and other psychic powers . They were then returned to Earth , and the buried artefact is one of the ships that had crashed at the end of its journey . With their home world dying , the aliens had tried to change humanity 's ancestors to have minds and abilities similar to their own , but with a bodily form adapted to life on Earth .
But the aliens became extinct before completing their work . As the human race bred and evolved , only a percentage retained their psychic abilities , which surfaced only sporadically . For centuries the buried ship had occasionally triggered those dormant abilities , which explained the reports of poltergeists ; people were unknowingly using their own telekinesis to move objects around , and the ghost sightings were traces of a racial memory . The authorities , and Breen in particular , find this explanation preposterous despite being shown the recording of Barbara 's vision . They believe that the craft is a Nazi propaganda weapon and the alien bodies fakes designed to create exactly the impressions that Quatermass has succumbed to , and decide to hold a media event to stem the rumours that are already spreading .
Quatermass warns that if implanted psychic powers survive in the human race , there could also still be an ingrained compulsion to enact the " Wild Hunt " of a race purge , but the media event goes ahead regardless . The power cables that string into the craft fully activate it for the first time , and glowing and humming like a living thing it starts to draw upon this energy source and awaken the ancient racial programming . Those Londoners in whom the alien admixture remains strong fall under the ship 's influence ; they merge into a group mind and begin a telekinetic mass murder of those without the alien genes , an ethnic cleansing of those the alien race mind considers to be impure and weak .
Breen stands transfixed and is eventually consumed by the energies from the craft as it slowly melts away and an image of a Martian " devil " floats in the sky above London . Fires and riots erupt , and after Quatermass succumbs to the mass psychosis he attempts to kill Roney , who does not have the alien gene and is therefore immune to the alien influence . Roney manages to shake Quatermass out of his trance , and remembering the legends of demons and their aversion to iron and water , he proposes that a sufficient mass of iron connected to wet earth may be sufficient to short @-@ circuit the apparition . Quatermass acquires a length of iron chain and tries to reach the " devil " but succumbs to its psychic pressure . Roney manages to walk up to the apparition and hurls the chain at it , resulting in him and the spacecraft being reduced to ashes .
At the conclusion of the final episode Quatermass gives a television broadcast , at the end of which he delivers a warning directly to camera : " If we cannot control the inheritance within us , this will be their [ the Martians ' ] second dead planet . "
= = Cast = =
For the third time in as many serials the title role was played by a different actor , this time by André Morell ; the part had initially been offered to Alec Clunes , but he declined it . Morell had a reputation for playing authority figures , such as Colonel Green in The Bridge on the River Kwai ( 1957 ) , and had previously worked with Kneale and Cartier when he appeared as O 'Brien in their BBC television adaptation of Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four ( 1954 ) . He had been the first actor offered the part of Quatermass , for the original serial The Quatermass Experiment in 1953 ; he turned the part down . Morell 's portrayal of Quatermass has been described as the definitive interpretation of the character .
Colonel Breen was played by Anthony Bushell , who was known for various similar military roles – including another bomb disposal officer in The Small Back Room ( 1949 ) – and preferred to be addressed as " Major Bushell " , the rank he held during the Second World War . Roney was played by Canadian actor Cec Linder , John Stratton played Captain Potter , and Christine Finn played the other main character , Barbara Judd . She went on to provide the voices for various characters in the popular 1960s children 's television series Thunderbirds .
For the first time , Kneale used a character from a previous serial other than Quatermass himself , the journalist James Fullalove from The Quatermass Experiment . The production team had hoped that Paul Whitsun @-@ Jones would be able to reprise the part ; he was unavailable and Brian Worth was cast instead . Michael Ripper appeared as an army sergeant ; he had been in Hammer Film Productions ' adaptation of the second Quatermass serial , Quatermass 2 , the previous year . The drama also featured future Dad 's Army actress Nan Braunton as Miss Dobson .
= = Production = =
= = = Filming = = =
The director assigned was Rudolph Cartier , with whom Kneale had a good working relationship ; the two had collaborated on the previous Quatermass serials , as well as the literary adaptations Wuthering Heights ( 1953 ) and Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four ( 1954 ) . The budget of £ 17 @,@ 500 allocated for Quatermass and the Pit was larger than that of the previous Quatermass productions . Pre @-@ production began in September 1958 , while Cartier was still working on A Tale of Two Cities and A Midsummer Night 's Dream for the BBC . As the two previous Quatermass serials had been scheduled in half @-@ hour slots but , performed live , had overrun , Cartier requested 35 @-@ minute slots for the six episodes of Quatermass and the Pit . This was agreed in November 1958 , just before the start of production on 24 November . The six episodes – " The Halfmen " , " The Ghosts " , " Imps and Demons " , " The Enchanted " , " The Wild Hunt " and " Hob " – were broadcast on Monday nights at 8 pm from 22 December 1958 to 26 January 1959 .
Each episode was predominantly live from Studio 1 of the BBC 's Riverside Studios in Hammersmith , London . The episodes were rehearsed from Tuesday to Saturday , usually at the Mary Wood Settlement in Tavistock Place , London , with camera rehearsals in the morning and afternoon of transmission . Not every scene was live ; a significant amount of material was on 35 mm film and inserted during the performance . Most filming involved scenes set on location or those too technically complex or expansive to achieve live . The latter were shot at Ealing Studios , acquired by the BBC in 1955 , where Cartier worked with the cinematographer A. A. Englander . Pre @-@ filming was also used to show the passage of time in the second episode ; the archaeological dig at Ealing was shown to have dug deeper into the ground than the equivalent set at Riverside , enabling a sense of time having elapsed that would not have been possible in an all @-@ live production .
Made just before videotape became general at the BBC , all six episodes of Quatermass and the Pit were preserved for a possible repeat by being telerecorded on 35 mm film . This was achieved with a specially @-@ synchronised film camera capturing the output of a video monitor ; the process had been refined throughout the 1950s and recordings of Quatermass and the Pit are of high technical quality . The serial was repeated in edited form as two 90 @-@ minute episodes , entitled " 5 Million Years Old " and " Hob " , on 26 December 1959 and 2 January 1960 . The third episode , " Imps and Demons " , was re @-@ shown on BBC Two on 7 November 1986 as part of the " TV50 " season , celebrating 50 years of BBC television .
Quatermass and the Pit was the last original production on which Kneale collaborated with Rudolph Cartier .
= = = Special effects = = =
Special effects were handled by the BBC Visual Effects Department , formed by Bernard Wilkie and Jack Kine in 1954 . Kine or Wilkie oversaw effects on a production ; due to the number of effects , both worked on Quatermass and the Pit . The team pre @-@ filmed most of their effects for use during the live broadcasts . They also oversaw practical effects for the Ealing filming and Riverside transmission , and constructed the bodies of the Martian creatures .
= = = Music = = =
The music was credited to Trevor Duncan , a pseudonym used by BBC radio producer Leonard Trebilco , whose music was obtained from stock discs . Quatermass and the Pit also used sound effects and electronic music to create a disturbing atmosphere . These tracks were created for the serial by the BBC Radiophonic Workshop , overseen by Desmond Briscoe ; Quatermass and the Pit was one of the productions for which Briscoe and the workshop became most renowned . It was the first time electronic music had been used in a science @-@ fiction television production .
= = Reception = =
Quatermass and the Pit was watched by an average audience of 9 @.@ 6 million viewers , peaking at 11 million for the final episode . The Times ' television reviewer praised the opening episode the day after its transmission . Pointing out that " Professor Bernard Quatermass ... like all science fiction heroes , has to keep running hard if he is not to be overtaken by the world of fact " , the anonymous reviewer went on to state how much he had enjoyed the episode as " an excellent example of Mr. Kneale 's ability to hold an audience with promises alone ; smooth , leisurely , and without any sensational incident " .
Kneale went on to use the Martian " Wild Hunt " as an allegory for the recent Notting Hill race riots , but some Black British leaders were upset by the depiction of racial tensions in the first episode . " Leaders of coloured minorities here to @-@ day criticized the BBC for allowing a report that ' race riots are continuing in Birmingham , ' to be included in a fictional news bulletin during the first instalment of the new Quatermass television play last night " , reported The Times ' Birmingham correspondent .
These themes and subtexts were highlighted by the British Film Institute 's review of the serial when it was included in their TV 100 list in 2000 , in 75th position – 20th out of the dramas featured : " In a story which mined mythology and folklore ... under the guise of genre it tackled serious themes of man 's hostile nature and the military 's perversion of science for its own ends . " The theme of military takeover of peaceful scientific research was also considered favourably by Patrick Stoddart , writing for The Sunday Times in 1988 : " Last week I watched a BBC drama in which a scientist fought against smirking government ministers and power @-@ crazed army officers to stop his peaceful rocket research group being turned into a Star Wars vehicle to put missiles on the moon . They won . "
= = Influence = =
In a 2006 Guardian article Mark Gatiss wrote " What sci @-@ fi piece of the past 50 years doesn 't owe Kneale a huge debt ? ... The ' ancient invasion ' of Quatermass and the Pit cast a huge shadow ... its brilliant blending of superstition , witchcraft and ghosts into the story of a five @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Martian invasion is copper @-@ bottomed genius . " Gatiss was a scriptwriter for Doctor Who , a programme that had been particularly strongly influenced by the Quatermass serials throughout its history . Derrick Sherwin , the producer of Doctor Who in 1969 , acknowledged Quatermass and the Pit 's influence on the programme 's move towards more realism and away from " wobbly jellies in outer space " . The 1971 and 1977 Doctor Who serials The Dæmons and Image of the Fendahl share many elements with Quatermass and the Pit : the unearthing of an extraterrestrial spaceship , an alien race that has interfered with human evolution and is the basis for legends of devils , demons and witchcraft , and an alien influence over human evolution .
The writer and critic Kim Newman , speaking about Kneale 's career in a 2003 television documentary , cited Quatermass and the Pit as perfecting " the notion of the science @-@ fictional detective story " . Newman also discussed the programme as an influence on the horror fiction writer Stephen King , claiming that King had " more or less rewritten Quatermass and the Pit in The Tommyknockers " .
After Quatermass and the Pit Kneale felt that it was time to rest the character . By the early 1970s he had decided there were new avenues to explore , and the BBC planned a fourth Quatermass serial in 1972 . The BBC did not proceed with the project , and Kneale 's scripts were produced in 1979 as a four @-@ part serial for Thames Television titled Quatermass .
= = Other media = =
As with the previous two Quatermass serials , the rights to adapt Quatermass and the Pit for the cinema were purchased by Hammer Film Productions . Their adaptation was released with the same title as the original in 1967 , directed by Roy Ward Baker and scripted by Kneale . Scottish actor Andrew Keir starred as Quatermass , the role for which he was best remembered and regarded particularly highly in comparison to the previous film Quatermass , Brian Donlevy . The film , made in colour , is regarded by many commentators as a classic of the genre for the way it blends science fiction with the supernatural . In the United States the film was retitled Five Million Years to Earth .
A script book of Quatermass and the Pit was released by Penguin Books in April 1960 , with a cover by Kneale 's artist brother Bryan Kneale . In 1979 this was re @-@ published by Arrow Books to coincide with the transmission of the fourth and final Quatermass serial on ITV ; this edition featured a new introduction by Kneale . The theatrical company Creation Productions staged a live adaptation of Quatermass and the Pit in a quarry near Nottingham in August 1997 .
The BBC made Quatermass and the Pit available to buy on VHS videotape in 1988 , edited into a two @-@ part compilation format . This was a new compilation made from the episodic film recordings , which had optical sound and telecined film inserts . This was re @-@ released on VHS by Paradox Films , Total Home Entertainment and Revelation Films in 1995 , and subsequently on DVD by Revelation Films in 2000 . The full , unedited , episodic version of the serial was released on DVD by BBC Worldwide in 2005 , as part of The Quatermass Collection box set . Also included were the surviving two episodes of The Quatermass Experiment , all of Quatermass II and various extra features .
For the box set release , Quatermass and the Pit was extensively restored . A process called VidFIRE was applied to all of the scenes originally broadcast live , restoring the fluid interlaced video look they would have had on transmission , but which was lost during the telerecording process . For the pre @-@ filmed scenes , most of the high @-@ quality original 35 mm film inserts still existed , as they had been spliced into the 1959 – 60 compilation repeat version in place of the lower @-@ quality telerecorded versions of the same sequences . As this compilation also survived in the BBC archives , these film sequences were able to be digitally remastered and inserted into the newly restored episodic version for the DVD release . The compilation used a separate magnetic soundtrack , and although the original had decayed a safety copy had survived . This yielded better sound quality than the optical soundtracks accompanying the original episodes , and was therefore the main source for the audio remastering except in the case of scenes that were not in the compilation , and in a few cases where faults on the magnetic tracks necessitated their replacement by the optical versions .
= = Parodies = =
A 1959 episode of the BBC radio comedy series The Goon Show parodied Quatermass and the Pit . The episode , " The Scarlet Capsule " , was written by Spike Milligan , and used the original BBC Radiophonic Workshop sound effects made for the television serial . The episode has been released on several LP and CD compilations by EMI , but owing to copyright restrictions the show 's musical interludes have been removed and the closing playout heavily abridged . A more complete version has been broadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra ( formerly BBC7 ) .
The serial was also parodied by the BBC television comedy series Hancock 's Half Hour in an episode entitled " The Horror Serial " , transmitted the week following the final episode . In it , Tony Hancock has just finished watching the final episode of Quatermass and the Pit , and becomes convinced that there is a crashed Martian space ship buried at the end of his garden . ( It is in fact an unexploded bomb , although Hancock claims that the warning " Achtung ! " is really the Martian for Acton . ) This episode no longer exists in the BBC 's archives but a private collector 's audio @-@ only recording has been discovered .
It was parodied a third time in a sketch from the final series of The Two Ronnies in 1986 : the sketch featured a guest appearance from Joanna Lumley .
= Nycticebus kayan =
The Kayan River slow loris ( Nycticebus kayan ) is a strepsirrhine primate and a species of slow loris that is native to the northern and central highland region of the island of Borneo . The species was originally thought to be a part of the Bornean slow loris ( N. menagensis ) population until 2013 , when a study of museum specimens and photographs identified distinct facial markings , which helped to differentiate it . It is distinguished by the high contrast of its black and white facial features , as well as the shape and width of the stripes of its facial markings .
The species is named after the Kayan River , which runs through its native habitat . As with other slow lorises , this arboreal and nocturnal species primarily eats insects , tree gum , nectar , and fruit and has a toxic bite , a unique feature among primates . Although not yet evaluated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , it is likely to be listed as " Vulnerable " or placed in a higher @-@ risk category when its conservation status is assessed . It is primarily threatened by habitat loss and the illegal wildlife trade .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
N. kayan is a strepsirrhine primate , and species of slow loris ( genus Nycticebus ) within the family Lorisidae . Museum specimens of this animal had previously been identified as the Bornean slow loris ( Nycticebus menagensis ) , first described by the English naturalist Richard Lydekker in 1893 as Lemur menagensis . In 1953 , all of the slow lorises were lumped together into a single species , the Sunda slow loris ( Nycticebus coucang ) . In 1971 , that view was refined by distinguishing the pygmy slow loris ( N. pygmaeus ) as a species , and by further identifying four subspecies , including N. coucang menagensis , the Bornean slow loris . The Bornean slow loris was elevated to the species level ( as N. menagensis ) in 2006 , when molecular analysis showed it to be genetically distinct from N. coucang .
A 2013 review of museum specimens and photographs attributed to N. menagensis resulted in elevating two of its former subspecies to the species N. bancanus and N. borneanus . Additionally , N. kayan was recognized as a new species , distinct from the nominate subspecies , N. menagensis . All newly recognized or elevated species showed significant differences in their " facemask " — the coloration patterns on their face . Analysis of the facemask patterns suggests that N. kayan diverged from N. menagensis and N. borneanus through sympatric speciation ( divergent evolution of organisms living in the same geographic region ) , while geographic barriers may account for its divergence with N. bancanus ( allopatric speciation ) .
N. kayan is named after the Kayan River , which runs through its native habitat and near Peleben , the type locality of the original specimen . The holotype , AMNH 106012 , was originally collected on 8 October 1935 by Baron V. von Plessen near Peleben in the province of East Kalimantan in Borneo and is housed in the American Museum of Natural History in New York . It consists of a male skin and skull , with a head @-@ body length of 257 @.@ 3 mm ( 10 @.@ 1 in ) .
= = Physical description = =
Like other slow lorises , it has a vestigial tail , round head , and short ears . It has a rhinarium ( the moist , naked surface around the nostrils of the nose ) and a broad , flat face with large eyes . Like N. menagensis , this and all other Bornean species lack a second upper incisor , which distinguishes them from other slow lorises . On its front feet , the second digit is smaller than the rest ; the big toe on its hind foot opposes the other toes , which enhances its gripping power . Its second toe on the hind foot has a curved grooming claw that it uses for scratching and grooming , while the other nails are straight . It also possesses a specialized arrangement of lower front teeth , called a toothcomb , which is also used for grooming , as with other lemuriform primates . On the ventral side of its elbow , it has a small swelling called the brachial gland , which secretes a pungent , clear oily toxin that the animal uses defensively by wiping it on its toothcomb .
The face mask of N. kayan differs from those of other Bornean lorises in several ways . First , the top of the dark ring around its eyes is either rounded or pointed ( not diffuse at the edges ) and the bottom stretches below the zygomatic arch , and sometimes extends as far down as the jaw . Second , the stripe between the eyes is occasionally bulb @-@ shaped , compared to the rectangular stripe seen in the neighboring species . Also , a light band of fur in front of the ears is usually intermediate in width compared to the narrow and wide bands seen in the other Bornean species . Compared to N. menagensis , the facemask of N. kayan has more contrast between its dark black and white features , and its ears are always covered in hair , whereas those of N. menagensis are generally naked . Overall , its fur is generally longer and fluffier compared to N. menagensis . Based on a limited number of specimens , the species is about 273 @.@ 4 mm ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) long , and weighs about 410 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 9 lb ) .
= = Distribution = =
N. kayan is found in central and northern Borneo . Its range extends south to the Mahakam and Rajang Rivers in the Indonesian province of East Kalimantan and the Malaysian province of Sarawak , respectively , and north to southern side of Mount Kinabalu in the Malaysian province of Sabah . Although it is not found along the coast , its range spans Borneo from east to west . Its range overlaps that of N. menagensis in East Kalimantan and Sabah , and N. borneanus is a neighboring species .
= = Habitat and ecology = =
Like other slow lorises , N. kayan is arboreal , nocturnal , and omnivorous , eating primarily insects , tree gum , nectar , and fruit . Likewise , this species has a toxic bite , a unique feature found only in slow lorises among primates . The toxin is produced by licking a brachial gland ( a gland by its elbow ) , and the secretion mixes with its saliva to activate . The toxic bite is a deterrent to predators , and the toxin is also applied to the fur during grooming as a form of protection for infants . When threatened , slow lorises may also lick their brachial glands and bite the aggressors , delivering the toxin into the wound . Slow lorises can be reluctant to release their bite , which is likely to maximize the transfer of toxins .
The face mask may help the species identify potential mates by distinguishing species , and may serve as an anti @-@ predator strategy by making its eyes appear larger than they really are .
= = Conservation = =
While Nycticebus kayan has yet to be assessed by the IUCN , N. menagensis was listed as " Vulnerable " as of 2012 . Because that species has been divided into four distinct species , each of the new species faces a higher risk of extinction . Accordingly , each of them are expected to be listed as " Vulnerable " at least , with some of them likely to be assigned to a higher @-@ risk category .
Between 1987 and 2012 , one @-@ third of Borneo 's forests were lost , making habitat loss one of the greatest threats to the survival of N. kayan . The illegal wildlife trade is also a major factor , with loris parts commonly sold for traditional medicine . Further , viral videos on YouTube promote the exotic pet trade . However , all slow loris species are protected from commercial trade under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) .
= Home ( Glee ) =
" Home " is the sixteenth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on April 27 , 2010 . It was directed by Paris Barclay and written by series creator Brad Falchuk . " Home " sees new cheerleader Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) deal with body image issues , while Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) sets his dad and Finn Hudson 's mom together , in an attempt to get closer to Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , and club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) is reunited with his friend April Rhodes ( Kristin Chenoweth ) . Chenoweth first appeared in Glee in the episode " The Rhodes Not Taken " . She enjoyed the role of April so much that she agreed to return for " Home " , and has expressed an interest in reappearing in the future .
The episode features cover versions of five songs , all of which were released as singles , available for digital download , and four of which are included on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 3 – Showstoppers . " Home " was watched by 12 @.@ 18 million American viewers and received mixed reviews from critics . Both Gerrick D. Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times and Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly recommended that Chenoweth receive an Emmy nomination for her performance , and Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald opined that the episode itself should be submitted for Emmy consideration . Jean Bentley of MTV felt that Chenoweth was overused in the episode , however , and criticized the songs performed as being unrecognizable to younger viewers . Todd VanDerWerff of The A. V. Club felt that the episode was poorly balanced , and Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle deemed " Home " the weakest episode of Glee thus far .
= = Plot = =
In preparation for an interview with Splits Magazine , cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) demands that new cheerleader Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) lose ten pounds in a week . She reserves the school auditorium for cheer practice , so glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) has to find the club a new rehearsal space . He visits a local roller rink where he finds former glee club member April Rhodes ( Kristin Chenoweth ) , who tells him that she is the mistress of the wealthy eighty @-@ year @-@ old tycoon who owns the rink . Upon learning that Will is looking to sublet his apartment , April invites herself to visit . After spending the night sharing a bed , Will forbids April from staying over again and tells her she is worth more than being a mistress . April says she will break up with her tycoon .
Mercedes struggles to eat healthily and her mid @-@ week weigh @-@ in shows that she has gained two pounds . She begins extreme dieting and faints in the school cafeteria . Former cheerleading captain Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) sympathizes with Mercedes , commending her for being so comfortable in her own body and advising her not to let being a cheerleader detract from that . Though Mercedes is embarrassed , Quinn tells her that she is beautiful . On the day of the pep rally , Mercedes abandons the planned routine , and instead sings " Beautiful " . The journalist from Splits Magazine assumes that Sue engineered the performance and expresses his admiration for her , promising her positive publicity from his article .
Glee club member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) sets up his widower father Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) with Finn Hudson 's ( Cory Monteith ) widowed mother Carole ( Romy Rosemont ) . He believes that it will help him become closer to Finn , for whom he has feelings . Finn is upset when Carole sells their old furniture , and stops his late father 's recliner from being sold . He is initially hostile to her dating someone new , but begins to bond with Burt over sports at a group dinner . Kurt feels left out , and later asks Finn to help him break up their parents . Finn initially agrees , but relents after Burt tells him that he loves Carole and would never hurt her . They watch a basketball game together and Finn allows Burt to sit in his father 's recliner , while Kurt watches on sadly through the window .
When April attempts to break up with her tycoon , he has a stroke and dies . His wife gives April $ 2 million in hush money , and April uses some of it to buy the auditorium for the glee club . She plans to go to Broadway to launch the first all @-@ white production of The Wiz . The episode ends with April and the glee club performing " Home " from The Wiz .
= = Production = =
" Home " was directed by Paris Barclay , who also directed " Wheels " , Glee 's ninth episode . It was written by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , who deemed the episode potentially the best of the series so far . " Home " sees the return of guest star Kristin Chenoweth , who first appeared in episode five , " The Rhodes Not Taken " , as former glee club member April Rhodes . Prior to her first appearance , Chenoweth was already acquainted with Glee creator Ryan Murphy , having appeared in his 2006 film Running with Scissors . Murphy commented that he loves writing for Chenoweth , and both he and Chenoweth expressed their desire for April to return to Glee in the future , with Chenoweth stating : " This part is like nothing I 've had the chance to do on TV . "
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ue to help him make his first wartime radio broadcast on Britain 's declaration of war on Germany in 1939 .
Seidler read about George VI 's life after overcoming a stuttering condition he endured during his youth . He started writing about the relationship between the monarch and his therapist as early as the 1980s , but at the request of the King 's widow , Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother , postponed work until her death in 2002 . He later rewrote his screenplay for the stage to focus on the essential relationship between the two protagonists . Nine weeks before filming began , Logue 's notebooks were discovered and quotations from them were incorporated into the script .
Principal photography took place in London and around Britain from November 2009 to January 2010 . The opening scenes were filmed at Elland Road , Leeds , and Odsal Stadium , Bradford , both locations standing in for the old Wembley Stadium . For indoor scenes , Lancaster House substituted for Buckingham Palace , and Ely Cathedral stood in for Westminster Abbey , while the weaving mill scene was filmed at the Queen Street Mill in Burnley . The cinematography differs from that of other historical dramas : hard light was used to give the story a greater resonance and wider than normal lenses were employed to recreate the King 's feelings of constriction . A third technique Hooper employed was the off @-@ centre framing of characters : in his first consultation with Logue , George VI is captured hunched on the side of a couch at the edge of the frame .
Released in the United Kingdom on 7 January 2011 , The King 's Speech was a major box office and critical success . Censors initially gave it adult ratings due to profanity , though these were later revised downwards after criticism by the makers and distributors in the UK and some instances of swearing were muted in the US . On a budget of £ 8 million , it earned over £ 250 million internationally ( $ 400 million ) . It was widely praised by film critics for its visual style , art direction , and acting . Other commentators discussed the film 's representation of historical detail , especially the reversal of Winston Churchill 's opposition to abdication . The film received many awards and nominations , particularly for Colin Firth 's performance ; his Golden Globe Award for Best Actor was the sole win at that ceremony from seven nominations . The King 's Speech won seven British Academy Film Awards , including Best Film , Best Actor ( Firth ) , Best Supporting Actor ( Rush ) , and Best Supporting Actress ( Helena Bonham Carter ) . The film also won four Academy Awards : Best Picture , Best Director ( Hooper ) , Best Actor ( Firth ) , and Best Original Screenplay ( Seidler ) .
= = Plot = =
Prince Albert , Duke of York , the second son of King George V , stammers through his speech closing the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Stadium . The Duke has given up hope of a cure , but his wife Elizabeth persuades him to see Lionel Logue , an Australian speech therapist living in London . During their first session , Logue insists on being called Lionel by his patient and on breaching royal etiquette by calling the Prince " Bertie " , a name used only by his family . When the Duke decides Logue 's treatment is unsuitable , Logue bets him that he can recite Hamlet 's " To be , or not to be " soliloquy without trouble and distracts him by playing music through headphones while recording his performance on an acetate record . Prince Albert leaves in anger but Logue offers him the recording as a keepsake .
After King George V makes his 1934 Christmas radio address , he explains to his son the importance of broadcasting to a modern monarchy and demands that Albert train himself , starting with a reading of his father 's speech . His attempt to do so is a failure . Later , the Duke plays Logue 's recording and hears himself reciting unhesitatingly . He therefore returns to Logue , where he and his wife both insist that Logue focus only on physical exercises , not therapy . Logue teaches his patient muscle relaxation and breath control but continues to probe gently and persistently at the psychological roots of the stutter . Albert eventually reveals some of the pressures of his childhood and the two men start to become friends .
With George V ’ s death in 1936 , his eldest son David ascends the throne as King Edward VIII , but causes a constitutional crisis with his determination to marry Wallis Simpson , an American socialite divorcée who is still legally married to her second husband . It is pointed out that Edward , as head of the Church of England , cannot marry her , even if she receives her second divorce , because both her previous husbands are alive .
At his next session , Albert expresses his frustration that while his speech has improved when talking to most people , he still stammers when talking to his own brother and reveals the extent of Edward VIII 's folly with Simpson . When Logue insists that Albert could be a good king instead , the latter labels such a suggestion as treason and dismisses Logue . When King Edward decides to abdicate in order to marry Simpson , Albert reluctantly succeeds as King George VI . The new king and queen visit Logue to make up the quarrel , startling Mrs. Logue , who was unaware that the new King had been her husband 's patient .
During preparations for his coronation in Westminster Abbey , George learns that Logue has no formal qualifications . When confronted , Logue explains how he was asked to help shell @-@ shocked Australian soldiers returning from The Great War . Since George remains unconvinced of his own fitness for the throne , Logue sits in King Edward 's Chair and dismisses the underlying Stone of Scone as a trifle . Goaded by Logue 's seeming disrespect , the King surprises himself with his own sudden burst of outraged eloquence and allows Logue to rehearse him for the ceremony .
Upon Britain 's declaration of war with Nazi Germany in 1939 , King George summons Logue to Buckingham Palace to prepare for his upcoming radio address to Britain and the Empire . Knowing the challenge that lies before him , the Archbishop of Canterbury , Winston Churchill and Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain are present to offer support . George and Logue are then left in the broadcasting room . He delivers his speech with Logue conducting him , but by end is speaking freely . Preparing to leave the room for the congratulations of those present in the palace , Logue mentions to the King that he still had difficulty enunciating ' w ' and the King jokes back , " I had to throw in a few so they 'd know it was me " .
After the King and his family step onto the balcony of the palace and are applauded by the crowd , a title card explains that Logue was always present at King George VI 's speeches during the war and that they remained friends for the rest of their lives .
= = Cast = =
Colin Firth as King George VI
Geoffrey Rush as Lionel Logue
Helena Bonham Carter as Queen Elizabeth
Guy Pearce as King Edward VIII
Timothy Spall as Winston Churchill
Derek Jacobi as Archbishop Cosmo Lang
Jennifer Ehle as Myrtle Logue
Anthony Andrews as Stanley Baldwin
Claire Bloom as Queen Mary
Eve Best as Wallis Simpson
Freya Wilson as Princess Elizabeth
Tim Downie as the Duke of Gloucester
Roger Hammond as Dr. Blandine Bentham
Ramona Marquez as Princess Margaret
Michael Gambon as King George V
Roger Parrott as Neville Chamberlain
Richard Dixon as the King 's Private Secretary
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
As a child , David Seidler developed a stammer , which he believes was caused by the emotional trauma of World War II and the murder of his grandparents during the Holocaust . King George VI 's success in overcoming his stammer inspired the young Seidler , " Here was a stutterer who was a king and had to give radio speeches where everyone was listening to every syllable he uttered , and yet did so with passion and intensity . " When Seidler became an adult , he resolved to write about King George VI . During the late 1970s and 1980s he voraciously researched the King , but found a dearth of information on Logue . Eventually Seidler contacted Dr. Valentine Logue , who agreed to discuss his father and make his notebooks available if the Queen Mother gave her permission . She asked him not to do so in her lifetime , and Seidler halted the project .
The Queen Mother died in 2002 . Three years later , Seidler returned to the story during a bout of creative work inspired by a recovery from cancer . His research , including a chance encounter with an uncle whom Logue had treated , indicated he used mechanical breathing exercises combined with psychological counselling to probe the underlying causes of the condition . Thus prepared , Seidler imagined the sessions . He showed the finished screenplay to his wife , who liked it , but pronounced it too " seduced by cinematic technique " . She suggested he rewrite it as a stage play to focus on the essential relationship between the King and Logue . After he had completed it , he sent it to a few friends who worked in theatre in London and New York for feedback .
In 2005 , Joan Lane of Wilde Thyme , a production company in London , received the script . Lane started talking with Simon Egan and Gareth Unwin of Bedlam Productions , and they invited Seidler to London to rewrite the play again , this time for the screen . Together , Lane and Bedlam Productions organised a reading of the play in Pleasance Theatre , a small house in north London , to a group of Australian expatriates , among whom was Tom Hooper 's mother . She called her son and said , " I 've found your next project " .
Instead of trying to contact his agent , Lane asked an Australian staff member to hand @-@ deliver the script to Geoffrey Rush 's house , not far away from hers in Melbourne . Unwin reports that he received a four @-@ page e @-@ mail from Rush 's manager admonishing them for the breach of etiquette , but ending with an invitation to discuss the project further . Iain Canning from See @-@ Saw Films became involved and , in Gareth Unwin 's words : " We worked with ex @-@ chair of BAFTA Richard Price , and started turning this story about two grumpy men sitting in a room into something bigger . " Hooper liked the story , but thought that the original ending needed to be changed to reflect events more closely : " Originally , it had a Hollywood ending ... If you hear the real speech , he 's clearly coping with his stammer . But it 's not a perfect performance . He 's managing it . "
The production team learned — some nine weeks prior to the start of filming — of a diary containing Logue 's original notes on his treatment of the Duke . They then went back and re @-@ worked the script to reflect what was in the notes . Hooper said some of the film 's most memorable lines , such as at the climax , when Logue smiles , " You still stammered on the W " to the King , who replies , " I had to throw in a few so they would know it was me " were direct quotations from Logue 's notes . Changes from the script to reflect the historical record included Michael Gambon improvising the ramblings of George V as he signed away authority , and the decision to dress the Duke in an overcoat rather than regal finery in the opening scene .
Seidler thought Paul Bettany would be a good choice to play King George VI , Tom Hooper preferred Hugh Grant , though both actors refused the offer . Once they met with Firth and heard him read for the part , Seidler and Hooper were convinced of his suitability for the role .
The UK Film Council awarded the production £ 1 million in June 2009 . Filming began in December 2009 , and lasted 39 days . Most was shot in the three weeks before Christmas because Rush would be performing in a play in January . The schedule was further complicated by Bonham Carter 's availability : she worked on Harry Potter during the week , so her scenes had to be filmed during the weekend .
= = = Location and design = = =
The set design presented a challenge for the film @-@ makers : period dramas rely to an extent on the quality of production , but their budget was a relatively limited £ 8 million . The film had to be authentic — combining regal opulence with scruffy , depression @-@ era London . On 25 November 2009 , the crew took over the Pullens buildings in Southwark . The entire street was transformed into 1930s London . Large advertisements , for ( among other things ) Bovril and fascism were placed on the walls ; streets were sprayed with grit and buildings with grime . A neighbour of Hooper 's had told him the smog in London at the time was so thick that cars had to be guided by someone walking in front . To create this scene the crew pumped in so much artificial smoke that the fire alarms in a nearby boutique sounded . According to Hooper , the scene was a good opportunity to show Logue 's socio @-@ economic background .
On 26 November , a week 's filming with Firth , Rush , and Jacobi began at Ely Cathedral , the location used for Westminster Abbey . The production had asked for permission to film in the Abbey but were denied due to the demands of tourism . Though Lincoln Cathedral is architecturally a closer match to the Abbey , they preferred Ely , a favoured filming location . Its size allowed them to build sets showing not just the coronation , but the preparations before it .
Lancaster House , an opulent , government @-@ owned period house in London , was used for the interiors of Buckingham Palace that the King walks through prior to making his speech and for the official photograph afterwards ; it cost £ 20 @,@ 000 a day to rent . The 1936 Accession Council at St. James 's Palace , where George VI swore an oath , was filmed in February in the Livery Hall of Drapers ' Hall , after principal photography had been completed . The room , ornate and vast , met the occasion : the daunting nature of the new King 's responsibilities was shown by surrounding him with rich detail , flags and royal portraiture .
The crew investigated Logue 's former consultation rooms , but they were too small to film in . Instead , they found a high , vaulted room not far away in 33 Portland Place . Eve Stewart , the production designer , liked the mottled , peeling wallpaper there so much that she recreated the effect throughout the entire room . In his DVD commentary , Hooper said he liked Portland Place as a set because it felt " lived @-@ in " , unlike other period houses in London . The scenes of the Duke of York at home with his family were also filmed here ; showing the Prince living in a townhouse " subverted " expectations of a royal drama .
The opening scene , set at the closing ceremony of the 1925 British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Stadium , was filmed on location at Elland Road , home of Leeds United , and Odsal Stadium , home of Bradford RLFC . Elland Road was used for the speech elements of the prince stammering his way through his first public address , and Odsal Stadium was selected because of the resemblance of its curved ends to Wembley Stadium in 1925 . The crew had access to the stadium only at 10 pm , after a football game . They filled the terraces with inflatable dummies and over 250 extras dressed in period costumes . Live actors were interspersed to give the impression of a crowd . Additional people , as well as more ranks of soldiers on the pitch , were added in post @-@ production with visual effects .
Other locations include Cumberland Lodge , Harley Street , Knebworth , Hatfield House , the Old Royal Naval College in Greenwich , Queen Street Mill Textile Museum in Burnley , and Battersea Power Station , which doubled as a BBC wireless control room . The final cut of the film was completed on 31 August 2010 .
= = = Dialogue = = =
In developing his portrayal of George VI 's stammer , Firth worked with Neil Swain , the voice coach for the film . His sister , Kate Firth , also a professional voice coach to actors , proposed exercises the King might have done with Logue , and made suggestions on how to imagine Logue 's mix of physical and psychological coaching for the film . In addition , Firth watched archive footage of the King speaking . In an interview with Allan Tyrer published by the British Stammering Association , Swain said : " [ It ] was very interesting while we were working on the film just to think tonally how far we could go and should go with the strength of George 's stammer . I think a less courageous director than Tom [ Hooper ] – and indeed a less courageous actor than Colin [ Firth ] – might have felt the need to slightly sanitise the degree and authenticity of that stammer , and I 'm really really pleased that neither of them did . " In May 2011 Firth said he was finding traces of the stammer difficult to eliminate : " You can probably hear even from this interview , there are moments when it ’ s quite infectious , " he said . " You find yourself doing it and if I start thinking about it the worse it gets . If nothing else it ’ s an insight into what it feels like . "
= = Soundtrack = =
The film 's original score was composed by Alexandre Desplat . In a film about a man struggling to articulate himself , Desplat was wary of overshadowing the dramaturgy : " This is a film about the sound of the voice . Music has to deal with that . Music has to deal with silence . Music has to deal with time . " The score is a sparse arrangement of strings and piano ( with the addition of oboe and harp in one cut ) , intended to convey the sadness of the King 's muteness , and then the growing warmth of friendship between him and Logue . The minimalist approach emphasises the protagonist 's struggle for control . Desplat used the repetition of a single note to represent the stickiness of the King 's speech . As the film progresses , growing banks of warm strings swaddle the deepening friendship between the two leads . The music rises to a climax in the coronation scene . Hooper originally wanted to film the scene without music , but Desplat argued that it was the real climax of the story — the point when the friendship was ratified by their decision to trust each other . " That is really rare " , said Desplat , " mostly you have love stories " .
To create a dated sound , the score was recorded on old microphones extracted from the EMI archives which had been specially made for the royal family . The music played during the broadcast of the 1939 radio speech at the climax of the film is from the 2nd movement ( Allegretto ) of Beethoven 's 7th Symphony ; it was added by Tariq Anwar , the editor . When Desplat later joined the team to write the music , he praised and defended Anwar 's suggestion . Hooper further remarked that the stature of the piece helps elevate the status of the speech to a public event .
The score was nominated for several awards , including Best Original Score at the Oscars , Golden Globes , and BAFTAs , winning the latter award . The score also won a Grammy at the 54th Grammy Awards .
= = = Track listing = = =
All songs written and composed by Alexandre Desplat , except where noted .
= = Visual style = =
Hooper employed a number of cinematic techniques to evoke the King 's feelings of constriction . He and cinematographer Danny Cohen used wider than normal lenses to photograph the film , typically 14mm , 18mm , 21mm , 25mm and 27mm , where the subtle distortion of the picture helps to convey the King 's discomfort . For instance , the subjective point of view shot during the Empire exhibition speech used a close up of the microphone with a wider lens , similar to the filming technique used for one of the Duke 's early consultations with a physician . In The New York Times , Manohla Dargis wrote that the feeling of entrapment inside the King 's head was rendered overly literal with what she believed to be a fisheye lens , though in these scenes the wider lenses were used . Hooper also discussed using the 18mm lens , one he likes " because it puts human beings in their context " .
Roger Ebert noted that the majority of the film was shot indoors , where oblong sets , corridors , and small spaces manifest constriction and tightness , in contrast to the usual emphasis on sweep and majesty in historical dramas . Hooper used wide shots to capture the actors ' body language , particularly Geoffrey Rush , who trained at L 'École Internationale de Théâtre Jacques Lecoq in Paris and " is consequently brilliant in the way he carries his body " . Hooper widened his scope first to capture Rush 's gestures , then full body movements and silhouettes . The approach carried over to Firth as well . In the first consultation scene , the Duke is squeezed against the end of a long couch framed against a large wall , " as if to use the arm of the sofa as a kind of friend , as a security blanket ? " Martin Filler praised the " low @-@ wattage " cinematography of Danny Cohen , as making everything look like it has been " steeped in strong tea " .
At other times , the camera was positioned very close to the actors to catch the emotion in their faces : " If you put a lens 6 inches from somebody 's face , you get more emotion than if you 're on a long lens 20 feet away , " Cohen said in an interview . Hooper sought a second subtlety while filming the first consultation room scene between the two men , having placed the camera 18 inches from Colin Firth 's face : " I wanted the nervousness of the first day to percolate into his performances . "
Historical dramas traditionally tend to use " soft light " , but Hooper wanted to use a harsher glare , which gives a more contemporary feel , and thus a greater emotional resonance . To achieve the effect , the lighting team erected huge blackout tents over the Georgian buildings , and used large lights filtered through Egyptian cotton .
= = Historical accuracy = =
The filmmakers not only tightened the chronology of the events to just a few years but even shifted the actual timeline of treatment : the Duke of York actually began work with Logue in October 1926 , ten years before the abdication crisis , and the improvement in his speech was apparent in months rather than years , as is suggested by the film . In a 1952 newspaper interview with John Gordon , Logue said that " Resonantly and without stuttering , he opened the Australian parliament in Canberra in 1927 " ; this was just seven months after the Duke began to work with Logue .
Hugo Vickers , an adviser on the film , agreed that the alteration of historical details to preserve the essence of the dramatic story was sometimes necessary . The high @-@ ranking officials , for instance , would not have been present when the King made his speech , nor would Churchill have been involved at any level , " but the average viewer knows who Churchill is ; he doesn 't know who Lord Halifax and Lord Hoare are . "
Robert Logue , a grandson of Lionel , doubted the film 's depiction of the speech therapist , stating " I don 't think he ever swore in front of the King and he certainly never called him ' Bertie ' " . Andrew Roberts , an English historian , states that the severity of the King 's stammer was exaggerated and the characters of Edward VIII , Wallis Simpson , and George V made more antagonistic than they really were , to increase the dramatic effect .
Christopher Hitchens and Isaac Chotiner challenged the film 's portrayal of Winston Churchill 's role in the abdication crisis . It is well established that Churchill encouraged Edward VIII to resist pressure to abdicate , whereas he is portrayed in the film as strongly supportive of Prince Albert and not opposed to the abdication . Hitchens attributes this treatment to the " cult " surrounding Churchill 's legacy . In a smart , well @-@ made film " would the true story not have been fractionally more interesting for the audience ? " he wondered . They also criticised the film for failing to indict the appeasement of the era . While the film never directly mentions the issue , Hitchens and Chotiner argue that it implies that George VI was against appeasement , especially in the final scene portraying " Churchill and the King at Buckingham Palace and a speech of unity and resistance being readied for delivery " . Far from distancing himself from Chamberlain 's appeasement policy , King George VI dispatched a car to meet Neville Chamberlain when he returned from signing the Munich Agreement with Hitler in September 1938 . The King and Chamberlain then stood on the balcony of Buckingham Palace , acclaimed by cheering crowds . This led historian Steven Runciman to write that by acting as he did to endorse Chamberlain 's foreign policy , King George VI perpetrated " the biggest constitutional blunder that has been made by any sovereign this century . " The Guardian corrected the portrayal of Stanley Baldwin as having resigned due to his refusal to order Britain 's re @-@ armament , when he in fact stepped down as " a national hero , exhausted by more than a decade at the top " .
Martin Filler acknowledged that the film legitimately used artistic licence to make valid dramatic points , such as in the probably imagined scene when George V lectures his son on the importance of broadcasting . Filler cautions that George VI would never have tolerated Logue addressing him casually , nor swearing , and the King almost certainly would have understood a newsreel of Hitler speaking in German . Filler makes the larger point that both the King and his wife were , in reality , lukewarm towards Churchill because of the latter 's support for his brother during the abdication crisis . They only warmed to Churchill later in the war , because of his performance as a wartime leader .
Commenting on the film 's final scene on the balcony of Buckingham Palace , Andrew Roberts has written , " The scene is fairly absurd from a historical point of view – Neville Chamberlain and Winston Churchill were not present and there were no cheering crowds outside Buckingham Palace . " Overall , Roberts praises the film as a sympathetic portrayal of the King 's " quiet , unassuming heroism " , and he states : " The portrayals by Firth and Bonham Carter are sympathetic and acute , and the movie ’ s occasional factual bêtises should not detract from that . "
= = Release = =
= = = Cinema release = = =
The film had its world première on 6 September 2010 at the Telluride Film Festival in the United States . It was screened at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival , on Firth 's 50th birthday , where it received a standing ovation and won the People 's Choice Award . The cinema release poster was re @-@ designed to show an extreme close @-@ up of Firth 's jaw and a microphone after Hooper criticised the first design as a " train smash " . Tim Appelo called the original , air @-@ brushed effort , which showed the three leads , " shockingly awful " though the new one " really is worthwhile " .
The film was distributed by Transmission Films in Australia and by Momentum Pictures in the United Kingdom . The Weinstein Company distributed it in North America , Germany , Benelux , Scandinavia , China , Hong Kong , and Latin America . The film was released in France on 2 February 2011 , under the title Le discours d 'un roi . It was distributed by Wild Bunch Distribution .
= = = Ratings controversy = = =
The film was initially given a 15 certificate by the British Board of Film Classification , due to a scene where Logue encourages the King to shout profanities , which he could do so without stuttering . At the London Film Festival , Hooper criticised the decision , questioning how the board could certify the film " 15 " for bad language but allow films such as Salt ( 2010 ) and Casino Royale ( 2006 ) to have " 12A " ratings , despite their graphic torture scenes . Following Hooper 's criticism , the board lowered the rating to " 12A " , allowing children under 12 years of age to see the film if they are accompanied by an adult . Hooper levelled the same criticism at the Motion Picture Association of America , which gave the film an " R " rating , preventing anyone under the age of 17 from seeing the film without an adult . In his review , Roger Ebert criticised the " R " rating , calling it " utterly inexplicable " , and wrote , " This is an excellent film for teenagers . "
In January 2011 Harvey Weinstein , the executive producer and distributor , said he was considering having the film re @-@ edited to remove some profanity , so that it would receive a lower classification and reach a larger audience . Hooper , however , refused to cut the film , though he considered covering the swear words with bleeps . Helena Bonham Carter also defended the film , saying , " [ The film ] is not violent . It 's full of humanity and wit . [ It 's ] for people not with just a speech impediment , but who have got confidence [ doubts ] . " After receiving his Academy Award , Colin Firth noted that he does not support re @-@ editing the film ; while he does not condone the use of profanity , he maintains that its use was not offensive in this context . " The scene serves a purpose " , Firth states . An alternate version , with some of the profanities muted out , was classified as " PG @-@ 13 " in the United States ; this version was released to cinemas on 1 April 2011 , replacing the R @-@ rated one . The PG @-@ 13 version of this film is not available on DVD and Blu @-@ ray .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
In Great Britain and Ireland , the film was the highest earning film on its opening weekend . It took in £ 3 @,@ 510 @,@ 000 from 395 cinemas . The Guardian said that it was one of the biggest takes in recent memory , and compared it to Slumdog Millionaire ( 2008 ) , which , two years earlier , earned £ 1 @.@ 5 million less . The King 's Speech continued a " stunning three weeks " atop the UK Box office , and earned over £ 3 million for four consecutive weekends , the first film to do so since Toy Story 3 ( 2010 ) . After five weeks on UK release , it was hailed as the most successful independent British film ever .
In the United States The King 's Speech opened with $ 355 @,@ 450 ( £ 220 @,@ 000 ) in four cinemas . It holds the record for the highest per @-@ cinema gross of 2010 . It was widened to 700 screens on Christmas Day and 1 @,@ 543 screens on 14 January 2011 . It eventually made $ 138 million in North America overall .
In Australia The King 's Speech made more than A $ 6 @,@ 281 @,@ 686 ( £ 4 million ) in the first two weeks , according to figures collected by the Motion Picture Distributors Association of Australia . The executive director of Palace Cinemas , Benjamin Zeccola , said customer feedback on the film was spectacular . " It 's our No.1 for all the period , all throughout the country . ... I think this is more successful than Slumdog Millionaire and a more uplifting film . It 's a good example of a film that started out in the independent cinemas and then spread to the mainstream cinemas . "
Of the film 's net profit , estimated to amount to $ 30 – 40 million ( £ 20 – 25 million ) from the cinema release alone , roughly 20 % will be split between Geoffrey Rush ( as executive producer ) , Tom Hooper and Colin Firth , who receive their bonuses before the other stakeholders . The remaining profit is to be split equally between the producers and the equity investors . The UK Film Council invested £ 1 million of public funds from the United Kingdom lottery into the film . In March 2011 Variety estimated that the return could be between fifteen and twenty times that . The Council 's merger into the British Film Institute means that the profits are to be returned to that body .
= = = Critical response = = =
The King 's Speech has received widespread critical acclaim , with Firth 's performance receiving strong acclaim . Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 95 % based on reviews from 261 critics ; their average rating was calculated as 8 @.@ 6 / 10 . It summarised the critical consensus as : " Colin Firth gives a masterful performance in The King 's Speech , a predictable but stylishly produced and rousing period drama . " Metacritic gave the film a weighted score of 88 / 100 , based on 41 critiques , which it ranks as " universal acclaim " . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare " A + " grade . Empire gave the film five stars out of five , commenting , " You 'll be lost for words . " Lisa Kennedy of the Denver Post gave the film full marks for its humane qualities and craftsmanship : " It is an intelligent , winning drama fit for a king – and the rest of us " , she said . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times awarded the film a full four stars , commenting that " what we have here is a superior historical drama and a powerful personal one . " Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave four stars out of five , stating , " Tom Hooper 's richly enjoyable and handsomely produced movie ... is a massively confident crowd @-@ pleaser . "
Manohla Dargis , whilst generally ambivalent towards the film , called the lead performances one of its principal attractions . " With their volume turned up , the appealing , impeccably professional Mr. Firth and Mr. Rush rise to the acting occasion by twinkling and growling as their characters warily circle each other before settling into the therapeutic swing of things and unknowingly preparing for the big speech that partly gives the film its title , " she wrote . The Daily Telegraph called Guy Pearce 's performance as Edward VIII " formidable ... with glamour , charisma and utter self @-@ absorption " . Empire said he played the role well as " a flash harry flinty enough to shed a nation for a wife . " The New York Times thought he was able to create " a thorny tangle of complications in only a few abbreviated scenes " . Hooper praised the actor in the DVD commentary , saying he " nailed " the 1930s royal accent . Richard Corliss of Time magazine named Colin Firth 's performance one of the Top 10 Movie Performances of 2010 .
The British Stammering Association welcomed the release of The King 's Speech , congratulating the film makers on their " realistic depiction of the frustration and the fear of speaking faced by people who stammer on a daily basis . " It said that " Colin Firth 's portrayal of the King 's stammer in particular strikes us as very authentic and accurate . " The Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists welcomed the film , and launched their " Giving Voice " campaign around the time of its commercial release .
Allociné , a French cinema website , gave the film an average of four out of five stars , based on a survey of 21 reviews . Le Monde , which characterised the film as the " latest manifestation of British narcissism " and summarised it as " We are ugly and boring , but , By Jove ! , we are right ! " , nevertheless admired the performances of Firth , Rush , and Bonham Carter . It said that , though the film swept British appeasement under the carpet , it was still enjoyable .
Slovenian Marxist philosopher and cultural critic Slavoj Žižek has incorporated the film into his critique of ideology by describing it as " reactionary , " interpreting the king 's stutter as evidence that he " displays a minimum of common sense , experiencing the stupidity of seriously accepting that one is king by divine will " and claiming that " the task of the Australian voice @-@ coach is to render him stupid enough to accept his being a king as his natural property . " Žižek thus interprets the king 's stutter as a case of what is referred to in Lacanian psychoanalysis as " symbolic castration . "
Queen Elizabeth II , the daughter and successor of King George VI , was sent two copies of the film before Christmas 2010 . The Sun newspaper reported she had watched the film in a private screening at Sandringham House . A palace source described her reaction as being " touched by a moving portrayal of her father " . Seidler called the reports " the highest honour " the film could receive .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
At the 83rd Academy Awards , The King 's Speech won the Academy Award for Best Picture , Best Director ( Hooper ) , Best Actor ( Firth ) , and Best Original Screenplay ( Seidler ) . The film had received 12 Oscar nominations , more than any other film in that year . Besides the four categories it won , the film received nominations for Best Cinematography ( Danny Cohen ) and two for the supporting actors ( Bonham Carter and Rush ) , as well as two for its mise @-@ en @-@ scène : Art Direction and Costumes .
At the 64th British Academy Film Awards , it won seven awards , including Best Film , Outstanding British Film , Best Actor for Firth , Best Supporting Actor for Rush , Best Supporting Actress for Bonham Carter , Best Original Screenplay for Seidler , and Best Music for Alexandre Desplat . The film had been nominated for 14 BAFTAs , more than any other film . At the 68th Golden Globe Awards , Firth won for Best Actor . The film won no other Golden Globes , despite earning seven nominations , more than any other film .
It is also the first Weinstein film to win the Oscar for Best Picture .
At the 17th Screen Actors Guild Awards , Firth won the Best Actor award and the entire cast won Best Ensemble , meaning Firth went home with two acting awards in one evening . Hooper won the Directors Guild of America Awards 2010 for Best Director . The film won the Darryl F. Zanuck Award for Best Theatrical Motion Picture at the Producers Guild of America Awards 2010 .
The King 's Speech won the People 's Choice Award at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival , Best British Independent Film at the 2010 British Independent Film Awards , and the 2011 Goya Award for Best European Film from the Academia de las Artes y las Ciencias Cinematográficas de España ( Spanish Academy of Cinematic Art and Science ) .
= Tang Da Wu =
Tang Da Wu ( Chinese : 唐大雾 ; pinyin : Táng Dàwù , pronounced [ tʰɑ ̌ ŋ tâ.û ] ; born 1943 ) is a Singaporean artist who works in a variety of media , including drawing , painting , sculpture , installation art and performance art . Educated at Birmingham Polytechnic and Goldsmiths ' College , University of London , Tang gave his first solo exhibition , consisting of drawings and paintings , in 1970 at the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry . He began engaging in performance art upon returning to Singapore in 1979 following his undergraduate studies .
In 1988 , Tang founded The Artists Village . The first art colony to be established in Singapore , it aimed to encourage artists to create experimental art . Members of the Village were among the first contemporary artists in Singapore , and also among the first to begin practising installation art and performance art . There , Tang mentored younger artists and informed them about artistic developments in other parts of the world . He also organized exhibitions and symposia at the Village , and arranged for it to collaborate with the National Museum Art Gallery and the National Arts Council 's 1992 Singapore Festival of the Arts .
In January 1994 , the National Arts Council ( NAC ) stopped funding unscripted performance art following a controversial performance by Josef Ng that was regarded as obscene by many members of the public . From that time , Tang and other performance artists mostly practised their art abroad , although some performances were presented in Singapore as dance or theatre . For his originality and influence in performance art in Southeast Asia , among other things , Tang won the Arts and Culture Prize in 1999 at the 10th Fukuoka Asian Culture Prizes . The NAC eventually reversed its no @-@ funding rule on performance art in September 2003 . Tang was one of four artists who represented Singapore at the 2007 Venice Biennale . Tang 's work is part of the collection of the Singapore Art Museum , Queensland Art Gallery and the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum .
Tang has expressed concern about environmental and social issues through his art , such as the works They Poach the Rhino , Chop Off His Horn and Make This Drink ( 1989 ) and Tiger 's Whip ( 1991 ) . He believes in the potential of the individual and collective to effect social changes , and his art deals with national and cultural identities . Tang has participated in numerous community and public art projects , workshops and performances .
= = Education and personal life = =
Tang Da Wu was born Thang Kian Hiong in Singapore in 1943 , the eldest of four sons . His second brother Thang Kiang How is himself a visual artist based in Singapore . His father was a journalist with the Chinese daily newspaper Sin Chew Jit Poh . He studied at a Chinese @-@ medium school , but disliked English and mathematics and was often scolded by his teachers . He preferred playing after school with neighbourhood children and learned to speak Malay and Chinese from them . He also enjoyed drawing , and gained confidence when his secondary school paintings were accepted in art competitions .
In 1968 , Tang was awarded a diploma in youth and community works from the National Youth Leadership Institute . Two years later , in 1970 , his first solo exhibition of drawings and paintings sponsored by the Singapore Art Society was staged at the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry . Subsequently , he went to the United Kingdom to study , major
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, and Social Security , which would involve cutting Medicare and Medicaid by 43 percent and turning them into block grant programs , with control of spending in the hands of the states to create , in his words , " fifty laboratories of innovation . " He has advocated passing a law allowing for state bankruptcy and expressly ruling out a federal bailout of any states . Johnson has expressed opposition to the Federal Reserve System , which he has cited as massively devaluing the strength of the U.S. dollar , and would sign legislation to eliminate it . He has also supported an audit of the central bank , and urged Members of Congress in July 2012 to vote in favor of Ron Paul 's Federal Reserve Transparency Act .
In his campaign for the Libertarian Party nomination , he stated he opposed foreign wars and pledged to cut the military budget by 43 percent in his first term as president . He would cut the military 's overseas bases , uniformed and civilian personnel , research and development , intelligence , and nuclear weapons programs . He has stated his opposition to US involvement in the War in Afghanistan and opposed the US involvement in the Libyan Civil War . He has stated that he does not believe Iran is a military threat , would use his presidential power to prevent Israel from attacking Iran , and would not follow Israel , or any other ally , into a war that it had initiated .
Johnson is a strong supporter of civil liberties and received the highest score of any candidate from the American Civil Liberties Union for supporting drug decriminalization while opposing censorship and regulation of the Internet , the Patriot Act , enhanced airport screenings , and the indefinite detention of prisoners . He has spoken in favor of the separation of church and state , and has said that he does not " seek the counsel of God " when determining his political agenda . Johnson endorsed same @-@ sex marriage in 2011 ; he has since called for a constitutional amendment protecting equal marriage rights , and criticized Obama 's position on the issue as having " thrown this question back to the states . " On the other hand , Johnson opposes Roe v. Wade , believing states should decide the matter . He has been a longtime advocate of legalizing marijuana and has said that if he were president , he would remove it from Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act as well as issue an executive order pardoning non @-@ violent marijuana offenders .
Johnson has stated his opposition to gun control and has said , " I 'm a firm believer in the Second Amendment and so I would not have signed legislation banning assault weapons or automatic weapons . "
= = Personal life = =
Johnson was married to Dee Johnson ( née Simms ; 1952 – 2006 ) from 1977 to 2005 . As First Lady of New Mexico , she engaged in campaigns against smoking and breast cancer , and oversaw the expansion of the Governor 's Mansion . He initiated a separation in May 2005 and four months later he announced that they would divorce . At the age of 54 , Dee Johnson died unexpectedly on December 22 , 2006 , her cause of death later attributed to hypertensive heart disease . Johnson became engaged to Santa Fe real estate agent Kate Prusack in 2009 a year after meeting her at a bike race in Sante Fe . Prusack has stated that the reason they have not yet married is because " My fiance ’ s always on the road . "
Johnson lives in Taos , New Mexico , in a home that he built himself . He is an avid triathlete who bikes extensively . During his term in office , he competed in several triathlons , marathons and bike races . He competed three times ( 1993 , 1997 , 1999 ) as a celebrity invitee at the Ironman World Championship in Hawaii , registering his best time for the 2 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 9 km ) swim , 112 @-@ mile ( 180 km ) bike ride , and 26 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 42 @.@ 2 km ) marathon run in 1999 with 10 hours , 39 minutes , and 16 seconds . He once ran 100 miles ( 160 km ) in 30 consecutive hours in the Rocky Mountains . On May 30 , 2003 , he reached the summit of Mount Everest " despite toes blackened with frostbite . " He has climbed all seven of the Seven Summits : Mount Everest , Mount Elbrus , Denali , Mount Kilimanjaro , Aconcagua , Mount Vinson , and Carstensz Pyramid — the tallest peaks in Asia , Europe , North America , Africa , South America , Antarctica , and Oceania respectively . He completed the Bataan Memorial Death March at White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico , in which participants traverse a 26 @.@ 2 mile course through the desert , many of them in combat boots and wearing 35 @-@ pound packs .
On October 12 , 2005 , Johnson was involved in a near @-@ fatal paragliding accident when his wing caught in a tree and he fell approximately 50 feet to the ground . Johnson suffered multiple bone fractures , including a burst fracture to his twelfth thoracic vertebra , a broken rib , and a broken knee ; this accident left him 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 cm ) shorter . He used medicinal marijuana for pain control from 2005 @-@ 08 .
Johnson is a Lutheran and has stated that his belief in God has given him " a very fundamental belief that we should do unto others as we would have others do unto us . "
= = Electoral history = =
= = Books = =
Seven Principles of Good Government : Gary Johnson on liberty , people and politics . 2012 . Aberdeen , WA : Silver Lake Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1563439131 . OCLC 809701081
= Stage Struck ( 1911 film ) =
Stage Struck is an American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on a country girl who joins a traveling production after the company performs in her home town . She runs away from her home to join them and is hired , but the hard life soon takes it toll and she is unable to continue on with them . A traveling sales man buys her a ticket home and she goes home to her father . Several weeks later she receives a letter offering her a position in a New York theater production and a letter requesting her marriage from the salesman . She decides to accept his offer and become his wife . The film was released on March 3 , 1911 and was met with good reviews , but the film 's intended daydream sequence was not understood by critics . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The official summary synopsis of the film was published in The Moving Picture World . It states , " A country girl becomes hopelessly stage struck when a company of barnstorming actors , presenting Shakespearean plays , appears in her home town . She applies for an engagement to the star of the organization and is finally offered a small part . Forbidden by her father to follow the career of her choice , she runs away and joins the company . Disillusionment soon follows . The stars dissatisfied with her attempts at acting , and the hard work and bad hotels soon tax her strength . While playing a one @-@ night stand in a little town , the company is treated to a square meal by a prosperous young drummer [ Slang : for a traveling salesman ] who is greatly attracted by the country girl 's youth and beauty . The company get into financial straits , and have their baggage seized . Entirely without funds they start to walk to the next town . ' Walking the ties ' is as new form of exercise for our heroine , and halfway on the journey she begs the company to go on without her , as she is too weary and sick to continue . Sitting alone and weeping bitterly on the steps of a forlorn little railway station , the girl is surprised to see , getting off the train , her new acquaintance , the drummer . He insists upon buying her a ticket for home and starting her off at once . The girl is welcomed back home by her father and when a few weeks later she receives together an offer of a New York engagement and an offer of marriage from the young drummer - she decides to accept the latter , and to appear in the future as - just a wife . "
= = Production = =
The only credit in the production is that of Marie Eline in an unknown role . A review of the film in The Moving Picture World would state the representation of the standard theatrical company was extremely good . This was not by chance , for many key persons at the Thanhouser company , including Edwin Thanhouser himself , had experience on the stage . Edwin Thanhouser knew the stage represented a great pool of acting talent , but many actors were regular citizenry , yet anonymity was the rule until towards 1912 and so on until the " star system " would come to force around 1914 .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on March 3 , 1911 . The Billboard 's reviewer gave a positive review and asserted , " Any motion picture in which the views of ' back on the stage ' are shown possesses a certain degree of interest . The ever @-@ curious public is fascinated by the alluring stories of the stage world , and any peep it is given into this realm is welcomed . Because of this , Stage Struck derives the interest it has . As far as the story is concerned there is no special recommendation for it . ... The theatre settings are about as faithful depictions of stage scenes as are found in motion pictures . The player portraying the role of the leading actor very much exaggerates in makeup . The photography is very good . " Both the The Morning Telegraph and The New York Dramatic Mirror thought the conclusion was impossible turn of events . The Telegraph 's reviewer wrote , " An excellent opportunity was sadly missed for the exposition of a strong lesson to the uninitiated girl or boy who dreams of a career before the footlights . How any author or producer could permit such an impossible ending is a wonder . Can any sensible person imagine a New York manager offering an inexperienced amateur a leading part in a Broadway production ? Yet this is what occurs in this tale of a stage @-@ struck miss who joins a repertoire company , is stranded , gets home through the generosity of a traveling salesman and then , with no lapse of time or experience noted , receives a letter with such an offer ! Most of the play was well put on and ably acted . The ' star ' of the theatrical company wore an abominable wig , which could be distinguished as false . More care and thought would have made this an admirable offering . " The Mirror ' reviewer stated , " The production leaves the impression of being exceedingly well done , but to the average actor the New York engagement , after forsaking her barnstorming company of players , seems somewhat of a dream . It was also startling to see her playing Ophelia after such a flat failure at the previous rehearsal where another took her place . " According to the synopsis , it is likely that this New York production in which she foresees herself on stage as Ophelia is a dream because it is prompted by the two letters she received at home .
The film is presumed lost because the film is not known to be held in any archive or by any collector .
= Why Don 't You Love Me ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Why Don 't You Love Me " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her third studio album , I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . It was written by Knowles , Angela Beyincé , Solange Knowles and the Bama Boyz and produced by the Bama Boyz and Knowles . " Why Don 't You Love Me " is an R & B and dance @-@ pop song that is set in a retro style . According to its lyrics , Knowles questions her love interest about why he does not value her fabulousness . Its 1950s @-@ styled music video was directed by Melina Matsoukas and Knowles under the alias Bee @-@ Z , and it stars the latter as " B.B. Homemaker " . Knowles pays homage to Bettie Page in the video , which critics universally commended for its 1950 's style sets and costumes . They also complimented Knowles for her acting skills .
" Why Don 't You Love Me " was well received by critics . It topped the United States Hot Dance Club Songs chart for one week in February 2010 , a little over one year after the original release of I Am ... Sasha Fierce . On August 27 , 2010 , the song was released as a single in the United Kingdom . It eventually charted at number 51 on the UK Singles Chart and at number 14 on its R & B Singles Chart . Although not being released elsewhere , " Why Don 't You Love Me " garnered some attention in Australia , where it charted at number 73 ; it bubbled under the main charts of Belgium and reached number 44 on Slovakia Airplay Chart . In the US , it emerged as the nineteenth most played track in dance clubs in 2010 . " Why Don 't You Love Me " was a part of Knowles ' set list for the 2011 Glastonbury Festival , the Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue and the Mrs Carter Show World Tour .
= = Development and production = =
" Why Don 't You Love Me " was written by Beyoncé Knowles , Solange Knowles , Angie Beyincé and produced as well as co @-@ written by The Bama Boyz . Jonathan Wells of Bama Boyz said that they decided to try something different from what they usually do , by mixing several genres for " Why Don 't You Love Me " . The song 's inspiration came from the time they spent in London at the end of Beyoncé Knowles ' The Beyoncé Experience tour in promotion of her second studio album B 'Day ( 2006 ) . The writing and production of the song began in London and was finished stateside in early 2008 . They admitted that the song 's structure was unusual , however they were happy that it ended up in the Knowles ' hands . After The Bama Boyz produced two tracks on Solange Knowles ' second studio album Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams ( 2008 ) , she asked them to put instrumentals together for her to write for her sister Beyoncé .
The Bama Boyz almost intentionally left the instrumental for " Why Don 't You Love Me " out , since they thought that the song did not sound like the tracks Beyoncé was recording for her upcoming album , at that particular time . However , Jesse Rankins explained that they later decided to put the instrumental for " Why Don 't You Love Me " in the email because they knew that Solange likes weird records , but , they made sure to send it last . Out of all the mainstream @-@ inspired attempts The Bama Boyz sent to Solange , she eventually chose that last and most unexpected track and penned " Why Don 't You Love Me " . Jonathan Wells commented : " When they heard Solange 's demo , we were excited because that track was more our true sound than any of the others [ sent ] , but we still kinda didn 't believe Beyoncé would cut it ... but we hoped ! "
Beyoncé came to Houston 's Music World Studios for a recording session a few months after Solange had cut the demo . Knowles invited The Bama Boyz into her session at the Houston 's Music World Studios to listen to the early versions of I Am ... Sasha Fierce . Unexpectedly , after Beyoncé played " Halo " , " Why Don 't You Love Me " came blasting through the speakers with Knowles singing the song . The Bama Boyz were thrilled that she recorded it and loved the song . According to " Anti @-@ Music " , the song was nearly discarded twice ; the first time was when EMI Music prepared a demo of the song to send to other artists without knowing that Knowles had already recorded the song , and the second came during the track selection of I Am ... Sasha Fierce 's track listing , where executives felt that the song did not fit in with the other records .
= = Composition = =
" Why Don 't You Love Me " is different from Knowles ' previous dance @-@ pop songs as it makes use of a retro style . It is an upbeat track that draws from the genre of R & B. The song also contains elements of up @-@ tempo disco and funk music . It consists of energetic tribal beats , a drum loop , funky guitars and a bassline that was designed to make it a groovy and dance song . According to the lyrics of " Why Don 't You Love Me " , Knowles impersonates a woman who questions her love interest about the reason for which he does not value her fabulousness , convincing him she 's the best thing for him as she sings : " Why don 't you love me ... when I make me so damn easy to love ? ... I got beauty ... I got class ... I got style and I got ass ... " . The singer further tells her love interest that the decision not to choose her is " entirely foolish " .
= = Release and reception = =
Originally released as a pre @-@ order bonus track on the deluxe edition of I Am ... Sasha Fierce , the song was later released as a new song on the platinum edition of the album , and finally as a bonus track along with " Poison " and a remixed version of " Video Phone " featuring pop singer Lady Gaga on a digital EP titled I Am ... Sasha Fierce – The Bonus Tracks . On July 2 , 2010 , " Why Don 't You Love Me " was digitally released in Germany while its music video was included on a separate digital EP that went on sale the same date . Two remixes of the song were later made available for download in the United Kingdom on August 29 , 2009 .
Chris Ryan of MTV called " Why Don 't You Love Me " a " dirty , disco @-@ funk track . " Maura Johnston of The Village Voice called " Why Do You Love Me " " the stankface tour de force bonus track from I Am ... Sasha Fierce in which Beyoncé reminds a dude that she 's pretty much the greatest thing around and his choice to not be with her is an entirely foolish one . " She further praised the song , writing , " It 's one of the best songs in her catalog , being as it is a four @-@ minute summation of why she 's one of pop 's premier stylists right now ; her vocals are equal parts pleading and snarling , the twitchy disco @-@ funk beat gets hips shaking , and the declarations of confused self @-@ love throughout can cause the listener to both root for her and realize that they 've been in similar situations . " On The Village Voice ' 2010 year @-@ end Pazz & Jop singles list , " Why Don 't You Love Me " was ranked at number 549 .
= = Chart performance = =
Although " Why Don 't You Love Me " was not released as a formal single , it managed to top the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart for the week of February 13 , 2010 . It became Knowles ' twelfth number @-@ one hit on that chart and it was also the fifth consecutive song from I Am ... Sasha Fierce to reach number one on the same chart . On June 11 , 2010 , " Why Don 't You Love Me " debuted at number 73 on the Australian Singles Chart . However the following week , the song fell down to the position number 91 , before dropping out of the chart the following week . " Why Don 't You Love Me " stayed under the main charts in Belgium , reaching number 10 on the Flemish Ultratip chart .
On August 14 , 2010 , " Why Don 't You Love Me " debuted at number 142 on the UK Singles chart , and it moved from number seventy @-@ one to number 40 on the R & B chart . After the digital release of remixes , the song rose to number 71 on the UK Singles chart , becoming the ninth consecutive single off I Am ... Sasha Fierce to peak within the top 75 . It also moved from number 44 to number 25 on its R & B chart on September 11 , 2010 . The following week , on September 18 , 2010 , " Why Don 't You Love Me " moved up twenty places on the UK Singles to land at number 51 and ascended to number 14 on its R & B chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Filming and concept = = =
The music video for the song was directed by long @-@ time collaborator Melina Matsoukas and Knowles under the alias Bee @-@ Z. The video took two @-@ three weeks of preparation and one day to film in Los Angeles on Mount Olympus . The main set of the video was a house owned by a wealthy 95 @-@ year @-@ old man who allowed Knowles and Matsoukas to use his house and collectible cars for the video shoot . During an interview with USA Today on January 28 , 2010 , Knowles announced that she would be taking a break from her music career saying " to live life , to be inspired by things again " . She was then inspired to shoot a music video for the bonus track . In an interview with People magazine in August 2010 , Knowles explained : " I came up with the concept for that video because lately I decided to take a break , and I ’ ve been home , being a wife . I figured it could be nice to give a little wink toward the things that I ’ ve been doing , so that ’ s why I ’ m a housewife in the video . " However , she explained that the video is " an exaggerated , over @-@ the @-@ top version " of what she was doing right then , just living her life , being a woman at home , relaxing and trying to enjoy her life other than performing and creating music . For instance , dusting off her Grammys and getting under the hood of a car while wearing six @-@ inch heels are not regular occurrences for Knowles .
= = = Release = = =
" Why Don 't You Love Me " is the ninth video to be lifted from Knowles ' I Am ... Sasha Fierce era . On May 1 , 2010 , a forty @-@ second clip starring Knowles as B.B. Homemaker , was posted on Vimeo . In the sneak peek , she is seen wearing an unbuttoned blue shirt with a pair of short denim shorts and a red handkerchief on her headwears while trying to fix a broken @-@ car . The complete video premiered on May 4 , 2010 , and it is nearly five minutes long . The music video was officially released to iTunes Stores in the United States on May 18 , 2010 , two weeks after its original premiere . In May 2010 , the media reported that Knowles ' decision to release one more video from her album I Am ... Sasha Fierce just before Kelly Rowland released " Commander " was unfair on Rowland . These claims would be denied by Rowland who said that despite the clip for " Why Don 't You Love Me " airing several days before " Commander " , the media was " making too much of a big deal of release schedules and trying to create a feud where it doesn 't exist . " She also told Hip Hop Hollywood :
" We all came out at the same time and it really doesn 't matter ... I think there 's room for everybody ... There 's B [ eyoncé ] , there 's Ciara putting something out and [ Lady ] GaGa putting something out , but , because we started out together , people are going to say things like that . But I really don 't care , I love her [ un ] til our dying days and that 's all that counts .
= = = Synopsis and analysis = = =
The video begins with a tribute and sample of the opening credits of Leave It to Beaver which is overdubbed to introduce Knowles as " B.B. Homemaker " in a Daisy Dukes style outfit . The song begins once she goes inside a house and brings along a board saying " Why Don 't You Love Me " . Throughout the video , Knowles is seen crying , with mascara running down her cheeks while talking on the phone to her love interest , drinking a dry martini and smoking a cigarette . This projects an image of Beyoncé paying homage to Bettie Page just as she did in the music videos for " Telephone " and " Video Phone " , where she collaborated with Lady Gaga . In this scene , Knowles impersonates Betty Draper . According to Melanie Bertoldi of Billboard magazine , Knowles contends to her deadbeat lover while sipping a cocktail and French @-@ inhaling a cigarette in the music video . The fantasy @-@ laden imagery hardly ends there though , as it is followed by shots of sequences of Beyoncé gardening , washing dishes , scrubbing floors , and baking cookies . Rap @-@ Up commented on what happens in the video , saying that she is also reading during some scenes , in which she sings " Keep my head in them books , I 'm sharp ... " In the middle of the video , Knowles dusts off her mantlepiece , which is covered by her 16 Grammy awards she earned when she was with Destiny 's Child and after the debut of her solo career . The video closes on her falling to the floor after hanging up the phone and finishing her martini , and says the final word " ... dumb ! " in a scene in which she is dressed in a dominatrix @-@ type outfit while holding a whip .
= = = Reception = = =
The music video received general acclaim from critics . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times described the video as one of Knowles ' best and most vivid . Brad Wete of Entertainment Weekly described Knowles as " one hot housewife in the [ Why Don 't You Love Me ] video " . This was echoed by Tray Hova of Vibe magazine who stated that " Beyoncé makes a mighty fine housewife " . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News said that she did her best impersonation of Betty Draper . The Music Network complimented the production of the video while simultaneously making reference to Christina Aguilera and criticising the latter for her new video for her single " Not Myself Tonight " , writing : " ... housework has never looked so good ... Proving you don 't have to wear bondage gear and a ball @-@ gag to be sexy ( hello Christina ! ) , the [ 19 ] 50s @-@ style video sees the R & B queen [ Knowles ] getting dirty in a different way : dusting her Grammys , watering the plants and scrubbing the shower in vintage lingerie ... She can come over to our house anytime . " Melanie Bertoldi of Billboard magazine commented on Knowles ' " dominatrix costume " at the end to Rihanna 's Rated R era . She finally complimented the music video by saying that " Beyoncé 's shamelessly campy performance — complete with boatloads of running mascara — is generously refreshing . " Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy noted that the video was " kind of a tour de force " and compared it with the one for " Telephone " ( 2010 ) . He also noted that it showed " Beyoncé on the edge of a nervous breakdown . "
Amy Odell of New York magazine praised the video and noted that " the crazy twitchy behavior she exhibited in ' Telephone ' returns to much delight , but with a wardrobe that 's pure housewife instead of cold @-@ blooded drag @-@ queen murderer . " Odell also praised the playsuits in the video , which according to here were " a classier , more mature version of ' tards . " In another review , Odell concluded " It would be easy to credit the look of Beyoncé 's new video to Lady Gaga 's influence . " Francesca Stabile of The Village Voice gave a positive review for the video , writing , " The retro @-@ glam outfits , the oversized martini glass , the rolling around on the bed sobbing with eye makeup running down her face ... this is our favorite Bey [ oncé ] video ever . No one else can make doing household chores ( dusting Grammys ! ) simultaneously look this good and this sad . " Gordon Smart of The Sun praised Knowles ' " strong look " completed by lumberjack shirt , bandana and denim hotpants in the video further comparing it with Amy Winehouse 's . Daniel Kreps of Rolling Stone magazine described the video as a " Douglas Sirk film through the eyes of David LaChapelle " and noted that several scenes looked like Knowles was being photographed for Vogue magazine on the set of The Brady Bunch . He concluded that " If Beyoncé was lobbying for a temptress role on Mad Men , ' Why Don 't You Love Me , ' ... would make the perfect audition reel . "
= = = Recognition = = =
Becky Bain of Idolator described Knowles as " adorable and funny " in the nostalgic , 60s @-@ inspired video for " Why Don 't You Love Me " . She also said that her retro @-@ style is " supercute " and charming . On August 3 , 2010 , Bain claimed that " Why Don 't You Love Me " is one of the videos that should have been nominated for Video of the Year at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , and she later said on September 8 , 2010 , that the clip for " Why Don 't You Love Me " should have been nominated instead that of " Video Phone " , in the category for Best Female Video at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards . " Why Don 't You Love Me " also made number nine in Rap @-@ Up 's Best Videos of 2010 . In February 2012 , Kat George of VH1 placed the video at number one on her list of " The 6 Best Sets of Devastated Raccoon Eyes in Music Video History " , writing , " Beyoncé wins best panda eyes on the strength of melodrama ... and because she looks really hot in vintage style lingerie . Clearly tortured , Beyoncé 's panda eyes are paired with martinis , cigarettes , and just the right amount of crazy to make the whole thing unbearably sexy . " In 2013 , John Boone and Jennifer Cady of E ! Online placed the video at number three on their list of Knowles ' ten best music videos , writing , " It 's like a trip back in time . Except with sexier outfits , which were definitely missing from the ' 60s . So good call , Beyoncé ! You can even upgrade history ! " . In January 2010 , the video garnered a nomination in the category of Outstanding Music Video at the 42nd NAACP Image Award .
= = = Lawsuit = = =
Philip Markowitz , a neighbor of the man on whose property the video was filmed , filed a lawsuit on May 28 , 2010 , in Los Angeles seeking $ 25 @,@ 000 . He sued Knowles , the companies " Klener & Company " and " Bags and Boards " , and Dina Ciccotello , for the video shoot for " Why Don 't You Love Me " . Markowitz complained that during the morning , every time he tried leaving his house , the crew was blocking his driveway . Markowitz claims that he " missed several business calls while arguing calmly in his driveway " . According to him : " [ He ] demanded compensation for the trespass on his property and the inconvenience and delay he had already suffered . " The case was later dismissed by a superior court judge in September .
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé performed " Why Don 't You Love Me " live for the first time the 2011 Glastonbury Festival on June 26 , 2011 . During the performance she danced with her male backup dancers and the official video of the song was played on a screen behind them . Later , in May 2012 , Beyoncé performed a funky version of the song as a part of her revue show Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live in Atlantic City , New Jersey at Revel . While reviewing the show , Ben Ratliff of The New York Times wrote : " Then she makes some of the most thorough and gold @-@ plated declarations of self @-@ worth ever rendered in pop . ' There ’ s nothing not to love about me , ' she sang ... without needing to make a joke out of it . " Maura Johnston of The Village Voice was also positive about the performance of the song , saying , " Live , she threw herself into the track , from tsk @-@ tsk @-@ tsk opening to impassioned ending ; after that , the song 's frenetic beat got transformed into an extended outro that showcased her band 's prowess in such a convincing way , she took off her shoes to dance along with it . " " Why Don 't You Love Me " was included in the set list of Beyoncé 's The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour ( 2013 @-@ 2014 ) .
The song was performed during Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z 's co @-@ headlining On the Run Tour ( 2014 ) . Throughout the performance of the song , Beyoncé stopped performing several times watching the crowd while fans were blowing her hair . Rebecca Thomas of the MTV News felt that the performance of the song " seemed to reopen old wounds " . Kat Bein from the Miami New Times described the performance as one of the most dramatic moments of the concert further hailing it as " one of the rawest things we 've ever seen at a stadium show " .
= = Use in visual media and Grace Potter 's cover = =
In her second commercial for HDTV manufacturer Vizio , Knowles is shown battling herself for a guy 's attention . The mini video was set to " Why Don 't You Love Me " and it was directed by Jake Nava , who previously directed music videos for Knowles ' " Crazy in Love " ( 2003 ) and " Single Ladies " ( 2008 ) amongst others . Knowles explained the concept of the commercial to Rap @-@ Up , " The concept today is basically someone 's watching the television and I 've decided to step in their living room and perform especially for them . The TV looks so wonderful , they 're ignoring me so I 'm stepping it up and I 'm trying to perform harder and it doesn 't matter , the TV is better . " The spot premiered on Thanksgiving Day on November 24 , 2010 . A writer of Rap @-@ Up commented that Knowles " [ brought ] her alter ego Sasha Fierce back from the dead " , and that she faces her " toughest competition yet — herself . "
In late April 2011 , Grace Potter from the American rock band Grace Potter and the Nocturnals sang a rootsy acoustic rendition of " Why Don 't You Love Me " along with strategic handclaps and drummer Matthew Burr 's backbeat . Potter said that choosing to cover " Why Don 't You Love Me " was easy because she is " big @-@ voiced " . She elaborated : " As I was watching the video , I was watching for the visual candy . Then I slowly began falling in love with the song . " Jessica Letkemann of Billboard magazine complimented the cover , writing : " [ the band ] may usually rock with a 60s feel while Texas @-@ born Beyoncé is a queen of R & B , but one thing the two women undoubtedly have in common is an amazing set of pipes . "
= = Formats and track listings = =
German Digital Single
" Why Don 't You Love Me " – 3 : 37
" Why Don 't You Love Me " ( Jump Smokers Club Remix ) – 3 : 57
German Digital EP
" Why Don 't You Love Me " – 3 : 37
" Why Don 't You Love Me " ( Jump Smokers Club Remix ) – 3 : 57
" Why Don 't You Love Me " ( Video ) – 4 : 50
UK Digital Remixes
" Why Don 't You Love Me " ( MK Ultras Remix – Radio Edit ) – 3 : 34
" Why Don 't You Love Me " ( Starsmith Remix – Radio Edit ) – 3 : 33
= = Personnel = =
Credits are taken from I Am ... Sasha Fierce 's liner notes .
Vocals – Beyoncé Knowles
Producers and recorded by – Bama Boyz , Beyoncé Knowles
Vocal production – Beyoncé Knowles
Writers – Beyoncé Knowles , Solange Knowles , Angela Beyince , Eddie Smith III , Jesse Rankins and Jonathan Wells
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Aage Bohr =
Aage Niels Bohr ( Danish : [ ˈɔːʊ ̯ ə ˌnels ˈboɐ ̯ ˀ ] ; 19 June 1922 – 9 September 2009 ) was a Danish nuclear physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1975 with Ben Mottelson and James Rainwater " for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection " . Starting from Rainwater 's concept of an irregular @-@ shaped liquid drop model of the nucleus , Bohr and Mottelson developed a detailed theory that was in close agreement with experiments . Since his father , Niels Bohr , had won the prize in 1922 , he and his father were one of the six pairs of fathers and sons who have both won the Nobel Prize and one of the four pairs who have both won the Nobel Prize in Physics .
= = Early life = =
Aage Niels Bohr was born in Copenhagen on 19 June 1922 , the fourth of six sons of the physicist Niels Bohr and his wife Margrethe Bohr ( née Nørlund ) . His oldest brother , Christian , died in a boating accident in 1934 , and his youngest , Harald , from childhood meningitis . Of the others , Hans became a physician ; Erik , a chemical engineer ; and Ernest , a lawyer and an Olympic athlete who played field hockey for Denmark at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London . The family lived at the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen , now known as the Niels Bohr Institute , where he grew up surrounded by physicists who were working with his father , such as Hans Kramers , Oskar Klein , Yoshio Nishina , Wolfgang Pauli and Werner Heisenberg . In 1932 , the family moved to the Carlsberg Æresbolig , a mansion donated by Carl Jacobsen , the heir to Carlsberg breweries , to be used as an honorary residence by the Dane who had made the most prominent contribution to science , literature or the arts .
Bohr went to high school at Sortedam Gymnasium in Copenhagen . In 1940 , shortly after the German occupation of Denmark in April , he entered the University of Copenhagen , where he studied physics . He assisted his father , helping draft correspondence and articles related to epistemology and physics . In September 1943 , word reached his family that the Nazis considered them to be Jewish , because Aage 's grandmother , Ellen Adler Bohr , had been Jewish , and that they therefore were in danger of being arrested . The Danish resistance helped the family escape by sea to Sweden . Bohr arrived there in October 1943 , and then flew to Britain on a de Havilland Mosquito operated by British Overseas Airways Corporation . The Mosquitoes were unarmed high @-@ speed bomber aircraft that had been converted to carry small , valuable cargoes or important passengers . By flying at high speed and high altitude , they could cross German @-@ occupied Norway , and yet avoid German fighters . Bohr , equipped with parachute , flying suit and oxygen mask , spent the three @-@ hour flight lying on a mattress in the aircraft 's bomb bay .
On arrival in London , Bohr rejoined his father , who had flown to Britain the week before . He officially became a junior researcher at the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research , but actually served as personal assistant and secretary to his father . The two worked on Tube Alloys , the British atomic bomb project . On 30 December 1943 , they made the first of a number of visits to the United States , where his father was a consultant to the Manhattan Project . Due to his father 's fame , they were given false names ; Bohr became James Baker , and his father , Nicholas Baker . In 1945 , the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory , Robert Oppenheimer , asked them to review the design of the modulated neutron initiator . They reported that it would work . That they had reached this conclusion put Enrico Fermi 's concerns about the viability of the design to rest . The initiators performed flawlessly in the bombs used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 .
= = Physics = =
In August 1945 , with the war ended , Bohr returned to Denmark , where he resumed his university education , graduating with a master 's degree in 1946 , with a thesis concerned with some aspects of atomic stopping power problems . In early 1948 , Bohr became a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton , New Jersey . While paying a visit to Columbia University , he met Isidor Isaac Rabi , who sparked an interest in recent discoveries related to the hyperfine structure of deuterium . This led to Bohr becoming a visiting fellow at Columbia from January 1949 to August 1950 . While in the United States , Bohr married Marietta Soffer on 11 March 1950 . They had three children : Vilhelm , Tomas and Margrethe .
By the late 1940s it was known that the properties of atomic nuclei could not be explained by the then @-@ current models such as the liquid drop model developed by Niels Bohr amongst others . The shell model , developed in 1949 by Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer and others , allowed some additional features to be explained , in particular the so @-@ called magic numbers . However , there were also properties that could not be explained , including the non @-@ spherical distribution of charge in certain nuclei . In a 1950 paper , James Rainwater of Columbia University suggested a variant of the drop model of the nucleus that could explain a non @-@ spherical charge distribution . Rainwater 's model postulated a nucleus like a balloon with balls inside that distort the surface as they move about . He discussed the idea with Bohr , who was visiting Columbia at the time , and had independently conceived the same idea , and had , about a month after Rainwater 's submission , submitted for publication a paper that discussed the same problem , but along more general lines . Bohr imagined a rotating , irregular @-@ shaped nucleus with a form of surface tension . Bohr developed the idea further , in 1951 publishing a paper that comprehensively treated the relationship between oscillations of the surface of the nucleus and the movement of the individual nucleons .
Upon his return to Copenhagen in 1950 , Bohr began working with Ben Mottelson to compare the theoretical work with experimental data . In three papers , that were published in 1952 and 1953 , Bohr and Mottelson demonstrated close agreement between theory and experiment ; for example , showing that the energy levels of certain nuclei could be described by a rotation spectrum . They were thereby able to reconcile the shell model with Rainwater 's concept . This work stimulated many new theoretical and experimental studies . Bohr , Mottelson and Rainwater were jointly awarded the 1975 Nobel Prize in Physics " for the discovery of the connection between collective motion and particle motion in atomic nuclei and the development of the theory of the structure of the atomic nucleus based on this connection " . Because his father had been awarded the prize in 1922 , Bohr became one of only four pairs of fathers and sons to win the Nobel Prize in Physics . He married Marietta Soffer in 1950 . They had two sons , Vilhelm and Tomas , and a daughter , Margrethe .
Only after doing his Nobel Prize @-@ winning research did Bohr receive his doctorate from the University of Copenhagen , in 1954 , writing his thesis on " Rotational States of Atomic Nuclei " . Bohr became a professor at the University of Copenhagen in 1956 , and , following his father 's death in 1962 , succeeded him as director of the Niels Bohr Institute , a position he held until 1970 . He remained active there until he retired in 1992 . He was also a member of the board of the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics ( Nordita ) from its inception in 1957 , and was its director from 1975 to 1981 . In addition to the Nobel Prize , he won the Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics in 1960 , the Atoms for Peace Award in 1969 , H.C. Ørsted Medal in 1970 , Rutherford Medal and Prize in 1972 , John Price Wetherill Medal in 1974 , and the Ole Rømer medal in 1976 . Bohr and Mottelson continued to work together , publishing a two @-@ volume monograph , Nuclear Structure . The first volume , Single @-@ Particle Motion , appeared in 1969 ; the second , Nuclear Deformations , in 1975 .
In 1972 he was awarded an honorary degree , doctor philos. honoris causa , at the Norwegian Institute of Technology , later part of Norwegian University of Science and Technology .
His wife Marietta died on 2 October 1978 . In 1981 , he married Bente Scharff Meyer . His son , Tomas Bohr , is a Professor of Physics at the Technical University of Denmark , working in the area of fluid dynamics . Aage Bohr died in Copenhagen on 9 September 2009 . He was survived by his second wife and children .
= Running ( No Doubt song ) =
" Running " is a song written by Tony Kanal and Gwen Stefani for No Doubt 's fifth studio album Rock Steady ( 2001 ) and was released worldwide as the album 's fourth and final single on July 1 , 2003 . The song was also used on the last episode of the TV series Sabrina , the Teenage Witch in 2003 .
The song received mixed reviews from music critics and was compared to Depeche Mode @-@ style songs . The song only charted on the official charts of the United States , where it became the band 's lowest charting single , and in Germany , where it had longest charting period . The song was accompanied by a music video which was directed by Chris Hafner , which featured many old and new pictures as well as clippings of the band members .
= = Background = =
The song was written by Stefani and bassist Tony Kanal in Kanal 's living room . They used an old Yamaha keyboard that Kanal 's father had purchased for him when he was in eighth grade and developed the song 's harmony first and then wrote the lyrics . The band worked on the track to give it a " spacier sound " but were displeased with the result so they took the song to producer Nellee Hooper , who stripped Running down to the basics.The song was then produced by him , with whom Stefani collaborated again for her solo project two years later . Whatever the intent , the result was a track that resonated with catchy " Mario Bros. " background instrumentation throughout the entire song .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
Running received mixed reviews from music critics . Blender characterized the song as " twenty @-@ first @-@ century Blondie " and compared its synthesizers and restrained vocal to the work of Depeche Mode . Rolling Stone also made the comparison to Depeche Mode and compared the song 's " two @-@ finger synth riff " to the work of Yazoo and Erasure . PopMatters , however , stated that the song fell short and was more appropriate for " some Britney clone " . Stylus Magazine agreed , calling Running sophomoric , and commented that " this is the kind of song that makes Gwen so popular with the pre @-@ teen girlies . " Slant Magazine described the song as a " super @-@ polished Saturn leftover " , and Entertainment Weekly portrayed the song as a paean in which No Doubt performed inside a music box , remarking that " it could be a contender for the coolest wedding song ever . "
= = = Commercial = = =
Running was commercially unsuccessful in the United States , while the previous singles from the album reached the top 15 on the Billboard Hot 100 , The song debuted at number 62 and stayed there for two weeks and was unable to reach a higher position , becoming the band 's lowest charting single on the chart . It dropped off the chart after six weeks . The single was more successful in mainstream and adult contemporary markets , reaching number 20 on the Adult Top 40 and Top 40 Mainstream charts . It followed a similar charting pattern on the German Singles Chart where it debuted as well , peaking at number 55 before falling off the chart after seven weeks . " Running " was played heavily on the final episode of Sabrina the Teenage Witch .
= = Music video = =
The song was accompanied by a music video which was directed by Chris Hafner . The video opens with a scene of the band members walking on the beach in which Stefani is seen wearing a polka @-@ dot gown and the other members are seen in casual clothes . The scene is interrupted by various pictures of the band members in their early years with old pictures of Stefani in which she has her original brunette hair . The scene then again shifts to the beach where the band members are shown playing frisbee and are shown having fun while burying drummist Adrian Young in the beach sand . Later Stefani is shown sitting on a rock by the sea and singing to the camera . There are many other pictures of the band holding platinum and gold records and Adrian shown playing the guitar nude . There are also several clippings of the band making music in the recording studio and performing on stage during the Rock Steady Live Tour . The video ends with the band members running into the sea water .
= = Formats and track listing = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of Running .
German / U.S. CD single
" Running " ( album version ) – 4 : 02
" Hella Good " ( live ) – 5 : 41
" Underneath It All " ( live ) – 4 : 40
" Hey Baby " ( live ) – 3 : 44
= = Charts = =
= Coffin ray =
Hypnos monopterygius also known as the Coffin ray is a species of electric ray endemic to Australia , where it is common in inshore waters shallower than 80 m ( 260 ft ) . It is the sole member of its family Hypnidae . This small species typically reaches 40 cm ( 16 in ) in length . Greatly enlarged pectoral fins and an extremely short tail , coupled with diminutive dorsal and caudal fins all concentrated towards the rear , give the coffin ray a distinctive pear @-@ like shape . It is a varying shade of brown in color above , and has tiny eyes and a large , highly distensible mouth .
The sluggish and nocturnal coffin ray frequents sandy or muddy habitats , where it can bury itself during daytime . It can produce a powerful electric shock reaching 200 volts for attack and defense . This species is a voracious predator that feeds mainly on benthic bony fishes , often tackling fish approaching or exceeding itself in size . On occasion , it may also consume invertebrates and even small penguins and rats . Reproduction is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are nourished by yolk and maternally produced histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . The female gives birth to 4 – 8 pups during summer . The coffin ray can deliver a severe , albeit non @-@ fatal , shock to a human . Not valued commercially , it is very hardy and can usually survive being captured and discarded . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species under Least Concern , as its population does not seem threatened by human activity .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The first scientific reference to the coffin ray was written by English zoologist and botanist George Shaw to accompany Frederick Polydore Nodder 's illustrations of a beached fish , published in their 1795 work The Naturalist 's Miscellany . Shaw interpreted the specimen as a goosefish , calling it the " single @-@ finned Lophius " or Lophius monopterygius in Latin . Independently , French zoologist Auguste Duméril described a new electric ray in an 1852 volume of the journal Revue et Magasin de Zoologie , based on two specimens collected off New South Wales . He named it Hypnos subnigrum ; the genus name is derived from the Greek word for " sleep " , referring to the ray 's ability to induce numbness . Eventually , Gilbert Percy Whitley recognized that Nodder had illustrated the same species that Duméril had described , and thus the proper binomial name became Hypnos monopterygius . In 1902 , Edgar Ravenswood Waite proposed Hypnarce as a replacement name for Hypnos , which he believed was preoccupied by the butterfly genus Hypna . However , the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) does not seem to require the change , and thus Hypnarce is regarded as a junior synonym .
The common name " coffin ray " comes from the coffin @-@ like shape of beached specimens , which become bloated after death . This species may also be referred to as crampfish , electric ray , numbfish , numbie , short @-@ tail electric ray , or torpedo . Phylogenetic studies , based on morphology , have found that Hypnos is most closely related to the genus Torpedo . Hence , some taxonomists classify it with Torpedo in the family Torpedinidae ( in its own subfamily , Hypninae ) . On the other hand , there are also taxonomists who believe Hypnos to be distinctive enough to merit its own separate family , Hypnidae .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The coffin ray has a wide but disjunct distribution in tropical and warm @-@ temperate Australian waters . The western part of its range extends from Gulf St Vincent in South Australia to Broome in Western Australia , and the eastern part from Eden in New South Wales to Heron Island in Queensland . It does not occur off Victoria or Tasmania . This common , bottom @-@ dwelling species is typically found close to shore , no deeper than 80 m ( 260 ft ) , though it has been recorded from as deep as 240 m ( 790 ft ) . It favors habitats with sandy or muddy bottoms , including beaches , estuaries , and bays , and can also be found over seagrass as well as on and around rocky and coral reefs .
= = Description = =
The unusual pear @-@ like shape of the coffin ray distinguishes it from all other rays . Its body is flabby , with two large , kidney @-@ shaped electric organs visible on both sides of the head . The pectoral fins form a greatly enlarged disc about as wide as long , that is thick at the center and thin at the margins . The leading margin of the disc is straight to gently concave . The eyes are minute and can be elevated on short stalks . Close behind the eyes and slightly larger are the spiracles , which are rimmed by small papillae in some individuals . The nostrils are located just ahead of the mouth , and are connected to it by a pair of broad grooves . Between the nostrils is a short curtain of skin that overlaps the mouth . The capacious mouth forms a very long , wide arch ; the slender jaws can be distended dramatically , though are not particularly protrusible . Adults have over 60 rows of small teeth in either jaw ; each tooth has three long cusps . The five pairs of gill slits are small and placed beneath the disc .
The pelvic fins are relatively large and merged with the pectoral fin disc at the front to form a roughly circular secondary disc . The two dorsal fins are shaped like rounded lobes and are located very close to the caudal fin , which is of similar size with a nearly symmetrical , rounded margin . The tail is extremely short , such as that the caudal fin barely extends past the pelvic fin disc . The skin is entirely devoid of dermal denticles , and may be creased in areas . The dorsal coloration ranges from dark to reddish brown , to grayish , pinkish , or yellowish , and may be plain or sparsely patterned with irregular darker and lighter markings . The underside is pale , as are the spiracle papillae . This species grows to a length of 70 cm ( 28 in ) , or possibly even 92 cm ( 36 in ) , though most are only around 40 cm ( 16 in ) long .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The coffin ray is a slow and weak swimmer that moves forward with a jerky , fluttery motion . It is nocturnal and spends most of the day buried in sediment with only its spiracles showing . When disturbed , it has been observed performing a possible defense behavior , wherein it erupts from the bottom and swims in a loop with its mouth agape . This species is sometimes stranded on land by the ebbing tide , but can survive out of water for hours . Like in other electric rays , the coffin ray 's electric organs are derived from muscle tissue and consist of numerous vertical columns , each formed from a stack of jelly @-@ filled " electric plates " that essentially acts as a battery . It is capable of generating up to 200 volts of electricity and delivering 50 shocks over span of ten minutes , with each successive shock weakening . The coffin ray employs electricity both to subdue prey and deter predators .
The diet of the coffin ray consists mostly of benthic bony fishes , but also includes cephalopods and on occasion crustaceans and polychaete worms . Penguins and rats have also been recorded from the stomachs of this species . The coffin ray ambushes prey from the substrate , and swallows them whole head @-@ first before re @-@ burying . It often takes extremely large prey relative to its size ; one observed individual 60 cm ( 24 in ) long had swallowed a flathead ( Platycephalus sp . ) 70 cm ( 28 in ) long , and the tail of the prey fish was still protruding from its mouth . Dead specimens have been recovered that had apparently choked trying to swallow too @-@ large prey . The coffin ray is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are nourished by yolk , later supplemented by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) secreted by the mother . Females give birth to litters of 4 – 8 pups in summer ; the newborns measure approximately 8 – 11 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) long . Males and females both attain sexual maturity around 40 – 48 cm ( 16 – 19 in ) long . This species is known to be parasitized by the tapeworms Acanthobothrium angelae and Lacistorhynchus dollfusi , and the nematode Echinocephalus overstreeti .
= = Human interactions = =
When approached , the coffin ray tends to keep still in its place of concealment on the sea floor . As a result , many divers , swimmers , and bathers have been shocked after accidentally contacting it . While not life @-@ threatening , the shock can be quite severe . The shock can still be perceived by a person pouring a stream of seawater on the ray . The coffin ray has no economic value . In 1883 , Edward Pierson Ramsay noted that it was the only ray native to Port Jackson that was inedible . It is caught incidentally by commercial trawlers , but is hardy enough to usually be returned to the water alive . It is also caught in lobster traps and infrequently taken by spear fishers . As it remains common and widespread , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Least Concern . It has been kept in public aquariums , but requires moving food .
= The Fame =
The Fame is the debut studio album by American singer Lady Gaga . It was released on August 19 , 2008 through Interscope Records . After joining Kon Live Distribution and Cherrytree Records in 2008 , Gaga began working on the album with different producers , primarily RedOne , Martin Kierszenbaum and Rob Fusari . Musically , The Fame is a synthpop and dance @-@ pop album that has influences of pop music from the 1980s . Lyrically , the album visualizes Gaga 's love of fame in general while also dealing with subjects such as love , sex , money , drugs and sexual identity . Promotion was primarily through The Fame Ball Tour and multiple television appearances . The Fame was included as a bonus disc on the deluxe edition of the extended play , The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) .
The album received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who commended the album 's lyrical content and Gaga 's musicianship and vocal ability . The album was a commercial success , topping the charts in different countries worldwide , including the United Kingdom , Canada , Germany , Ireland , Poland and Switzerland . In the United States , it peaked at number two on the Billboard 200 , while topping the Dance / Electronic Albums chart for 106 non @-@ consecutive weeks . The Fame became the fifth best @-@ selling album of 2009 . It has sold 4 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States as of April 2016 and is the seventh best @-@ selling digital album in history . The album sold 15 million copies worldwide as of November 2010 .
The first two singles from The Fame — " Just Dance " and " Poker Face " — gained international success , topping the charts in several countries worldwide , including the United States , United Kingdom and Australia . Subsequent single " LoveGame " and " Paparazzi " , were commercial successes as well , charting within the top ten of more than ten countries worldwide . " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " had a limited release , while " Beautiful , Dirty , Rich " was a promotional single .
The Fame has won multiple awards since its release . It was nominated for a total of five Grammy Awards at the 52nd Grammy Awards , including the Grammy Award for Album of the Year . It won the Grammy Award for Best Electronic / Dance Album and the Best Dance Recording for the single " Poker Face " . It also won Best International Album at the 2010 BRIT Awards . In 2013 , Rolling Stone named The Fame as one of the " 100 Greatest Debut Albums of All @-@ Time " .
= = Background and development = =
While establishing herself as an artist and working her way up through the New York underground club scene , Gaga released her debut studio album , The Fame . Speaking about the title and concept of the album , Gaga explained : " The Fame is about how anyone can feel famous . [ ... ] Pop culture is art . It doesn 't make you cool to hate pop culture , so I embraced it and you hear it all over The Fame . But , it 's a sharable fame . I want to invite you all to the party . I want people to feel a part of this lifestyle . " Gaga stated in an interview with MTV UK that she had been working on the album for two and a half years and completed half of it during the first week of January 2008 . As well as writing the lyrics , Gaga worked on the melodies and synth work of the album , with record producer RedOne . According to Gaga , the first track " Just Dance " is a joyous , heart @-@ themed song , which appeals to people going through tough times in their life . " LoveGame " , the second track , was inspired by Gaga 's sexual crush on a stranger in a night club to whom she said , " I wanna ride on your disco stick " . It was written in four minutes based on the disco stick hook . " Paparazzi " has been interpreted with different meanings . However Gaga explained in an interview with About.com , that the song was inspired by her struggles and hunger for fame and love . Essentially a love song , " Paparazzi " dealt with enticing the media and asked the question , whether one can have both fame and love .
" Poker Face " was inspired by Gaga 's boyfriends who enjoyed gambling , and also dealt with her personal experience of bisexuality ; her fantasies about women while having sex with men , thus representing her ' poker face ' . " " Boys , Boys , Boys " was inspired by the similarly titled Mötley Crüe song " Girls , Girls , Girls " . Gaga explained that she wanted a female version of the song that rockers would like too . " Beautiful , Dirty , Rich " summed up her time of self @-@ discovery , living in the Lower East Side and dabbling in drugs and the party scene . " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " was about breaking up with a boyfriend and finding someone new . " Brown Eyes " was inspired by the British rock band Queen and , according to Gaga , is the most vulnerable song on the album .
Gaga further clarified the ideas behind The Fame , and her inspirations and visions for the album . She believed that the most important thing missing from contemporary pop music was the combination of the visual imagery of the artist with the music . Gaga incorporated theatrics in her live performances of the songs from the album . Hence she hoped that people would take notice of the performance art , which she was trying to bring back with the album and its music ; according to her , the music put the lifestyle in front of it .
" I just feel like this record is really different- you [ ' ] ve got club bangers to more 70s glam to more singer @-@ songwriter records to rock music . [ ... ] The Fame is not about who you are — it 's about how everybody wants to know who you are ! Buy it and listen to it before you go out or in the car . [ ... ] I think you 've really got to allow artists ' creativity to marinate . It took me a while but really delving into myself I finally got it . I couldn 't be more proud of it . It 's not just a record [ , ] it 's a whole pop art movement [ . ] It 's not just about one song . "
= = Composition = =
Musically , the album drew influences from late 1970s glam rock musicians such as David Bowie and Queen . Gaga incorporated their glam @-@ rock sound while devising catchy pop melodies and hooks to create what she has dubbed , " theatrical pop " . Songs like " Poker Face " , " Just Dance " and " LoveGame " are uptempo dance songs , with " Poker Face " carrying a dark sound with clear vocals on the chorus and a pop hook . " Just Dance " is synth @-@ based while " LoveGame " has a more dance @-@ oriented beat , and " Money Honey " has a moderate techno groove . All of them combined synths of clipped marching beats , sawing electronics and contained mild R & B @-@ infused beats . " Paparazzi " carried a sultry beat while " Summerboy " had influences of the music of Blondie . " Eh , Eh
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has sponsored nearly 1 @,@ 000 students for admission to medical school since it was started in 1979 – 80 , and more than 845 were accepted . This 85 % success rate far exceeds the national acceptance rate of 35 % .
Students who successfully complete the pre @-@ medical program are eligible for sponsorship through the program and a committee letter of support in their applications to medical school .
= = = Distance education = = =
= = = = History = = = =
Harvard Extension was a pioneer in distance education . Beginning on December 5 , 1949 , courses were offered on the Lowell Institute 's new radio station . New Englanders could go to college six nights a week at 7 : 30 in their living rooms simply by tuning into courses on psychology , world history , and economics . The first course on radio was by Peter A. Bertocci of Boston University . For 30 years he taught Extension courses , with never fewer than 100 students . He often taught over 300 students per course and once had over 400 . Over the years Bertocci had at least 7 @,@ 000 Extension students , " surely a record in the annals of Extension at Harvard . "
The radio courses proved to be so successful that when the television station WGBH went on the air in October 1951 they began broadcasting an Extension class every weekday at 3 : 30 and 7 : 30 . The first course , offered by Robert G. Albion , was on European Imperialism on Monday and Thursday evenings . In the late 1960s , three of the televised courses were offered in the Deer Island Prison . Students who watched the courses on television could attend six " conferences " and take a mid @-@ term and a final exam at Harvard in order to gain credit for the class .
= = = = Modern = = = =
As of 2014 , distance @-@ learning courses at Harvard Extension School are offered in two formats : asynchronous video courses ( lectures are recorded and uploaded within 24 hours of on @-@ campus class meetings ) ; and live web @-@ conference courses ( courses are streamed live , and typically allow for synchronous participation from students via a secondary online platform ) .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
The Dean 's Prize for Outstanding Master of Liberal Arts thesis is awarded during commencement ceremonies , and includes a medal , a certificate , and a monetary award . It is awarded to a student whose graduate thesis " embodies the highest level of imaginative scholarship . " In addition to the Dean 's Prize for Outstanding ALM Thesis , there are several other academic prizes :
The Academy of American Poets is awarded to an ALB candidate or an undergraduate student at the college for the best poem or group of poems .
The Santo J. Aurelio Prize , named for Santo J. Aurelio , ALB ' 83 , ALM ' 85 , is awarded annually on the basis of " academic achievement and character . " It is normally given to Extension School undergraduate degree recipients who — as did Mr. Aurelio — complete their academic work with distinction after age 50 .
The Derek Bok Public Service Prizes are awards presented at Commencement . They consist of a cash prize along with a citation and a medal given to two graduating Extension School students . The award recognizes creative initiatives in community service or long @-@ standing records of civic achievement .
The Commencement Speaker Prize is awarded to either an ALB or ALM graduate who delivers the student Commencement speech at the Extension School diploma awarding ceremony .
The Annamae and Allan R. Crite prizes are awarded for a mother and son who are Extension School alumni . Annamae faithfully attended Extension courses for more than 50 years . Allan , who is widely recognized as the dean of African @-@ American artists in the Greater Boston area , received a bachelor 's degree in 1968 . The prize is awarded to Extension School degree recipients who demonstrate " singular dedication to learning and the arts " .
The Klein Family History Prize recognizes the thesis in the field of history that represents superior achievement in historical scholarship .
The Harold Langlois Award recognizes a Certificate of Special Studies graduate who has demonstrated exceptional academic accomplishment and promise as a manager . It was established in 2003 .
The Patrick Lee Award in Drama is an annual award given to the student who shows the best promise in the field of dramatic arts .
The Reginald H. Phelps Prize , named for the former dean , is awarded annually on the basis of " academic achievement and character " to outstanding graduating students receiving bachelor 's degrees .
The Emanuel and Lilly Shinagel prize , named in honor of Dean Michael Shinagel in honor of his parents , supports deserving and needy students in the Extension School 's Institute for English Language Programs . The prizes are awarded by the Institute for English Language . The Programs to outstanding students based on an essay writing contest .
The John Osborne Sargent Prize for a Latin Translation is offered for the best metrical translation [ students may choose meter ] of a lyric poem of Horace , to be selected each year by the Department of the Classics . In addition to ALB candidates , it is also open to undergraduates at the College and visiting undergraduate sunder the Faculty of Arts and Sciences .
The Thomas Small Prize is named for a Lithuanian immigrant who , at the age of 89 , became the oldest earned graduate degree recipient in the history of Harvard University . Two prizes are awarded annually on the basis " academic achievement and character " to two outstanding Master of Liberal Arts in Extension Studies degree recipients .
The Judith Wood Memorial Prizes are awarded during Commencement Week to Harvard Extension School students who , while compiling honors academic records at the School , also contended with disabilities of a serious nature . It was established in honor of a blind Extension Student student who had cystic fibrosis and diabetes to recognize students who must travel a singularly difficult path to degree or certificate completion .
The Katie Y. F. Yang Prize Fund was established to promote East Asian culture , grant scholarships to exceptional students , and provide charitable assistance to those in need . Mrs. Yang was a leading Chinese opera singer under the stage name Fong Yim Fun . Her daughter , Simmone Yang , received her Certificate of Special Studies ( CSS ) from the Extension School . The purpose of the Prize is " to recognize the initiative , character , and outstanding academic achievement of foreign students graduating from the CSS Program " in the Extension School . The award is generally given to the foreign student with the highest academic standing in the CSS program .
= = Academic degrees = =
Extension offers open enrollment courses , but its degree programs are not " open admission " . Students are " presumed capable " but then must " prove that presumption with actual performance . " The " democratic admissions policy for its degree programs ... is based on proof that a student is capable of Harvard @-@ level work , giving degree and certificate candidates the chance to prove themselves . " The " most relevant predictor " of success for students is a students ' " ability to do honors @-@ level work at Harvard . "
ALB students may graduate with the Latin honors , cum laude , but magna- and summa- cum laude are not offered . ALM students may , upon graduation , be included in the ALM Dean 's list for Academic achievement , based on strict GPA requirements .
Students who wish to earn degrees must be formally admitted to the Extension School by the Admissions Committee . Admitted degree candidates are granted full privileges to Harvard 's libraries , facilities , student resources , as well as access to Harvard 's museums and academic workshops .
An Extension School professor asserts that undergraduate HES students " are brilliantly milking the cow of Harvard University , " as they " get a very similar experience and then have the Harvard name on [ their ] résumé . " A professor at both the Extension School and Harvard College has opined that the open enrolment system " ' give [ s ] a lot ' to the institution by permitting an atmosphere of valuable diversity that does not exist at any of Harvard 's other schools . "
= = = Bachelor of Liberal Arts = = =
Undergraduate degree programs are based upon the curriculum for Harvard College students ; degree requirements include expository writing , quantitative reasoning , foreign language , moral reasoning , writing @-@ intensive classes , and courses in the student 's area of concentration . The expository writing class is known as a " gatekeeper course " as it will typically " determine whether [ students ] are prepared for the intensive and demanding curriculum . "
Once admitted as an ALB degree candidate , students must successfully complete 128 credits ( Harvard courses are typically 4 credits each ) and maintain good academic standing ( 3 @.@ 0 GPA ) to meet graduation requirements . Upon admission into the ALB program , students may petition to transfer up to a maximum of 64 credits from other accredited post @-@ secondary institutions , but 64 credits must be completed at Harvard University ( Extension School , Summer School , or the Faculty of Arts and Sciences ) . Students must also select one of three ' areas of concentration ' including : Sciences ; Social Sciences ; or Humanities . Students must earn 40 credits with at least a B – in their areas of concentration .
ALB degree candidates are also required to complete a minimum of 16 on @-@ campus @-@ only credits at Harvard ; students must also complete a minimum of 12 credits in " Writing intensive " courses , and earn a minimum of 52 credits in courses that are taught by Harvard instructors . In addition to a concentration , degree candidates have the option to pursue one of twenty ' Fields of study ' , ( akin to a traditional major ) . In order to successfully complete a field of study , students must earn a B – or higher in 32 Harvard credits in one field , and maintain a B average in the field . Students may also complement their field of study with a maximum of one liberal arts minor .
= = = = Undergraduate admissions = = = =
Undergraduate degree programs require pre @-@ admission courses as well as a formal application process . Students applying for degree candidacy must first complete three 4 @-@ credit liberal arts courses at Harvard ( Extension School , Summer School , or the Faculty of Arts and Sciences ) with at least a B grade in each , and maintain a minimum 3 @.@ 0 cumulative GPA . One of these three pre @-@ admission courses must be EXPO E @-@ 25 , the equivalent of Harvard College 's mandatory and " notoriously difficult " expository writing course . To enroll in this course , students must pass a placement test , which measures critical reading and writing skills . Students failing to earn at least a B in a class can retake it once . Students who meet all these criteria are then eligible for admission in the Extension School 's undergraduate degree programs .
= = = Master of Liberal Arts = = =
The Master of Liberal Arts in Extension Studies ( ALM ) includes 19 liberal arts fields of study and seven professional degree programs ( Biotechnology , Information Technology , Journalism , Management , Mathematics for Teaching , Museum Studies , & Sustainability and Environmental Management ) . ALM candidates must complete 10 to 12 courses including a thesis or capstone project depending on their degree program , which must be crafted under the direction of an instructor or Harvard faculty member holding a teaching appointment in the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences .
= = = = Graduate admissions = = = =
Generally , admission into a graduate degree program at Harvard Extension School requires a minimum of an accredited bachelor 's degree ( or foreign equivalent ) , as well as completion of three pre @-@ admission courses with grades of B or higher and a minimum of 3 @.@ 0 overall GPA . One of the three pre @-@ admission courses must be the " Proseminar " course for the intended area of study , which is akin to a traditional research methods course , and prior to registering for a proseminar students must pass a qualification test to assess graduate @-@ level critical reading and writing skills . Certain disciplines have other specified pre @-@ admission coursework , while some have specific coursework that is required before submitting a master 's thesis proposal ( e.g. biology and psychology fields must take a specific graduate statistics course ) . Students who meet these criteria are then eligible to submit an application for admission into the graduate degree programs .
Once a student has met the three course requirement , he or she is then eligible to formally apply to the ALM program . Typically applicants must submit a completed application , proof of an accredited bachelor 's degree ( or foreign equivalent ) plus transcripts , resume , two essays , and a nonrefundable application fee . Some programs require additional specific classes to be part of the initial three before formal admission . Students will be denied admission indefinitely if they fail to earn a grade of B after twice enrolling in the Proseminar course .
Some programs have additional requirements , including specific pre @-@ admission courses and supplemental application materials . For instance , the Literature and Creative writing candidates must submit original manuscripts .
= = Student life = =
Beginning in the 1960s , the university began providing additional facilities for Extension students . Study spaces , conferences rooms , library facilities , and a dining hall were set up in Lehman Hall for students in 1964 . In addition , there was a television lounge were students could watch the WGBH programs .
Today , admitted degree candidates are granted access to Harvard 's athletic facilities , dining services , on and off campus apartment housing , career services and student life organizations . Students have " nearly unfettered access to some of Harvard 's most prized resources — world @-@ renowned libraries , a distinguished faculty , and an impressive body of speakers . "
ALB candidates are eligible for membership in the Harvard Extension Student Association ( HESA ) . Established in 2001 , the HESA 's mission is to build and maintain a sense of community among Extension students . In partnership with many other organizations on campus , HESA provides a variety of social activities , educational events , and forums that enrich student life and experience . All degree and diploma candidates in good standing at Harvard Extension School are voting members of HESA . Alpha Sigma Lambda , a national honors society for nontraditional students , established the Phi Beta chapter in 2002 – 03 . The Harvard Extension School Pre @-@ Health Society offers advising , events , and networking for students who wish to go to medical school or to pursue a career in the health care industry .
President Faust said that " the Extension School is a critical part of the University " and " students increasingly should come to see themselves as full @-@ fledged members of not just an individual school but Harvard as a university . "
= = Student demographics = =
The graduating class of 2016 , the largest class to date , had 801 students receiving degrees . Of them , the youngest was 16 and the oldest was 70 with an average age of 36 . They were nearly equally split between the genders , with 52 % being male , and came from 36 countries and 42 states .
In 2000 there were 14 @,@ 216 students , with the youngest in their early teens and the oldest in their late 80s . There is often a span of 60 years between the oldest and youngest students , and students as young as 11 years old have taken courses alongside those old enough to be their parents or grandparents . Of the students enrolled at the turn of the century , 75 % had a bachelor 's degree , and 20 % had a graduate degree . More than 1 @,@ 700 were staff members using the Tuition Assistance Program , and an estimated 10 % -15 % were exclusively online students . Of the 255 Certificate of Special Studies graduates that year , 163 were international students hailing from 39 countries .
In the early 2000s there were 208 students under the age of 18 . Most attended local high schools , but a growing number of them were home @-@ schooled . Professor Paul Bamberg taught a class with both Extension and Harvard College students , and the top two students were from the Extension School , with the top student being a home @-@ schooled teenager .
Harvard Extension School accepts international students . To be admitted to courses or degrees , a student must prove proficiency in the English language . If English is not a student 's native language then he or she must submit an official TOEFL or IELTS score with a minimum score of 100 for the TOEFL or a minimum score of 7 @.@ 0 for the IELTS . International students must also meet the on @-@ campus @-@ only course requirements as outlined above . The Extension School does not issue I @-@ 20s for the F @-@ 1 visa but the Summer School does . In 2007 – 08 , more than 2 @,@ 500 international students and nearly 2 @,@ 000 Harvard University employees were enrolled in classes . In 2013 , students came from 118 countries and 46 states .
= = Alumni = =
Upon graduation , students are eligible for membership in the Harvard Alumni Association ( HAA ) and the Harvard Extension Alumni Association ( HEAA ) . Graduates also take part in the commencement ceremonies with all other schools of Harvard .
The HEAA was founded in 1967 – 68 by Ella Smith and Edgar Grossman , both members of the class of 1966 . Extension School alumni have been admitted to all of the graduate schools at Harvard .
= = = Notable alumni = = =
Both the oldest and youngest graduates in the more than 375 @-@ year history of Harvard University received their degrees from the Extension School . In 1997 Mary Fasano became the oldest undergraduate degree recipient , and in 1983 Thomas Small became the oldest student to ever earn a master 's degree . Both were in their 90th year . The youngest degree earner in Harvard history was 18 @-@ year @-@ old Amit Chatterjee who earned an ALB in 2002 .
One of Small 's classmates , Christopher Lohse , was selected to give the graduate commencement address . His speech , " The 10 @,@ 000 Ghosts of Harvard " , was a play on both the university 's fight song and the fact that classes are taught after dark . In 1989 another ALM graduate gave the commencement address . Joseph R. Paolino , Jr. began his studies as a Providence city councilor , and at the time of his speech he was the Mayor of Providence . He went on to become Ambassador to Malta .
In 1936 , one person had taken courses for 26 consecutive years . Two others that same year had been students for 24 years .
= = Coat of arms = =
The coat of arms for the Extension School was approved in 1983 . At the top of the shield the three books spelling out Veritas ( Latin for " truth " ) represent graduate education , as the same device is found on the arms of the other graduate schools . Instead of a straight line separating it from the rest of the shield , as is found in the other schools , a line with six arcs pointing up was used instead . A silver chevron was used to represent undergraduate education , a device used in the shield of Harvard College in the 17th to 19th centuries . Two bushels of wheat are included to represent John Lowell 's stipulation that courses should not cost more than two bushels of wheat . A golden lamp is included to represent both learning and the fact that classes are taught at night .
= Roy Conacher =
Roy Gordon Conacher ( October 5 , 1916 – December 29 , 1984 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger who played 11 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Boston Bruins , Detroit Red Wings and Chicago Black Hawks . He was the NHL 's leading goal @-@ scorer in 1938 – 39 , his first season in the league . Conacher was a member of two Stanley Cup winning teams with the Bruins and scored the championship winning goal in 1939 . He won the Art Ross Trophy in 1948 – 49 season as the NHL 's leading point scorer and was named a first team All @-@ Star .
Conacher was a member of the Memorial Cup winning West Toronto Nationals in 1935 as Canadian junior champions and was a member of the Ontario Hockey Association senior champion Toronto Dominions in 1937 . Playing in the shadow of his more famous brothers Charlie and Lionel , Roy was known as the " forgotten Conacher " . He was posthumously inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1998 , following his brothers to become the only trio of siblings so enshrined .
= = Early life = =
Roy Conacher was born October 5 , 1916 , along with his twin brother Bert . They were the youngest children to Benjamin and Elizabeth Conacher and two of ten siblings : five boys and five girls . The family grew up in the Toronto neighourhood of Davenport , which his brother Charlie described as " one of Toronto 's higher class slums " . His father was a teamster , and struggled to earn enough money to support the family . In the winter , he ploughed the snow off outdoor skating rinks to earn additional money .
All ten children were encouraged to participate in sports by the principal of Jesse Ketchum School , who felt that such pursuits would keep his students from getting into trouble . Roy joined his elder brothers in playing hockey , and having started younger than they had , was regarded as a better skater . Roy went on to join his brothers Lionel and Charlie in professional hockey . Bert was also an aspiring hockey player but his professional hopes were ended when lost an eye in his late teens to a freak accident while the brothers were playing street hockey in front of their home .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
Conacher played his minor hockey with the Toronto Marlboro organization and was a member of Ontario provincial championship winning teams at the bantam and midget age groups . He next played junior hockey with the West Toronto Nationals in the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) junior league between 1933 and 1936 . In his third season , 1935 – 36 , Conacher led the OHA junior league in scoring with 12 goals in 10 games . The Nationals , led by Roy and Bert Conacher , won the OHA title and reached the 1936 Memorial Cup final against the Saskatoon Wesleys . In 12 Memorial Cup playoff games , Roy Conacher recorded eight goals and five assists . West Toronto won the best @-@ of @-@ three final in two consecutive games , 5 – 1 and 4 – 2 , to capture the Dominion junior championship . Conacher played two seasons of senior hockey , first with the Toronto Dominions of the OHA senior league in 1936 – 37 where he was an all @-@ star for the OHA senior championship winning squad . He then played with then the Kirkland Lake Hargreaves of the Northern Ontario Hockey Association .
= = = Boston Bruins = = =
The Boston Bruins invited Conacher to their amateur camp in 1935 where the then 17 @-@ year @-@ old made a good impression on manager Art Ross . Following his two seasons of senior hockey , the Bruins signed Conacher to a contract on October 23 , 1938 . He made his National Hockey League ( NHL ) debut in the 1938 – 39 season and recorded 37 points in 47 games . His 26 goals were the most in the league ; it would be 54 years before another rookie , Teemu Selänne , would lead the league . Conacher added ten points in 12 playoff games , including both goals in a 2 – 0 victory over the Toronto Maple Leafs in the fourth game of the 1939 Stanley Cup Final , and he scored the Stanley Cup @-@ winning goal in the deciding contest .
Conacher remained a leading offensive threat throughout his tenure with Boston ; he was one of the NHL 's top ten scorers in his first four seasons , including the 1939 – 40 season despite missing 16 games due to a broken wrist . He also finished second in goals in both 1940 – 41 and 1941 – 42 with 24 goals in each campaign . By 1941 , he had joined with Eddie Wiseman and Bill Cowley to form the " Three Gun Line " , so named because all three players were considered top scoring threats . Conacher had only one goal during the 1941 Stanley Cup playoffs , but the Bruins were the NHL 's dominant team and swept the Detroit Red Wings in the Final to win their second Stanley Cup in three years .
In 1942 , Conacher left the Bruins to enlist in the Royal Canadian Air Force for the duration of the Second World War where he served as a physical training instructor . He continued to play hockey in the Canadian military leagues , playing first for the Saskatoon RCAF team in 1942 – 43 , then with the Dartmouth RCAF for the following two seasons . He led the Halifax city league with nine goals in 1943 – 44 . Toward the end of the war , Conacher was deployed to England where he continued to play with military teams , but the deployment also meant he was unavailable to return to the Bruins at the start of the 1945 – 46 season like many of his teammates did . He appeared in only four games late in the season following his discharge from the military .
= = = Detroit and Chicago = = =
Art Ross feared that Conacher would not be able to return to his previous form due to losing four seasons to military service when he was in his physical prime and opted to trade him . Prior to the 1946 – 47 season , Ross sent Conacher to the Detroit Red Wings in exchange for Joe Carveth . Conacher excelled with Detroit . He led the team with 30 goals and 54 points , seventh best in the league , and scored four goals in one game that were all assisted by Billy Taylor on a night where the latter player set an NHL record with seven assists . Art Ross , once asked what his biggest mistake as a general manager was , replied " trading Roy Conacher " .
Conacher became embroiled in a bitter contract dispute with Detroit manager Jack Adams following the season . Adams offered $ 7 @,@ 600 for the season , but Conacher refused to sign for less than $ 8 @,@ 500 . Refusing to bow to his demands , Adams traded Conacher to the New York Rangers on October 22 , 1947 , in exchange for Edward Slowinski and a player to be named later . Conacher , however , refused to report to the Rangers . He announced instead that he planned to retire from hockey , a decision he claimed to have been mulling over for a couple years . The trade to New York was nullified as a result of Conacher 's failure to report . Bill Tobin of the Chicago Black Hawks received permission from Detroit to speak with Conacher and successfully negotiated a deal with the player . Tobin claimed the negotiation was easy : " It wasn 't hard to sign Roy . I offered him so much money he couldn 't refuse . " Tobin did not reveal what he was paying Conacher , but admitted that he spent $ 25 @,@ 000 combined on the contract and to purchase him from Detroit .
Conacher averaged nearly a point per game in 1947 – 48 with 48 points in 52 games . His best statistical season came in 1948 – 49 when he won the Art Ross Trophy as the NHL 's leading point scorer playing on a line with Bill Mosienko and Doug Bentley on a team that was coached by his brother Charlie . Conacher recorded 68 points while his 26 goals were good enough for second in the league . Additionally , he was named to the first All @-@ Star team at left wing and played in the 1949 All @-@ Star Game . He remained among the league 's scoring leaders in 1949 – 50 as his 56 points were sixth @-@ best in the league . He followed that up by leading the Black Hawks in goals ( 26 ) and points ( 50 ) in 1950 – 51 . Conacher scored his 200th career goal during the season , at the time a rare feat for an NHL player . However , the physical toll of the sport caught up to him ; after playing 12 games of the 1951 – 52 season , he opted to retire from the NHL . Chicago replaced him with his nephew , Pete Conacher .
= = Personal life = =
During his final four seasons in the NHL , Conacher lived in Midland , Ontario . He remained in the community with his wife Fran and children Roy Jr . , Mark and Candace . Keeping active in hockey , he coached Midland 's junior C team to a provincial championship and regularly played with oldtimers teams . Conacher later moved to Victoria , British Columbia where , after an eight @-@ year battle with cancer , he died in 1984 .
Roy was one of several members of the Conacher family to play in the NHL . Three of his nephews , Pete and Brian Conacher , and Murray Henderson all followed . Cory Conacher is also a distant relative of his . Roy was relatively anonymous compared to his more famous brothers Lionel and Charlie , and was often referred to as the " forgotten Conacher " . Roy 's career was recognized by the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1998 when he was posthumously inducted by the veterans committee . He joined Charlie ( 1961 ) and Lionel ( 1994 ) as the only trio of brothers to be so honoured .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= Alexander Novikov =
Alexander Alexandrovich Novikov ( Russian : Алекса ́ ндр Алекса ́ ндрович Но ́ виков ; November 19 [ O.S. November 6 ] 1900 – December 3 , 1976 ) was the Chief marshal of the aviation for the Soviet Air Force during Russia 's involvement in the Second World War . Lauded as " the man who has piloted the Red Air Force through the dark days into the present limelight " and a " master of tactical air power " , he was twice given the title of Hero of the Soviet Union , as well as a number of other Soviet decorations .
A gifted air force commander and one of the leading men of the Soviet armed forces , Novikov was involved in nearly all exploits of the air force during World War II and was at the forefront of developments in command and control and of air combat techniques . After the war , Novikov was arrested by order of the Politburo , and was forced by NKVD chief Lavrentiy Beria into a " confession " which implicated Marshal Zhukov in a conspiracy . Novikov was then imprisoned until the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953 , whereupon he became an avionics teacher and writer until his death .
= = Early life and career = =
Novikov was born in Kryukovo , a village in Nerekhta , in Kostroma Oblast . In 1919 he became an infantryman in the Red Army , and in 1920 became a party member .
He served in the 384th regiment of the Russian 7th Army , helped put down the Kronstadt uprising in March 1921 , and he served as a platoon commander during anti @-@ guerrilla fighting in the Caucasus in 1922 . Having graduated from the Frunze Military Academy in 1930 , Novikov moved to the air force in 1933 , and served as chief of operations until 1935 , when he took command of a light bomber squadron .
Novikov was expelled from the party and the armed forces in 1937 ; however he was re @-@ admitted by the Commissioner of the Belarussian Military District , A. I. Mezis , who was in turn arrested . Novikov served as chief of the air force staff of the Leningrad Military District prior to serving in the Soviet @-@ Finnish War during 1939 and 1940 . For his service in the conflict he was promoted to Major General and earned the Order of Lenin . He continued to command the Air Forces of the Leningrad Military District until the outbreak of World War II .
= = Second World War = =
During the early setbacks of the Russian army at the hand of Nazi Germany , Novikov and the Leningrad air forces took part in a number of strikes against the advancing German armies , including the first Soviet air operation of the war , from June 25 – 30 , 1941 , which cost the Germans 130 aircraft . During this time , Novikov was noted for his skill in command and for his innovation , particularly the then unknown use of radio to coordinate bomber flights . In July 1941 , Novikov expanded his command from Leningrad to include air forces of the Northern Front , Northwestern Front and the Baltic Fleet , and as the Germans approached Leningrad , Novikov and his forces flew 16 @,@ 567 sorties .
Novikov briefly held the position of First Deputy to the Air Force Commander from February until April 11 , 1942 . He then became Commander of the Red Army Air Force – Deputy to the People 's Commissar of Defense of the USSR for Aviation , a position from which he began to reorganize the Soviet air force . He worked specifically for the creation of separate divisions and air corps , as well as the improvement of front line coordination . During the siege of Stalingrad , Novikov successfully persuaded Marshal Zhukov and in turn , Joseph Stalin that the air force was not ready for a planned counter @-@ offensive , an argument to which both commanders eventually conceded . After a substantial period of development , Novikov was able to provide Zhukov with an aerial blockade of the German forces at Stalingrad , along with the destruction of 1 @,@ 200 enemy planes . Later operations over Kuban destroyed another 1 @,@ 100 planes .
At the Battle of Kursk , Novikov introduced new innovations such as shaped @-@ charge bombs , night fighters and ground @-@ attack aircraft . The Battle of Königsberg saw 2 @,@ 500 combat aircraft under Novikov being made available to the besieging armies , with the Soviet air marshal recommending low level heavy night bombers being used . 514 of these dropped 4 @,@ 440 tons of bombs on the beleaguered city . For his part in the operation Novikov was made Hero of the Soviet Union , and on June 24 , 1944 the United States awarded him a Legion of Merit . Novikov then transferred to the Pacific Theatre to fight against Japan , where he was made Hero of the Soviet Union a second time for his work in forming large air armies to bomb Japanese forces in China and Korea .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
On January 16 , 1946 Novikov submitted to Stalin plans that would lay the groundwork for the modern Soviet air force and the industry that would supply it . On April 22 , 1946 however , before these could be enacted , Novikov was stripped of his rank and titles and then arrested . The reason for this was that at the Potsdam conference it was discovered that the United States had better spy planes than the Soviet Union . He was interrogated and tortured the next day and again between May 4 and May 8 , 1946 by Lavrentiy Beria before being forced to read a confession to the Politburo implicating Marshal Zhukov . Novikov was tried by the Military Collegium and sentenced to fifteen years in a labor camp .
Novikov was released six years into his sentence following Stalin 's death on June 29 , 1953 , and reinstated as Chief Marshal of Aviation , where he was able to put his ideas into practice . A plan for using newly available jet aircraft and nuclear weapons to wage a possible future war with the United States was laid out by Novikov and shown to Nikita Khrushchev , who turned the proposal down in favor of ballistic missiles .
Following his retirement in 1958 , Novikov accepted an offer to become head of the Higher Civil Aviation School in Leningrad , where he worked for ten years . He became a professor , and was awarded the Order of the Red Banner in 1961 .
In retirement , Novikov wrote a number of works on aviation and warfare , which were used to educate new Soviet air force pilots . He died , aged 74 , on December 3 , 1976 .
= = Honours and awards = =
Twice Hero of the Soviet Union
Three Orders of Lenin
Three Orders of the Red Banner
Three Orders of Suvorov 1st class
Order of Kutuzov 1st class
Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Two Orders of the Red Star
Jubilee Medal " For MIlitary Valour – In Commemoration of the 100th Anniversary since the Birth of Vladimir Il 'ich Lenin "
Medal " For the Defence of Leningrad "
Medal " For the Defence of Stalingrad "
Medal " For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941 – 1945 "
Jubilee Medal " Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941 @-@ 1945 "
Jubilee Medal " Thirty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941 @-@ 1945 "
Medal " For the Victory over Japan "
Medal " For the Capture of Königsberg "
Medal " For the Capture of Berlin "
Medal " Veteran of the Armed Forces of the USSR "
Jubilee Medal " XX Years of the Workers ' and Peasants ' Red Army "
Jubilee Medal " 30 Years of the Soviet Army and Navy "
Jubilee Medal " 40 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR "
Jubilee Medal " 50 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR "
Medal " In Commemoration of the 250th Anniversary of Leningrad "
Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit ( USA )
Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honour ( France )
Order of Red Banner ( Mongolia )
Order of the Polar Star ( Mongolia )
= Roger Gale ( antiquary ) =
Roger Gale ( 27 September 1672 – 25 June 1744 ) was an English scholar and antiquary as well as a member of Parliament for Northallerton . His father was an ecclesiastic and professor at Cambridge , which the younger Gale also attended . After his graduation , Gale briefly served as a diplomat in France , as well as holding a position as a reader at Oxford University 's Bodleian Library . On his father 's death in 1702 , Gale retired to his family estate , but was elected to Parliament in 1705 , where he served until 1713 . He then continued in public service until 1735 , when he once more retired to his estates .
Besides his governmental career , Gale was a member of the Society of Antiquaries and the Royal Society , where he served as treasurer . Gale was known as a collector of manuscripts and other antiquarian items , writing a few published works on those subjects . He donated his manuscript collection to his alma mater in 1738 , and died in 1744 . Although contemporaries felt he was one of the foremost scholars of his age , later historians have been less convinced , contrasting his learning unfavourably with his father 's .
= = Early life = =
Roger Gale was the eldest son of Thomas Gale and Barbara Pepys . His father was Dean of York as well as a professor of Greek at Cambridge University , while his mother was a cousin of the diarist Samuel Pepys . Roger was born on 27 September 1672 at Impington , Cambridgeshire . Thomas and Barbara had a younger son , Samuel Gale , who also became an antiquary , and a daughter , Elizabeth , who became William Stukeley 's as second wife .
Gale was educated at St Paul 's School in London , where his father was in charge from 1672 to 1697 . He then went on to attend Trinity College starting in 1691 , earning his Bachelor of Arts in 1695 and a Master of Arts in 1698 . He then became a reader at the Bodleian Library at Oxford University on 6 March 1699 . Soon after this , probably in the later part of 1699 , he went with Charles Montagu , then the Earl of Manchester , on a diplomatic mission to France . His father died in 1702 , and Gale retired to his newly inherited estates at Scruton , Yorkshire .
= = Public service = =
In 1705 he was elected a member of Parliament ( MP ) for Northallerton in a by @-@ election . He remained an MP until 1713 , usually voting with the Whigs and working on committees concerned with regulating servant wages and the naturalisation of foreigners . After leaving Parliament , he was appointed to a commission dealing with stamp duties , then later was a commissioner of excise . He remained in that position until 1735 , when Robert Walpole had him removed to free the post for one of Walpole 's friends .
Gale also served as the first vice @-@ president of the Society of Antiquaries , and was the treasurer of the Royal Society for a number of years . In 1736 he returned to his estates and retired from public life .
= = Antiquary and writer = =
Gale inherited his father 's library of manuscripts and books , which he eventually donated to his alma mater , Trinity College , in 1738 . Included in Gale 's donation was one of only two complete manuscripts of the Liber Eliensis , now known as Trinity College MS O.2.1. Gale also collected coins , and donated his collection to Cambridge University .
In 1697 Gale translated Louis Jobert 's La science des medailles into English , with the title of The Knowledge of Medals . This was designed as an instruction to the beginning coin collector , and also contained information to protect the new collector from fraud . Gale then in 1709 published his father 's work on the Antonine Itinerary , which Gale supplemented with his own notes and commentary . His last major published work was as the editor of a 12th @-@ century manuscript register of the Honour of Richmond that was contained in the Cotton library . He also contributed a number of essays on antiquarian topics to the Philosopical Transactions journal put out by the Royal Society .
Gale 's letters survive , and some were first published in the third volume of John Nichols 's Bibliotheca Topographica Britannica in 1790 . Later more appeared in Nichols ' Literary Anecdotes , and then finally his complete letters were published in three volumes by the Surtees Society along with letters from his brother Samuel and brother @-@ in @-@ law William Stukeley . Nichols in 1781 declared that Gale was " one of the most learned men of his age " , but later scholars have been less full of praise . D. C. Douglas , writing in the 1950s , contrasted Gale with his father , and felt that the younger Gale was given a greater reputation than he deserved . Notwithstanding Douglas ' opinion , Gale 's work did much to preserve important historical information , as he was a member of the new style of antiquary , who instead of working just with manuscripts , turned to the topography and other relics in the countryside . This group of antiquaries did much to record information that has since disappeared .
= = Death and family = =
Gale married Henrietta Roper , the daughter of Henry Roper of Cowling , Kent . She died in 1720 . They had one son , Roger Henry Gale , who was born in 1710 . Gale himself died on 25 June 1744 at his estates in Scruton , and was buried near the church there . There is no monument in the churchyard , as he stipulated in his will that he be buried in such a manner that no one would know exactly where he was buried .
= 1948 American League tie @-@ breaker game =
The 1948 American League tie @-@ breaker game was a one @-@ game extension to Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1948 regular season , played between the Cleveland Indians and Boston Red Sox to determine the American League ( AL ) champion . The game was played on October 4 , 1948 , at Fenway Park in Boston , Massachusetts . It was necessary after both teams finished the season with identical win – loss records of 96 – 58 . This was the first @-@ ever one @-@ game playoff in the AL , and the only one prior to 1969 when the leagues were split into divisions .
The Indians defeated the Red Sox , 8 – 3 , as the Indians scored four runs in the fourth inning and limited the Red Sox to five hits . The Indians advanced to the 1948 World Series , where they defeated the Boston Braves , four games to two , giving them their second and most recent World Series championship . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker counted as the 155th regular season game by both teams , with all events in the game added to regular season statistics .
= = Background = =
The 1948 Major League Baseball season was predicted to be a close race between the Yankees and Red Sox . In a United Press poll conducted just before the season started , the majority of sportswriters chose the Yankees , who had won last year 's World Series , to face the Braves or St. Louis Cardinals that year , while others chose the Red Sox ; only one sportswriter chose the Indians to reach the World Series . Most of the American League managers had the Yankees finishing first , followed by the Red Sox , Indians , and Detroit Tigers . Tension and confidence was evident between the teams , as two months into the season , after defeating the Red Sox 7 – 0 , Yankees manager Bucky Harris declared that the Yankees would win the pennant , though they were currently at second place at the time .
The pennant race continued between the three teams throughout the entire season . On September 25 , after playing 147 games , with seven games left to play , all three teams had a record of 91 – 56 . After each team played four more games , the Indians were up two games , meaning the Yankees and Red Sox had to win their games on September 30 to stay in the pennant race . They did , and the month of October opened up with both teams 1 @.@ 5 games behind the Indians . The Indians ' last series was a three @-@ game stand against the Tigers , while the Red Sox and Yankees had a two @-@ game series against each other .
The Indians lost their first game 5 – 3 against the Tigers on October 1 , giving them a one @-@ game lead with two games left to play . As a result , speculation arose about the possibility of a three @-@ way tie . On October 2 , Cleveland beat Detroit to clinch at least a tie , and Boston beat New York 5 – 1 , ending the Yankees ' pennant run and bringing the race down to two teams . On the last day of the season , October 3 , Boston won their game and Cleveland lost , giving them identical 96 – 58 records and forcing a tiebreaker the following day at Boston . The Indians chose rookie Gene Bearden to start against Boston in the tie @-@ breaker , despite only having one day of rest , as he had beaten the Red Sox twice that season , and the Red Sox chose Denny Galehouse , passing on Mel Parnell , who had beaten the Indians on three separate occasions that season .
= = Game summary = =
Monday October 4 , 1948 – 1 @.@ 15 p.m. ( ET ) at Fenway Park in Boston , Massachusetts
Galehouse started off the game by quickly getting outs from Dale Mitchell and Allie Clark . American League MVP Lou Boudreau then hit a solo home run off Galehouse to make the score 1 – 0 . After another out , Bearden came on the mound in the bottom of the first . Johnny Pesky doubled , then scored on a hit by Vern Stephens to make the score 1 – 1 at the end of the first inning . Both pitchers allowed one baserunner the following inning ; Ken Keltner reached base for Cleveland and Birdie Tebbetts reached base for the Red Sox . Both pitchers then got three quick outs in the third inning .
In the fourth inning , the Indians opened up the game . Boudreau and Joe Gordon hit back @-@ to @-@ back singles , which brought Keltner to the plate . The Red Sox expected a bunt , but instead the third baseman hit his 31st home run of the season to put the Indians ahead , 4 – 1 . Galehouse was then replaced with Ellis Kinder , who was met with a double by Larry Doby . Kinder responded by getting the next three batters out , which brought the score to 5 – 1 as Doby also scored . After Bearden got three Red Sox out , the Indians started the fifth inning with the top of their lineup . Mitchell and Eddie Robinson , who came in for Clark , were out . Boudreau then stepped up to the plate and hit his second home run of the night to make the score 6 – 1 .
The rest of the fifth inning saw no more hits , and after a Keltner double , three Indians were out in the top of the sixth inning . The Red Sox began to fight back in the bottom of the sixth inning . After getting Pesky out , Ted Williams reached first base on an error by Gordon . Stephens struck out , and with two outs in the inning , Bobby Doerr hit his 27th home run of the season to make the score 6 – 3 . No runs were scored in the seventh inning , though Bearden and Mitchell both reached base . The Indians were able to score another run in the eighth inning after Jim Hegan was intentionally walked . Bearden then hit a fly ball to Williams , who dropped it , allowing Hegan to score and making it 7 – 3 in the Indians ' favor . The Indians were able to score one more run in the ninth when Robinson scored after Keltner grounded into a bases @-@ loaded double play . Bearden got the final three Red Sox out in the bottom of the ninth , finishing the game with an 8 – 3 Indians victory and giving Bearden a complete game .
= = Aftermath = =
With the victory , the Indians received their first playoff berth since the 1920 World Series . Indians ' Manager Lou Boudreau dedicated the victory to pitcher Don Black , who suffered a cerebral hemorrhage the previous month . The Indians went on to face the Boston Braves in the 1948 World Series , winning it four games to two . The Red Sox fans experienced disappointment when Boston mayor James M. Curley ordered the fire department sirens sounded when Boston won the pennant . The sirens did sound , but it was instead for a fire in the Boston navy yard .
The Red Sox 's defeat disappointed Boston fans , who had been rooting the entire season for an All @-@ Boston World Series . Prior to the October 4 game , the oddsmakers gave the Red Sox the advantage , meaning that an all @-@ Boston World Series was likely . The Red Sox did not make another playoff appearance until 1967 , when the St. Louis Cardinals defeated them in the 1967 World Series .
The game counted as a regular season game in baseball statistics . As a result , Dom DiMaggio and Vern Stephens led the league with 155 games played , which could not have been equaled by any team other than the Red Sox or Indians . DiMaggio 's four at @-@ bats in the game also gave him the league lead with 648 , four ahead of Bob Dillinger of the St. Louis Browns . Dale Mitchell 's one single also gave him the league lead in that statistics , beating out Dillinger by one . Gene Bearden 's nine inning , one earned run performance brought his earned run average ( ERA ) down to 2 @.@ 43 , which led the American League . Boudreau finished the season with a .355 batting average , 116 runs , 18 home runs , and 106 runs batted in , and won the Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player Award at the end of the season .
= Film career of Audie Murphy =
Audie Murphy ( 20 June 1925 – 28 May 1971 ) was a highly decorated American soldier and Medal of Honor recipient who turned actor . He portrayed himself in the film To Hell and Back , the account of his World War II experiences . During the 1950s and 1960s he was cast primarily in westerns . While often the hero , he proved his ability to portray a cold @-@ blooded hired gun in No Name on the Bullet . A notable exception to the westerns was The Quiet American in which he co @-@ starred with Michael Redgrave . Murphy made over 40 feature films and often worked with directors more than once . Jesse Hibbs who directed To Hell and Back worked with the star on six films , only half of which were westerns . When promoting his 1949 book To Hell and Back he appeared on the radio version of This Is Your Life . To promote the 1955 film of the same name , he appeared on Ed Sullivan 's Toast of the Town . He was a celebrity guest on television shows such as What 's My Line ? and appeared in a handful of television dramas . Murphy 's only television series Whispering Smith had a brief run in 1961 . For his cooperation in appearing in the United States Army 's Broken Bridge episode of The Big Picture television series he was awarded the Outstanding Civilian Service Medal .
= = Early career = =
Murphy became a national celebrity following his World War II military service when Life magazine proclaimed him America 's " most decorated soldier " in its 16 July 1945 issue cover story . That magazine cover brought him to the attention of veteran actor James Cagney who invited him to Hollywood . When Murphy arrived in California after his military discharge , Cagney cancelled the hotel reservations he 'd made for Murphy and instead took him into his own home , " I got the shock of my life . Audie was very thin . His complexion was bluish @-@ gray . " Commenting years later on his first impression , Cagney said , " [ Murphy was ] in such a nervous condition that I was afraid he might jump out of a window . I took him home and gave him my bed . " He spent three weeks as a guest of Cagney and then returned to Texas before finally agreeing to an offer from brothers James and William Cagney of $ 150 a week as a contract player with their production company . The Cagneys gave Murphy personal attention on acting techniques . He also took lessons at the Actors ' Lab on Sunset Boulevard . Murphy studied voice techniques , learned judo , and trained with choreographer John Boyle , Cagney 's dance coach for Yankee Doodle Dandy . A 1947 disagreement with William Cagney ended his association with the brothers without having been cast in a film production .
He moved into Terry Hunt 's Athletic Club and survived on his Army pension of $ 113 a month . In 1948 he became acquainted with writer David " Spec " McClure who got him a $ 500 bit part in Texas , Brooklyn and Heaven . He began dating actress Wanda Hendrix in 1946 . Her agent got Murphy a bit part in the 1948 Alan Ladd film Beyond Glory directed by John Farrow . Murphy and Hendrix married in 1949 and divorced in 1951 .
His 1949 film Bad Boy gave him his first leading role . Murphy became acquainted in Texas with Interstate Theatre executive James " Skipper " Cherry , who was best man at Murphy 's 1951 marriage to Pamela Archer and the namesake of the couple 's second son . Murphy 's association with Cherry brought him to the attention of Texas independent producer Paul Short . With financing from Texas theater owners and the children 's charitable organization Variety Clubs International , Short cast Murphy in Bad Boy to help promote the charity 's work with troubled children . Murphy performed well in the screen test , but Steve Broidy , president of the project 's production company Allied Artists did not want to cast someone in a major role with so little acting experience . Cherry , Short , and the theater owners refused to finance the film unless Murphy played the lead . The 1933 Thames Williamson novel The Woods Colt caught Murphy 's attention during this period of his career . He secured the rights to the story in the 1950s , and Marion Hargrove was hired to write the script . The film was never made .
Universal Studios signed Murphy to a seven @-@ year studio contract at $ 2 @,@ 500 a week . His first film for them in 1950 was as Billy the Kid in The Kid from Texas . He wrapped up that year making Sierra starring his wife Wanda Hendrix , and Kansas Raiders as outlaw Jesse James . He and director Budd Boetticher become acquainted through Terry Hunt 's Athletic Club where Murphy would request to be his boxing partner . Murphy appeared in the 1951 title role of Boetticher 's first westernThe Cimarron Kid .
The only film Murphy made in 1952 was Duel At Silver Creek with director Don Siegel . Murphy would team with Siegel one more time in 1958 for The Gun Runners . He only worked one time with director Frederick de Cordova , who later became producer of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson . Murphy and de Cordova made Column South in 1953 . George Marshall directed Murphy in the 1954 Destry , based on a character created by author Max Brand . Two previous versions , one in 1932 with Tom Mix and one in 1939 with Jimmy Stewart and Marlene Dietrich , were both titled Destry Rides Again .
The only screenplay John Meredyth Lucas ever did for a Murphy film was the 1953 Tumbleweed , an adaptation of the Kenneth Perkins novel Three Were Renegades . Murphy played Jim Harvey , whose horse Tumbleweed displayed a talent for getting the hero out of any scrape . Director Nathan Juran oversaw Tumbleweed , as well as Gunsmoke and Drums Across the River .
As Murphy 's film career began to progress , so did his efforts to improve his skills . He continually practiced his fast draw with a gun . He took both private and classroom acting lessons from Estelle Harman , and honed his diction by reciting dialogue from William Shakespeare and William Saroyan .
= = The Red Badge of Courage = =
Murphy was lent to MGM at a salary of $ 25 @,@ 000 to appear in the 1951 The Red Badge of Courage directed by John Huston and adapted from the Stephen Crane novel . At the urging of Spec McClure and celebrity columnist Hedda Hopper , over the misgivings of producer Gottfried Reinhardt and studio executives Louis B. Mayer and Dore Schary , director Huston cast Murphy in the lead of The Youth ( Henry Fleming in the novel ) . The preview screening audiences were not enthusiastic , causing Schary to re @-@ edit Huston 's work , eliminating several scenes and adding narration by James Whitmore . MGM trimmed advertising efforts on what they believed was an unprofitable film . What eventually hit the theaters was not a commercial success , and it was also not the film both Murphy and Huston believed they had made . Murphy unsuccessfully tried to buy the rights to the film in 1955 in an attempt to re @-@ edit and re @-@ release it . Huston tried to buy it in 1957 , but was told the original negative of what he had filmed was destroyed .
= = To Hell and Back = =
Although Murphy was initially reluctant to appear as himself in To Hell and Back , the film version of his book , he eventually agreed to do so . Terry Murphy portrayed his brother Joseph Preston Murphy at age four . The film was directed by Jesse Hibbs with an on @-@ screen introduction by General Walter Bedell Smith . Susan Kohner , daughter of Murphy 's agent Paul Kohner , made her acting debut in the film . The finale shows Murphy being awarded the Medal of Honor while images of his unit 's casualties pass across the screen . It became the biggest hit in the history of Universal Studios at the time .
Both Murphy and Universal gave serious considerations to a follow @-@ up version of his post @-@ war life . Murphy rejected the Richard J. Collins script The Way Back which created the fictional scenario that filming To Hell and Back had been so therapeutic for Murphy that it cured him of his combat fatigue . Spec McClure scripted a second unused version of The Way Back that incorporated Murphy 's real @-@ life friends into the storyline and ended with the star
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– 0 midway through the third quarter , but still managed to come back for their third overtime win of the season . With the win , Buffalo clinched the MAC East championship and ensured that they would have their first winning regular season since moving to Division I @-@ A ; the final regular season game , a 24 – 21 loss to Kent State , was only a formality . The Bulls finished the regular season with an overall record of 7 – 5 , 5 – 3 within the conference .
Buffalo 's opponent in the 2008 MAC Championship Game would be the No. 12 @-@ ranked Ball State Cardinals , who had gone undefeated in winning the MAC West . Ball State was a two @-@ touchdown favorite entering the game ; Buffalo in its history was 0 – 5 against the Cardinals . The Bulls struck first with a touchdown late in the first quarter ; Ball State responded with a touchdown and a field goal in the second quarter to take a 10 – 7 lead at the half . The two teams traded touchdowns early in the third quarter . Disaster then struck for Ball State : on two consecutive possessions late in the third quarter , after having driven into the red zone , the Cardinals fumbled the ball . Buffalo returned both of these fumbles for touchdowns and took a lead they would not surrender . The Bulls won the game 42 – 24 , earning their first @-@ ever MAC Championship as well as their first @-@ ever win over a ranked opponent in nine attempts .
= = = Connecticut = = =
The Huskies entered 2008 seeking to prove their success the previous season was no fluke . In 2007 , Connecticut earned their first Big East co @-@ championship , albeit after losing to their fellow co @-@ champion , West Virginia , 66 – 21 . A loss to Wake Forest in the 2007 Meineke Car Care Bowl — the team 's second bowl appearance all @-@ time — gave the Huskies a final 2007 record of 9 – 4 . In the Big East preseason media poll , UConn was picked to finish 6th overall in the conference .
UConn started the season strong , winning their first five games . The Huskies easily won their first game 35 – 3 against Division I @-@ Football Championship Subdivision ( Division I @-@ FCS ) opponent Hofstra . The second game , at Temple , was played as the remnants of Hurricane Hanna hit Philadelphia . UConn won 12 – 9 in overtime as Donald Brown ran for a then @-@ career high 214 yards and scored the game @-@ winning touchdown . Connecticut next avenged their loss to Virginia from 2007 , winning the rematch 45 – 10 . Baylor was next on the schedule ; the Huskies pulled out the win in a back @-@ and @-@ forth game , 31 – 28 . Connecticut opened Big East conference play in their next game against Louisville . The game was not decided until UConn linebacker Lawrence Wilson returned an interception for a touchdown with 2 : 45 left in the fourth quarter , giving the Huskies a 26 – 21 lead they would not relinquish . This was the second straight season where Connecticut won their first five games ; before 2007 , they had not opened a season so successfully since 1995 , when they won their first six straight . Following the game , UConn achieved their first and only ranking of the year , appearing at No. 24 in the Associated Press ( AP ) and Harris polls and No. 23 in the Coaches ' poll . However , starting quarterback Tyler Lorenzen broke his foot in the Louisville game ; the Huskies would be forced to rely on backup Zach Frazer for the next few games .
The Huskies were unable to match their early success in the second half of the season , losing five of their next seven games . Everything went wrong for UConn in their game at North Carolina , as Frazer was intercepted three times and three Connecticut punts were blocked ; North Carolina won in a blowout , 38 – 12 . Against Big East rival Rutgers , UConn lost 12 – 10 as kicker Tony Ciaravino missed three field goals , including one with 1 : 09 left in the game that hit the right goalpost . The Huskies bounced back in their next game against eventual Big East champion Cincinnati , winning in a blowout 40 – 16 . While not ranked in any of the polls , after the win Connecticut found itself No. 25 in the BCS standings . The Huskies would promptly give up that honor , losing to West Virginia 35 – 13 after leading 10 – 0 at the end of the first quarter and 13 – 7 at halftime . UConn would win the next week at Big East bottom @-@ dweller Syracuse , 39 – 14 , as Lorenzen returned from his injury . This would prove to be their last win of the regular season , as the Huskies finished with losses to South Florida ( 17 – 13 ) and No. 23 @-@ ranked Pittsburgh ( 34 – 10 ) . Connecticut ended the regular season with a record of 7 – 5 , 3 – 4 within the Big East conference .
= = Pregame buildup = =
In the weeks leading up to the game , media coverage focused on the achievements of the Buffalo Bulls . Buffalo had been one of the least @-@ successful programs in college football from their transition to Division I @-@ A in 1999 to 2006 , during which they had a cumulative record of 12 – 79 . In 2008 , the Bulls had their first winning season since 1996 , won five games in a row for the first time since 1986 , beat a ranked team for the first time in program history with their upset victory over Ball State in the MAC Championship Game , and would be making the first bowl appearance in school history . The turnaround of the Buffalo program brought acclaim to Bulls head coach Turner Gill , who had taken over the team in 2007 .
Comparatively , Connecticut was an afterthought heading into the game . Pre @-@ bowl coverage of UConn focused on NCAA rushing leader Donald Brown , who was considering foregoing his senior season to enter the 2009 NFL Draft . Brown indicated before the game that he had decided to return to UConn for the 2010 season .
= = = Coaching change rumors = = =
Following the regular season , speculation surrounded whether Turner Gill would leave Buffalo for another school 's head coaching position . He was identified as a candidate at two schools : Syracuse and Auburn . In neither case was Gill hired ; Syracuse opted for New Orleans Saints offensive coordinator Doug Marrone , while Auburn passed him over in favor of Iowa State head coach Gene Chizik , a move that prominent former National Basketball Association ( NBA ) player , Basketball Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer , and Auburn alumnus Charles Barkley claimed was due to racism . Gill ended up signing a contract extension with Buffalo .
UConn head coach Randy Edsall , who had been with the Huskies since 1999 , was also rumored to be a candidate for the Syracuse job . Edsall , a Syracuse alumnus , denied any interest . Offensive coordinator Rob Ambrose accepted the head coaching position at Towson , his alma mater ; he would stay to coach UConn during the bowl game , however .
= = = Legacy of the 1958 Buffalo Bulls = = =
While the 2009 International Bowl marked the first appearance of the Buffalo Bulls in a bowl game , it was not the first time the school had been invited to a bowl . Fifty years earlier , the 1958 Buffalo Bulls team finished with a record of 8 – 1 . They were awarded the Lambert Cup , given to the best small college team in the eastern US , and received a bid to play in the 1958 Tangerine Bowl , where they would face Florida State . There was one catch : the team 's African @-@ American players — starting running back Willie Evans and backup defensive end Mike Wilson — would not be allowed to play . The Tangerine Bowl Stadium was controlled by the Orlando High School Athletic Association , who prohibited integrated football games . University officials and the coaching staff decided to allow the team to vote on whether they would accept the bowl bid . Before secret ballots could be passed out , the players unanimously decided to reject the bid .
Surviving members of the 1958 Bulls team were invited to the 2009 International Bowl and were honored before the game . The Reverend Jesse Jackson spoke at the kickoff luncheon prior to the game , paying tribute to the legacy of the 1958 team .
= = = Offensive matchups = = =
= = = = Buffalo offense = = = =
Buffalo featured a high @-@ powered , high @-@ tempo , balanced offense that was good at not committing turnovers . During the regular season the Bulls averaged 380 @.@ 5 offensive yards per game , 45th best in the nation , and scored an average of 31 @.@ 3 points per game , 31st best . Buffalo 's turnover margin was 6th best in the nation , at + 1 @.@ 15 .
The Bulls were led offensively by the triple threat of quarterback Drew Willy , running back James Starks , and wide receiver Namaan Roosevelt . The three combined to break 14 single @-@ season school records , including most points scored in a season ( 404 ) . Willy , heading into his final game as a Buffalo Bull , had already surpassed the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ yard mark in passing on the season , throwing for 25 touchdowns against only five interceptions . Starks , while not seen as the same caliber of player as UConn 's Donald Brown , had run for over 1 @,@ 300 yards and caught 41 passes for 340 yards , scoring 16 touchdowns on the year . Roosevelt was seen as the top playmaker , going over the 100 @-@ yard mark in each of Buffalo 's last five games and scoring at least once in his last seven .
= = = = Connecticut offense = = = =
Especially compared to Buffalo , the UConn offense was extremely unbalanced ; the Huskies ranked 19th in the nation in running , averaging 204 @.@ 6 yards per game , but only 106th in the nation in passing , averaging 147 @.@ 3 yards per game . Connecticut 's offense was centered around running back Donald Brown . Described as " the ultimate workhorse " , Brown led the NCAA in rushing going into the game with 1 @,@ 822 yards . He had already tied the school single @-@ season rushing touchdown record with 17 scores . His dominant performance led to him being named the Big East offensive player of the year as well as an All @-@ American by multiple organizations . Somewhat surprisingly , he was not a finalist for the Doak Walker Award , annually given to the best running back in college football ; the award was eventually won by Shonn Greene of Iowa . UConn 's rushing attack was supplemented by the efforts of quarterback Tyler Lorenzen and running back Jordan Todman .
The Huskies struggled to pass the ball all season , only completing four touchdown passes as a team heading into the International Bowl . Lorenzen completed under half of his passing attempts on the season . He threw for 820 yards with more interceptions ( eight ) than touchdowns ( two ) . Nevertheless , before the game Randy Edsall confirmed that Lorenzen would be the starting quarterback for UConn in the International Bowl . This would be his ninth appearance at quarterback on the season ; he missed four games with a broken right foot .
= = = Defensive matchups = = =
= = = = Buffalo defense = = = =
The Buffalo defense was described as " among the worst in the MAC , meaning it 's among the worst in college football " . In Division I @-@ FBS , the Bulls ranked 84th in total defense , allowing an average of 408 yards per game . Buffalo 's run defense was 83rd in the country , allowing 141 @.@ 1 yards per game ; their pass defense was ranked 97th , allowing almost 250 yards per game . The Bulls allowed other teams to score an average of 27 points against them per game , which ranked 73rd in the country .
Buffalo did have one strength on defense : forcing turnovers . The Bulls recovered 20 fumbles and caught eight interceptions on the year . Buffalo 's turnover margin of + 1 @.@ 15 was 6th best in the nation .
= = = = Connecticut defense = = = =
Conversely , UConn boasted one of the better defenses in the country . The Huskies allowed the 10th @-@ fewest yards per game in the nation with 281 yards allowed . Connecticut was especially good against the pass ; they allowed an average of only 165 yards per game , seventh @-@ best in the country . No UConn opponent passed for more than 259 yards during the regular season .
The Huskies had several standout players on defense . One was defensive end Cody Brown , who led UConn with 14 tackles for a loss ( TFL ) and nine sacks while also being named to the All @-@ Big East first team . Cornerback Jasper Howard was another standout player : he had 37 tackles and four interceptions on the year while also leading the Big East in punt returns .
= = Starting lineups = =
Source :
= = Game summary = =
The 2009 International Bowl kicked off on January 3 , 2009 , at 12 : 00 PM in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . Official attendance was listed at 40 @,@ 184 , the highest in the history of the International Bowl . The attendance record was largely due to Buffalo fans ; an estimated 30 @,@ 000 attended the game . John Saunders , Jesse Palmer , and Doug Flutie , all with ties to Canada , were the announcers for the television broadcast , which aired on ESPN2 . The game was watched by over 2 million households with a rating of 2 @.@ 12 , both the highest in International Bowl history . Prior to the game , spread bettors favored Connecticut to win by four and a half points .
= = = First quarter = = =
Buffalo received the ball first to begin the game , and returned the opening kickoff to their own 24 @-@ yard line . They were unable to move the ball in three plays , and punted the ball to Connecticut . The Huskies took possession on their own 18 @-@ yard line and drove down the field with alternating rushes by running back Donald Brown and quarterback Tyler Lorenzen , earning two first downs . On 2nd down and 5 from the UConn 49 @-@ yard line , Lorenzen was sacked by Buffalo 's Sherrod Lott and fumbled ; the ball was recovered by UConn right tackle Mike Hicks , allowing the Huskies to retain possession . A holding penalty on the next play called on UConn left tackle William Beatty set up 3rd @-@ and @-@ 24 . Donald Brown rushed for fifteen yards but was unable to reach the first @-@ down marker , forcing UConn to punt .
Buffalo took over at their own 19 @-@ yard line and promptly earned their 1st first down of the game on a 10 @-@ yard pass from quarterback Drew Willy to wide receiver Naaman Roosevelt . The Bulls ' drive stalled from there , forcing them to punt . The punt struck the ground and hit UConn 's Jonathan Jean @-@ Louis , who was attempting to block for the punt return ; Buffalo recovered the loose ball , giving them back possession at the Connecticut 23 @-@ yard line . The Bulls were unable to move the ball any closer to the end zone , and settled for a 38 @-@ yard field goal by kicker A. J. Principe , giving them a 3 – 0 lead with 4 : 26 remaining in the first quarter .
The ensuing kickoff was returned by UConn running back Jordan Todman 45 yards to the Buffalo 45 @-@ yard line . On the first play from scrimmage , Donald Brown broke through the Buffalo defense and ran the length of the field for the first touchdown of the day . UConn kicker Dave Teggart 's extra point attempt was good , giving UConn their first lead of the day , at 7 – 3 .
Buffalo got the ball back at their own 21 @-@ yard line and were only able to advance it to their 34 @-@ yard line before punting the ball back to Connecticut . UConn cornerback Jasper Howard returned the ball 26 yards to the Bulls ' 41 @-@ yard line . The Huskies handed the ball to Donald Brown for five straight running plays , advancing the ball to the Buffalo 19 @-@ yard line as the first quarter clock expired . At the end of the first quarter , UConn held a 7 – 3 lead and looked to be in position to score more when the second quarter began .
= = = Second quarter = = =
UConn began the second quarter by having Tyler Lorenzen rush the ball for four yards . On 3rd and 7 , Lorenzen attempted his first pass of the game , which was behind Husky wide receiver Michael Smith . Dave Teggart kicked a 32 @-@ yard field goal to increase Connecticut 's lead to 10 – 3 .
The Bulls began their next drive at their own 26 @-@ yard line , but went three @-@ and @-@ out . Buffalo punter Peter Fardon kicked the ball over the head of UConn returner Jasper Howard ; rather than let the ball go , he ran backwards chasing after it . Trying to grab the ball over his shoulder , he muffed the catch , and the ball bounced into the end zone , where it was recovered by Buffalo 's Ray Anthony Long for a Bull touchdown . The special @-@ teams miscue by Howard allowed Buffalo to tie the game at 10 – 10 with 11 : 36 remaining in the second quarter .
UConn 's turnover woes continued on their next possession when , on their second play from scrimmage after receiving Buffalo 's kickoff , Tyler Lorenzen was sacked , causing him to fumble the ball . The Bulls recovered and drove down the field to the UConn 12 @-@ yard line where they were stopped . Principe kicked a 29 @-@ yard field goal giving Buffalo back the lead , at 13 – 10 .
The ensuing kickoff saw yet another Connecticut special @-@ teams blunder . UConn running back Robbie Frey misplayed the ball off of the kickoff , letting it roll back into the end zone . Frey recovered the loose ball ; if he had simply taken a knee , by rule it would have been a touchback and the Huskies would have gotten the ball at their own 20 @-@ yard line . Instead , Frey carried the ball out of the end zone , was hit at the 4 @-@ yard line , and fumbled . Buffalo recovered and promptly scored on a 4 @-@ yard touchdown run by Bull running back James Starks , giving themselves a 20 – 10 lead . UConn had committed its fifth fumble of the game , four of which were recovered by Buffalo . All of Buffalo 's 20 points were directly off of UConn turnovers .
Connecticut fumbled the ball for the sixth time on the next possession ; this time Donald Brown was responsible for dropping the ball . Buffalo recovered for the fifth time , but was unable to score , punting to ball back to UConn with 4 : 37 left in the half . Brown made up for his earlier mistake by breaking off a 75 @-@ yard run before being caught from behind . On the next play Tyler Lorenzen ran the ball into the end zone from 13 yards out . Neither team scored for the remainder of the first half , making the score 20 – 17 Buffalo going into halftime .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Connecticut received the ball to start the third quarter and drove down the field on rushing plays by Donald Brown , Jordan Todman and Tyler Lorenzen , before the drive stalled at the Buffalo 36 @-@ yard line . UConn punter Desi Cullen 's punt was downed at the Buffalo 1 @-@ yard line , pinning them against their own end zone . The Bulls were unable to move the ball , punting the ball back to UConn after three plays . Starting from their own 44 @-@ yard line , the Huskies drove to within the Buffalo 10 @-@ yard line ; an offside penalty on Buffalo 's Jerry Housey gave UConn a 1st @-@ and @-@ goal at the Buffalo 4 @-@ yard line . Connecticut used a play @-@ action pass , only their second pass attempt of the game , to fool the Bulls ; UConn tight end Steve Brouse was wide open in the end zone , catching the ball for the touchdown and giving Connecticut back the lead at 24 – 20 with 5 : 22 left in the third quarter .
Buffalo received the ball off the kickoff on their own 28 @-@ yard line . Losing eight yards on their three plays , Buffalo once again punted the ball to Connecticut . UConn drove to the Buffalo 25 @-@ yard line and attempted a 42 @-@ yard field goal ; the kick by Dave Teggart was blocked . Buffalo got the ball back with less than a minute left in the quarter and completed two passes , moving the ball 13 yards down the field before the quarter expired . The score remained in Connecticut 's favor , 24 – 20 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
Buffalo began the final quarter with the ball in a 2nd @-@ and @-@ 11 situation and were unable to convert the first down . UConn received Buffalo 's punt and were also unable to move the ball , going three @-@ and @-@ out and punting back to the Bulls . On their next possession Buffalo managed to get a first down off of a Drew Willy pass to tight end Jesse Rack , but were unable to move the ball further than UConn 's 49 @-@ yard line and punted again .
Connecticut took over at their own 32 @-@ yard line and , after throwing only two passes in the first three quarters , completed three passes over 10 yards apiece to move down the field . On a 2nd @-@ and @-@ 5 from the Buffalo 15 @-@ yard line , Tyler Lorenzen scored his second rushing touchdown of the game . UConn 's lead was extended to 31 – 20 with less than five minutes left in the game .
Receiving the ball at their own 8 @-@ yard line following a penalty on the kickoff return , Buffalo began to move down the field , with Drew Willy completing a 38 @-@ yard pass to wideout Brett Hamlin and a 29 @-@ yard pass to Naaman Roosevelt . On 3rd @-@ and @-@ 4 from the Connecticut 19 @-@ yard line , Willy completed a ten @-@ yard pass to James Starks , giving the Bulls a 1st @-@ and @-@ goal . Starks rushed for four yards on first down ; on second down , Willy threw an incomplete pass intended for Roosevelt . On 3rd @-@ and @-@ goal from the Husky 5 @-@ yard line , Willy attempted a pass that was deflected and intercepted by UConn safety Dahna Deleston , who returned the ball 100 yards for the game @-@ sealing touchdown . UConn won the game 38 – 20 .
= = = Scoring summary = = =
= = Final statistics = =
For his performance in the 2009 International Bowl , Connecticut running back Donald Brown was named the player of the game . Brown rushed for 261 yards and one touchdown on 29 attempts . He finished the 2008 college football season with 2 @,@ 083 rushing yards which led the nation . Brown set several new UConn school records , including the single @-@ season records for rushing yards ( 2 @,@ 083 ) , attempts ( 367 ) , and yards per game ( 160 @.@ 2 ) , the career records for rushing yards ( 3 @,@ 800 ) and attempts ( 698 ) , and the record for consecutive games with at least 100 yards rushing ( 8 ) . His performance did not break the International Bowl rushing records , however ; the previous year Rutgers running back Ray Rice ran for 280 yards and four touchdowns .
Brown 's dominant rushing performance was supplemented by RB Jordan Todman 's 62 yards on seven attempts , QB Tyler Lorenzen 's 32 yards on twelve attempts , including two touchdowns , and fullback Anthony Sherman 's three yards on one attempt ; in total Connecticut ran for 358 yards . The Huskies attempted to pass only six times during the game ; Lorenzen completed four of them for 49 yards and a touchdown . Four different UConn receivers caught one pass each : wide receiver Kashif Moore ( 18 yards ) , cornerback and sometime wide receiver Darius Butler ( 16 yards ) , fullback Anthony Sherman ( 11 yards ) , and tight end Steve Brouse ( 4 yards and a touchdown ) .
Buffalo 's offensive performance was in some ways the opposite of Connecticut 's : while UConn dominated on the ground and barely passed the ball , Buffalo struggled with the run but had a good day passing . The Bulls ran for a total of 24 yards on the game ; James Starks accounted for 25 yards on thirteen carries and scored a touchdown , while RB Brandon Termilus ran three times for five yards . Their total was partially offset by Drew Willy , who lost six yards on three rushing attempts . Willy had a much more successful day passing , completing 29 out of 43 passes for 213 yards and one interception . Namaan Roosevelt led the Buffalo receivers with 90 yards on eight catches ; of the five other Bulls who received passes , WR Brett Hamlin caught four passes for 54 yards , TE Jesse Rack caught three for 22 yards , RB Starks caught 11 for 21 yards , WR Ernest Jackson caught two for 17 yards , and WR Gary Rice caught one for 9 yards .
Connecticut dominated Buffalo statistically in the first half , gaining 225 yards to the Bulls ' 94 , led by Donald Brown 's 208 yards rushing . Buffalo won the turnover battle however , recovering five UConn fumbles . The Bulls scored 20 points off UConn turnovers in the first half , but were held scoreless in the second half when the Huskies stopped turning the ball over .
= = Aftermath = =
Connecticut 's win gave the team a final record of 8 – 5 and back @-@ to @-@ back winning seasons for the first time since 2003 – 04 . Buffalo 's final record fell to 8 – 6 , which still marked the first winning season for the Bulls since transitioning to Division I @-@ A football in 1999 .
In a press conference after the game , Brown announced that he would not return for his senior season and enter the NFL Draft , saying he told the media he said he was staying to take the focus off of himself prior to the game . Brown was drafted 27th overall by the Indianapolis Colts , becoming the first UConn player ever drafted in the first round . Three other UConn players were drafted in the second round : Darius Butler 41st overall by the New England Patriots , William Beatty 60th overall by the New York Giants , and defensive end Cody Brown 63rd overall by the Arizona Cardinals . Tight end Martin Bédard was drafted 15th overall in the second round of the Canadian Football League 's ( CFL ) 2009 Draft . Buffalo did not have any players drafted by either league in 2009 ; in the 2010 NFL Draft James Starks was selected in the sixth round , 193rd overall , by the Green Bay Packers . UConn cornerback Robert McClain was also drafted by the NFL in 2010 , in the seventh round , 249th overall , by the Carolina Panthers .
In the offseason Connecticut hired Joe Moorhead as their new offensive coordinator , replacing the departed Rob Ambrose . Turner Gill returned to coach Buffalo in 2009 . Following that season , however , he left to take over the football program at the University of Kansas .
Connecticut and Buffalo resumed their rivalry on September 25 , 2010 , playing a regular season game at UConn 's Rentschler Field . Although the score was tied 14 – 14 at halftime , the Huskies pulled away in the second half after changing quarterbacks , winning the rematch 45 – 21 .
= Battery White =
Battery White was an artillery battery constructed by the Confederates during the American Civil War . Built in 1862 – 63 to defend Winyah Bay on the South Carolina coast , the battery was strongly situated and constructed ; however , it was inadequately manned , and was captured without resistance during the final months of the war .
The battery is listed in the National Register of Historic Places . It is located on private land , but is open to the public .
= = Island fortifications = =
Even before the outbreak of the Civil War , the secessionist government of South Carolina was concerned with the possibility of attack by sea in Georgetown County . Shortly after the December 20 , 1860 passage of the Ordinance of Secession , an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to governor Francis Pickens urged Lowcountry planters to " aid in the erection of Batteries to protect and defend the entrance of Winyah Bay and the Santee River " .
The area offered a tempting target to Union forces . Winyah Bay would furnish a sheltered anchorage large enough for the entire United States Navy of 1861 . The city of Georgetown on the bay was the largest on the South Carolina coast north of Charleston . Georgetown County produced nearly half of the rice grown in the United States , amounting to some 54 million pounds ( 24 @,@ 000 tonnes ) in 1860 ; Georgetown exported more rice than any other port in the world . This production and shipping could be disrupted by gunboats moving up the Black , the Pee Dee , the Waccamaw , and the Sampit rivers , which flow into the bay ; and the two distributary channels of the Santee River , whose mouths lie just below the bay . Curtailing rice production would not only damage the local economy , but would impair the Confederacy 's ability to feed its armies .
In May 1861 , General P. G. T. Beauregard ordered the development of coastal defenses for South Carolina , including batteries situated on three islands flanking the mouth of Winyah Bay : North Island , South Island , and Cat Island . The Federal capture of Port Royal in November 1861 lent urgency to the construction and improvement of these works , which was done under Robert E. Lee , the newly appointed commander of the Department of South Carolina , Georgia , and East Florida , with Colonel Arthur Middleton Manigault in charge of the district that included Georgetown and Horry counties .
The island fortifications were never tested against a major Union attack . However , they served a useful purpose in dealing with grounded ships , both Confederate and Federal ; in protecting the entrance to the bay ; and in maintaining Confederate possession of the islands .
= = Withdrawal = =
Matters changed in early 1862 . In March of that year , Lee was recalled to Richmond as military advisor to President Jefferson Davis . He was replaced by General John C. Pemberton , who ordered the withdrawal of troops and artillery from the positions around Georgetown , apparently in order to concentrate his limited manpower on shorter defensive lines .
Union naval forces were quick to take advantage of this new vulnerability . In May 1862 , the gunboats USS Albatross and USS Norwich noted that the island forts were unoccupied . They landed troops to occupy North Island , which became the principal local Union base for much of the war ; and they destroyed the fortifications on South and Cat Islands . They also sailed some 10 miles ( 16 km ) up the Waccamaw River , where they raided a mill and carried off 80 slaves . Settled on North Island , these freed slaves formed the nucleus of a colony of " contrabands " that grew to more than a thousand before being removed to Port Royal for fear of Confederate raids leading to their recapture or massacre .
The Federal forces made no attempt to seize territory up the rivers , and their expeditions were limited by the draft of their vessels . Nevertheless , they conducted a number of raids in which they damaged facilities , seized rice , and released slaves ; and these raids severely disrupted the region 's economy . Rice production in particular suffered , since it depended on a labor force of skilled slaves performing carefully timed tasks .
Pemberton still refused to move artillery and men to the Georgetown area , maintaining that all of his resources were necessary for the protection of Charleston . However , his superiors ordered him to construct new fortifications at Winyah Bay . Since the Union now controlled the islands , it was necessary to find sites further up the bay . On August 3 , 1862 , Pemberton visited the area and selected Mayrant 's Bluff and Frazier 's Point as the sites for the new batteries .
= = Battery White = =
Later in August 1862 , Pemberton was promoted to lieutenant general and sent to the Department of Mississippi and East Louisiana , where he would eventually surrender Vicksburg . He was replaced in the Department of South Carolina and Georgia by Beauregard , who assumed command on September 24 , 1862 . The new commander supported the fortification of Winyah Bay : on October 8 , 1862 , he assured Governor Pickens that he had ordered the construction of a battery of five or six pieces of artillery at Mayrant 's Bluff ; on November 10 , he wrote Colonel James Chesnut , Jr. that the battery was " armed and completed " , and that he had sent a new regiment of the State Reserves to General James H. Trapier , in command of the Georgetown District .
Trapier was less than pleased with the troops and artillery that he had been given . The new regiment , he noted , arrived at the battery without arms and ammunition ; and as Reserves , would only be in service for 90 days , not enough time to make effective soldiers of them even had they been armed . He had also been given fairly light guns ; what he wanted was Columbiads , suitable for defending the battery and the bay against incursions by ironclads .
Despite the paucity of men and weaponry , the new battery proved effective . On November 11 , 1862 , two Union gunboats entered Winyah Bay and began firing on the Mayrant 's Bluff works . The Second South Carolina Artillery , which had set up nine guns in the fortification , responded ; and within a few minutes , the Federal vessels were forced to retire .
In February 1863 , Trapier reported that the Mayrant 's Bluff fortification , now named Battery White , was occupied by only 53 men and nine guns . Even this small force sufficed to stop Federal incursions up the rivers of Winyah Bay . However , rice production in the Georgetown area did not recover : the raids had destroyed too much of the physical plant , carried off too many of the slaves , and created too much uncertainty for planters to return to anything near full production .
The battery continued to lose manpower , despite Trapier 's ongoing calls for more troops and guns . In October 1864 , a body of eleven deserters from the Confederate German Artillery reached the gunboat USS Potomska ; they reported that there was great discontent among the troops , and that many would desert were they not so strongly guarded . They also reported that there were ten guns at the battery ; the captain of the Potomska concluded that the bay was too well defended for him to render aid to prospective deserters .
= = Capture = =
In November 1864 , Trapier was ordered to bring most of his forces to Mount Pleasant , just north of Charleston . Only a company of the German Artillery was left to defend the Georgetown district . By the end of January 1865 , only a small crew commanded by a lieutenant remained at Battery White .
In January and early February 1865 , Union forces under General William Tecumseh Sherman moved northward from Georgia into South Carolina . On February 2 and 3 , they defeated a Confederate force in the Battle of Rivers ' Bridge , clearing their pathway into the state . After a feint at Charleston , they marched to Columbia , which they entered on February 17 ; on the same day , Charleston was evacuated , and on the 18th , it was surrendered .
From Charleston , Union naval forces under Admiral John A. Dahlgren moved up the coast to Georgetown , which Dahlgren thought might be a useful point of communication with Sherman 's land forces . On February 23 , deserters told the captain of the gunboat USS Mingoe that Battery White had been or would soon be evacuated . The Mingoe fired four rounds into the battery . When no response was made , a party was sent ashore ; they found the battery abandoned and its guns spiked . The sloop @-@ of @-@ war USS Pawnee and the gunboat USS Nipsic continued up the bay and landed a party of Marines to take possession of Georgetown ; the intendant and wardens of the city formally surrendered it on February 25 .
Soon thereafter , Dahlgren inspected the battery , and was impressed . The fortification , he wrote , was well situated and designed , laid out to defend against both shipborne bombardment and attack by landing parties . Eleven guns bore on the channel : two 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) Columbiads , three banded rifled 32 @-@ pounders , four smoothbore 24 @-@ pounders , and two banded rifled 12 @-@ pounders . A 6 @-@ pound smoothbore flanked the ditch . The rear was defended by a " formidable " rampart and ditch , with a 24 @-@ pound smoothbore at either end ; in the fort were numerous traverses and magazines . The approach along the beach to the battery 's right flank was covered by a 24 @-@ pound and a 12 @-@ pound smoothbore . " If the works had been sufficiently manned " , wrote Dahlgren , " it would have required good troops to take the work . "
= = = Sinking of the USS Harvest Moon = = =
By the fall of 1864 , the Union fleet had effectively closed Winyah Bay to blockade runners . Accordingly , the Confederate command had elected to lay mines , at the time known as " torpedoes " , in the bay . Eighteen mines had been constructed in Georgetown by Captain Thomas West Daggett and Stephen W. Rouquie and placed strategically in the bay .
As early as January 1865 , Union sympathizers in Georgetown had warned Dahlgren 's forces about the existence of mines in the channel . While approaching Battery White , the Mingoe had sent its boats out to sweep for such devices . However , their efforts may have been perfunctory : according to Dahlgren 's report , " ... so much has been said in ridicule of torpedoes that very little precautions are deemed necessary , and if resorted to are probably taken with less care than if due weight was attached to the existence of these mischievous things . "
On the morning of March 1 , 1865 , Dahlgren 's flagship , the side @-@ wheel steamer USS Harvest Moon , sailed from Georgetown toward Battery White , which Dahlgren intended to inspect . En route , the vessel struck one of Daggett and Rouquie 's mines , which blew a large hole in it , killing one sailor ; the boat quickly sank in two and a half fathoms of water .
= = Battery White postbellum = =
For over a century after the Civil War , the grounds on which Battery White stood were part of the Belle Isle Plantation . During the late 19th century , extensive landscaping was undertaken on the plantation . The United Daughters of the Confederacy erected a memorial stone on the site in 1929 . In about 1946 , the plantation gardens , including the battery , were opened to the public , and remained thus until 1974 .
In the 1970s , the plantation was developed as a condominium complex . Portions of the 100 @-@ acre ( 40 ha ) complex of fortifications were lost to construction . However , the owners elected to preserve Battery White itself . In 1977 , a 3 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) area encompassing the battery was nominated to the National Register of Historic Places . In 2008 , the site was re @-@ opened to the public .
The battery 's earthworks are for the most part well preserved . The powder magazines have deteriorated , owing to collapse of the earth mounds following decay of their wooden interior shoring . The two Columbiads have been re @-@ mounted and once again point out over Winyah Bay .
Three of the battery 's guns have been placed in Georgetown . A 24 @-@ pound gun has been mounted in front of the National Guard Armory , and two cannon are displayed in Constitution Park on the Georgetown waterfront .
The Harvest Moon was never salvaged , and has gradually sunk deeper into the mud of the bay . In the mid @-@ 1960s , the top deck lay under an estimated six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of mud . A Georgetown group attempted to salvage and restore the vessel as a tourist attraction , and in 1964 the U.S. Navy formally abandoned it , rendering it eligible for private salvage ; but the attempt failed for lack of funds . As of 2011 , the ship 's boiler stack was still visible at low tide .
= Tropical Storm Beryl ( 1988 ) =
Tropical Storm Beryl was an unusual Atlantic tropical cyclone that formed over southeastern Louisiana in August 1988 . The second tropical storm of the 1988 Atlantic hurricane season , Beryl developed from a slow @-@ moving trough of low pressure on August 8 . It tracked southeastward into the coastal waters of eastern Louisiana , and Beryl reached peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) while located about 75 miles ( 120 km ) southeast of New Orleans . The storm turned to the northwest over Louisiana and Texas , and slowly dissipated . The remnants of Beryl continued northward into the central United States , dropping some rainfall and providing relief to a severe heat wave .
Due to its slow motion , Beryl dropped heavy amounts of rainfall , peaking at 16 @.@ 09 inches ( 408 mm ) on Dauphin Island in Alabama . The rainfall caused some reports of flooding , while prolonged durations of rough waves resulted in severe beach erosion . The waves capsized a boat in Mobile Bay , killing one of its passengers . Overall damage was minor , totaling about $ 3 million ( 1988 USD , $ 5 @.@ 46 million 2009 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
A weak surface trough of low pressure emerged into the northeast Gulf of Mexico on August 1 . Under weak steering currents , the trough drifted westward , and slowly became better defined with the formation of a circulation in the mid- through upper @-@ levels of the atmosphere . An upper @-@ level low developed over Texas , providing unfavorable amounts of vertical wind shear . A surface circulation was first evident on satellite imagery on August 4 just off the coast of Mississippi , and for several days it remained nearly stationary over the Mississippi Sound . As the upper @-@ level low over Texas drifted southwestward , an anticyclone developed over the system , with the circulation becoming better defined and more vertically aligned . On August 7 , the system drifted into southeastern Louisiana . It continued to become better organized , and on August 8 it developed into Tropical Depression Three while located near the northern coast of Lake Pontchartrain . This is unusual in that tropical cyclones rarely form over land .
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression drifted southeastward , and within hours of its formation it emerged into the Gulf of Mexico . Based on ship reports and observations from oil rigs , it is estimated the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Beryl at 1000 UTC on August 8 while located just offshore coastal Louisiana . Conditions remained favorable for further intensification , with the circulation located over warm waters and maintaining well @-@ defined outflow ; early on August 9 Beryl attained its peak intensity of 50 mph while located about 75 miles ( 120 km ) southeast of New Orleans . Shortly thereafter , a trough from the northwest dissipated the anticyclone and resulted in a steady northwest motion very near where the cyclone originally moved offshore . Beryl maintained tropical storm status for about 18 hours before weakening to a tropical depression over central Louisiana . It turned to the northwest , and the surface circulation dissipated on August 10 while located a short distance south of Shreveport , Louisiana . The surface low pressure area crossed into north Texas before dissipating early on August 12 , while its upper @-@ level circulation turned northward into Oklahoma before being merged by an approaching trough .
= = Preparations = =
Upon becoming a tropical storm , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm warning from the mouth of the Mississippi River to Pensacola , Florida . Six hours later , the warning was extended westward to Morgan City , Louisiana . The threat of Beryl prompted some voluntary evacuations in St. Bernard Parish in Louisiana , and also forced the evacuations of thousands from offshore oil rigs . Officials advised small craft to remain at port from Port O 'Connor , Texas to Pensacola , Florida .
= = Impact = =
Rainfall from the storm reached over 7 inches ( 175 mm ) a short distance east of Pensacola , Florida , though impact in the state was minor . Wind gusts peaked at 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) in Pensacola . In Alabama , Beryl produced sustained winds of 38 mph ( 61 km / h ) , with gusts to 54 mph ( 86 km / h ) , as well as above normal tides . The storm dropped heavy rainfall in coastal portions of Alabama , peaking at 16 @.@ 09 inches ( 408 mm ) on Dauphin Island . Rough waves overturned a shrimp boat in Mobile Bay . A 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy on the boat drowned , the only direct fatality from the storm . The boy 's father , also on the boat , spent 24 hours in the water before being rescued by the United States Coast Guard . The waves caused severe beach erosion along the coastline , with Dauphin Island losing 60 to 70 feet ( 18 to 21 m ) of beach .
In Mississippi , coastal areas reported heavy amounts of precipitation , reaching over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) in Jackson County . Sustained winds reached 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) at Gulfport , the strongest wind on a land station . Similar to Alabama , strong waves caused considerable beach erosion along portions of the coastline .
Beryl dropped rainfall across much of Louisiana , peaking at over 10 inches ( 250 mm ) near Morgan City . The rainfall caused significant river flooding along the Biloxi River . Wind gusts were fairly light across the state , reaching 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in New Orleans . The winds caused light tree damage , which resulted in some power outages . A storm surge of about 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) caused some coastal flooding .
The remnants of Beryl produced locally heavy precipitation peaking at about 12 inches ( 300 mm ) in east @-@ central Texas , resulting in some reports of flash flooding . The rainfall flooded some roads and also causes severe river flooding on the Angelina River . Remnant moisture dropped about 5 inches ( 125 mm ) of rain in southeast Oklahoma and 3 inches ( 75 mm ) in southwestern Arkansas . Further inland , the remnants of Beryl cooled temperatures and provided relief to the severe heat wave in the central United States .
Throughout its path , Beryl caused about $ 3 million in damage ( 1988 USD , $ 5 @.@ 46 million 2009 USD ) , primarily along the immediate coastline from erosion or flood damage .
= Clark Thomas Rogerson =
Clark Thomas Rogerson , ( 2 October 1918 – 7 September 2001 ) , was an American mycologist . He was known for his work in the Hypocreales ( Ascomycota ) , particularly Hypomyces , a genus of fungi that parasitize other fungi . After receiving his doctorate from Cornell University in 1950 , he went on to join the faculty of Kansas State University . In 1958 , he became a curator at The New York Botanical Garden , and served as editor for various academic journals published by the Garden . Rogerson was involved with the Mycological Society of America , serving in various positions , including President in 1969 . He was Managing Editor ( 1958 – 89 ) and Editor @-@ in @-@ chief ( 1960 – 65 ) of the scientific journal Mycologia .
= = Biography = =
C.T. Rogerson was born on October 2 , 1918 , in Ogden , Utah , to parents Elijah Knapp Rogerson ( 1899 – 1956 ) and Mable Crissie Clarke Rogerson ( 1897 – 1987 ) . Upon graduating from high school in 1936 , he enrolled in Weber Junior College ( since renamed to Weber State University ) for the following two years . Rogerson then attended Utah State University , where he had hoped to work under the supervision of botanist Bassett Maguire , but settled instead for the only available studentship with plant pathologist B.L. Richards . Rogerson received his bachelor of science from Utah State University in 1940 . Soon after , he was drafted into the army , and spent three years ( 1942 – 1945 ) in the Pacific Theater of World War II . He served as a technical sergeant in laboratory and pharmacy at an army evacuation hospital , and cared for internees released in the Philippines near the war 's end . During his war years , Rogerson made collections of plants , fungi , slime molds , and butterflies that he sent to Cornell or to the Smithsonian Institution .
After the war finished , Rogerson continued studying fungal systematics and started a doctoral program with Harry Morton Fitzpatrick at Cornell University ; noted mycologist Richard Korf was another of Fitzpatrick 's graduate students at the time . Under Fitzpatrick , Rogerson studied Hypomyces fungi and their anamorphs . Fitzpatrick committed suicide in 1950 , and Donald S. Welch replaced him as Rogerson 's advisor for the last few months of his doctoral program . Rogerson received his doctorate from Cornell in 1950 . That year , he joined the faculty of Kansas State University as an assistant professor , but he would ultimately advance to associate professor . While at Kansas , he worked on the identification of fungi , and published nearly 20 papers on fungal taxonomic novelties , aeromycology ( the fungal flora of air ) , and plant diseases caused by fungi .
In 1958 , the director of The New York Botanical Garden , William Jacob Robbins , recruited Rogerson for the position of Curator of Cryptogamic Botany . Rogerson became Senior Curator in 1967 and Senior Curator Emeritus at his retirement in 1990 . As curator of cryptogamic botany , Rogerson " was directly responsible for all accessions and loans of ferns and mosses , as well as of fungi and lichens , until about 1965 when , first a bryologist and later a pteridologist were added to the cryptogamic staff . " At the Garden , he also continued his study on the taxonomy of the Ascomycetes , especially of Hypomyces , a genus of fungi that parasitize other fungi , and the fungal diversity of New York and Utah . Additionally , he served as editor of the Garden 's publications : Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden ( 1963 – 88 ) , North American Flora ( 1963 – 88 ) , and Flora Neotropica ( 1969 – 83 ) . While at the Garden , Rogerson was also an adjunct professor of biology at Columbia University and at the Herbert H. Lehman College of the City University of New York .
During his tenure at the Garden , Rogerson was also a deeply involved member of the Mycological Society of America ( MSA ) . He served as Managing editor ( 1958 – 89 ) and Editor @-@ in @-@ chief ( 1960 – 65 ) of the scientific journal Mycologia . He was Vice @-@ President ( 1967 ) , President Elect ( 1968 ) , and President of the MSA ( 1969 ) , and secretary @-@ treasurer of the society from 1973 to 1974 . He has served as historian of the Mycological Society of America from 1960 to 1990 . Rogerson was a generous donor to MSA student travel awards . He died in Ogden on September 7 , 2001 .
= = Mycological contributions = =
Rogerson added many thousands of records of fungi , mainly from Utah , to the Garden herbarium , where his specimens are available for study by systematists . Rogerson assisted in the formation of the three major amateur mushroom groups in the New York City area : the New York Mycological Association , the New Jersey Mycological Association , and the Connecticut @-@ Westchester Mycological Association ( COMA ) . He helped amateur mycologists correctly identify fungal specimens during his weekends . " In return , amateur mycologists provided him with many specimens of fungicolous Hypomyces . "
In 1970 , Rogerson presented a detailed history of the Hypocreales and reviewed changes in the circumscription of the order up to that time . His publication included keys to the genera of both the Hypocreales and Clavicipitales , followed by a list of genera , each with the literature citation of the original descriptions and type species . He included 115 genera in the Hypocreales .
= = = Taxa described = = =
Cladobotryum arnoldii Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Cladobotryum hughesii Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Cladobotryum succineum Rogerson & Samuels 1992
Cylindrosporium campicola Rogerson & R. Sprague 1959
Hypocrea avellanea Rogerson & S.T. Carey 1976
Hypomyces amaurodermatis Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Hypomyces badius Rogerson & Samuels 1989
Hypomyces boletiphagus Rogerson & Samuels 1989
Hypomyces cervinigenus Rogerson & Simms 1971
Hypomyces chlorinigenus Rogerson & Samuels 1989
Hypomyces lanceolatus Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Hypomyces leotiicola Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Hypomyces melanocarpus Rogerson & Mazzer 1971
Hypomyces melanochlorus Rogerson & Samuels 1989
Hypomyces microspermus Rogerson & Samuels 1989
Hypomyces mycogones Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Hypomyces mycophilus Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Hypomyces papulasporae Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Hypomyces papulasporae var. americanus Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Hypomyces pergamenus Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Hypomyces porphyreus Rogerson & Mazzer 1971
Hypomyces pseudopolyporinus Rogerson & Samuels 1986
Hypomyces stephanomatis Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Hypomyces succineus Rogerson & Samuels 1992
Hypomyces sympodiophorus Rogerson & Samuels 1993
Merugia Rogerson & Samuels 1990
Merugia palicoureae Rogerson & Samuels 1990
Nectria albidopilosa Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Nectria discicola Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Nectria discophila Rogerson & Samuels 1985
Nectria phialotrichi Rogerson & Samuels 1992
Podostroma eperuae Rogerson & Samuels 1992
Sympodiophora polyporicola Rogerson & S.T. Carey 1981
= = Mycological lineage = =
Clark T. Rogerson belongs to the Dudley mycological lineage , which can be traced back to Anton De Bary , a famous German mycologist . William Russell Dudley was Assistant Professor of Cryptogamic Botany at Cornell University from 1883 to 1892 , and received mycological training from De Bary in 1887 . Joseph Charles Arthur , George Francis Atkinson , and Mason B. Thomas studied under Dudley . Thomas went to Wabash College , where he would influence Harry Morton Fitzpatrick to study mycology . Fitzpatrick received his Ph.D. in 1913 at Cornell under tutelage of Atkinson . Rogerson studied under Fitzpatrick at Cornell from 1946 to 1950 . Contemporary to Rogerson was fellow student Richard P. Korf , another prominent mycologist . Students of Rogerson include Robert L. Shaffer ( Kansas State ; M.A. ) , Susan Carey Canham ( Columbia University ; Ph.D. ) , Anna F. Doyle ( Columbia University ; Ph.D. ) , Gary J. Samuels ( Columbia University ; Ph.D. ) , and Rosalind Lowen ( Lehman College ; Ph.D. ) . Katia F. Rodrigues and Priscila Chaverri ( Penn State ; Ph.D. ) studied under Samuels . The Rogerson sublineage continues to expand under Chaverri at the University of Maryland .
= = Honors and memberships = =
Rogerson received several awards and honors during his career :
1969 : President of the Mycological Society of America
1980 : North American Mycological Association ( NAMA ) award for contributions to amateur mycology
1981 : Award from the Mycological Society of America in appreciation for service to the Society as Historian , Secretary @-@ Treasurer , Vice @-@ President , and President and as Managing Editor and Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of Mycologia
1981 : The Connecticut @-@ Westchester Mycological Association ( COMA ) named their annual four @-@ day mushroom foray after C.T. Rogerson in appreciation of his commitment to education and the development of amateur mycology .
1984 : New York Botanical Garden Distinguished Service Award for outstanding contribution to the advancement of Horticulture and Botany
1985 : COMAndation for outstanding service to COMA
1989 : A commemorative publication celebrating the 70th birthday of C.T. Rogerson ( Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 49 : 1 – 375 ) .
2004 : The Mycological Society of America established the Clark T. Rogerson student research and travel award .
Rogerson was a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science , the Bergen Swamp Preservation Society , and the Utah Academy of Sciences .
= = = Eponymous taxa = = =
Rogersonanthus B.Maguire & B.M.Boom ( 1989 )
Rogersonia Samuels & Lodge ( 1996 )
Clonostachys rogersoniana Schroers ( 2001 )
Golovinomyces rogersonii U.Braun ( 1996 )
Pseudocercospora rogersoniana U.Braun & Crous
Pseudocosmospora rogersonii C. Herrera & P. Chaverri
Trichoderma rogersonii Samuels ( 2006 )
Zelleromyces rogersonii Fogel & States ( 2001 )
= = Publications = =
Rogerson wrote 65 research publications and several bibliographic publications .
1950 . Rogerson CT , Muenscher WC . " The vegetation of Bergen Swamp VI . The fungi . " Proc Rochester Acad Sci 9 : 277 – 314 .
1951 . King C , Rogerson CT . " Tomato late blight in Kansas " . Plant Dis Rep 35 : 120 .
1952 . Rogerson CT , Shaffer RL . " Underwoodia in Kansas " . Mycologia 44 : 582 .
1952 . Shaffer RL , Rogerson CT . " Notes on the fleshy fungi of Kansas " . Trans Kansas Acad Sci 55 : 282 – 286 .
1952 . Walker EA , Rogerson CT , Jenkins AE . " Additional collections of plantain scab and violet scab from several North Central states " . Plant Dis Rep 36 : 331 – 332 .
1953 . Elmer OM , Shields IJ , Rogerson CT . " Oak wilt in seven Kansas counties " . Plant Dis Rep 37 : 44 .
1953 . Rogerson CT . " Kansas mycological notes : 1951 " . Trans Kansas Acad 56 : 53 – 57 .
1954 . Rogerson CT , King CL . " Stem rust of Merion bluegrass in Kansas " . Pl Dis Reporter 38 : 57 .
1954 . Rogerson CT . " Kansas mycological notes : 1952 " . Trans Kansas Acad 57 : 280 – 284 .
1954 . Slagg CM , Rogerson CT . " A tuckahoe found in Kansas " . Trans Kansas Acad 57 : 66 – 68 .
1956 . Rogerson CT . " Kansas mycological notes : 1953 – 54 " . Trans Kansas Acad 59 : 39 – 48 .
1957 . Pady SM , Johnston CO , Rogerson CT . " Stipe rust of wheat in Kansas in 1957 " . Plant Dis Rep 41 : 959 – 961 .
1957 . Rogerson CT . " Diseases of grasses in Kansas : 1953 – 55 " . Plant Dis Rep 40 : 388 – 397 .
1957 . — — — . " Verticillium @-@ wilt in Kansas " . Plant Dis Rep 41 : 1053 – 1054 .
1958 . — — — . " Diseases of grasses in Kansas : 1956 – 1957 " . Plant Dis Rep 42 : 346 – 353 .
1958 . — — — . " Kansas aeromycology I. Comparison of media " . Trans Kansas Acad 61 : 155 – 162 .
1958 . — — — . " Kansas mycological notes : 1955 – 1956 " . Trans Kansas Acad 60 : 370 – 375 .
1958 . — — — . " Kansas mycological notes : 1957 " . Trans Kansas Acad 61 : 262 – 272 .
1958 . Sprague R , Rogerson CT . " Some leafspot fungi on Kansas Gramineae " . Mycologia 50 : 634 – 641 .
1959 . CL , Pady SM , Rogerson CT , Ouye L. " Kansas aeromycology II . Materials , methods , and general results " . Trans Kansas Acad 62 : 184 – 199 .
1959 . Kramer CL , Pady SM , Rogerson CT . " Kansas aeromycology III . Cladosporium " . Trans Kansas Acad 62 : 200 – 207 .
1959 . Luttrell ES , Rogerson CT . " Homothallism in an undescribed Cochliobolus and in Cochliobolus kusanoi " . Mycologia 51 : 195 – 202 .
1959 . Willis WW , Rogerson CT , Carpenter WJ . " An evaluation of several fungicides for control of root rot of croft lilies " . Plant Dis Rep 43 : 745 – 749 .
1960 . Hall CV , Dutta SK , Kalia HR , Rogerson CT . " Inheritance of resistance to the fungus Colletotrichum lagenarium in watermelons " . Proc Am Soc Hort Sci 15 : 638 – 643 .
1960 . Kramer CL , Pady SM , Rogerson CT . " Kansas aeromycology IV . Alternaria " . Trans Kansas Acad 62 : 252 – 256 .
1960 . — — — , — — — , — — — . " Kansas aeromycology V : Penicillium and Aspergillus " . Mycologia 52 : 545 – 555 .
1960 . — — — , — — — , — — — . " Kansas aeromycology VIII : Phycomycetes " . Trans Kansas Acad 63 : 19 – 23 .
1962 . Anchel M , Silverman WB , Valanju N , Rogerson CT . " Patterns of polyacetylene production I. The diatretynes " . Mycologia 54 : 249 – 257 .
1962 . Rogerson CT . " Coral mushrooms " . Gard Journal New York Botanical Garden 12 : 52 – 54 .
1962 . Swarup G , Hansing ED , Rogerson CT . " Fungi associated with sorghum seed in Kansas " . Trans Kansas Acad 65 : 120 – 137 .
1965 . Rogerson CT . " Bibliography " . In : Munz PA , Onagraceae ( ed . ) . N Am Flora II 5 : 232 – 265 .
1965 . — — — . " Bibliography " . In : Yuncker TG , Cuscuta ( ed . ) . N Am Flora II 4 : 41 – 48 .
1965 . — — — . " Stinkhorn fungi " . Gard Journal New York Botanical Garden 15 : 214 – 215 .
1966 . — — — . " Dedication and preface " In : Mycologia index volumes 1 – 58 , 1909 – 1966 . The New York Botanical Garden : New York . Pp. vii – xv .
1967 . Kramer CL , Haard RT , Rogerson CT . " Kansas mycological notes , 1955 – 1964 " . Trans Kansas Acad 70 : 241 – 255 .
1968 . Rogerson CT . Preface . In : Mycologia index , volumes 1 – 58 , 1909 – 1966 @.@ ix – xv . New York : The New York Botanical Garden .
1969 . — — — . " The cryptogamic herbarium . Algae and fungi " . Gard Journal New York Botanical Garden 19 : 14 – 19 .
1970 . Hodges CS Jr , Warner GM , Rogerson CT . " A new species of Penicillium " . Mycologia 62 : 1106
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40 , including a best of 6 / 41 against Gujarat , and scoring 190 runs at 31 @.@ 66 with a best of 63 not out . Pathan was then recalled to the senior team and made his List A debut against Mumbai , taking 1 / 69 from nine overs . Pathan further honed his bowling at the MRF Pace Foundation in Chennai , after being referred by Indian selector Kiran More .
In early @-@ 2002 , he was selected for the Under @-@ 19 Cricket World Cup in New Zealand , where he took six wickets at 27 @.@ 50 and scored 30 runs at 15 @.@ 00 , taking 2 / 18 in a win over South Africa .
Upon returning to India , Pathan was selected in a senior zonal team for the first time . He was selected for West Zone for the Duleep Trophy , even though he had not played a single match for Baroda in the Ranji Trophy season . He immediately repaid the selectors ' faith by taking 4 / 74 and 6 / 72 , his first ten @-@ wicket match haul , in the first fixture against Central Zone , setting up a 161 @-@ run win . In the next match , he took 4 / 72 and 3 / 85 as West defeated North by 178 runs . He only took 1 / 55 in the next match against South but West were through to the final , where he took 4 / 43 to help cut down East Zone for 162 in the first innings , sealing the title . In all Pathan , had taken 22 wickets at 18 @.@ 22 for the tournament , and scored 46 runs at 11 @.@ 50 .
These performances propelled Pathan into the India A team at the age of 17 and a half , for a tour of Sri Lanka , where he took six wickets at 35 @.@ 00 in three first @-@ class matches . Pathan then went on an India Under @-@ 19 tour of England in mid @-@ 2002 . He took 15 wickets at 25 @.@ 93 in the three youth Tests , which India lost 1 – 0 , with a best of 4 / 83 in the Second Test . He then took four wickets at 42 @.@ 00 , conceding more than six runs an over , and scored 66 runs at 33 @.@ 00 in the three youth ODIs , which India won 2 – 1 .
Pathan was rewarded with selection in the Rest of India team that played against Railways in the Irani Trophy at the start of the 2002 – 03 season . He took a total of 2 / 84 and scored 29 as the Ranji champions prevailed . He struggled in the Ranji Trophy , taking 18 wickets at 39 @.@ 33 in seven matches . Half of his wickets came in one match against Orissa in which he claimed 6 / 31 and 3 / 46 in an innings victory . He scored 161 runs at 23 @.@ 00 , with a 54 against Tamil Nadu being his maiden first @-@ class fifty , as well as two other forties . Despite a lack of wickets for Baroda , Pathan was selected for the Duleep Trophy , playing for Elite Group A. He took 5 / 88 and 4 / 106 against Plate Group A and 4 / 101 against Elite Group C , before taking 3 / 53 and 2 / 42 as Elite Group A defeated Elite Group B in the final by seven wickets . Pathan ended the tournament with 19 wickets at 27 @.@ 00 and scored 72 runs at 24 @.@ 00 . In the one @-@ dayers , Pathan also struggled for Baroda , taking three wickets at 64 @.@ 66 in four matches at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 85 , but he was nevertheless selected for the zonal team , where he took four wickets at 34 @.@ 25 in four matches at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 91 .
In 2003 he was selected for the India A team which travelled to England . Playing in five first @-@ class matches , Pathan took nine wickets at 43 @.@ 77 , including 4 / 60 against Yorkshire and 3 / 83 against South Africa . He managed only 8 runs at 4 @.@ 00 with the bat . He had more success in the limited @-@ overs matches , taking eight wickets at 11 @.@ 12 in three matches , including a 4 / 19 against Lancashire , and scoring 27 runs at 27 @.@ 00 .
At the start of the 2003 – 04 season , Pathan played in the domestic Challenger Trophy for the first time . Representing India A , he had little success , taking two wickets at 79 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 85 , and he did not force his way into India 's limited @-@ overs team . He was then selected for India Emerging Players for a series of limited @-@ overs matches against counterparts from Pakistan and Sri Lanka . Pathan took seven wickets at 11 @.@ 00 in three matches , including 4 / 22 and 3 / 35 in two matches against Pakistan .
In late 2003 , he was selected for the India Under @-@ 19 team to compete in an Asian youth ODI competition in Pakistan , where he was the leading bowler with 18 wickets at 7 @.@ 38 , with an economy rate of 3 @.@ 54 . This was more than twice that of the second leading wicket @-@ taker . He was named as the player of the tournament , which India won after defeating Sri Lanka by eight wickets in the final . Pathan was featured on the headlines when he claimed 9 / 16 against Bangladesh , helping to bowl them out for 34 , and helped India to emerge victorious over Sri Lanka in the final , taking 3 / 33 . Pathan also scored 94 runs at 31 @.@ 33 with the bat , compiling scores of 32 , 28 and 34 . Pathan returned to India and took 3 / 51 and 1 / 33 and scored 26 and 12 in his first Ranji Trophy match for the season , against Andhra Pradesh . This resulted in him being selected for the Indian national squad for the 2003 – 04 Border @-@ Gavaskar Trophy Test series in Australia .
= = Early international career ( 2003 – 2005 ) = =
Pathan made his Test debut in the Second Test against Australia at the Adelaide Oval in December 2003 . At the age of 19 , he opened the bowling following an injury to the Baroda left @-@ armer Zaheer Khan in the First Test . In a high scoring match , he took the wicket of Matthew Hayden while giving away 160 runs at almost five runs an over . He scored one in his only innings as India took a four @-@ wicket victory . He was dropped for the following Test upon the return of Zaheer , but was recalled for the Fourth Test at the Sydney Cricket Ground after Zaheer broke down in his only spell in the Third Test . On another flat pitch , Pathan took the wickets of Steve Waugh , Adam Gilchrist in the first innings in a spell of reverse swing bowling . He had Waugh caught behind from an outswinger and then bowled Gilchrist with an inswinging yorker . He ended with 2 / 80 in the first innings and dismissed Ricky Ponting in the second innings to end with match figures of 3 / 106 .
In the ODI tri @-@ nation tournament against Australia and Zimbabwe that followed , Pathan was the leading wicket @-@ taker with 16 wickets at an average of 31 in his maiden ODI series . After ending with 0 / 61 from ten overs on debut against Australia , he bounced back to take 3 / 64 and 3 / 51 in the next two matches against the World Cup holders . He earned his first international man of the match award in the tournament , after taking 4 / 24 against Zimbabwe at the WACA Ground in Perth in his eighth ODI . However , his tour ended on a bad note after he was reprimanded by match referees for mocking the Australian batsman Damien Martyn after his dismissal in the second final . In that match , he took 2 / 75 as Australia amassed 5 / 359 and crushed India by 208 runs . Pathan made 30 in the match as his team folded for only 151 . His batting improved towards the end of the tour with three scores of at least 19 in his last four innings , and he ended with 86 runs at 17 @.@ 20 for the tournament .
Pathan subsequently led the pace attack again on the 2004 Test tour to Pakistan , taking 12 wickets and bowling a higher proportion of maiden overs than any other bowler to help secure India 's first series victory over Pakistan in two decades . In the first innings , he bowled 28 overs and took 4 / 100 to help India restrict their arch @-@ rivals to 407 and take a 268 @-@ run lead . After stand @-@ in captain Rahul Dravid enforced the follow on , Pathan tied the Pakistanis down , bowling 12 maidens in his 21 overs to end with 2 / 26 as India secured an innings win . Pathan then scored 49 in the Second Test in Lahore after a batting collapse of the top order , helping India to recover to 287 . However this was not enough as Pakistan reached 489 despite Pathan bowling 44 overs to take 3 / 107 , and the hosts went on to complete a nine @-@ wicket win . In the deciding Test in Rawalpindi , Pathan took 2 / 49 and 1 / 35 in an innings win . He ended the series with 12 wickets at 28 @.@ 50 and 64 runs at 21 @.@ 33 .
He also continued his prolific wicket @-@ taking in the ODIs , taking eight wickets at 17 @.@ 87 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 76 in three matches , including three top @-@ order wickets in the deciding fifth ODI in Lahore . He also scored 36 runs at 36 @.@ 00 in the ODIs . His ability to swing the ball both ways and his innings in Lahore led to speculation that he could become an all rounder . In recognition of his performances at the start of his international career , Pathan was named the ICC Emerging Player of the Year in 2004 .
Pathan continued his productive form in ODIs at the 2004 Asian Cup in Sri Lanka , where he was the leading wicket @-@ taker with 14 wickets at 16 @.@ 28 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 37 in six matches , with three three @-@ wicket hauls against the United Arab Emirates , Bangladesh and Pakistan respectively . He also scored 64 runs at 32 @.@ 00 including a 38 in a defeat against Pakistan .
He then struggled during an ODI tour in Europe , taking three wickets at 78 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 48 from five matches . India won only one of these games and lost four . Pathan returned to form during India 's brief campaign at the 2004 ICC Champions Trophy in England , where he claimed 5 wickets at an average of 9 @.@ 00 and economy rate of 3 @.@ 00 . He took 2 / 11 against Kenya and 3 / 34 against Pakistan , but defeat at the hands of the latter ended India 's campaign .
Returning to India , Pathan then represented his country at the highest level for the first time on home soil . Pathan continued to improve his batting with a defiant 31 and 55 against Australia in October 2004 in the First Test in Bangalore . This was his first half @-@ century in Tests , and was scored after the specialist batsmen had failed . Nevertheless , he managed a total of only 2 / 100 and India fell to a 217 @-@ run loss . Pathan 's career was put on hold after he suffered a side strain in the following Test in Chennai , in which he totalled 0 / 68 , causing him to miss the Tests in Nagpur and Mumbai . Australia went on to take the series 2 – 1 and Pathan ended with two wickets at 84 @.@ 00 and 100 runs at 33 @.@ 33 . After being overlooked for the First Test with selectors opting for three spinners , he returned in the Second Test against South Africa in Kolkata , aggregating 3 / 89 and scoring 24 in an eight @-@ wicket win that sealed a 1 – 0 series win .
Pathan made his name in Tests on the December tour to Bangladesh . Swinging the ball both ways , Pathan took 5 / 45 and 6 / 51 including several LBW decisions in the First Test in Dhaka to claim his first ten @-@ wicket haul and his first Test man of the match award as India claimed a commanding innings victory . He followed this with a match haul of 7 / 118 in the following match in Chittagong to take 18 wickets at 11 @.@ 88 to be named as man of the series . India swept the series , winning both matches by an innings . Although the Indian batsmen scored heavily , Pathan managed only five and four . He played in only one of the three ODIs against the hosts as India rotated their players , taking 1 / 45 and scoring 21 not out in an 11 @-@ run win .
In late 2004 , the Board of Control for Cricket in India introduced central contracts for international players for the first time , and Pathan was given a B @-@ grade contract . 2005 began rather poorly for Pathan . He took only six wickets at 68 @.@ 33 in the home Test series against Pakistan after losing pace and accuracy . In the last two matches , he managed totals of 2 / 122 and 1 / 160 , conceding more than four runs an over as the Pakistani batsmen scored heavily . He scored 64 runs at 16 @.@ 00 and made a duck in the second innings of the Third Test as the hosts collapsed on the last day to squander the series 1 – 1 .
He was subsequently dropped for the ODI series , playing in only one match in which he conceded 67 runs without picking up a wicket in 8 overs . However , he did manage to post his first ODI half @-@ century , scoring 64 , defiantly holding up his end as India were bowled out for 213 , sealing a 106 @-@ run loss . Greg Chappell became the coach of the Indian team following the Pakistan series and identified Pathan as a potential all @-@ rounder . He started to hone Pathan 's batting skills , which had up to this point yielded 275 Test runs at 19 @.@ 64 . Pathan was subsequently signed by Middlesex County Cricket Club for the English country season , where he attempted to regain his form after his bad start to the year . Pathan arrived in late @-@ May and stayed for six weeks . He achieved better results than in the Pakistan series , taking six wickets at 24 @.@ 66 and an economy rate of 5 @.@ 41 in four one @-@ dayers , including 3 / 42 against Essex . In the new Twenty20 format , Pathan took 12 wickets at 12 @.@ 75 and an economy rate of 6 @.@ 37 in seven matches , including a best of 4 / 27 against Essex . He scored 21 not out in the same match to help seal a 31 @-@ run win . However , his difficulties in first @-@ class matches continued . He took 4 / 81 and 1 / 68 , and scored 41 and 13 not out in a productive debut against Sussex , and Middlesex were only one wicket away from victory when time ran out . However , he failed to take another wicket and ended with five wickets at 64 @.@ 80 and 126 runs at 63 @.@ 00 , scoring 68 against Surrey .
= = Chappell era ( 2005 – 2007 ) = =
Pathan was recalled to the ODI team for the 2005 Indian Oil Cup in Sri Lanka in August . This was Chappell 's first series as a coach , in which Pathan played in all five matches and took 6 wickets at 33 @.@ 83 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 41 , but conceded 0 / 59 from nine overs as the hosts won the final . He scored 58 runs at 29 @.@ 00 including an unbeaten 36 after India 's batting collapsed in a loss to the hosts in a preliminary match .
He showed further signs of returning to peak form in the Videocon Triangular Series in Zimbabwe , taking 10 wickets at 16 @.@ 10 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 03 and scored 60 runs at 30 @.@ 00 in four matches . This included a haul of 3 / 34 and then a score of 50 as India collapsed to 164 all out and a 51 @-@ run loss to New Zealand . In another match , he took his ODI career best of 5 / 27 against Zimbabwe in Harare as the hosts fell for 65 . Despite his overall good form , Pathan was punished by the New Zealanders in the final , conceding 40 runs in five wicketless overs as India lost their second successive final . He was subsequently the leading wicket @-@ taker as India took a 2 – 0 clean sweep of an away Test series against Zimbabwe . In the First Test in Bulawayo , Pathan took 5 / 58 and 4 / 53 as well as scoring 52 in a man of the match performance to help India to an innings victory . He followed this with a 7 / 59 haul , his Test career best innings haul , and 5 / 67 in the final Test in Harare , his second ten @-@ wicket match haul to set up a ten wicket victory , having also scored 32 in the first innings . He was again named man of the match , and his 21 wickets at 11 @.@ 29 runs saw him named man of the series . This made him only the third bowler after Anil Kumble and Johnny Briggs to take 21 wickets in a two @-@ match series .
Upon the team 's return to India , Chappell experimented with Pathan by using him as an opening batsman in the Challenger Trophy prior to the late 2005 series against Sri Lankan cricket team . This yielded only moderate success with scores of 28 and 11 not out . Pathan took six wickets at 29 @.@ 16 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 17 . Pathan was subsequently used at No. 3 in the batting line @-@ up in the First ODI against Sri Lanka in Nagpur , where he scored 83 runs from 70 balls to help India post a total of 6 / 350 . Pathan also took 4 / 37 and 3 / 38 in the second and seventh matches at Mohali and Baroda respectively to win two @-@ man of the match awards , taking ten wickets at 25 @.@ 60 at ane economy rate of 5 @.@ 22 for the whole series . He added a 35 in the final match and ended the series with 118 runs at 39 @.@ 33 , playing akey role in India 's 6 – 1 triumph . Pathan continued his strong ODI form with another man of the match performance of 3 / 23 and a knock of 37 runs against South Africa in the second ODI in Bangalore , having scored 46 in the middle @-@ order in the first match after a top @-@ order collapse . He ended the series with six wickets at 20 @.@ 33 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 69 and 83 runs at 27 @.@ 66 .
After scoring two consecutive ducks in the Test series against Sri Lanka , Pathan was elevated to opening in the second innings of the Second Test in Delhi , after regular opener Virender Sehwag was down with illness . Having taken 3 / 34 from 22 overs in the first innings , Pathan scored 93 runs , building on a first innings lead of 60 to help set up a winning target of 436 . In the following match in Ahmedabad , he scored 82 runs and combined in a century stand with V. V. S. Laxman to revive India after an early batting collapse saw five wickets fall during the first half of the opening day . He also took seven wickets at an average of 26 @.@ 00 runs in the series , which India won 2 – 0 . Pathan later admitted that he had been disappointed in failing to score a Test century . Following his strong performances in 2005 , Pathan was promoted in December to an A @-@ grade contract by the Board of Control for Cricket in India .
Pathan had another difficult start to the new year in 2006 on the Test tour to Pakistan . In the first two Test matches played on flat surfaces in Lahore and Faisalabad , he had little success against the Pakistani batsmen , taking a total of two wickets while conceding 319 runs at more than four runs an over . After not getting an opportunity in the First Test — India lost only one wicket — Pathan made use of the good batting conditions himself and scored 90 in a double century partnership with wicket @-@ keeper Mahendra Singh Dhoni in Faisalabad . Pathan found success with the ball in the Third Test in Karachi , when on 29 January , he became the first person to claim a hat @-@ trick in the first over of a Test match — the first five minutes of a match scheduled for 30 hours — and the first Indian to take a hat @-@ trick in an away Test . It was also the highest in terms of total averages of the batsmen dismissed ( 130 @.@ 18 : Salman Butt 34 @.@ 27 , Younis Khan 46 @.@ 04 , Mohammad Yousuf 49 @.@ 86 ) and came after 1783 Tests in the history of cricket . He had Butt caught by Dravid in the slips from an outswinger , before trapping Younis leg before wicket and bowling Yousuf , both with inswingers . He finished with a haul of 5 / 61 after the hosts staged a lower @-@ order counter @-@ attack but was punished in the second innings , taking 1 wicket while conceding 106 runs as Pakistan set a target which was beyond India 's reach . Pathan ended the series with 134 runs at 44 @.@ 66 and took eight wickets at 60 @.@ 75 . Despite his Test travails , Pathan continued to perform strongly in the ODI arena , scoring 65 in the top order in the first ODI against Pakistan in Peshawar before making three consecutive three wicket hauls in the following matches . This included a man of the match performance that included a haul of 3 wickets for 43 runs at Rawalpindi as he claimed nine wickets at 18 @.@ 88 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 49 for the series . Having taken an unassailable 3 – 1 lead , India rested Pathan for the final match .
Pathan had a quiet series against England following his return to India , taking 8 wickets at an average of 39 @.@ 37 runs and scoring 121 runs at an average of 24 @.@ 20 runs in three Tests . Pathan scored 52 in the first innings of the Second Test in Mohali , helping India to a first @-@ innings lead and eventually a nine @-@ wicket win . In the Third Test , Pathan managed only 1 / 84 in total and scored 26 and 6 as they collapsed on the final day and ceded their series lead . Again his ODI form was unaffected , taking eleven wickets at 15 @.@ 63 in five matches , and scoring 123 runs at 41 @.@ 00 with the bat as India easily claimed the series 5 – 1 . Pathan scored 28 and then took 3 / 21 in a low @-@ scoring 29 @-@ win in the first match , before scoring 36 and taking 4 / 51 in the third match in Goa . India then took an unassailable 4 – 0 lead by winning the fourth match , in which Pathan took 1 / 27 before scoring 46 in the run @-@ chase .
= = International omission = =
Pathan began to suffer a loss of form during the tour of the West Indies in May 2006 , when he managed only 24 runs at 6 @.@ 00 and took 6 wickets at 29 @.@ 83 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 59 while bowling in the ODI arena as India lost the series 4 – 1 . After a poor display in a tour match , in which he was hit for 70 runs in 12 overs and appeared jaded , he was dropped from the Test team as V. R. V. Singh became the third place bowler and captain Rahul Dravid scrapped the five bowler strategy . Pathan only played once in the Second Test , after Sreesanth was sidelined due to injury . He scored 19 and took 1 / 43 and 1 / 50 as India enforced the follow on but the hosts hung on for a draw with three wickets in hand . India then selected two spinners in the last two Tests , and Pathan could not gain one of the two pace positions . Chappell stated that Pathan was fatigued and had been overworked but was confident that Pathan " would recover from his slump and rise to further heights " , asserting that he was still young and learning . Former India paceman Javagal Srinath expressed concern about Pathan 's dwindling pace , but expressed that swing was the first priority in backing Pathan 's return to international cricket .
These concerns were further magnified in late 2006 , when Pathan conceded 54 runs in six overs in the first two matches of a triangular ODI tournament in Malaysia . Despite scoring 64 in the top @-@ order in the first of these matches against the West Indies , Pathan was dropped for the rest of the tournament . He appeared to have run into some form during the Challenger Trophy when he took five wickets at 15 @.@ 80 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 64 and scored 95 runs at 31 @.@ 66 in three matches .
Pathan was then demoted from the position of an opening bowler in ODIs during the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy ; he took four wickets at 24 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 4 @.@ 80 , and scored only 29 runs at 9 @.@ 66 , as India were knocked out in the first round . Pathan was then limited to sporadic ODI appearances on the late @-@ 2006 tour to South Africa . Playing in three of the five matches , he took a solitary wicket at 136 @.@ 00 , conceding 7 @.@ 15 runs per over , the only bright spot being an unbeaten 47 as India were skittled for 163 in one match ; they were whitewashed by the hosts .
Since the West Indies tour in May 2006 , Pathan had only been taking wickets at 41 @.@ 33 . He subsequently fell out of the Top 10 of the ICC bowling rankings and the Top 5 of the All rounder rankings after having spent the previous year on the list . Despite this , Indian captain Rahul Dravid remained optimistic about Pathan 's prospects , stating " The number of Man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Matches that Irfan has won is a testimony to the fact that he 's a proven matchwinner for us . He takes wickets early , contributes with the bat , is good in the field . " Despite top scoring in both innings of a first @-@ class warm @-@ up match in Potchefstroom , scoring 111 not out and 40 not out whilst many specialist batsmen failed to cope with the bouncy conditions , he totalled only 1 / 49 from eight overs with the ball and was overlooked by the selectors for the First Test in Johannesburg . This indicated that although he had scored 560 runs at 35 @.@ 00 under Chappell 's coaching , they saw bowling , which had been steadily declining , as his primary responsibility . After a poor bowling display in the subsequent tour match in which he conceded 74 runs in only 11 overs , Pathan became the first player to be sent home by the BCCI during a tour for poor performance rather than indiscipline . It was later revealed by Kiran More that it was a mutual agreement so that Pathan could play for Baroda in the final two rounds of Ranji Trophy in an attempt to regain form via match practice instead of watching the final two Tests from the sidelines . He subsequently led Baroda to the semi @-@ finals after scoring 82 * to help defeat Uttar Pradesh by five wickets , but his bowling remained ineffective , returning figures of 2 / 108 and 1 / 59 , conceding 4 @.@ 77 runs per over . Former Indian captain Sunil Gavaskar attributed Pathan 's situation to mismanagement , asserting that Pathan has been " messed about " as well as insinuating foul play . Pathan 's fortunes improved in the next two matches , totalling 5 / 92 and 7 / 96 against Tamil Nadu and Mumbai respectively .
Pathan was initially dropped for the ODI series hosted by India against the West Indies , but was recalled for the final match in his home town after claiming seven wickets against Mumbai in the Ranji Trophy semi @-@ final . His performance was regarded as lacklustre , taking 1 / 43 from seven overs . The selectors persisted and named him in the squad for the 2007 Cricket World Cup , but injury stopped him from playing in the ODI series against Sri Lanka , denying him an opportunity to regain form . Pathan on his return took two wickets of the overs which he bowled.He had an impressive start as he took the wicket of Lendle Simons as a Leg Before Wicket .
After taking 1 / 12 and 3 / 25 in warm @-@ up matches against the Netherlands and the West Indies in the Caribbean , Pathan did not play a match at the World Cup , and was among a group of players to be dropped from the squad following India 's exit from the first round . He played no part in the tours of Bangladesh and England . Instead , he was sent on an India A tour of Africa . Two years after devastating the Zimbabwean batsmen , he played against a Zimbabwe Select XI , he took only six wickets at 30 @.@ 16 in two matches , and then took eight wickets at 18 @.@ 12 in two matches against Kenya . India won all four matches , and Pathan scored 87 runs at 21 @.@ 75 . Pathan then took six wickets at 23 @.@ 83 and scored 93 runs at 31 @.@ 00 in four one @-@ dayers .
= = International comeback = =
With India 's older players opting out of the inaugural World Twenty20 , Pathan was one of several younger players to regain national selection . India were not expected to do well in a format that favoured stronger fielding sides . In the first match , he scored 20 and took 2 / 20 in four overs as India tied with Pakistan in the first round , before winning in a bowl @-@ out . He then took 0 / 16 from two chamatkar as India lost to New Zealand before taking 3 / 37 in a defeat of England . India needed a win over hosts South Africa to reach the semi @-@ final and Pathan conceded only 16 runs from his four overs , helping to restrict the hosts to 9 / 116 in pursuit of 154 . Pathan then took 2 / 44 , removing Brad Hodge and Andrew Symonds as India managed to defend 188 for a 15 @-@ run win to reach the finals . India faced arch @-@ rivals Pakistan in the final . Pathan was declared the Man of the match after bowling a tidy spell and taking 3 / 16 , including the removal of Pakistan captain Shoaib Malik and then the big @-@ hitting Shahid Afridi for a duck in the space of three balls , before later bowling Yasir Arafat .
As a result of his performances in South Africa , Pathan was recalled to the ODI team and played in the home series against Australia and Pakistan in late 2007 . He played in all 12 matches , seven against Australia and five against Pakistan . Pathan scored 131 runs at 18 @.@ 71 in the lower @-@ order and took 12 wickets at 46 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 02 , averaging substantially worse than his overall career statistics . It was a steady performance ; Pathan never took more than two wickets in any match and his economy rate was always between 4 @.@ 60 and 6 @.@ 66 and scored 26 and 29 in consecutive matches in Baroda and Rajkot against Australia before making 43 in the final match against Pakistan .
With India opting to field two spinners and two pacemen on turning tracks in the home Test series against Pakistan in late 2007 , Pathan missed the first two Tests as Zaheer and Rudra Pratap Singh were the fast bowlers chosen . In the meantime , he took 11 wickets at 23 @.@ 81 and scored 90 runs at 30 @.@ 00 in two Ranji Trophy matches . Injury to both Zaheer and Singh in his colleagues resulted in his recall for the Third Test at Bangalore . Pathan scored his maiden Test century , reaching the mark with a six from leg spinner Danish Kaneria to move from 96 to 102 with only last man , paceman Ishant Sharma left to accompany him , before holing out in the same over . He made 21 not out in the second innings but was unpenetrative with the ball , taking a total of 1 / 110 as the tourists hung on for a draw .
Pathan gained selection for the 2007 – 08 tour of Australia , but did not play in the first two Tests with only two pacemen chosen . Zaheer and Singh were the first @-@ choice pace duo before the former was injured and replaced by Ishant , who had taken five wickets in the first innings of the Bangalore Test . With the Third Test held on the bouncy WACA Ground in Perth , Pathan replaced second spinner Harbhajan Singh . He batted well with scores of 28 and 46 respectively . His second innings performance came as a nightwatchman in order to shield other batsmen from the new ball late in the second day . After entering at the fall of the first wicket , he batted for more than two hours and was the sixth man to fall . Pathan rediscovered his ability to swing the ball , taking 2 / 63 and 3 / 54 , including both Australian openers in each innings , having the hosts two wickets down in both innings before 50 runs had been scored . He had four of his victims caught behind the wicket off an edge and trapped Chris Rogers lbw . India won by 72 runs and Pathan was recognised with the man of the match award .
After his batting displays in Perth , Pathan was promoted to open the batting in the Fourth Test in Adelaide , replacing the struggling Wasim Jaffer and thereby allowing Harbhajan to return in a five @-@ bowler attack . In a high @-@ scoring match , Pathan took 3 / 112 , but he struggled with the responsibility of opening , scoring nine and a duck . In a high @-@ scoring match , he took 3 / 112 in Australia 's 563.Following the Test series , he top @-@ scored with 26 as India were skittles for 74 in the one @-@ off T20 international . Pathan held his place in the ODI team and played all 10 matches in the Commonwealth Bank Trophy , scoring 118 runs at 19 @.@ 66 mostly in the lower order and taking 11 wickets at 34 @.@ 27 at an economy rate of 5 @.@ 49 . His best performance was a 4 / 41 against Australia at Adelaide to help restrict the hosts to 203 but India then collapsed to a 50 @-@ run loss . His top @-@ score of 31 in the series came in partnership with captain Mahendra Singh Dhoni in the closing stages of a successful and tense run @-@ chase against Sri Lanka . Pathan struggled in the two finals against Australia , taking three wickets at 39 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 7 @.@ 46 but his teammates did enough to ensure a 2 – 0 win . An extra bowler backfired as the batsmen struggled . Pathan top @-@ scored with 21 * in India 's first innings of 76 on the first morning and was again unbeaten in the second innings with 43 . However , he failed to take a wicket and conceded 85 runs in only 21 @.@ 2 overs in an innings defeat , and was omitted from the next Test . After the South Africa series , Pathan participated in the 2008 Indian Premier League , having been purchased by the Kings XI Punjab .
He took 15 wickets at 23 @.@ 33 at the economy rate of 6 @.@ 60 runs per over . His most effective performance came when he added an unbeaten 24 and took 2 / 18 from his four overs to help Punjab to a nine @-@ run win over the Kolkata Knight Riders . He scored 131 runs at 21 @.@ 83 and added 40 in a failed run @-@ chase against Chennai Super Kings .
= = Back on the fringes = =
Following the IPL , Pathan resumed international duties in the Kitply Cup and the 2008 Asia Cup . He had an unproductive time with the ball ; although he scored a total of 86 runs at 28 @.@ 66 , he took seven wickets at 51 @.@ 42 at an economy rate of 6 @.@ 56 . Pathan was overlooked for the Tests in Sri Lanka but was called into the team for the one @-@ dayers , but played in only three of the five fixtures . He took three wickets at 34 @.@ 66 , conceding 5 @.@ 20 runs an over , and struggled with the bat , scoring 19 runs at 6 @.@ 33 as the Indian batting collapsed in each match . He was then included in an India A team for a series of matches against touring counterparts from New Zealand and Australia . He had average results , taking four wickets at 43 @.@ 75 and an economy rate of 4 @.@ 86 , and scored 56 runs at 18 @.@ 66 in four games . He did better the Challenger Trophy , taking six wickets at 14 @.@ 00 at an economy rate of 3 @.@ 42 , and scored 71 runs at 35 @.@ 50 as India Blue won all three matches .
At the start of the first @-@ class season , Pathan scored 56 but took a total of only 1 / 91 for the Board President 's XI against the touring Australians ahead of the Test series , and he was overlooked for Test selection as India used only two pacemen . He returned to play for Baroda in the Ranji Trophy . He played in four matches and performed strongly , taking 26 wickets at 16 @.@ 03 and scored 166 runs at 33 @.@ 20 . He started the season with 6 / 85 and 1 / 34 in a draw against Uttar Pradesh , and then took 4 / 42 and 1 / 46 against Railways . He then put on an all @-@ round display to guide his team to a victory over Maharashtra . Pathan took 5 / 64 and then scored 51 as Baroda made 305 in their first innings to take a 77 @-@ run lead . After taking 1 / 61 in the second innings , he scored an unbeaten 50 to guide Baroda to their target of 227 with four wickets in hand . In his final Ranji fixture for the season , he took 7 / 35 in the first innings to help dismiss Andhra Pradesh for 77 , setting up an innings win . However , with India persisting with and tasting success with their Test bowling strategy , Pathan was also overlooked for the home Tests against England . Pathan 's domestic season was interrupted by spasmodic limited overs duty . Following his recent uneconomical run in ODIs , he was not given a game in the seven @-@ match series against England in November until India had taken an unassailable 4 – 0 series lead . He took 0 / 57 from ten overs in the fifth match , as India recorded another victory , but did not get another opportunity after the Mumbai terrorist attacks saw the two remaining fixtures cancelled . Pathan was then selected for the early @-@ 2009 five @-@ match ODI tour of Sri Lanka , but was not entrusted with a match until India took an unbeatable 3 – 0 lead . He took four wickets at 28 @.@ 25 in two matches , but was again expensive , conceding 7 @.@ 06 runs an over . However , he ended the tour on a high note when he combined with half @-@ brother Yusuf in an unbroken eighth @-@ wicket stand that saw India to a three @-@ wicket win in the T20 international after a late flurry ; Irfan ended on 33 not out . Pathan returned to India and took 3 / 50 and scored 51 not out in his only domestic one @-@ dayer for Baroda during the season , which ended in a win , before leaving for the limited overs leg of a tour to New Zealand .
Pathan had a poor time in New Zealand . In the two T20 internationals preceding the ODIs , he took 0 / 38 and 2 / 41 , conceding his runs at an alarming economy rate of 11 @.@ 28 . He was left out of all five ODIs during the tour before heading home . He then played in all 14 of Punjab 's round @-@ robin matches in the 2009 Indian Premier League held in South Africa , taking 17 wickets at 22 @.@ 94 with an economy rate of 7 @.@ 74 , and scored 196 runs at 19 @.@ 60 . He started strongly , taking nine wickets in four matches in the early stages of the tournament , before taking only two in the next five matches , and ending with six in the last three fixtures . Punjab failed to make the semi @-@ finals .
Pathan 's performances in the IPL were enough for him to retain his position in the national T20 team after his performances in New Zealand , and he then proceeded to the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 in England in June , where India were seeking to defend their title . He struggled in the warm @-@ up matches , totalling 1 / 49 in five overs , and again in the first round of matches , bowling five overs and conceding 42 runs without success . Nevertheless , India defeated both Bangladesh and Ireland to move into the next round . He took 1 / 9 from two overs in the loss to the West Indies in the Super 8 round , and was left out for the remaining two matches , which India lost to be eliminated .
Since then , Pathan was dropped from the limited overs team and was then injured for an extended period , until he made his return to cricket in the Ranji Trophy in November . He played in six matches for Baroda as captain and was successful with both bat and ball , scoring 397 runs at 49 @.@ 62 and taking 22 wickets at 18 @.@ 54 . In his most productive first @-@ class season with the bat , Pathan made starts in eight of his nine innings , only failing to reach 24 once , and scoring four fifties , although he was unable to convert any to triple figures . In his fourth match of the season , Pathan top @-@ scored in both innings with 68 and 81 as Baroda lost to Karnataka by an innings after making 153 and 223 . He then took a total of 7 / 76 and scored 65 not out to secure a seven @-@ wicket win over Saurashtra , and then totalled 7 / 96 in a seven @-@ wicket triumph over Maharashtra . However , these performances were not enough to earn Pathan a Test recall . Furthermore , on 25 February 2010 the Board of Control for Cricket in India ( BCCI ) announced its list of 30 probables for the T20 World Cup to be held in the West Indies , the most notable omission being Irfan Pathan .
Pathan took 5 / 100 in the first innings of the Duleep Trophy final against South Zone . His fifth wicket brought up his 300th scalp at first @-@ class level . After cricket was engulfed in a series of corruption scandals in September 2010 , Pathan told the media that he had received " three expensive gifts in his room " and , later , two further gifts that he could not afford . Pathan reported this to the team management as he thought the gifts might be from a bookmaker .
= = Comeback to the national side and knee injury = =
Irfan Pathan was recalled for India 's ODI squad for last two matches of five match one @-@ day series against West Indies in December 2011 , and played in last match of the series , picking the wicket of first ball .
He was selected for the Commonwealth Bank Series , playing four games and scoring 96 runs at an average of 24 with a top score of 47 . He also succeeded in taking 6 wickets at an average of 31 @.@ 16 ; his best figures were 3 / 16 . His strong performances led to his inclusion in the Asia Cup squad . He played three matches and did not get a chance to bat but he proved himself with the ball taking 4 / 32 in the first match of the series against Sri Lanka . He picked up two more wickets in the next two games . He was the part of the team touring South Africa for the one T20 played on 31 March 2012 where he had figures of 4 – 0 – 44 – 1 but was yet to bat . Pathan also played for the Delhi Daredevils the Indian Premier League in 2012 , taking only 8 wickets from 17 matches with an average of 58 @.@ 12 . BCCI announced on 13 July 2012 inclusion of Irfan Pathan in the Indian team for the tour of Sri Lanka as a replacement to the injured Vinay Kumar . With his all round performance , India managed to win four of the five ODIs and the lone T20 match in the next series in Sri Lanka . Pathan emerged as the top wicket taker with a 5 @-@ wicket haul .
Irfan Pathan was a part of the Indian squad for the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 tournament in Sri Lanka . In the Ranji Trophy 2012 – 13 opener against Karnataka , Pathan raised his First @-@ class top @-@ score to 121 with his 3rd domestic hundred . But , he injured his knee during match and only made comeback to cricket in March 2013 . In 2014 he was picked up by Sunrisers Hyderabad to play in the Indian Premier League .
= = Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa = =
Pathan became a contestant on the Colors TV popular dance show Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa in the 8th season in 2015 . He impressed many people with his dancing skills and stayed on the show for little while until he quit the show in the 6th week on 22 August 2015 .
= = Personal life = =
Irfan Pathan married Jeddah @-@ based , Safa Baig in February 2016 . Cricketer Irfan Pathan settled in matrimony with Jeddah @-@ based model Safa Baig on February 4 . The wedding took place in the holy city of Mecca and it was a low key affair.Safa is the daughter of Mirza Farooq Baig . She is currently working for a PR firm and is also a popular nail artist , said reports .
= = Cricket Academy Of Pathans = =
The Cricket Academy Of Pathans was jointly launched by Irfan Pathan and Yusuf Pathan.The academy has tied up with former India coach Greg Chappell and Cameron Tradell as chief mentors . Chappell would coach the coaches of the Academy .
= = Statistics = =
In the column Runs , * indicates being not out .
The column title Match refers to the Match Number of his career .
= = = International Centuries = = =
= = = = Test Centuries = = = =
= = = International 5 @-@ Wicket Hauls = = =
= = = = Test 5 @-@ Wicket Hauls = = = =
= = = = One Day International 5 @-@ Wicket Hauls = = = =
= = Records / Trivia = =
Irfan Pathan holds the World record ( as of 29 January 2013 ) for the double – 1000 runs and 100 wickets in the quickest time in an ODI career . It took him 1059 days .
He is the fastest Indian ODI player to reach the 100 wicket milestone ( in 59 matches )
= = Awards = =
2004 – ICC Emerging Player of the Year
= = = Test Awards = = =
= = = = Man of the Match Awards = = = =
= = = = Man of the Series Awards = = = =
= = = ODI Awards = = =
= = = = Man of the Match Awards = = = =
= = = T20I Awards = = =
= = = = Man of the Match Awards = = = =
= GHV2 =
GHV2 ( an abbreviation of Greatest Hits Volume 2 ) is the second greatest hits album by American recording artist Madonna . Maverick and Warner Bros. Records released it on November 12 , 2001 , coinciding with the video album , Drowned World Tour 2001 . A follow @-@ up to The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) , GHV2 contains a collection of singles during the second decade of Madonna 's career . Madonna mentioned that she only included " songs that I could listen to five times in a row " on it . The album did not contain any new songs , but a promotional single , " GHV2 Megamix " , was released to promote it , with remixes by Thunderpuss , John Rocks & Mac Quayle and Tracy Young . Another promotional remix album was released alongside , titled GHV2 Remixed : The Best of 1991 – 2001 .
GHV2 received generally positive reviews from music critics , who deemed it as an essential compilation , although some criticized the absence of new material . Commercially , the compilation was successful , peaking at number seven on the US Billboard 200 and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Elsewhere , GHV2 also attained success , reaching the top five in Australia , Germany , the United Kingdom and several other European countries . It was the 14th best @-@ selling album of the year and has sold more than seven million units worldwide .
= = Background and development = =
In early September 2001 , media reported that Madonna had recorded two songs , " Sex Makes the World Go Round " and " Veronica Electronica " , to be included on the forthcoming greatest hits album . The last title was from an unreleased remix album in collaboration with William Orbit . It was also reported that the album would be titled The Immaculate Collection 2 . However , both the title and new songs rumors were proven false . After the final show of Madonna 's Drowned World Tour on September 15 , 2001 , MTV News confirmed that the singer had planned to release a greatest hits album in November 2001 . On October 4 , 2001 , Maverick Records eventually announced the track list of GHV2 as well as its official release date . The album coincided with the release of the DVD / VHS video album of the tour .
A sequel to her first greatest hits album , The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) , GHV2 included fifteen singles released during Madonna 's second decade in the recording industry , starting from " Erotica " ( 1992 ) to " What It Feels Like for a Girl " ( 2001 ) . Unlike the former release , GHV2 did not feature any new material . In an interview with BBC 's Jo Whiley , Madonna spoke about the selection of the tracks , " I only wanted songs that I could listen to five times in a row . " She also added that " If you listen to the record , you can really see my evolution as a singer , songwriter , and , more important , a human being . " Madonna felt that because it was a " greatest hits " , it should only contain previously released hit songs . In an interview with MSN she clarified , " Because [ GHV2 is ] my greatest hits . New songs would be false advertising because if it 's a new song , it wouldn 't be considered a greatest hit . That 's a little presumptuous isn 't it ? " Several of her popular singles of that period were excluded from the album . Despite being a worldwide number @-@ one hit in 2000 , " American Pie " was also excluded because Madonna had regretted putting it on her eighth studio album , Music ( 2000 ) . " It was something a certain record company executive twisted my arm into doing , but it didn 't belong on the album so now it 's being punished ... My gut told me not to [ put the song on Music ] , but I did it and then I regretted it so just for that reason it didn 't deserve a place on GHV2 . " she said . Other notable exclusion were " This Used to Be My Playground " , " Rain " , " I 'll Remember " and " You 'll See " — all of which had been included on her ballads compilation Something to Remember ( 1995 ) .
The album was originally titled Greatest Hits : The Second Coming , but Madonna decided to name it change the name to GHV2 just before it was released as " it 's a title you will remember " and also because of " laziness " , due to the fact that she had just finished the Drowned World Tour and was about to begin filming Swept Away ( 2002 ) . The cover picture is from a 2001 photo shoot for InStyle magazine , by Regan Cameron . It was revealed through Madonna 's official website , on October 18 , 2001 . Cameron recalled that they had been given the assignment of shooting Madonna for InStyle and he was nervous . It was shot at Smashbox Studios in Los Angeles and he tried out first with a polaroid . Madonna approved of it and continued shooting , took direction from him and was present throughout the day for trying out different pictures . Two of the pictures from the session were used by Madonna , first one showing her with finger on her lips as a promotional photo for the HBO debut of her Drowned World Tour video , and another one showing her with hair in front of her right eye for GHV2 . Cameron also contributed artwork to the inner sleeve , which features 600 photographs of Madonna . " GHV2 " can also be seen on the cover picture on Madonna 's eye . The sleeves also contains Japanese lettering ( モヂジラミミヂ ) , which is the result of typing the letters ' M @-@ A @-@ D @-@ O @-@ N @-@ N @-@ A ' on an English keyboard but with the keys re @-@ mapped to their positions on a Japanese kana keyboard . It is pronounced as " Mo @-@ Dzi @-@ Ji @-@ Ra @-@ Mi @-@ Mi @-@ Dzi " .
= = Release and promotion = =
In order to promote the album , Madonna 's recording company Warner Bros. spent £ 1 million ( £ 1 @.@ 49 million in 2016 dollars ) on its promotion , to generate excitement in the album without the support of media interviews or TV performances , as Madonna was in Malta filming Swept Away . A company executive said , " There will be no Top of the Pops appearance or interview on Radio One or in Q magazine this time so we want the unusual name to get people thinking about the association between Madonna and GHV2 " and to generate extra media interest to compensate for the artist 's unavailability to promote the release at the time . Hovever , in December , Madonna made an appearance at the 2001 Turner Prize award ceremony and mentioned that she " had a new record in stores called GHV2 " .
Madonna 's company Maverick Records sent a promotional megamix titled " GHV2 Megamix " to radio stations in order to promote the compilation , on October 29 , 2001 . However , it was limited to airplay , and was never released commercially nor included on GHV2 . The songs featured , in chronological order , were " Don 't Tell Me " , " Erotica " , " Secret " , " Frozen " , " What It Feels Like for a Girl " , " Take a Bow " , " Deeper and Deeper " , " Music " and " Ray of Light " . Remixes were produced by Thunderpuss , Johnny Rocks & Mac Quayle and Tracy Young . Chris Cox from Thunderpuss explained , " Basically , they were dong the greatest @-@ hits album ... and so they approached actually a couple of different remix entities to take a stab at doing a megamix , and it was kind of a cattle call , actually . They basically liked ours the best and so they put it out . " The remix peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart in 2001 . The " GHV2 Megamix " ' s accompanying music video , directed by Dago Gonzalez of Veneno Inc . , was compiled of images of Madonna 's live performances and previous music videos and premiered on November 2 , 2001 , through Total Request Live ( TRL ) and MTV 's website . Chuck Taylor from Billboard complimented the remix , saying that " its quite a trip down 80s memory lane from an artist whose continually evolving body of work stands strong — even when summarized in this novel context . "
In December 20 , 2001 , Maverick Records also released a promotional album GHV2 Remixed : The Best of 1991 – 2001 , featuring remixed versions of tracks from GHV2 , except " Take a Bow " , " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " , and " The Power of Good @-@ Bye " . Like the promotional megamix single release , it was not made commercially available . Remixes were done by Victor Calderone , Junior Vasquez , BT , Sasha , Timo Maas , and Hex Hector . MTV France listed the remixes on their website for streaming .
= = Critical reception = =
The compilation received generally positive reviews from music critics . Music journalist Robert Christgau gave a positive review , stating that Madonna " gleans goodies from the overrated Bedtime Stories and Ray of Light , mixes in the glorious soundtrack @-@ only ' Beautiful Stranger ' and the dismal soundtrack @-@ only ' Don 't Cry for Me Argentina ' , and hands it all over to Mirwais for sonic tweaking I 'm not interested enough to pin down " , while calling it as " an essential package " . A writer from the South Wales Echo gave a positive review , saying that GHV2 is " an essential pop album " and " truly immaculate " . MusicOMH 's Michael Hubbard complimented the inclusion of " Don 't Cry For Me Argentina " from Evita and " Beautiful Stranger " from the Austin Powers sequel The Spy Who Shagged Me , saying that they " are worthy inclusions ... compiling this collection didn 't require much imagination , the end result does the job — the CD is exactly what it says on the tin . "
John Aizlewood from The Guardian gave the compilation four out of five stars , stating : " GHV2 is sufficiently confident to avoid remixes or new tracks . Desperate times , however , call for desperate measures " . Ian Wade from Dotmusic positively reviewed the compilation saying , " Had ' GHV2 ' been released before 1998 , it would 've been a not much fun bunch of ballads and arsery . Thankfully , for the sake of herself , her fans and mankind in general , Madge had a bit of re @-@ think . [ ... ] GHV2 contains some of the best pop music made by anybody " , although he criticized the omission of some singles like " Nothing Really Matters " or " Rain " . Cristine Leach from Raidió Teilifís Éireann gave the compilation 4 out of 5 stars , saying that " [ Madonna ] is still the queen of pop and GHV2 is essential listening . One for the multiple personality in you this Christmas . " Dugald Baird from Music Week noted : " the set is something of an anti @-@ climax , although it is an essential purchase for her army of fans " .
Giving the album 8 on 10 , Alex Needham from NME criticized the compilation 's lack of new tracks , and said " while far from immaculate , this is still quite a collection " . About GHV2 , New Strait Times ' Christie Leo commented that " this second volume of greatest hits isn 't as immediately accessible as the first . But that 's not what this collection is all about . This 14 @-@ track set actually provides a more daring glimpse into the inner machinations of the music marketing juggernaut , Madonna " . AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave a mixed review calling it " slightly disappointing " , justifying that it was because during the 1990s , Madonna was an album artist . He finished his review saying that " the end result is less than the sum of its parts , even if this is a good way to get all of Madge 's 90s hits at once . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine commented that " GHV2 certainly encapsulates the second decade of the performer 's boundary @-@ bridging career " , but criticized the lack of new material , and its " choppy edits , random sequences and missing links " , saying : " the collection doesn 't seem to do justice to a career that has always been ahead of the game and focused on the future " . Charlotte Robinson from PopMatters criticized its sequencing , stating , " Chronological sequencing would have made it easier to follow the course of Madonna 's musical evolution . But would these changes have made GHV2 a significantly better album ? Probably not . As it stands , it 's the best summary of Madonna 's second decade as a performer we 're going to get . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the compilation entered at number seven on the Billboard 200 chart on the week dated December 1 , 2001 , with first week sales of 150 @,@ 000 copies . It was an improvement from the 113 @,@ 000 copies sold by her 1995 ballad compilation album , Something to Remember . However , GHV2 also became her lowest debut on the chart since The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) , which debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 32 . Every Madonna album had debuted in the top six until GHV2 . It was present for a total of 18 weeks on the chart and ranked at number 58 on the Billboard 200 year end chart for 2002 . As of August 2009 , the album has sold 1 @,@ 385 @,@ 000 copies in the region according to Nielsen SoundScan , with an additional 90 @,@ 000 sold at BMG Music Clubs . Nielsen SoundScan does not count albums sold through clubs like the BMG Music Service . It received a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping over a million copies . In Canada , the album debuted at number 11 on the Canadian Albums Chart , being present in the top 100 for a total of 16 weeks . It was certified platinum by Music Canada ( MC ) for selling over 100 @,@ 000 copies .
Even before its release in the United Kingdom , the compilation had broken a record as the album with most shipments before release , with 750 @,@ 000 copies shipped , overtaking the previous pre @-@ release high of 650 @,@ 000 copies achieved by Simply Red 's compilation album , Greatest Hits ( 1996 ) . GHV2 debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart , after competing for the top spot with Westlife 's third studio album , World of Our
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Own , with the boy band outselling Madonna by two to one in the midweek chart . The album was present for a total of 33 weeks inside the chart , and was certified double platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . As of May 2006 , the compilation has sold 804 @,@ 076 copies according to the Official Charts Company . GHV2 also debuted at number two , behind Westlife 's album in Ireland and Scotland . Across Europe , the compilation reached the top of the chart in Austria , and reaching the top @-@ ten in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Norway , Spain and Switzerland . On the combined European Top 100 Albums , GHV2 peaked at number five .
GHV2 debuted at number three on the Australia ARIA Charts , and was present for a total of 13 weeks within the top 50 . The Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) certified it platinum for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies . It had moderate performance in New Zealand where it debuted at number eight on the Recorded Music NZ 's album chart , and received a gold certification for shipment of 7 @,@ 500 copies . The album was successful in Japan , where it received a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for selling over 200 @,@ 000 copies . GHV2 was the 14th best @-@ selling album of 2001 , selling 4 @.@ 9 million copies worldwide in that year according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) . In total GHV2 has sold over seven million copies as of October 2007 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for GHV2 adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Darrell S. Cole =
Sergeant Darrell Samuel Cole ( July 20 , 1920 – February 19 , 1945 ) was a United States Marine who posthumously received the United States ' highest military decoration , the Medal of Honor , for his " conspicuous gallantry " at the Battle of Iwo Jima during World War II .
Although he was originally assigned to play the bugle , Sergeant Cole repeatedly requested that his rating be changed from field musician to machine @-@ gunner . Although rated as a bugler he fought as a machine @-@ gunner in several major campaigns of World War II including Guadalcanal , Tinian , Saipan .
On his fourth request to change his rating to machine @-@ gunner the request was approved 4 months before he was sent into combat again on Iwo Jima . During the battle , Cole made a successful one @-@ man attack against two gun emplacements impeding the advance of his company . Upon returning to his squad , he was killed by an enemy grenade .
In 1996 the United States Navy named the USS Cole ( DDG @-@ 67 ) , a destroyer , in his honor . This destroyer was damaged in a suicide attack in Yemen but subsequently repaired and is currently in service .
= = Early life = =
Darrell Cole was born July 20 , 1920 in Esther ( now part of Park Hills ) , Missouri . He attended high school in Esther , graduating in 1938 . Before graduating , his main interests were sports ; particularly basketball , hunting and photography . He also learned to play the french horn which later led to him being assigned as a bugler .
After graduating from high school , he joined the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) , where he became an assistant forestry clerk and assistant educational advisor for his company . He left after one year and he went to Detroit , Michigan where he worked at a company that made engine gaskets .
= = Military service = =
On August 25 , 1941 , he enlisted in the Marine Corps . Following United States Marine Corps Recruit Training at MCRD Parris Island , South Carolina , he was appointed to the Field Music School for training as a Marine Corps Field Musician ( a bugler ) . He was unhappy with being a field musician because he had joined the Marine Corps to fight . He applied for a change in rating to be a machine @-@ gunner , but was refused due to the shortage of buglers . After completing field music school , he was transferred to the 1st Marine Regiment , 1st Marine Division .
After completing his first overseas tour , he returned to the United States in February 1943 and was assigned to the First Battalion , 23rd Marines , 4th Marine Division at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune , North Carolina . When his unit moved to California he again asked for relief as a field musician ; and for permission to perform line duties . Again , due to the shortage of buglers in the Marine Corps , his request was denied . Throughout the course of World War II , until his death on Iwo Jima , Cole participated in several battles and campaigns as a machine @-@ gunner and was promoted to the rank of sergeant in 1944 .
= = = Battle of Guadalcanal = = =
The Battle of Guadalcanal , was fought between August 7 , 1942 , and February 7 , 1943 , in the Pacific theatre of World War II and was the first major offensive launched by allied forces against the Empire of Japan . Cole arrived on Guadalcanal on August 7 , 1942 for the first American offensive of World War II ; and his first opportunity to fill in as a machine @-@ gunner in the absence of the regular gunner .
= = = Battles of Kwajalein , Saipan and Tinian = = =
After Guadalcanal , Cole served in several more battles throughout the Pacific theatre , including the battles of Kwajalein , Sapian and Tinian . The United States launched an assault on the main islands of Kwajalein in the south and Roi @-@ Namur in the north from January 31 , 1944 , to February 3 , 1944 . The Japanese defenders put up a stiff resistance though outnumbered and under @-@ prepared . Although the United States won the battle the determined defenses of Roi @-@ Namur left only 51 Japanese survivors of an original garrison of 3 @,@ 500 . During this engagement of the 4th Division Cole , again forsaking his bugle , stepped in as a machine @-@ gunner .
When Cole was sent to fight with his unit in Saipan , he was assigned to a machine gun unit ; and was designated as a machine gun section leader . During the battle his squad leader was killed and Cole , although wounded , assumed command of the entire squad . He was awarded the Bronze Star for " … his resolute leadership , indomitable fighting spirit and tenacious determination in the face of terrific opposition . " and was awarded the Purple Heart for the wounds he received .
When fighting began on the island of Tinian in the Mariana Islands from July 24 to August 1 , 1944 , Cole 's unit was sent in a few days after the battle began . Cole again led his squad ashore in the invasion and defeat of the neighboring islands of Tinian ; and continued to build his reputation as " The Fighting Field Musician . "
= = = Mariana and Palau Islands campaign = = =
The Mariana and Palau Islands campaign was an offensive launched by United States forces against Imperial Japanese forces in the Mariana Islands and Palau in the Pacific Ocean , between June and November , 1944 during the Pacific War . It was after the Marianas campaign , that he submitted a request for a change of rating for the third time . Pointing out his experience and combat record , he stated that he felt he would be of more benefit to the Marine Corps performing line duties than those of field music . This time his request was approved and he was redesignated Corporal and subsequently promoted to Sergeant in November 1944 .
= = = Battle of Iwo Jima = = =
The Battle of Iwo Jima was fought between the United States and the Japanese Empire , in February and March 1945 during the Pacific Campaign of World War II . Ground fighting on the island took place over approximately 35 days ; lasting from the landings of February 19 to a final Japanese charge the morning of March 26 , 1945 . The U.S. invasion , known as Operation Detachment , was charged with the mission of capturing the islands airfields . The Japanese positions on the island were heavily fortified , with vast bunkers , hidden artillery , and 18 kilometers ( 11 mi ) of tunnels .
On February 19 , Sergeant Cole led his machine gun section ashore in the D @-@ Day assault of Iwo Jima . Moving forward with the initial assault wave , a hail of fire from two enemy emplacements halted his section 's advance . Sergeant Cole personally destroyed them with hand grenades . His unit continued to advance until pinned down for a second time by enemy fire from three Japanese gun emplacements . One of these emplacements was destroyed by a machine @-@ gunner in Cole 's squad . When his machine guns jammed , armed only with a pistol and one hand grenade , Sergeant Cole made a one @-@ man attack against the two remaining gun emplacements . Twice he returned to his own lines for additional grenades and continued the attack under fierce enemy fire until he had succeeded in destroying the enemy strong points .
Upon returning to his own squad , he was killed by an enemy grenade . As a result of his one @-@ man attack , Sergeant Cole 's company could move forward against the fortifications and attain their ultimate objective . Sergeant Cole was initially buried in the 4th Marine Division Cemetery on Iwo Jima , but at the request of his father , his remains were returned to the United States to be buried in Parkview Cemetery , Farmington , Missouri .
= = Honors and awards = =
= = = Military decorations = = =
In addition to the Medal of Honor and Bronze Star Medal , Sergeant Cole was awarded the Purple Heart with Gold Star in lieu of a second award , the Presidential Unit Citation , American Defense Service Medal , Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal , and the World War II Victory Medal .
= = = = Medal of Honor = = = =
Cole was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor , which was presented to his widow on April 17 , 1947 . The citation reads as follows .
For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while serving as Leader of a Machine @-@ gun Section of Company B , First Battalion , Twenty @-@ Third Marines , Fourth Marine Division , in action against enemy Japanese forces during the assault on Iwo Jima in the Volcano Islands , 19 February 1945 . Assailed by a tremendous volume of small @-@ arms , mortar and artillery fire as he advanced with one squad of his section in the initial assault wave , Sergeant Cole boldly led his men up the sloping beach toward Airfield Number One despite the blanketing curtain of flying shrapnel and , personally destroying with hand grenades two hostile emplacements which menaced the progress of his unit , continued to move forward until a merciless barrage of fire emanating from three Japanese pillboxes halted the advance . Instantly placing his one remaining machine gun in action , he delivered a shattering fusillade and succeeded in silencing the nearest and most threatening emplacement before his weapon jammed and the enemy , reopening fire with knee mortars and grenades , pinned down his unit for the second time . Shrewdly gauging the tactical situation and evolving a daring plan of counterattack , Sergeant Cole , armed solely with a pistol and one grenade , coolly advanced alone to the hostile pillboxes . Hurling his one grenade at the enemy in sudden , swift attack , he quickly withdrew , returned to his own lines for additional grenades and again advanced , attacked , and withdrew . With enemy guns still active , he ran the gauntlet of slashing fire a third time to complete the total destruction of the Japanese strong point and the annihilation of the defending garrison in this final assault . Although instantly killed by an enemy grenade as he returned to his squad , Sergeant Cole had eliminated a formidable Japanese position , thereby enabling his company to storm the remaining fortifications , continue the advance and seize the objective . By his dauntless initiative , unfaltering courage and indomitable determination during a critical period of action , Sergeant Cole served as an inspiration to his comrades , and his stouthearted leadership in the face of almost certain death sustained and enhanced the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service . He gallantly gave his life for his country .
= = = Other honors = = =
The second USS Cole ( DDG @-@ 67 ) , an Arleigh Burke @-@ class Aegis @-@ equipped guided missile destroyer was named for Sergeant Cole . The Cole is homeported in NS Norfolk , Virginia . The ship was built by Ingalls Shipbuilding and delivered to the Navy on March 11 , 1996 . On October 12 , 2000 , the Cole was damaged by a suicide attack while harbored in the Yemeni port of Aden . The first USS Cole ( DD @-@ 155 ) , launched in 1919 , was named for a Marine who was killed in World War I.
The Marine Corps Reserve training center in Camp Las Flores aboard Marine Corps base Camp Pendleton , California is also named in his honor .
The Sgt Darrell S. Cole Band Hall aboard Marine Corps Base Quantico is also named in his honor .
= Voyager ( video game ) =
Voyager was a graphic adventure computer game developed by Looking Glass Technologies from 1995 until its cancellation in 1997 . It was published by Viacom New Media . Based on the Star Trek : Voyager license , the game followed Kathryn Janeway and the crew of the USS Voyager in their attempts to rescue members of their team from the Kazon . Voyager was the first game in a multi @-@ title agreement between Viacom and Looking Glass , and Viacom took a minority equity investment in the company as part of the deal . However , Viacom decided to leave the video game industry in 1997 , and Voyager was cancelled in spring of that year . In response to Voyager 's cancellation , team members Ken Levine , Jonathan Chey and Rob Fermier left Looking Glass to found Irrational Games .
= = Overview = =
Voyager was an adventure game based on the Star Trek : Voyager license . The player guided Kathryn Janeway and other characters aboard the USS Voyager through three " episodes " . The game began as the USS Voyager resupplied at an agricultural planet , only to have certain members of its crew kidnapped by the Kazon . As Janeway and the surviving team tracked the Kazon , they encountered such things as other alien races and " an abandoned planet occupied only by a single computer system " . Unlike in other Star Trek video games of the time , the player manipulated the crew at a high and general level . The player selected the crew 's course of action from a list of options during " decision point " scenes , after which the crew would carry out their orders automatically . Certain decisions continued the plot , while others led to dead ends or to a game over . Producer Alan Dickens said , " We want to make it a lot like you 're watching the TV and yelling at the characters . You 're giving them , as a team , guidance and direction on where they should go and how they should address the various problems that come before them . "
Between decision points , the player used and combined items , solved puzzles and engaged in combat . The game 's item system involved scanning objects with tricorders and storing them in a " virtual inventory " . This was an attempt to avoid hammerspace and the protagonists " stealing everything they find " , two issues that Dickens said were common in the adventure game genre . " Tech sim " puzzles in the style of The Incredible Machine — a video game series in which players create Rube Goldberg machines — were a main feature in Voyager : the player would receive collections of mechanical parts , which would have to be combined into complex mechanisms . Combat took place on the ground and in space , and like other scenes was controlled at a general level . The player could order the crew to provide suppressive fire , to maneuver or to beam out , for example , and would then watch the scene play out .
= = Development and aftermath = =
Voyager began development in 1995 , and it was announced in August of that year as the first game in a multi @-@ title deal between Viacom New Media and Looking Glass Technologies . According to Next Generation , the announcement was " greeted with joy " by gamers and fans of Star Trek . Viacom was interested in Looking Glass 's engine technology , and took a minority equity investment in the company . Voyager was conceptualized by Dickens and by Viacom producer Rachel Leventhal . It was initially planned for release in 1996 , but a later report gave it an expected release date of early 1997 . The team at Looking Glass visited and researched the set of Star Trek : Voyager in order to reproduce it accurately , and they created 3D laser scans of the cast 's heads . Voice over from the cast was also recorded . The game 's characters and pre @-@ rendered backgrounds were created with 3D Studio and Alias , and the characters were animated with the skeletal animation system that had been developed for Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri . Designer Jonathan Chey worked on the game 's physics and artificial intelligence code , which he later said were " really weird " features for an adventure game and evidence of unfocused development .
Voyager was cancelled in the spring of 1997 , after 18 months in production . According to Looking Glass 's Paul Neurath , the cancellation was due to Viacom 's wider decision to abandon the video game industry . He believed that the Viacom deal and Voyager were ultimately a " giant distraction " and a " boondoggle " that hurt the company . These events started a financial downward spiral at Looking Glass , which , compounded by a string of troubled and commercially unsuccessful projects such as Terra Nova and British Open Championship Golf , culminated in the company 's closure in May 2000 . Three members of the Voyager team — Chey , writer Ken Levine and designer Rob Fermier — became close friends during the game 's development . The game 's cancellation inspired them to start the spin @-@ off developer Irrational Games in April 1997 , which went on to develop System Shock 2 in collaboration with Looking Glass . Levine later recalled that , while writing Voyager 's opening cutscene , he learned that technological limitations made it difficult for characters to express emotion ; and this experience influenced his future writing for games such as BioShock Infinite .
= 2010 Auto Club 500 =
The 2010 Auto Club 500 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series race held on February 21 , 2010 at Auto Club Speedway in Fontana , California . Contested over 250 laps , it was the second race of the 2010 Sprint Cup Series season . The race was won by Jimmie Johnson for Hendrick Motorsports . Kevin Harvick finished second and Jeff Burton clinched third .
Polesitter driver Jamie McMurray maintained his lead into the first corner , but outsider Juan Pablo Montoya took the lead before the first lap was over . Afterward , Johnson became the leader , and would eventually lead to the race high of 101 laps . During the final pit stops , Johnson was on pit lane as the caution flag came out . Burton , who led the race during Johnson 's pit stop , did not pass Johnson to put him a lap down . Therefore , Johnson retained the first position upon the completion of pit stops . On the final lap , Harvick was gaining on Johnson , but Johnson maintained his position to win his first race of the season .
There were six caution flags and 28 lead changes among 14 different drivers throughout the course of the race . The result moved Johnson up 23 spots to tenth in the Drivers ' Championship , 78 points behind of leader Kevin Harvick and one ahead of Kyle Busch . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , eight points ahead of Toyota and nine ahead of Ford , with 34 races remaining in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Auto Club Speedway is one of six superspeedways to hold NASCAR races ; the others are Daytona International Speedway , Michigan International Speedway , Indianapolis Motor Speedway , Pocono Raceway and Talladega Superspeedway . The standard track at Auto Club Speedway is a four @-@ turn superspeedway that is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked at fourteen degrees , while the front stretch , the location of the finish line , is banked at eleven degrees . The back stretch has 3 degrees of banking .
Before the race , Jamie McMurray led the Drivers ' Championship with 190 points , and Dale Earnhardt , Jr. stood in second with 175 points . Greg Biffle was third in the Drivers ' Championship with 170 points , Clint Bowyer was fourth with 165 points , and Kevin Harvick was in fifth with 156 points . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet was leading with nine points , three points ahead of their rival Ford . Toyota , with four points , was one point ahead of Dodge in the battle for third .
= = = Practices and qualifying = = =
Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — one on Friday , and two on Saturday . In the first practice session , the fastest drivers were Mark Martin , Ryan Newman , Juan Pablo Montoya , Jeff Burton , and Clint Bowyer . During the second practice session , Jimmie Johnson , Martin , Denny Hamlin , Carl Edwards , and Greg Biffle had the quickest times . Martin , Bowyer , Johnson , McMurray , and Jeff Gordon led the final practice session .
During qualifying , forty @-@ six cars were entered , but only forty @-@ three were able to race because of NASCAR 's qualifying procedure . Jamie McMurray clinched the pole position with a best lap time of 39 @.@ 185 seconds . He was joined on the front row of the grid by Montoya . Bowyer qualified third , Kasey Kahne took fourth , and Dave Blaney started fifth . Casey Mears , Johnny Sauter , and Terry Cook were the three drivers who failed to qualify .
= = = Race summary = = =
The race , the second out of a total of thirty @-@ six in the season , began at 3 p.m. EST and was televised live in the United States on Fox . Pre @-@ race ceremonies began with Motor Racing Outreach 's Jeff Hamilton giving the invocation ; then Katharine McPhee , season five American Idol runner @-@ up turned RCA Records recording artist , performed the national anthem . Actor Andy García gave the traditional command , " Gentlemen Start Your Engines ! " Before the race , Denny Hamlin moved to the back of the starting grid because his team changed engines after his qualifying run . At 3 : 19 p.m. EST , polesitter Jamie McMurray led the 43 @-@ car field to the green flag , but his lead was short @-@ lived . Juan Pablo Montoya passed him during the first lap to lead lap 1 . On lap 29 , Jimmie Johnson passed Montoya for the lead . Between laps 35 to 40 teams made green flag pit stops ( a pit stop while high speed racing continues ) . Dave Blaney stayed out to lead before parking his car on lap 44 , allowing Johnson to regain the lead .
On lap 57 , the first caution period of the race was called because of debris on the track 's surface . The restart on lap 61 was led by Johnson , but Kevin Harvick passed him for the lead before the lap was over . The second caution flag was waved on lap 92 because Kasey Kahne collided with Montoya . On lap 97 , Johnson brought the field to the green flag . Mark Martin passed Johnson on lap 98 , but was passed back after two laps . Drivers began heading for pit stops on lap 133 . Then , on lap 140 , the third caution came out because Montoya 's engine failed , causing him to collide with the turn one wall . On lap 145 , the green flag waved with Jeff Gordon as the leader .
The fourth caution , caused by the expired engine of Ryan Newman , came out on lap 147 . On the restart , Gordon led the field to the green flag . He did not restart fast enough and was passed by both Jeff Burton and Kyle Busch on lap 154 . On the next lap , Kyle Busch passed Burton for the lead . Ten laps after that , Burton returned the favor by passing Busch for the lead . During the following laps , several drivers made pit stops . The fifth caution flag was waved on lap 192 because light rain was moving through the area ; the leader at the time was Denny Hamlin .
During the restart on lap 199 , Burton brought the field to the green flag . No cautions were called until Brad Keselowski collided with the outside wall in turn four that brought out the sixth caution . The restart was on lap 229 with Jimmie Johnson as the leader . In the ensuing laps , Jimmie Johnson increased his lead over second @-@ placed Kevin Harvick , but with fewer than ten laps to go Harvick began gaining on Johnson . Two laps before the finish , Burton caught up to Harvick and Johnson . Johnson held off both Harvick and Burton to win his first race in 2010 .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Jimmie Johnson appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his first win of the season , his fifth at Auto Club Speedway , and his 48th overall in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series . Following his win , he added , " No way around it , we got lucky . We were able to just beat the 31 car [ leader Jeff Burton ] to the scoring line by about half a car length or we would have been a lap down . "
Although Burton was leading near the end of the race , the caution was issued as Johnson was exiting pit lane . It gave Burton a chance to put Johnson a lap down , but Johnson entered the track ahead of Burton . In the subsequent press conference , Johnson said , " Fortunate came our way . I ’ m not going to lie . The fact that we were on pit row gave us track position , and I drove my butt off . " Johnson expressed his enjoyment of winning the race , stating :
" Today was a great race for NASCAR and a great race for this track . I know it got spread out some , but there [ was ] some really good racing from what I saw . Yes , today we got a huge gift . But I was running fourth or fifth at the time [ of the last caution ] , so it 's not like we totally backed into this thing . And I still had to hold Kevin off . "
Burton , who finished third , stated , " We weren 't slowing each other down . I ran the low line and Kevin ran the high line . But I got looser and Kevin got better at the end . The 29 by far had the best car . " Harvick , who finished second , said , " When he moved up I got tight and caught the wall a little bit . If he doesn 't move up , he gets passed pretty easily . He did what he 's supposed to do to take the line away . He did exactly what he had to do . " The race result left Harvick leading the Driver 's Championship with a total of 331 points . Clint Bowyer , who finished third , was second with 312 points , eight ahead of Greg Biffle and ten ahead of Jamie McMurray . Jeff Burton stood in fifth with 300 points . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained their lead with 18 points . Toyota moved to second with 10 points . Ford followed with 9 points , two points ahead of Dodge in fourth .
= = Race results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Navajo Nation Zoological and Botanical Park =
The Navajo Nation Zoological and Botanical Park is located in Window Rock , Arizona , the capital of the Navajo Nation . It is the only tribally owned zoological park in the United States and is notable among zoological facilities in that it labels its exhibits in a Native American Indian language . Having been operated by the Navajo Nation Parks & Recreation Department since its inception in the early 1960s , it became part of the Navajo Nation Department of Fish and Wildlife in September 2006 .
While its facilities have the unique mission of preserving and caring for the fauna and flora significant to Navajo culture , its existence has also sparked controversy among the more traditionalist elements in Navajo society .
= = History = =
The zoo 's first specimen was a bear that had been left behind after the 1963 Navajo Nation Fair by a state organization , and the animal was named " Yogi the Bear , " after the then @-@ popular cartoon character . Since then , the exhibit has grown to about 50 different species on display , almost all of them native to the area . In 1976 , the zoo , then named " Navajo Tribal Zoo , " relocated to its current home and became part of the Navajo Tribal Parks & Recreation system . In September 2006 , it was reorganized to be administered by the Navajo Nation Department of Fish and Wildlife .
= = Staff and budget = =
The facility 's current director and curator is Matthew Holdgate , a biologist from the University of New Hampshire with prior work experience as an animal research specialist at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and with the U.S. Forest Service in California .
The zoo currently employs five full @-@ time and one part @-@ time staff members and has an annual budget of US $ 336 @,@ 000 . It is primarily funded by the Navajo Nation Government , but also solicits for donations from project sponsorship , animal adoption , and donations ; admission is free .
= = Exhibits and mission = =
The zoo operates on an area spanning 7 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) and is located in the vicinity of the Navajo Nation Museum in Window Rock ( Tségháhoodzání ) . It is home to about 150 animals , representing over 50 species and sees an estimated 33 @,@ 000 visitors each year .
The zoo dubs itself " A Sanctuary for Nature and the Spirit " , and according to its mission statement , it aims to conserve " native plants and animals , including rare , sensitive and endangered species " with an emphasis on fauna and flora that is important and significant to Navajo culture and traditions . In this spirit , it houses primarily animals native to Navajoland and implements cultural and educational programs in cooperation with schools and similar facilities in the area ; furthermore , it provides care for injured and orphaned animals found in the wild . The zoo also fosters the use of plants and animals for ceremonial purposes in accordance with Navajo tradition , and regularly accepts appointments for offerings being made and ceremonies held within its facilities .
Its wild creatures include black bear , bobcat , Mexican wolves , elk , Gila monsters , coyotes , rattlesnakes , cougars , skunks , and red foxes , as well as cranes , golden eagle , red @-@ tailed hawk , and great horned owls . In keeping with Navajo tradition , none of the zoo 's birds were captured for the purpose of being exhibited , but were rather rescued after sustaining injuries from vehicles or electrical lines and are thus unable to fly ; the majority of the other specimens are also non @-@ releasable and unable to survive in the wild due to being orphaned or having been confiscated as illegal pets from their former owners .
Starting in 2008 , the zoo 's then 30 @-@ year @-@ old Discovery Center was renovated and redesigned to bring it in line with modern zoo standards ; apart from displaying the majority of the park 's invertebrates , it also incorporates a display with traditional Navajo stories relating to the animals .
= = = Adopt an Animal @-@ Program = = =
Any animal in the zoo can be " adopted " for a price of US $ 100 annually to cover the cost of food and care ; the adopting party will receive a certificate and has his or her name engraved on the plaque next to the exhibit in question . If the animal has never been adopted before , the sponsor will have the opportunity of giving the animal a name ; in this process , various animals have been given names such as " Napoleon " for the park 's mountain lion and " Señor Atsá " for the golden eagle .
= = = Eagle sanctuary = = =
Since 2008 , the zoo has been lobbying for a permit to build an eagle sanctuary in order to be able to distribute the animals ' feathers to tribal members for ceremonial purposes in accordance with federal law . Since the species are listed as endangered , any remains of dead animals are confiscated by the federal government and transported to a central repository in Colorado ; members of Native American Indian nations then have to apply individually to receive parts , such as feathers , in a lengthy process with wait @-@ times that can exceed several years . Since a tribally operated eagle sanctuary constitutes an exception to the process , it would be instrumental in strengthening Navajo cultural sovereignty ; currently , only the Iowa and Zuni nations operate eagle sanctuaries for this purpose .
= = Controversies = =
In January 1999 , outgoing Navajo Nation president Milton Bluehouse ordered the zoo closed after two women from Rock Ridge claimed to have been visited by the Diyin Dineʼé , traditional Navajo deities , who had given them a warning , saying that the Navajo people were not living according to tradition by keeping caged animals , specifically bears , snakes , and eagles , which are considered sacred .
Subsequently , during his first days in office , Bluehouse 's successor , Kelsey A. Begaye , received more complaints and letters protesting the zoo 's closure than concerning any other political issue . After temporarily reversing Bluehouse 's decision , Begaye then summoned a meeting with the Navajo Nation 's Hataałii Advisory Council to discuss the situation ; the group , however , refused to consider the matter while the animals were in hibernation and postponed any advice or decision until April of the following year . Options under consideration were releasing the animals into the wild , not accepting new animals and closing the zoo after the last one had died , or renaming the zoo to a term that would be considered more respectful to the animals .
Opponents to the shut @-@ down maintained that most of the animals were unable to survive in the wild and would perish , and that the zoo 's facilities had become one of the last possibilities for future generations of Navajos to see the sacred creatures and thereby relate to traditional stories , due to the fact that most younger Navajos are more accustomed to dealing with domesticated livestock rather than untamed animals .
On March 12 , Begaye announced his decision to keep the zoo open without expanding it and letting the remaining animals live out their lives on the zoo @-@ grounds . According to Harry Walters , an anthropologist and former chairman of the Center for Diné Studies at Diné College in Tsaile ( Tséhílį ́ ) , the incident demonstrates a crucial difference between Navajo and Western culture in the way visions and supernatural experiences are handled : " Rather than focus on the sightings to determine if who saw it was nuts or not – that 's what a Westerner would do – we look at it as a message : ' Are we going the way we should ? ' " Walters said .
= Peak District =
The Peak District is an upland area in England at the southernmost end of the Pennines . It falls mostly in northern Derbyshire but also includes parts of Cheshire , Greater Manchester , Staffordshire and Yorkshire .
An area of great diversity , it is split into the northern Dark Peak , where most of the moorland is found and whose geology is gritstone , and the southern White Peak , where most of the population lives and whose geology is mainly limestone .
The Peak District National Park became the first national park in the United Kingdom in 1951 . With its proximity to the cities of Manchester and Sheffield and easy access by road and rail , it attracts millions of visitors every year .
= = Geography = =
The Peak District forms the southern end of the Pennines and much of the area is uplands above 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) , with a high point on Kinder Scout of 2 @,@ 087 feet ( 636 m ) . Despite its name , the landscape generally lacks sharp peaks , being characterised by rounded hills and gritstone escarpments ( the " edges " ) . The area is surrounded by major conurbations , including Huddersfield , Manchester , Sheffield , Derby and Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent .
The National Park covers 555 square miles ( 1 @,@ 440 km2 ) of Derbyshire , Staffordshire , Cheshire , Greater Manchester and South and West Yorkshire , including the majority of the area commonly referred to as the Peak . Its northern limits lie along the A62 road between Marsden and Meltham , north east of Oldham , while its southernmost point is on the A52 road on the outskirts of Ashbourne in Derbyshire . The Park boundaries were drawn to exclude large built @-@ up areas and industrial sites from the park ; in particular , the town of Buxton and the adjacent quarries are located at the end of the Peak Dale corridor , surrounded on three sides by the Park .
The town of Bakewell and numerous villages are included within the boundaries , as is much of the ( non @-@ industrial ) west of Sheffield . As of 2010 , it is the fifth largest National Park in England and Wales . In the UK , the designation " National Park " means that there are planning restrictions to protect the area from inappropriate development and a Park Authority to look after it , but does not imply that the land is owned by the government , or that it is uninhabited .
12 % of the Peak District National Park is owned by the National Trust , a charity which aims to conserve historic and natural landscapes . It does not receive government funding . The three Trust estates ( High Peak , South Peak and Longshaw ) include the ecologically or geologically significant areas of Bleaklow , Derwent Edge , Hope Woodlands , Kinder Scout , Leek and Manifold , Mam Tor , Dovedale , Milldale and Winnats Pass . The Peak District National Park Authority directly owns around 5 % , and other major landowners include several water companies .
= = Geology = =
The Peak District is formed almost exclusively from sedimentary rocks dating from the Carboniferous period . They comprise the Carboniferous Limestone , the overlying Gritstone and finally the Coal Measures , though the latter occur only on the extreme margins of the area . In addition there are infrequent outcrops of igneous rocks including lavas , tuffs and volcanic vent agglomerates .
The general geological structure of the Peak District is that of a broad dome ( see image below ) , whose western margins have been most intensely faulted and folded . Uplift and erosion have effectively sliced the top off the dome to reveal a concentric outcrop pattern with Coal Measures rocks on the eastern and western margins , Carboniferous Limestone at the core and with rocks of Millstone Grit outcropping between these two . The southern edge of the dome is overlain by sandstones of Triassic age though these barely impinge upon the National Park .
The central and southern section of the Peak District , where the Carboniferous Limestone is found at or near the surface , is known as the White Peak in contrast to the Dark Peak , which is characterised by Millstone Grit outcrops and broad swathes of moorland .
Earth movements after the Carboniferous period resulted in the up @-@ doming of the area and , particularly in the west , the folding of the rock strata along north – south axes . The region was raised in a north – south line which resulted in this dome @-@ like shape and the shale and sandstone were worn away until limestone was exposed . At the end of this period , the Earth 's crust sank here which led to the area being covered by sea , depositing a variety of new rocks .
Some time after its deposition , mineral veins were formed in the limestone . These veins and rakes have been mined for lead since Roman times .
The Peak District was covered by ice during at least one of the ice ages of the last 2 million years ( probably the Anglian glaciation of around 450 @,@ 000 years ago ) as evidenced by the patches of glacial till or boulder clay that can be found across the area . It was not covered by ice during the last glacial period , which peaked around 20 @,@ 000 – 22 @,@ 000 years ago . A mix of Irish Sea and Lake District ice abutted against its western margins . Glacial meltwaters eroded a complex of sinuous channels along this margin of the Peak District during this period .
Glacial meltwaters also contributed to the formation and development of many of the caves in the limestone area . Wild animal herds roamed the area , and their remains have been found in several of the local caves .
The different types of rock that lie beneath the soil strongly influence the landscape ; they determine the type of vegetation that will grow , and ultimately the type of animal that will inhabit the area . Limestone has fissures and is soluble in water , therefore rivers have been able to carve deep , narrow valleys . These rivers then often find a route underground , creating cave systems . Millstone Grit on the other hand is insoluble but porous , so it absorbs water which often seeps through the grits , until it meets the less porous shales beneath , creating springs when it reaches the surface again . The shales are friable and easily attacked by frost , so they form areas that are vulnerable to landslides , as on Mam Tor .
= = Rivers = =
The high moorland plateau of the Dark Peak and the high ridges of the White Peak are the sources of many rivers . In a report for the Manchester Corporation , the engineer John Frederick Bateman wrote in 1846 :
Within ten or twelve miles of Manchester , and six or seven miles from the existing reservoirs at Gorton , there is this tract of mountain land abounding with springs of the purest quality . Its physical and geological features offer such peculiar features for the collection , storage and supply of water for the use of the towns in the plains below that I am surprised that they have been overlooked .
He was referring to Longdendale , and the upper valley of the River Etherow . The western side of the Peak District is drained by the rivers Etherow , Goyt , and Tame , which are tributaries of the River Mersey . The north east is drained by tributaries of the River Don , itself a tributary of the Yorkshire Ouse . Of the tributaries of the River Trent , that drain the south and east , the River Derwent is the most prominent . It rises in the Peak District on Bleaklow just east of Glossop and flows through the Upper Derwent Valley with its three reservoirs , the Howden Reservoir , Derwent Reservoir and Ladybower Reservoir . The River Noe and the River Wye are tributaries . The River Manifold and River Dove , rivers of the south west whose sources are on Axe Edge Moor , also flow into the Trent , while the River Dane flows into the River Weaver .
= = Ecology = =
The gritstone and shale of the Dark Peak supports heather moorland and blanket bog environments , with rough sheep pasture and grouse shooting being the main land uses . The limestone plateaux of the White Peak are more intensively farmed , with mainly dairy usage of improved pastures . Some sources also recognise the South West Peak ( near Macclesfield ) as a third type of area , with intermediate characteristics .
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parades , an air show , and an aerial bombardment display by the 105th Aero Squadron , which was based at the field . Passenger service began in mid @-@ July through American Airlines and Eastern Airlines , both of which operated Douglas DC @-@ 3 aircraft . The new airport had three asphalt runways , a three @-@ story passenger terminal , a control tower , two hangars and a beacon , and was constructed at a cost of 1 @.@ 2 million dollars . In its first year , Berry Field served 189 @,@ 000 passengers .
During World War II , the airfield was requisitioned by the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command as the headquarters for the 4th Ferrying Command for movement of new aircraft overseas . During this time , the Federal government expanded the airport to 1 @,@ 500 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 km2 ) . At the end of the war , the airport was returned to the control of the city , with a number of facilities remaining for support of the tenant unit of the Tennessee National Guard .
= = = Early jet service = = =
The airport had been enlarged by the military during World War II , but in 1958 the City Aviation Department , started planning to expand and modernize the airport . Nashville gained its first scheduled jet service in 1961 , the same year a new 145 @,@ 000 square feet ( 13 @,@ 500 m2 ) terminal opened off of Briley Parkway , west of runway 2L . For the first time more than half a million people passed through the airport when the six airlines that served Nashville carried 532 @,@ 790 passengers . These renovations also included expansion of an existing runway , with 2L / 20R being extended by 600 feet ( 180 m ) , and the construction of a new crosswind runway , 13 / 31 . In 1962 Nashville became the first municipal airport in the United States with a public reading room when the Nashville Public Library opened a branch inside the terminal .
= = = Modern terminal and hub status = = =
By the 1970s the airport was again in need of expansion and modernization . In 1973 the newly created Metropolitan Nashville Airport Authority ( MNAA ) finalized a master plan to coordinate the long @-@ term growth of the airport along projected increases in needed passenger capacity . This plan included the building of a new terminal and a new parallel runway across Donelson Pike to handle increasing operations by reducing the time between consecutive takeoffs and landings .
In the early 1980s the MNAA commissioned Robert Lamb Hart , in association with the firm of Gresham , Smith and Partners , to design a modern terminal ; construction began in 1984 and was completed in 1987 . It had three main concourses and a smaller commuter concourse radiating from a distinctive three @-@ story atrium . An international wing was built in Concourse A and flights to Toronto started in 1988 ; the airport was renamed Nashville International Airport / Berry Field . It is now rare to see the " Berry Field " portion used , but the airport 's IATA code ( BNA ) is short for Berry Field Nashville , and the military facilities at the airport are still commonly known by this name . In 1989 a new parallel runway ( 2R / 20L ) was opened for use .
American Airlines announced in 1985 that it would establish a hub at Nashville , investing $ 115 million to develop a new 15 @-@ gate concourse and applying for $ 50 million in federal funds to build a new 10 @,@ 000 @-@ foot runway . The hub was intended to compete with Delta Air Lines , Eastern Airlines and Piedmont Airlines for north @-@ south traffic in the eastern United States . American and its regional affiliate American Eagle officially opened their hub in Nashville in April 1986 . Besides flying domestic service non @-@ stop to many U.S. cities , American also operated international nonstop flights from Nashville to London , England and Toronto , Canada . The American hub was touted as a selling point in bringing companies such as Nissan and Saturn Corporation to the Nashville area .
American 's service peaked in 1992 , after which flights were gradually scaled back until the hub eventually closed in 1995 . American cited the aftermath of the early 1990s recession and the lack of local passengers as reasons for the closure . As American scaled down its operations , it subleased its gates to other carriers , largely in order to cover the debt used to construct the hub facilities , which American had guaranteed . Southwest Airlines quickly filled the void by seizing 54 % of the Nashville market and making it a focus city , with American remaining as the second @-@ largest carrier at Nashville , followed by Delta Air Lines .
= = = Recent history = = =
In 2002 , Embraer Aircraft Maintenance Services ( EAMS ) selected Nashville as the location for its Regional Airline Support Facility , which was built on the site of the demolished 1961 terminal building .
In October 2006 , the Nashville Metropolitan Airport Authority started an extensive renovation of the terminal building , designed by Architectural Alliance of Minneapolis and Thomas , Miller & Partners , PLLC of Nashville , the first since the terminal opened 19 years prior . Phase one of the project involved updating and expanding food and vending services , improving flight information systems , and construction of a new consolidated security checkpoint for all terminals . Phase one was completed in 2009 . Phase two of the project involved the expansion of the ticketing and check @-@ in areas , the construction and renovation of bathrooms , and the renovation of the baggage claim areas . Completion of the second phase of the renovation project was completed in 2011 . These renovations bring the total size of the terminal building to over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) . In addition to the terminal renovation and expansion , the renovations included expanding parking and a new rental car facility . The renovated terminal was named the Robert C. H. Mathews Jr . Terminal in honor of a MNAA board chair in 2011 .
In addition to passenger amenities in the terminal and parking areas , the renovations included improvements to the airport 's infrastructure . The largest project was the complete demolition and rebuilding of Runway 2L / 20R , which was completed in August 2010 . In addition to the rebuilding of Runway 2L / 20R , Runway 2C / 20C was closed from September through December 2010 for pavement and concrete rehabilitation . BNA 's 91 acres ( 0 @.@ 37 km2 ) of tarmac were also rehabilitated during this project after being funded entirely by American Recovery and Reinvestment Act allotments .
Even with Nashville no longer a connecting hub for a major airline , according to the Federal Aviation Administration , the number of passengers using BNA is expected to double within the next 20 years . With the additional renovations and expansions , the MNAA leadership has a stated goal of adding the number of nonstop destinations , increasing cargo service , and adding more international flights . According to a chief executive officer Rob Wigington , the MNAA is actively seeking increased nonstop domestic flights and more international service . Restoring nonstop service to London remains the top priority for international flights .
Nashville recently gained nonstop daily service to the San Francisco Bay Area with daily nonstop service to both San Francisco International Airport ( SFO ) on United Airlines ; and to Oakland International Airport ( OAK ) on Southwest Airlines , as well as a new daily nonstop flight to Seattle / Tacoma International Airport ( SEA ) on Alaska Airlines . JetBlue has announced its return to the Nashville market , with twice daily nonstop service to Boston ( BOS ) and daily nonstop service to Fort Lauderdale ( FLL ) beginning on May 5 , 2016 . Numerous other added flights by Frontier Airlines to destinations such as Chicago , Philadelphia , Orlando and Las Vegas , along with the addition of WestJet to the Nashville market have continued the trend of airport growth . Southwest Airlines has also expressed desire to expand at the airport , and international service to Europe or Asia is quickly being considered as the city grows .
= = Concourses and facilities = =
= = = Robert C. H. Mathews Jr . Terminal = = =
The Robert C. H. Mathews Jr . Terminal is the airport 's main commercial terminal . It consists of three floorswith ground transportation on the first , baggage claim services on the second ; and ticketing , passenger drop off , and concourse access on the third . There are 47 gates in the three concourses in use . These concourses are connected by a large hub that contains a unified security checkpoint located in the main section of the terminal .
The terminal is served by Nashville Metropolitan Transit Authority bus route 18 , which provides express and local service between the airport 's passenger facilities and the Music City Central bus terminal in Nashville 's central business district .
Concourse A was originally constructed to service American Airlines international flights between Nashville and London . Concourse A has 8 gates , of which 6 are occupied . It is now utilized by Air Canada , Frontier Airlines , and United Airlines and its respective express subsidiaries and is the smallest concourse in use . United uses gates A3 , A4 , A7 , A8 . Air Canada uses gate A1 , and Frontier uses A2 .
Concourse B is the second largest concourse in BNA with 13 gates , eleven of which are occupied . It is utilized by Alaska Airlines , Boutique Air , Contour Airlines , JetBlue , WestJet , Delta Air Lines , and its respective subsidiaries for domestic flights . Delta uses gates B1 , B2 , B3 , B4 , B5 , B7 . Alaska uses gate B8 , JetBlue uses gate B6 , Contour uses gate B10 , Boutique Air uses B11 , and WestJet uses B13 .
Concourse C is the largest concourse at BNA , featuring a large shopping and dining area and the highest number of gates of any concourse . Concourse C has 24 gates , all of which are occupied , although 3 of these gates are inactive . It was originally constructed to be the main concourse for American Airlines during BNA 's tenure as a hub , which continues to maintain a large presence in the concourse . It is now mainly utilized by Southwest Airlines for their focus city operations in Nashville . Additional occupants of Concourse C include American Airlines and American Eagle . American uses gates C3 , C5 , C6 , C10 , C11 , C12 , C13 , and C14 . Southwest uses gates C2 , C4 , C7 , C9 , C15 , C16 , C17 , C18 , C19 , C20 , C21 , C23 , and C25 .
Concourse D was constructed as a ground level commuter terminal for American Eagle with 15 ground level commuter aircraft parking spots and gate facilities . All American Eagle flights operated out of Concourse D until , as a cost @-@ cutting measure after September 11 , 2001 ( 9 / 11 ) , all American Eagle flights were moved to Concourse C to share gates with American Airlines . For a short period of time , Concourse D was used by Corporate Airlines to operate its own regional flights until it became an regional affiliate with American Connection and Continental Connection , at which point the concourse was closed by the MNAA . The MNAA has no plans to reopen Concourse D , and it is occupied by the Transportation Security Administration .
= = = = Airline lounges = = = =
Nashville International Airport hosts two airline lounges — a Delta Air Lines Sky Club and an American Airlines Admirals Club . The Sky Club is located adjacent to gate B3 , in the same concourse as all of Delta 's gates . The Admirals Club is located above gate C12 , in the same concourse as all of American 's gates .
= = = = Public art = = = =
BNA is home to an aviation themed art project and gallery entitled Arts at the Airport . The award @-@ winning Arts at the Airport program reviews and presents works by local , regional , and national artists for the enjoyment and enrichment of Nashville International Airport 's passengers and visitors . In addition to visual art , Arts at the Airport includes various live music exhibitions , showcasing Nashville 's musical heritage . Arts at the Airport is supported by the MNAA and the Tennessee Arts Commission ( TAC ) , and is funded under an agreement with the State of Tennessee .
In addition to the various exhibits , exhibitions and collections of Arts at the Airport , the Consolidated Rental Car Facility includes a large outdoor public art display by artist Ned Kahn . The installation includes a large number of alumnium sheets attached to hinges to the facade of the building designed to move with the wind , creating an undulating appearance to the surface of the building .
= = = General aviation , charter and commuter terminals = = =
Fixed @-@ base operators ( FBO ) Atlantic Aviation and Signature Flight Support operate separate terminals from the main commercial terminal that are used primarily for general aviation and charter service . These FBOs provide hangar space , fueling and maintenance , and traveler amenities to individuals and companies utilizing the airport for non @-@ scheduled commercial and private flights .
Some scheduled commuter service flights have utilized the Atlantic Aviation terminal in the past . Due to its inability to secure a position at the main terminal and low number of scheduled flights , Tennessee Skies operated scheduled commercial EAS flights to Jackson , Tennessee from the Atlantic Aviation terminal . Since the cessation of Tennessee Skies flights from Nashville , no scheduled commercial service operates outside of the main terminal building , with all EAS flights operating from the main terminal .
= = = Airfield = = =
Nashville International Airport has four runways , three of which are parallel with one crosswind . The crosswind runway , 13 / 31 , is the longest of the four at 11 @,@ 030 feet ( 3 @,@ 360 m ) . The most recent improvement was to runway 2L / 20R , the primary outbound runway under the airport 's Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control System . It was completely rebuilt with concrete recycling techniques that prevented having to bring in large amounts of fresh concrete to the site , with construction ending in early 2011 .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
Nashville International Airport is served by 13 carriers with more than 440 average daily arriving and departing flights at 47 air carrier gates . These carriers serve 57 airports with non @-@ stop service from Nashville , with direct through service to 90 markets .
= = = Passenger = = =
= = = Cargo = = =
Air cargo integrators , charter cargo airlines and air express companies operate daily from the Nashville Air Cargo all @-@ cargo complex . The complex , located across the airfield from the airport 's passenger facility , is within five minutes of Interstate 40 . It provides taxiway access to Nashville International 's three parallel runways and crosswind international runway . The airport has seen considerable growth in its cargo operations in recent years with the addition of a 70 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 7 @,@ 000 m2 ) FedEx facility at BNA . China Airlines ceased operations at Nashville on July 31 , 2009 . For September 2010 – 2011 , BNA had 43 @,@ 500 t ( 43 @,@ 000 long tons ; 48 @,@ 000 short tons ) of cargo pass through its facilities .
Additional charter and unscheduled cargo service is provided by AirNet Systems , Ameristar Air Cargo , Baron Aviation Services , Cherry Air Cargo , Contract Air Cargo | IFL , McNeely Charter Service , Mountain Air , Royal Air Cargo , Special Aviation Services and USA Jet .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Top destinations = = =
= = = Airline market share = = =
= = Military facilities = =
Berry Field Air National Guard Base ( ANGB ) is located on the premises of Nashville International Airport . Since 1937 it has hosted the 118th Airlift Wing ( AW ) . Berry Field faced the removal of its flying mission with the BRAC 2005 recommendation to realign its assets to other units . It averted this fate by taking on a new role as the C @-@ 130 International Training Center .
Approximately 1 @,@ 500 personnel are assigned to both HQ , Tennessee Air National Guard and to the 118 AW at Berry ANGB . Approximately 400 are full @-@ time Active Guard and Reserve ( AGR ) and Air Reserve Technician ( ART ) personnel , augmented by approximately 1100 traditional part @-@ time air guardsmen . Approximately 100 additional foreign military personnel are also temporarily assigned to the 118 AW at any one time for training in the C @-@ 130E or C @-@ 130H aircraft .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On October 15 , 1943 , American Airlines Flight 63 , a Douglas DC @-@ 3 , crashed near Centerville , Tennessee en route to Memphis after departing Nashville due to atmospheric icing on the aircraft 's carburetors and wings . All 11 passengers and crew were killed . This accident remains to this day the deadliest accident related to BNA .
On September 28 , 1963 , an Eastern Air Lines Douglas DC @-@ 7 crashed on landing after the aircraft 's nose gear collapsed . All 45 passengers and crew survived .
On May 31 , 1985 , a Gulfstream I crashed immediately after takeoff due to failure of the left engine . Both people on board were killed .
On January 29 , 1996 , a United States Navy F @-@ 14 Tomcat fighter crashed shortly after takeoff . The jet struck a housing development and erupted into a fireball , killing the pilot and four individuals on the ground .
On September 9 , 1999 , a TWA McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 9 suffered a landing gear collapse after a hard touchdown . All 46 passengers and crew survived .
On October 29 , 2013 , a Cessna 172R , from Ontario , Canada , crashed at Nashville International Airport . According to preliminary information from the NTSB , the flight plans that were filled with Transport Canada was to fly to Pelee , Ontario . It is currently unclear how the plane got to Nashville International Airport . Around 3AM Eastern time , the plane crashed on runway 2C . The burned wreckage on runway 2C went unnoticed for nearly six hours before being spotted by another general aviation aircraft . There was dense fog at the airport at the time of the accident
On September 19 , 2014 , NetJets Flight 322 , an Embraer Phenom 300 arriving from Nashville International Airport , slid off the runway at Lone Star Executive Airport ( IATA : CXO ) in Conroe , Texas . The area had recently been inundated by the remains of Hurricane Odile . Neither the pilot nor co @-@ pilot were hurt .
On December 15 , 2015 , Southwest Airlines Flight 31 , a Boeing 737 @-@ 300 , from Houston , Texas , exited the taxiway and rolled into a ditch shortly after arriving into Nashville as the airplane was entering the terminal ramp . All 138 passengers and crew were safely evacuated from the plane and bussed into the airport .
= The Sword of Kahless =
" The Sword of Kahless " is the 81st episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , the ninth of the fourth season . It originally aired on November 20 , 1995 in broadcast syndication . The story was created by Richard Danus and was turned into a teleplay by Hans Beimler . The episode was directed by Star Trek : The Next Generation alumnus LeVar Burton , and featured the return of John Colicos as Kor . Colicos had first appeared as Kor in the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Errand of Mercy " , and had previously appeared in this series in the episode " Blood Oath " .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine , a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy . In this episode , Kor returns to the station to recruit Lt. Cmdr. Worf ( Michael Dorn ) and Lt. Cmdr. Jadzia Dax ( Terry Farrell ) to help to find the ancient Sword of Kahless . After they find the sword , they are forced to evade the forces of Toral ( Rick Pasqualone ) , Son of Duras , and Worf and Kor come to blows over the future use of the weapon .
The episode was the first in the series to feature the character of Worf in a central storyline , who had previously been a character on The Next Generation . Due to time restraints in filming , there were edits made to the scripts and the production team were forced to make best use of the cave sets which had been seen on the show previously . The sword itself was created specifically for the episode , and was made to seem more elaborate than the bat 'leths previously seen in Star Trek , including hand etchings to make it appear similar to Damascus steel . Composer David Bell sought to bring influences of Richard Wagner into the score , including the use of Wagner tubas . Although producers were disappointed with the initial fan reaction , critics later gave a mostly positive response to the episode and compared it to Indiana Jones and The Treasure of the Sierra Madre .
= = Plot = =
Kor ( John Colicos ) , a revered Klingon warrior , is in Quark 's Bar telling stories of past battles to his friend Lieutenant Commander Jadzia Dax ( Terry Farrell ) . She notices Lieutenant Commander Worf ( Michael Dorn ) nearby and invites him to meet Kor , who greets Worf happily , saying that anyone who is so strongly disliked by the Klingon government is a friend of his . He explains to Jadzia and Worf that he is on the station as part of his plan to find the legendary Sword of Kahless . The sword is the original bat 'leth , used by Kahless to defeat the tyrant Molor . Kor received a shroud from a Vulcan science team , which he believes once held the Sword . He gives it to Jadzia to test the shroud 's authenticity . As he returns to his quarters , Kor is attacked by a Lethean who reads his thoughts in order to find out about the Sword and then removes his memories of the attack . Jadzia finds him the following morning , and thinks that he has passed out from too much alcohol . She has verified the authenticity of the shroud . Captain Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) lends the trio a Runabout to travel into the Gamma Quadrant to search for the sword on a planet where the Vulcan team found the shroud .
They arrive at the planet and travel to an underground vault which had been ransacked . As they are about to leave , Worf discovers a secret chamber containing the sword . They are attacked by Toral ( Rick Pasqualone ) , son of Duras who had hired the Lethean and wants the sword for the prestige of finding it . Kor , Worf and Jadzia fight past Toral and his men and after finding that they cannot transport back to the Runabout in orbit , they head into the adjoining cave system in order to try to get out of range of whatever Toral is using to block the transporter . As they travel through the caves , the Klingons begin to be affected by the prestige of the sword . Kor begins to talk about how it would allow him to overthrow Chancellor Gowron and Emperor Kahless II but Worf says that he should be the one to lead their people . Suddenly , Kor slips down the side of a cliff but refuses to let go of the sword . Worf grabs the other end of the sword , and tries to convince Kor to let go as he cannot pull him and the sword up .
Dax helps Worf save Kor , and afterwards takes possession of the sword because she thinks the two Klingons cannot be trusted with it . The three make camp and sleep through the night , but Dax is awoken by a scuffle between Kor and Worf . The fight between them stops momentarily after Toral and his men arrive . After Toral is subdued , Kor and Worf again attack each other . Jadzia shoots them both with her phaser set to stun and then forces Toral to deactivate the transport blocker so that the three can return to the Runabout . After they depart the planet , Kor and Worf realize that if the sword divided two men as honorable as they , it would do the same to the Klingon Empire , so they beam it into space , leaving it to drift until the Klingon Empire is ready for it .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" The Sword of Kahless " was the first Deep Space Nine ( DS9 ) episode to predominately focus on Worf . Michael Dorn had joined the cast at the beginning of season four , but his character was not featured prominently in the first eight episodes of the season because they had been scripted prior to confirmation that Dorn would be joining the show . " The Sword of Kahless " was the first episode to be written after his arrival , so it was the first time his character was featured centrally . This meant that in each of those episodes , Worf was inserted into the episode , whereas " The Sword of Kahless " was the first episode to be written after his arrival and the production team wanted him to feature centrally for the first time . The story was created by Richard Danus , who had been the executive story editor during the third season of TNG , when Ira Steven Behr joined the production team . Danus had written TNG episodes such as " Déjà Q " and co @-@ wrote the teleplay for " Booby Trap " . It was Behr who gave Danus the opportunity to write for DS9 , after they became friends following Behr 's arrival on TNG .
The episode was directed by another former TNG actor , LeVar Burton , who described the story as something akin to the search for the Holy Grail in Klingon mythology . Hans Beimler , who converted Danus ' story into a teleplay , was aware of the mythology of the Grail as he wrote the script and wanted to avoid giving the sword any mystical or magical powers . He said that " It 's the concept of the sword that has the power . We could have said that some technology or magic gave the Klingons the feeling of power , but that would have been a cheap way to go . " The writing staff was disappointed in the reaction of many fans , who wanted a technological explanation for the effects of the sword .
= = = Filming , casting and music = = =
Because of limited time to film , several edits were made to the script by Beimler . Some of the scenes set in the cave sets were dropped as they would have taken too long to set up . Kor , Worf and Dax were in almost every scene of the episode and so time could not be saved by filming more than one scene at a time . The cave sequences were filmed on the cave standing sets on stage 18 of Paramount Studios . The sets were limited , so Burton said that in order to make it look like the characters were moving through a complex labyrinth of caves , he and director of photography Jonathan West used the sets ' depth to make them look like different parts of the caves .
The precipice that Kor nearly falls down was created by filming the actors on the second level of the cave sets and then matting the footage onto a 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) long miniature version of the cave that Gary Hutzel created out of aluminium foil . The production staff also spread sand onto the floor of the cave sets in order to make it look different from other episodes in which the sets had been used . Burton advised Farrell on the aggressiveness Dax should show in her interactions with Kor and Worf in the episode , a type of performance which both Burton and Farrell later nicknamed " Action Barbie " .
John Colicos had appeared as Kor once before on DS9 , in the second season episode " Blood Oath " . Colicos had played the first main character Klingon to appear on Star Trek , in his appearance in The Original Series first season episode " Errand of Mercy " . Rick Pasqualone had appeared as Toral , son of Duras in " The Sword of Kahless " . The character , played by JD Cullum , had appeared in the TNG two @-@ part episode " Redemption " , when he sought the leadership of the Klingon High Council alongside his aunts Lursa and B 'Etor . Worf has history with the House of Duras , dating back to the rivalry between Worf 's father , Mogh , and Toral 's grandfather , Ja 'Rod .
Composer David Bell created music for the episode that had echoes of the operas of 19th @-@ century German composer Richard Wagner . He explained that he used " Wagner opera vocabulary in the orchestrations , and ... actually used Wagner tubas in the score " . He used religious tones to accompany appearances of the sword itself , specifically when it is first found by Worf , and said , " If the audience isn 't made to understand the spiritual importance of that weapon , then we have no episode " .
= = = Props = = =
Dan Curry created the Klingon weapon , the bat 'leth , while working on TNG . Its first appearance was in the episode " Reunion " and has appeared in all live action series of Star Trek with the exception of The Original Series . The sword in " The Sword of Kahless " was intended to be the first bat 'leth made by , according to Klingon mythology , Kahless himself , which he used to defeat the tyrant Molor and unite the Klingon people for the first time in their history .
It was decided that the sword needed to be different from other bat 'leths seen on the show , and so a new hardened aluminium prop was ordered after numerous designs by John Eaves were considered on paper . As with the original bat 'leth , Dan Curry created the prop . Sculptor Dragon Dronet then etched designs into the blade by hand using dental tools . The producers requested designs on the blade similar to the effects seen in Damascus steel , which was combined with Dronet 's idea of forming these into a topographic map , with an effect described as being " as if you 're staring down at mountains " . Klingon names were then added to the side of the weapon . Dronet also created the stand for the sword out of plexiglas which was spray @-@ painted to look metallic . The legs of the stand were carved to look like the feet of the Klingon animal , the targ . " The Sword of Kahless " also featured new prop designs for Starfleet @-@ issued over @-@ the @-@ shoulder bags and the camping equipment used in the cave sequences .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" The Sword of Kahless " was first broadcast on November 20 , 1995 in broadcast syndication . It received Nielsen ratings of 6 @.@ 9 percent , placing it in tenth place in its timeslot and lower than the episode that aired the previous week , " Little Green Men " , which gained a rating of 7 @.@ 1 percent . " The Sword of Kahless " received a higher rating than the following episode , " Our Man Bashir " , seen by 6 @.@ 8 percent of viewers .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Michelle Erica Green , who watched the episode in April 2013 for TrekNation , thought that it was not a typical Deep Space Nine episode and that it required knowledge of Worf 's history from The Next Generation . She said that the episode was " admirable for a drama that takes place mostly walking through uninteresting cave sets " . She thought that towards the end , it became a little " mumbo @-@ jumbo @-@ mystical " but that it was in " perfect keeping with the Klingons " . However , she felt that the episode again relied on Jadzia 's past as Curzon Dax and that the ending would have been better with Toral stealing the sword at the last minute so that it could be followed up with in a later episode .
Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " compared the episode to an Indiana Jones story and said that it was a " enjoyable fable for a simpler time " . He praised the musical score by David Bell and thought that the episode was the perfect vehicle for Worf , saying that Michael Dorn gave a strong performance . He gave the episode a rating of three and a half out of four . Zack Handlen , writing for the A.V. Club in January 2013 , said that the plot was similar to the plots of stories such as The Treasure of the Sierra Madre ( 1927 ) . He felt that the episode showed a side of Worf that had not been seen before , and that Worf had exhibited a " willingness to go to absolute lengths to do what he believes needs to be done " . He compared it to the anger bubbling under the surface of Bruce Banner in the 2012 film The Avengers .
The first home media release of " The Sword of Kahless " was as a two @-@ episode VHS cassette alongside " Our Man Bashir " in the United Kingdom on June 13 , 1996 , followed in the United States and Canada by a single @-@ episode release on October 3 , 2000 . It was later released on DVD as part of the season four box set on August 5 , 2003 .
= Umbriel ( moon ) =
Umbriel is a moon of Uranus discovered on October 24 , 1851 , by William Lassell . It was discovered at the same time as Ariel and named after a character in Alexander Pope 's poem The Rape of the Lock . Umbriel consists mainly of ice with a substantial fraction of rock , and may be differentiated into a rocky core and an icy mantle . The surface is the darkest among Uranian moons , and appears to have been shaped primarily by impacts . However , the presence of canyons suggests early endogenic processes , and the moon may have undergone an early endogenically driven resurfacing event that obliterated its older surface .
Covered by numerous impact craters reaching 210 km ( 130 mi ) in diameter , Umbriel is the second most heavily cratered satellite of Uranus after Oberon . The most prominent surface feature is a ring of bright material on the floor of Wunda crater . This moon , like all moons of Uranus , probably formed from an accretion disk that surrounded the planet just after its formation . The Uranian system has been studied up close only once , by the spacecraft Voyager 2 in January 1986 . It took several images of Umbriel , which allowed mapping of about 40 % of the moon ’ s surface .
= = Discovery and name = =
Umbriel , along with another Uranian satellite , Ariel , was discovered by William Lassell on October 24 , 1851 . Although William Herschel , the discoverer of Titania and Oberon , claimed at the end of the 18th century that he had observed four additional moons of Uranus , his observations were not confirmed and those four objects are now thought to be spurious .
All of Uranus 's moons are named after characters created by William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope . The names of all four satellites of Uranus then known were suggested by John Herschel in 1852 at the request of Lassell . Umbriel is the " dusky melancholy sprite " in Alexander Pope 's The Rape of the Lock , and the name suggests the Latin umbra , meaning shadow . The moon is also designated Uranus II .
= = Orbit = =
Umbriel orbits Uranus at the distance of about 266 @,@ 000 km ( 165 @,@ 000 mi ) , being the third farthest from the planet among its five major moons . Umbriel 's orbit has a small eccentricity and is inclined very little relative to the equator of Uranus . Its orbital period is around 4 @.@ 1 Earth days , coincident with its rotational period . In other words , Umbriel is a synchronous or tidally locked satellite , with one face always pointing toward its parent planet . Umbriel 's orbit lies completely inside the Uranian magnetosphere . This is important , because the trailing hemispheres of airless satellites orbiting inside a magnetosphere ( like Umbriel ) are struck by magnetospheric plasma , which co @-@ rotates with the planet . This bombardment may lead to the darkening of the trailing hemispheres , which is actually observed for all Uranian moons except Oberon ( see below ) . Umbriel also serves as a sink of the magnetospheric charged particles , which creates a pronounced dip in energetic particle count near the moon 's orbit as observed by Voyager 2 in 1986 .
Because Uranus orbits the Sun almost on its side , and its moons orbit in the planet 's equatorial plane , they ( including Umbriel ) are subject to an extreme seasonal cycle . Both northern and southern poles spend 42 years in complete darkness , and another 42 years in continuous sunlight , with the Sun rising close to the zenith over one of the poles at each solstice . The Voyager 2 flyby coincided with the southern hemisphere 's 1986 summer solstice , when nearly the entire northern hemisphere was unilluminated . Once every 42 years , when Uranus has an equinox and its equatorial plane intersects the Earth , mutual occultations of Uranus 's moons become possible . In 2007 – 2008 a number of such events were observed including two occultations of Titania by Umbriel on August 15 and December 8 , 2007 as well as of Ariel by Umbriel on August 19 , 2007 .
Currently Umbriel is not involved in any orbital resonance with other Uranian satellites . Early in its history , however , it may have been in a 1 : 3 resonance with Miranda . This would have increased Miranda 's orbital eccentricity , contributing to the internal heating and geological activity of that moon , while Umbriel 's orbit would have been less affected . Due to Uranus 's lower oblateness and smaller size relative to its satellites , its moons can escape more easily from a mean motion resonance than those of Jupiter or Saturn . After Miranda escaped from this resonance ( through a mechanism that probably resulted in its anomalously high orbital inclination ) , its eccentricity would have been damped , turning off the heat source .
= = Composition and internal structure = =
Umbriel is the third largest and fourth most massive of Uranian moons . The moon 's density is 1 @.@ 39 g / cm3 , which indicates that it mainly consists of water ice , with a dense non @-@ ice component constituting around 40 % of its mass . The latter could be made of rock and carbonaceous material including heavy organic compounds known as tholins . The presence of water ice is supported by infrared spectroscopic observations , which have revealed crystalline water ice on the surface of the moon . Water ice absorption bands are stronger on Umbriel 's leading hemisphere than on the trailing hemisphere . The cause of this asymmetry is not known , but it may be related to the bombardment by charged particles from the magnetosphere of Uranus , which is stronger on the trailing hemisphere ( due to the plasma 's co @-@ rotation ) . The energetic particles tend to sputter water ice , decompose methane trapped in ice as clathrate hydrate and darken other organics , leaving a dark , carbon @-@ rich residue behind .
Except for water , the only other compound identified on the surface of Umbriel by the infrared spectroscopy is carbon dioxide , which is concentrated mainly on the trailing hemisphere . The origin of the carbon dioxide is not completely clear . It might be produced locally from carbonates or organic materials under the influence of the energetic charged particles coming from the magnetosphere of Uranus or the solar ultraviolet radiation . This hypothesis would explain the asymmetry in its distribution , as the trailing hemisphere is subject to a more intense magnetospheric influence than the leading hemisphere . Another possible source is the outgassing of the primordial CO2 trapped by water ice in Umbriel 's interior . The escape of CO2 from the interior may be a result of past geological activity on this moon .
Umbriel may be differentiated into a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle . If this is the case , the radius of the core ( 317 km ) is about 54 % of the radius of the moon , and its mass is around 40 % of the moon ’ s mass — the parameters are dictated by the moon 's composition . The pressure in the center of Umbriel is about 0 @.@ 24 GPa ( 2 @.@ 4 kbar ) . The current state of the icy mantle is unclear , although the existence of a subsurface ocean is considered unlikely .
= = Surface features = =
Umbriel 's surface is the darkest of the Uranian moons , and reflects less than half as much light as Ariel , a sister satellite of similar size . Umbriel has a very low Bond albedo of only about 10 % as compared to 23 % for Ariel . The reflectivity of the moon 's surface decreases from 26 % at a phase angle of 0 ° ( geometric albedo ) to 19 % at an angle of about 1 ° . This phenomenon is called opposition surge . The surface of Umbriel is slightly blue in color , while fresh bright impact deposits ( in Wunda crater , for instance ) are even bluer . There may be an asymmetry between the leading and trailing hemispheres ; the former appears to be redder than the latter . The reddening of the surfaces probably results from space weathering from bombardment by charged particles and micrometeorites over the age of the Solar System . However , the color asymmetry of Umbriel is likely caused by accretion of a reddish material coming from outer parts of the Uranian system , possibly , from irregular satellites , which would occur predominately on the leading hemisphere . The surface of Umbriel is relatively homogeneous — it does not demonstrate strong variation in either albedo or color .
Scientists have so far recognized only one class of geological feature on Umbriel — craters . The surface of Umbriel has far more and larger craters than do Ariel and Titania . It shows the least geological activity . In fact , among the Uranian moons only Oberon has more impact craters than Umbriel . The observed crater diameters range from a few kilometers at the low end to 210 kilometers for the largest known crater , Wokolo . All recognized craters on Umbriel have central peaks , but no crater has rays .
Near Umbriel 's equator lies the most prominent surface feature : Wunda crater , which has a diameter of about 131 km . Wunda has a large ring of bright material on its floor , which appears to be an impact deposit . Nearby , seen along the terminator , are the craters Vuver and Skynd , which lack bright rims but possess bright central peaks . Study of limb profiles of Umbriel revealed a possible very large impact feature having the diameter of about 400 km and depth of approximately 5 km .
Much like other moons of Uranus , the surface of Umbriel is cut by a system of canyons trending northeast – southwest . They are not , however , officially recognized due to the poor imaging resolution and generally bland appearance of this moon , which hinders geological mapping .
Umbriel 's heavily cratered surface has probably been stable since the Late Heavy Bombardment . The only signs of the ancient internal activity are canyons and dark polygons — dark patches with complex shapes measuring from tens to hundreds of kilometers across . The polygons were identified from precise photometry of Voyager 2 's images and are distributed more or less uniformly on the surface of Umbriel , trending northeast – southwest . Some polygons correspond to depressions of a few kilometers deep and may have been created during an early episode of tectonic activity . Currently there is no explanation for why Umbriel is so dark and uniform in appearance . Its surface may be covered by a relatively thin layer of dark material ( so called umbral material ) excavated by an impact or expelled in an explosive volcanic eruption . Alternatively , Umbriel 's crust may be entirely composed of the dark material , which prevented formation of bright features like crater rays . However , the presence of the bright feature within Wunda seems to contradict this hypothesis .
= = Origin and evolution = =
Umbriel is thought to have formed from an accretion disc or subnebula ; a disc of gas and dust that either existed around Uranus for some time after its formation or was created by the giant impact that most likely gave Uranus its large obliquity . The precise composition of the subnebula is not known ; however , the higher density of Uranian moons compared to the moons of Saturn indicates that it may have been relatively water @-@ poor . Significant amounts of nitrogen and carbon may have been present in the form of carbon monoxide ( CO ) and molecular nitrogen ( N2 ) instead of ammonia and methane . The moons that formed in such a subnebula would contain less water ice ( with CO and N2 trapped as clathrate ) and more rock , explaining the higher density .
Umbriel 's accretion probably lasted for several thousand years . The impacts that accompanied accretion caused heating of the moon 's outer layer . The maximum temperature of around 180 K was reached at the depth of about 3 km . After the end of formation , the subsurface layer cooled , while the interior of Umbriel heated due to decay of radioactive elements present in its rocks . The cooling near @-@ surface layer contracted , while the interior expanded . This caused strong extensional stresses in the moon 's crust , which may have led to cracking . This process probably lasted for about 200 million years , implying that any endogenous activity ceased billions of years ago .
The initial accretional heating together with continued decay
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, " I Got You " was released as an A @-@ side and B @-@ side , with " I Got You " as the A @-@ side single , and " Heartbeat " , a song which does not appear on any edition of Echo , as the B @-@ side . It was released in Belgium , France , Italy , Germany , The Netherlands , Spain , and the United Kingdom , to download digitally on 19 February 2010 .
= = Composition = =
" I Got You " is a pop ballad , which lasts for a duration of 3 minutes , 49 seconds . The song was composed in the key of G major using common time with a tempo at 104 beats per minute . Lewis 's vocal range spans over two octaves , from the low note of G3 to the high note of A5 , on the song . It incorporates elements of adult contemporary music and contemporary R & B genres . Instrumentation consists of guitars and synthesizers . Fraser McAlpine for the BBC compared " I Got You " ' s structure to her cover of Snow Patrol 's " Run " . McAlpine noted that it follows the same four chord progression as " Run " , and also is instrumentally complete with guitars . He also noted that Lewis performs the verses of " I Got You " quietly , like on " Run " , and belts the chorus , like on " Run " .
= = Critical reception = =
" I Got You " garnered a mixed response from music critics . Peter Robinson for The Guardian wrote that " I Got You " " is an impressive distant relative of Bleeding Love " . Leah Greenblatt for Entertainment Weekly praised " I Got You " , along with " Happy " , as they allowed Echo to redeem itself from the " soppy balladry and standard @-@ issue dancery " present on the rest of the album . Greenblatt 's only criticism was that " it can be difficult to connect with the woman who wields it . " Mayer Nissim for Digital Spy awarded the song three stars out of a possible five ; Nissim was complimentary of Lewis 's vocal performance , which he described as " effortless " in the verses and that she belts out the chorus with " gusto . " However , Nissim was critical of the song 's production , writing that although Lewis sings with conviction , it is not as memorable as other ballads . He continued to write that her voice will allow the song to chart fairly well , and that she should collaborate with other producers to make more memorable songs . Fraser McAline for the BBC awarded the song three stars out of a possible five ; McAlpine noted that although Lewis is able to provide " some kind of musical movement , by wandering off the path set down by the song , " he was critical of the songs structure , and labeled it as " lazy . "
= = Chart performance = =
" I Got You " failed to achieve commercial success , and managed to peak inside the top 50 singles charts in most regions . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 127 on the UK Singles Chart on 6 February 2010 , two weeks before its release as single . It debuted inside the official top 40 at number 40 on 27 February 2010 , and leap to its peak position of number 14 the following week . It managed to attain more success on the UK R & B Chart ; it debuted inside to top 40 R & B singles at number 40 on 6 February 2010 , and reached its peak of number three on 6 March 2010 . In Ireland , " I Got You " debuted at number 47 on 25 February 2010 , and reached a peak of number 43 the following week . Elsewhere , " I Got You " peaked at number 30 in Austria , number 20 in the Flanders region of Belgium , number 13 on the singles chart and number 30 on the airplay chart in the Wallonia region of Belgium , number 43 in Germany , number 29 in New Zealand , and number 57 in Switzerland .
= = Music video = =
" I Got You " ' s accompanying music video was directed by Dave Meyers , and shot at Venice Beach , California on 21 December 2009 . The content of the video revolves around " several couples as they deal with the ups and downs of relationships . " Prior to the release of the video , Lewis tweeted " It 's a strong , cool performance , lots of actors with a movie feel to it . I 'm so proud of it and hope you love it – enjoy ! " . The video was released on 12 February 2010 . In the video , scenes of Lewis performing in front of a heart engulfed in flames , as well as sitting on an apartment floor barefoot , are intercut throughout the video amongst the narrative of the video . The video shows several couples ending their relationships , showing many of them are who angry and cannot cope with the heartbreak , but progresses to show how they manage to rebuild their relationships with one and other , ending with images suggesting healing , happiness and new relationships .
= = Live performances = =
Lewis performed " I Got You " for the first at a one @-@ off private concert at the Hackney Empire in London , United Kingdom , on 2 November 2009 , which served as a taster show to Lewis 's The Labyrinth ( 2010 ) . On 2 December 2009 , the singer performed the song on The National Lottery Draws . The following day on 3 December 2009 , Lewis on the BBC Radio 2 show Live Sessions with Ken Bruce , as part of a set list which included " Bleeding Love " , " Better in Time " , " Happy " and a her own cover of Oasis 's " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " . On 15 December 2009 , to coincide with the songs radio release in the United States , Lewis performed the song on the Late Show with David Letterman . On 21 January 2010 , Lewis appeared on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge where she performed " I Got You " as well as covering Oasis ' " Stop Crying Your Heart Out " for a second time , and also gave an interview as to why she decided to cover that song . On 6 February 2010 , Lewis performed " I Got You " on the semi @-@ final of So You Think You Can Dance on 6 February 2010 . Lewis also performed the song to coincide with the official release in the UK on GMTV on 22 February 2010 , Promotion of the song ended with a performance and interview The Alan Titchmarsh Show on 26 February 2010 . In late May 2010 , the song was included in the setlist for Lewis 's first concert tour , The Labyrinth .
= = Track listing = =
Digital Download
" I Got You " – 3 : 46
" Heartbeat " – 3 : 51
= = Credits and personnel = =
" Heartbeat " credits adapted from " I Got You " CD single , and " I Got You " credits adapted from the liner notes of Echo , Syco Music , J Records , Sony Music .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Oliver P. Morton =
Oliver Hazard Perry Throck Morton ( August 4 , 1823 – November 1 , 1877 ) , commonly known as Oliver P. Morton , was a U.S. Republican Party politician from Indiana . He served as the 14th Governor of Indiana during the American Civil War , and was a stalwart ally of President Abraham Lincoln . During the war , Morton thwarted and neutralized the Democratic @-@ controlled Indiana General Assembly . He exceeded his constitutional authority by calling out the militia without approval , and during the period of legislative suppression he privately financed the state government through unapproved federal and private loans . He was criticized for arresting and detaining political enemies and suspected southern sympathizers . As one of President Lincoln 's " war governors " , Morton made signification contributions to the war effort , more than any other man in the state , and earned the lifelong gratitude of former Union soldiers for his support .
During his second term as governor , and after being partially paralyzed by a stroke , he was elected to serve in the U.S. Senate . He was a leader among the Radical Republicans of the Reconstruction era , and supported numerous bills designed to reform the former Southern Confederacy . In 1877 , during his second term in the Senate , Morton suffered a second debilitating stroke that caused a rapid deterioration in his health ; he died later that year . Morton was mourned nationally and his funeral procession was witnessed by thousands . He is buried in Indianapolis 's Crown Hill Cemetery .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family and background = = =
Morton was an Indiana native born in Wayne County near the small settlement of Salisbury on August 4 , 1823 , to James Throck and Sarah Miller Morton . His grandfather had shortened the family 's surname , Throckmorton , to Morton , but the males in the family carried Throck as a middle name . He was named for Oliver Hazard Perry , the victorious Commodore in the Battle of Lake Erie . Morton disliked his name from an early age , and before beginning his political career he shortened it to Oliver Perry Morton , dropping the middle names of Hazard and Throck . His mother died when he was three , and he was raised by his maternal grandparents . He spent most of his young life living with them in Ohio .
Morton returned to eastern Indiana as a young man , and joined his family at Centerville . Leaving school at the age of fifteen , Morton briefly worked as an apothecary 's clerk , but left after a dispute with the proprietor and apprenticed as a hat maker . After four years in the hat @-@ making business he became dissatisfied and quit to enroll at Miami University in Oxford , Ohio , where he studied for two years , and briefly attended Cincinnati College to continue his law studies . In 1845 he returned to Centerville and was admitted to the Indiana bar in 1846 . Morton formed a law practice with Judge Newman and became a successful and moderately wealthy attorney . Morton married Lucinda Burbank in 1845 . The couple had five children , but only two survived infancy .
= = = Early political career = = =
In 1852 Morton campaigned and was elected to serve as a circuit court judge , but resigned after only a year ; he found that he preferred to practice law . By 1854 he was active in Indiana politics . Initially , Morton was an anti @-@ slavery Democrat , but living in a region dominated by the Whig Party he had little hope of furthering a political career without changing his party affiliation . Passage of the Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act ( 1854 ) , which repealed the Missouri Compromise 's ban on slavery in the western territories , beyond Missouri , had a divisive effect on both parties . As the Democrats divided over the issue , Morton took a stand with the Free Soil supporters and opposed the Act . Under the influence of U.S. Senator Jesse D. Bright , the state 's Democrats expel its anti @-@ slavery members , including Morton , from the Indiana state convention in 1854 . That same year Morton joined with other political factions to form the People 's party , the forerunner to the state 's Republican party .
By February 1856 Morton had made his way to the newly formed Republican party at the national level as a member of the resolutions committee to the preliminary national convention that met in Pittsburgh . He also served as a delegate to the 1856 Republican National Convention in Philadelphia . Thirty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Morton became the People 's / Republican candidate for governor of Indiana in 1856 . His Democratic opponent was Ashbel P. Willard , a popular state senator . Despite a hard @-@ fought campaign that for the first time brought Morton to the attention of voters around the state , Willard defeated him in the general election by fewer than 6 @,@ 000 votes , amid charges on both sides of fraudulent voting . Radical Republican George W. Julian , who detested Morton , contended that Morton did not take a strong enough position against slavery , and , as conservative former Whigs claimed , he had been too lenient on the issue in a state where southern @-@ born residents wanted nothing to do with blacks or abolitionism . Despite these criticisms , Morton 's anti @-@ slavery speeches made him popular among the Republicans in Indiana . Noted for his " plain and convincing " manner of speaking , Morton 's contemporaries said he was not " eloquent or witty " , but rather " logical and reasonable " .
By 1858 , the People 's party had officially adopted the name of Republican , and in 1860 the Republicans nominated Morton for lieutenant governor of Indiana on a ticket with the more conservative former Whig , Henry S. Lane , as its gubernatorial candidate . Savvy Republican politicians thought that Morton would be seen as too radical and could not carry the former Know @-@ Nothing vote in the southern half of the state , while a man of Whig antecedents like Lane would . Because both men had strong support within the party , and neither had much desire to make open war on one another , a compromise was arranged , giving Lane the gubernatorial nomination and Morton the nomination for lieutenant governor . Both nominees understood that if they carried the state and a Republican majority was elected to the state legislature in the fall , the Indiana General Assembly would choose Lane for a seat in the U.S. Senate and Morton would become the successor to the Indiana governorship . The campaign focused primarily on the prevailing issues of the nation , including homesteading legislation , tariffs , and the looming possibility of civil war . Lane and Morton won in the state 's general election and the Republicans gained control of the state legislature . As it had been pre @-@ arranged with the candidates , on the day after Lane 's inauguration as governor , the General Assembly chose him to fill a U.S. Senate seat . Lane resigned immediately and Morton succeeded him to become the fourteenth governor of Indiana on January 18 , 1861 , and its first governor to be born in the state .
= = Governor = =
= = = War effort = = =
Morton served as governor of Indiana for six years ( 1861 – 1867 ) and strongly supported the Union during the Civil War . While others urged compromise and conciliation , Morton demanded an end to concession discussions , with no further compromise , and , if necessary , the use of force to preserve the Union . In a speech he delivered on November 22 , 1860 , Morton declared : " If it is worth a bloody struggle to establish this nation , it is worth one to preserve it . " He was also a staunch supporter of President Abraham Lincoln 's conduct of the war . Morton , who was not in favor of conciliation , believed his role as Indiana 's governor was " to denounce treason and uphold the cause of the Union . "
Morton also believed that war was inevitable and began to prepare the state for its outbreak during his early tenure as governor . Morton appointed men to positions in state government who opposed any compromise with the southern states . He also established without legislative permission a state arsenal , where up to 700 men produced ammunition , and made many other preparations for the impending war .
Three days after the war began on April 12 , 1861 , at the Battle of Fort Sumter in South Carolina , Governor Morton telegraphed President Lincoln offering 10 @,@ 000 volunteers from Indiana under arms to help suppress the rebellion . By the end of April , about 12 @,@ 000 Hoosier volunteers had signed up to fight for the Union , exceeding the state 's initial quota of six regiments ( 4 @,@ 683 men ) . In a special session of the Indiana General Assembly held on April 24 , 1861 , Morton called for Indiana 's politicians to set aside party considerations and unite in defense of the Union . He also received the state legislature 's authority to borrow and spend funds to purchase arms and supplies for Indiana 's troops .
Among Lincoln 's " war governors " , who were critically important in the early prosecution of the war , " no governor played his role more valiantly or effectively than did Morton . " Although Morton 's efforts were not without controversy and garnered significant opposition from his political adversaries , his greatest strength during the war was his ability to raise volunteers and money for the Union army and to equip them for battle . Morton also successfully suppressed Indiana 's Confederate sympathizers . As the leader of the Republicans in the state , he confronted the Peace Democrats , especially the " Copperheads " .
Lincoln and Morton maintained a close alliance during the war , although Lincoln was wary at times of Morton 's ruthlessness . Lincoln also recognized the Indiana governor had significant fears , once remarking that Morton was " a good fellow , but at times he is the skeeredest person I know . " Morton was especially afraid that Kentucky , across the Ohio River from Indiana 's southern border , would secede from the Union and pose a threat to Indiana 's security .
Morton went to great lengths to ensure that Indiana contributed as much as possible to the war effort . He was not afraid to criticize others if he felt Indiana 's interests were being overlooked . Morton frequently clashed with federal authorities and military leaders over recruitment policies , regimental assignments , appointment of military leaders , purchases of supplies , and the care given to sick and wounded soldiers , among other issues . Although he wanted Indiana to receive as much recognition as other states , Morton 's political opponents often challenged his efforts . Governor Morton once complained to Lincoln that " no other free state is so populated with southerners " , which he believed kept him from being as forceful as he wanted to be .
In 1862 Morton attended the Loyal War Governors ' Conference in Altoona , Pennsylvania , organized by Pennsylvania Governor Andrew Gregg Curtin , that gave Lincoln the support needed for his Emancipation Proclamation . Emancipation and the conscription of men to fight a protracted war became major issues that divided Republicans and Democrats during Morton 's tenure as governor .
= = = Conflict with the General Assembly = = =
Although Morton was able to keep the state united during the first phase of the war , once emancipation became an issue in 1862 , the Republicans suffered a major defeat in the mid @-@ term elections , and Morton lost the support of the strong Democratic majority in the legislature . Before the new legislature convened in 1863 , Morton began circulating reports that the Democrats intended to seize control of the state government , secede from the Union , and instigate riots . The Democrats responded with harsh criticisms of Morton and Lincoln , the conduct of the war , and the issues of emancipation and the loss of constitutional rights , among others . Accusations on both sides created a tense atmosphere that only worsened relation between the two parties and guaranteed further confrontations .
Morton had already made several unconstitutional moves by acting on his own authority without legislative approval , including the establishment of the state arsenal , and the Democrats drafted legislation that attempted to reduce his authority . When Democrats in the state legislature sought to remove the state militia from Morton 's command and transfer it to a state board of Democratic commissioners , the governor immediately disbanded the Indiana General Assembly . He feared that once in control of militia , the Democrats might attempt to force him from office and secede from the Union . Morton issued secret instructions to Republican legislators , asking them to stay away from Indianapolis , the state capital , to prevent the General Assembly from attaining the quorum needed to pass any legislation . All but four Republicans fled to Madison , Indiana , where they could quickly flee into Kentucky if the Democrats attempted to force their return to Indianapolis .
Without the enactment of an appropriations bill , the state government would not have funds to operate , and the Democrats assumed that Morton would be forced to call a special session and recall the Republicans . The Democrats hoped to once again press their measures to weaken the governor , but Morton was aware of their plans . Going beyond his constitutional powers , Morton solicited millions of dollars in federal and private loans . Morton 's move to subvert the state legislature was successful ; he was able to privately fund the state government and the war effort in Indiana . Former Hoosier James Lanier of the New York banking firm of Winslow , Lanier and Company loaned Morton funds to pay interest on the state 's debt until the state government could resume its revenue collecting efforts .
Morton 's moves caused considerable rage among the Democrats , who launched a vicious attack on the governor . He responded by accusing his Democratic opponents of treason . Following the suppression of the General Assembly in 1862 , Morton asked General Henry B. Carrington for assistance in organizing the state 's levies for service . He also established an intelligence network under Carrington 's leadership to deal with rebel sympathizers affiliated with the Knights of the Golden Circle , and , beginning in 1863 , the American Knights , which merged with the Sons of Liberty . Members of these secret groups included Democrats and others who supported states @-@ rights and opposed the Union cause during the war . Carrington succeeded in keeping the state secure , but his operatives also carried out arbitrary arrests , suppressed freedom of speech and freedom of association , and generally maintained repressive control over the southern @-@ sympathetic minority . In an incident that would later be referred to as the Battle of Pogue 's Run , Morton had soldiers disrupt a Democratic state convention , where many leaders of the Democratic Party were arrested , detained , or threatened . Morton also urged pro @-@ war Democrats to abandon their party in the name of unity for the duration of the war , and met with some success . Former governor Joseph A. Wright was among the Democrats who had been expelled from the party in 1854 , and in an attempt to show his bipartisanship , Morton appointed him to the U.S. Senate .
In reaction to Morton 's actions against dissenters , the Indiana Democratic Party called Morton a " Dictator " and an " Underhanded Mobster . " Republicans countered that the Democrats were using " treasonable and obstructionist tactics in the conduct of the war " . Morton illegally — without approval from the state legislature — called out the state militia in July 1863 to counter Morgan 's Raid , an incident where Confederate raiders under Confederate General John Hunt Morgan crossed the Ohio River into southern Indiana . Large @-@ scale support for the Confederacy among Golden Circle members and southern Hoosiers in general declined after Morgan 's raiders ransacked many homes bearing the banners of the Golden Circle , despite their proclaimed support for the Confederate cause . After Hoosiers failed to support Morgan 's troops in significant numbers , Morton slowed his crackdown on Confederate sympathizers within the state , theorizing that because the Copperheads had failed to come to Morgan 's aid in large numbers , they would similarly fail to aid a larger invasion .
Despite his controversial actions , one notable thing historians record from this period during Morton 's first term as governor was the honesty with which the government was run . All of the borrowed money was accounted for with no political corruption and repaid in the years after the war . It was by these honest actions that Morton was able to avoid repercussions when the state legislature reconvened after Morton 's reelection , this time with a new Republican majority .
= = = Second term = = =
In 1864 the war was nearing its end , but many Hoosiers were war weary and saw no end in sight as they prepared for the state 's next gubernatorial election . Indiana 's constitution prohibited a governor to serve more than four years in any eight @-@ year period , but Morton was elected as Indiana 's lieutenant governor in 1860 and had only been completing Lane 's term , so he claimed that was eligible to run for governor in the upcoming election . The Democrats were furious and launched a bitter campaign against Morton , who did not do a great deal of campaigning . Instead , he successfully returned about 9 @,@ 000 active @-@ duty soldiers home on leave to vote in the election , presumably for Morton , " the soldier 's friend " , and his fellow Republicans .
Morton was reelected to office , defeating Democrat and longtime friend Joseph McDonald by more than 20 @,@ 000 votes . Although the campaign was conducted in time of war , with both parties strongly opposing the other , both Morton and McDonald remained friends after the campaign and later served together in the U.S. Senate . Many Democrats claimed that Morton had rigged the election because Republicans retook the majority in both houses of the Assembly .
Morton was partially crippled by a paralytic stroke in October 1865 which incapacitated him for a time . For treatment , Morton traveled to Europe where he sought the assistance of several specialists , but none were able to help his paralysis . During his recovery , Lieutenant Governor Conrad Baker served as acting governor . With the war ending , Baker oversaw the demobilization of most of the state 's forces . Morton returned to the governorship in March 1866 , but he was never again able to walk without assistance .
= = Senator = =
= = = First term = = =
In 1867 , Morton was elected by the Indiana General Assembly to serve as a U.S. Senator . He resigned from his post as governor that same year and turned over the leadership of the state government to Lieutenant Governor Baker . In the U.S. Senate , Morton became a member of the foreign affairs committee and quickly grew to become a Republican leader . He was also made chairman of the Committee of Privileges and Elections . Because of his stroke , Morton always sat while delivering his speeches , but he was noted by other senators for his effectiveness in speaking and debating .
Morton 's close observers saw a man of untiring activity , " of unfaltering determination , quick as well as far @-@ seeing ... " Restless and full of energy , one newspaper commentated , " He accommodated himself with a kind of cynical indifference to his crippled body , as to a house badly out of repair , and dragged it about with him as a snail does a shell . " As a U.S. Senator , " he excused himself from no duties ; acted as chairman and member of several committees ; was never absent from his seat , and was ready for debate at all times . "
Unfriendly sources described Morton in exceedingly negative terms . " With a superabundance of the quality called ' force , ' Senator Morton possesses one of the most terrible natures in public life , " and as news correspondent George Alfred Townsend described him : " A dark , determined , brooding and desperate mind is reflected in his warthy complexion and introspective eyes . His powerful frame , prematurely wrecked , yet carrying alive the savage will , towers on his crutch , and in his very hobble is the tyrant 's pace .... He wants to be terrible for the sake of freedom . His conscience and fortitude are thus fed from his fanaticism . Like all bloody bigots , he thinks he feels God 's mercy moving in him . "
Morton , who served in the U.S. Senate during Reconstruction , supported much of the Radical Republican program for re @-@ making the former Confederate states . Early in his first term , Morton supported legislation to eliminate all civil government in the southern states and impose a military government . He also supported legislation to void the southern states ' constitutions — in nearly every case imposed in 1865 without being submitted to the voters — and to require elections for representatives to state constitutional conventions that would be charged with writing new ones . In addition , he voted in favor of provisions declaring that the new state constitutions would go into effect only if adopted by a majority of registered voters , not just those voting in the special elections that called for the constitutions ' adoption . At the same time , he favored stringent restrictions on former Confederates who were permitted to vote , in particular those who had taken an oath to support the United States Constitution , and had served the Confederate States of America in a political office or in its military .
During the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson , Morton voted in favor of conviction , as did most moderate and all Radical Republicans , and openly voiced his disappointment at Johnson 's acquittal . Although Morton delivered a speech in the fall of 1865 arguing that the recently freed slaves were unready for the vote , and once worked to end Indiana 's so @-@ called " Black Laws " that restricted blacks ' basic civil rights , and the state constitutional provision forbidding their entry into the state , he reversed his position after the war . By 1866 Morton had come to share the general Republican belief that the only means of guaranteeing loyalty to governments protective of black civil rights must be through giving adult males of every race the franchise . As he explained , " I confess , and I do it without shame , that I have been educated by the great events of War . " He championed the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment , and when the Democrats began to resign en masse from the Senate during its debate to prevent a quorum , Morton engineered a maneuver that kept the bill in the docket and allowed it to be passed .
U.S. Senator George Frisbie Hoar once judged Morton as a man with " little regard for Constitutional scruples . " Not that Morton would have willfully flouted his oath to uphold the U.S. Constitution , but Hoar added , " he believed that the Constitution should be interpreted in the light of the Declaration of Independence , so as to be the law of life to a great , powerful , and free people . To this principle of interpretation , all strict or narrow criticism , founded on its literal meaning , must yield . " If so , Hoar 's assessment put Morton in the same category as U.S. Senator Charles Sumner , who openly declared the Declaration 's decree that all men were created equal the defining words by which all constitutional duty should be judged .
After President @-@ elect Ulysses S. Grant 's inauguration in 1869 , Morton became one of the Grant administration 's most able and reliable floor leaders . Morton helped shepherd through the bill readmitting Virginia to representation in Congress and voted in favor of the treaty annexing Santo Domingo to the United States . Later , he countered Senate Foreign Relations Committee chairman Charles Sumner of Massachusetts in a bitter debate over the president 's motives and intentions towards the Caribbean nation and its people . In the Senate Morton argued in favor of the Enforcement Act ( 1871 ) , also known as the so @-@ called Ku @-@ Klux Act , that gave the president expanded power to oppose terrorism in the Deep South . Morton , known as a masterful waver of the " bloody shirt " , was unstinting in his efforts to connect the Democrats to wartime treason and peacetime violence , and generally could be relied on to provide a ready and strong defense of the federal government 's right to intervene and enforce the protection of the civil rights of black Americans . Morton championed the right of Louisiana 's black leader , Pinckney B. S. Pinchback , to a seat in the U.S. Senate , although the effort was unsuccessful . Morton voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1875 , and had his strongest support in 1876 among black Republicans in an increasingly " solid South " .
The Grant administration , who recognized Morton as a powerful friend , offered him the position of Minister to Great Britain , replacing John Lothrop Motley , but Morton declined . Because the Indiana General Assembly was controlled by the Democrats , Morton feared a Democrat would be elected to his U.S. Senate seat . In 1874 similar concerns caused him to refuse invitations to accept a nomination to the Supreme Court of the United States . ( Later , Grant recalled that concerns over Morton 's ill health alone had kept him from proposing Morton for Chief Justice , but Grant may have mistaken . Well @-@ advised sources at the time heard that the Senator from Indiana had been offered a place on the Supreme Court , unofficially , and Justice David Davis took the credit for convincing Grant that the rigor of the job would cause Morton a physical breakdown ) .
= = = Second term = = =
Morton was reelected to the U.S. Senate in 1873 , and began his second term in 1874 . His stand on paper money added to his controversial reputation . During a time of serious economic hardship and deflation , Morton favored a bill that would have added more paper currency to the money supply . He began his second term by leading the Senate 's support for an inflation bill that President Grant vetoed . Morton 's action was politically astute . In Indiana the demands for easy money topped the Democrats ' list of priority issues , and in the fall of 1874 , they carried the state 's elections largely on that basis . However , within a year , Morton joined other Republicans in supporting the Specie Payment Resumption Act , which effectively suspended new currency issues and gave the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury the authority to withdraw currency from circulation .
In 1876 Morton was a contender for the Republican nomination for president at the party 's National Convention in Cincinnati , Ohio . Richard W. Thompson offered Morton 's name to the delegation at a nominee , but Morton 's position on issuing paper money to inflate the currency , combined with his failing health , hurt his bid for the nomination among the convention delegates . However , neither of these issues made as much difference as Morton 's association with the deeply discredited and scandal @-@ ridden Grant administration . Morton 's nomination would have made the Republicans vulnerable on both the Reconstruction and corruption issues . In addition , Grant 's supporters had an alternative choice in U.S. Senator Roscoe Conkling of New York . Between the two nominees , the " stalwart " Republican bloc was divided , with no prospect of coming together because Conkling and Morton detested one another . When the balloting began , Morton 's vote total placed him second to James G. Blaine , but Morton had slipped to fourth place by the sixth ballot . Blaine 's opponents could only stop Morton 's nomination by uniting behind a candidate acceptable to reform @-@ minded delegates and the stalwart bloc . On the seventh ballot nearly all the anti @-@ Blaine delegates , including Morton 's , united to give Rutherford B. Hayes the Republican nomination .
Morton ranked as one of the strongest members of the so @-@ called " stalwart " faction of the Republican party : those members most deeply committed to protecting and preserving Republican governments in the South . Not surprisingly , during the winter of 1876 @-@ 77 , Morton was among the most aggressive supporters of Hayes 's right to the presidency in a close election . When Morton was placed on the Electoral Commission , the group that determined the outcome of the election , there was never any doubt that his vote would be cast for Hayes . After Hayes 's supporters made overtures to southern Democrats , offering assurances that the president @-@ elect would take no active role in propping up Republican governors in Louisiana and South Carolina , there were fears that Morton might cause difficulties . In one speech Morton made it clear that the Democrats must make guarantees of fair play and equal rights for southern blacks , before he would support Hayes 's program . The guarantees were given , or at least promises were made . To the general surprise of many , Hayes 's policy withdrew military support from the Republican governments in those two states , and Morton proved to be one of the president 's strongest defenders , urging that his fellow Republicans show patience and give the so @-@ called " New Departure " time to prove itself .
= = = Death = = =
In 1877 Morton was named to lead a committee to investigate charges of bribery made against La Fayette Grover , a newly elected U.S. Senator from Oregon . The committee spent eighteen days in Oregon holding hearings and investigations . On the return trip , Morton detoured to San Francisco for a rest and visit . After dinner on the night of August 6 , Morton suffered a severe stroke that paralyzed the left side of his body . The next day he was taken by train to Cheyenne , Wyoming Territory , where he was met by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , John A. Burbank , the former governor of the Dakota Territory . Morton was accompanied by him to the home of his mother @-@ in @-@ law in Richmond , Indiana , where he stayed until October 15 , then he was moved to his own home in Indianapolis to recover . He remained at Indianapolis , surrounded by his family , until his death on November 1 , 1877 .
Morton 's remains were laid in state at the Indiana Statehouse , before their removal to Indianapolis 's Roberts Park Methodist Church , where his funeral service was held . The service was attended by many dignitaries from across the United States , and President Hayes ordered all flags to half @-@ staff . Because the church could not hold the large crowd , thousands of mourners waited outside and followed in a long procession to witness the burial at Indianapolis 's Crown Hill Cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
Morton remains " the most powerful , important , and controversial governor in Indiana history . " To his admirers and supporters , Morton was a decisive , effective , ambitious , and energetic leader as governor of Indiana during the Civil War ; his detractors would describe him as a wily and power @-@ hungry politician , who shifted his stance on issues to suit prevailing views for his own political gain . Although his tactics were controversial , and on occasion unconstitutional , he remained a dominant political figure from 1861 to 1877 . As one of Lincoln 's " war governors " , Morton was most successful in recruiting and equipping Union troops during the Civil War , and became known as " the soldier 's friend " , in tribute to his crucial efforts in supplying and supporting the Union soldiers in the field . Morton was also known for standing firm against his political opponents , whom he often antagonized by his ruthlessness , and they frequently responded with severe criticism of his actions .
= = = Policies and criticism = = =
Morton had many critics during his long tenure in government service . They derided the manner in which he ran Indiana 's state government during the Civil War and criticized his open suppression of the freedom of speech , arrests and detentions of his political opponents , and violations of the state and federal constitutions on more than one occasion . Morton justified his forceful actions as " a necessary wartime measure " to protect Indiana and defend the Union . In the U.S. Senate he became one of the foremost defenders of Republican governments in the southern states . Recent historiography of Reconstruction has found Morton among the most consistent supporters of the cause of equal justice under the law .
Morton was a formidable personality , detested by his enemies , and vilified in opposition newspapers . According to one account , Morton had no leavening wit , no humor , no breadth of intellect , no sparkle of conversation , to attract those who disagreed with him politically . Another Republican was said to have declared , " His presence is a deadly poison " and " He is a sphinx ; and I am repressed into dumbness when trying to hold a conversation with that man . " According to a southern newspaper that opposed his actions , Morton was " a vice @-@ reeking Hoosier bundle of moral and physical rottenness , leprous ulcers and caustic bandages , who loads down with plagues and pollutions the wings of every breeze that sweeps across his loathsome putrefying carcass . " Other critics and political opponents called him a tyrant and a bully , highlighting his ruthlessness in denouncing , even defaming his enemies , and spreading rumors that he had been a shameless womanizer , forcing himself on every female applicant for favor at the governor 's mansion . One Democratic journalist wrote , " There is not , probably , in this country , a more conscienceless , corrupt , and utterly profligate man in public life than Morton " and " He is rotten physically , morally and politically . " It was even alleged that his paralysis came from some unspeakable social disease , brought on by his habits . When the Senator declared himself in favor of woman suffrage , the Saint Paul Pioneer was not surprised . " Why shouldn 't Morton espouse the woman 's cause ? " it asked . " It is woman that has made him what he is -- so the gossips say . "
None of his critics could make charges of corruption stick . Senator Morton was among the earliest to refuse any share in the so @-@ called " back pay " that Congress awarded its members in 1873 , and returned his money to the U.S. Treasury as soon as it was given to him . Morton was untouched by the Crédit Mobilier scandal . A hostile Democratic House scoured the official files for some evidence of bribe @-@ taking or shakedowns in awarding Civil War contracts , and came up empty @-@ handed . For others , despite holding many positions that angered his opponents , Morton was highly regarded for remaining clean of graft during the war period when corruption was commonplace . For his honest conduct he was offered the thanks of the Indiana General Assembly and others on numerous occasions . After Morton learned that President Grant had nominated his son , John M. Morton , for Registrar of the Land Office in Dakota Territory , the Senator immediately wrote to ask that the selection be withdrawn , protest that he could not afford to have any relative appointed to any political office .
After the poor decision @-@ making of Senators Jesse D. Bright and Graham N. Fitch , Morton succeeded in raising Indiana to national prominence during his lifetime . The state and its citizens were once the common subject of jokes to the eastern states , but much of that ceased after the Civil War .
= = = Memorials = = =
Morton is memorialized in the United States Capitol as one of Indiana 's two statues in the National Statuary Hall Collection . A statue of Governor Morton serves as the Indiana State Memorial at Vicksburg National Military Park in Vicksburg , Mississippi , in honor of his role as a powerful wartime governor .
There are two statues of Morton in downtown Indianapolis . A statue on the east side of the Indiana Statehouse , facing Capitol Avenue , by sculptor Rudolf Schwarz was dedicated in 1907 . The other statue , created by sculptor Frank Simmons , was installed in 1864 on Monument Circle , when it served as a city park , and was moved to its new location to become part of the Circle 's Indiana Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Monument around 1899 .
A statue of Morton stands on the second floor of the Wayne County Courthouse in Richmond , Indiana , where a previous high school was named for him ; the central section of the current high school is named Morton Hall in his honor . Morton Senior High School in Hammond , Indiana , home of the Morton Governors , is named after him . The annual yearbook of Centerville Senior High School in Centerville , Indiana , is called The Mortonian in honor of Gov. Morton . Morton County , Kansas , and Morton County , North Dakota , are named in his honor .
The Oliver P. Morton House at Centerville was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 .
= Marc Pugh =
Marc Anthony Pugh ( born 2 April 1987 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for Premier League club Bournemouth . He plays mainly as a winger but can also play as a midfielder .
Pugh started his career with Burnley , where he progressed through the youth system . He was released by the club having made his first team while on loan at Kidderminster Harriers and signed a short @-@ term contract with Bury in 2006 . Pugh later signed a professional contract at the club and after rejecting an extended contract in 2007 he signed for Shrewsbury Town . He was loaned out to Luton Town and Hereford United , joining the latter permanently in 2009 .
Pugh left Hereford after one season to sign for Bournemouth in 2010 , where he was top scorer in his first two seasons . He won promotion from League One in 2013 and the Championship two years later , making over 200 appearances for the club . Pugh has played and scored in all five of England 's nationwide football divisions .
= = Career = =
= = = Burnley = = =
Pugh started his career with First Division club Burnley where , at a young age , he started as a Centre of Excellence player , and gradually worked his way up through the ranks to become an apprentice in 2003 . As a first year apprentice he played for the youth and reserve teams and due to his great goalscoring record , which led to him being named on the bench for two first team matches in the League Cup , they decided to keep him on for a third year . As a third year apprentice he scored 15 goals for the club 's reserve and youth team . This led to him to being loaned out to Kidderminster Harriers of the Conference National in November 2005 to play first team football . He made his debut for Kidderminster after coming on as an 86th minute substitute in a 3 – 1 defeat to Stevenage Borough . He converted a Simon Heslop cross during a match against Dagenham & Redbridge to score his first career goal , which helped Kidderminster to a 3 – 1 victory . Also , during a match he displayed a smart piece of skill which involved flicking the ball over an opponents head with his heel , then crossing the ball in for a teammate to score ; this move was featured on Soccer AM 's showboating section .
He returned to Burnley on 13 December 2005 after picking up a groin injury , but returned to Kidderminster for a second loan spell on 7 January 2006 . This spell ended on 26 January 2006 so Pugh could concentrate on his career at Burnley , having made 10 appearances and scored 1 goal while at Kidderminster . He learned that he would not receive a professional contract at Burnley in February 2006 , which was partly because both Chris McCann and Kyle Lafferty had both already received professional contracts and they were only second year apprentices .
= = = Bury = = =
Having just been released from Burnley , Pugh signed for League Two side Bury on a short @-@ term contract on 23 March 2006 , following a three @-@ week trial . Bury were entangled in a relegation battle , and Pugh made his debut two days later after coming on as an 80th @-@ minute substitute for Lewis Gobern in a 2 – 1 home win over Rochdale . He marked his first start for Bury with a goal from 10 yards in a 1 – 1 away draw with Lincoln City on 15 April 2006 , after which manager Chris Casper commented " Mark 's a good player and he 's got a bright future if he keeps his feet on the ground " . He finished the 2005 – 06 season by playing six games and scoring one goal for the club . As a result of his good performances , and helped by the fact that Bury had survived relegation in 18th @-@ place , Bury manager Chris Casper offered him a new one @-@ year contract at Gigg Lane ; his first professional contract .
Pugh was a regular first @-@ team player in 2006 – 07 , playing particularly well in the first half of the season , and was offered an extended contract at the club in January 2007 . Pugh rejected this in February 2007 , saying he " wanted to keep his options open " . Casper revealed his disappointment at this and Pugh later said financial reasons were his motivation to reject a new contract . He was offered renewed contracts throughout the season but still took none of them , which Casper blamed on his agent . Pugh finished 2006 – 07 with 41 appearances and 4 goals for Bury ; they finished in 21st @-@ place in League Two .
= = = Shrewsbury Town = = =
With many clubs interested in his services , Pugh signed for fellow League Two side Shrewsbury Town on 29 May 2007 for a compensation fee . Shrewsbury manager Gary Peters revealed that he had already attempted to sign him earlier in the season as part of a swap deal when striker Glynn Hurst moved to Bury . He made his debut in a 4 – 0 away win over Lincoln City , setting up Andy Cooke for the third goal with a cross . He suffered an injury in November 2007 and underwent a scan , which was believed to be a cartilage problem . Days after discovering the results of the scan , which revealed he was suffering from acute tendinitis , he returned to training . He scored his first goal for Shrewsbury on his return in a 4 – 0 home victory over Dagenham & Redbridge , turning in a Marc Tierney cross in the 78th @-@ minute before assisting Tierney for Shrewsbury 's final goal . He scored a further two goals that season following the arrival of Paul Simpson as manager , and finished 2007 – 08 with 38 appearances and 4 goals , for a Shrewsbury side that ranked 18th @-@ place in League Two .
After struggling to feature in the team at the start of 2008 – 09 , Pugh joined fellow League Two side Luton Town on a one @-@ month loan on 12 September 2008 . His debut came in a 3 – 1 home win over Aldershot Town a day later , after which manager Mick Harford said " He is an out and out winger , and he put in some good crosses . But he hasn 't played a lot of football this season and he maybe faded a bit " . He returned to Shrewsbury after playing in four matches for Luton . He was loaned out to League One team Hereford United on 26 March 2009 , and made his debut two days later in a 1 – 0 home loss to Huddersfield Town . Pugh scored his first goal for Hereford with an equaliser against Hartlepool United on 4 April 2009 , to make the score 2 – 2 , although Hereford eventually lost 4 – 2 . He finished the loan spell with nine appearances and one goal , as Hereford were relegated after finishing bottom of League Two . He was released by Shrewsbury after having the remaining year of his contract cancelled on 26 June 2009 .
= = = Hereford United = = =
Pugh re @-@ joined Hereford on a permanent basis following their relegation into League Two , signing a one @-@ year contract on 30 June 2009 . Upon this move , he realised that he " needed to knuckle down and get on the football ladder now , because this could be my last opportunity " . He scored twice on his second debut for Hereford , the first from a long @-@ range shot in the 39th @-@ minute and the second a 90th @-@ minute equaliser , as they drew 2 – 2 away to Morecambe on 8 August 2009 . Pugh finished 2009 – 10 as Hereford 's top scorer with 13 goals in 46 appearances . His goals were credited with helping stabilise Hereford , as they finished in 16th @-@ place in League Two . He left Hereford at the end of the season after rejecting a new two @-@ year contract .
= = = Bournemouth = = =
On 4 June 2010 , Pugh signed for newly promoted League One team Bournemouth on a three @-@ year contract , for a compensation fee . The fee of £ 100 @,@ 000 , which was decided by a tribunal , was described as " quite excessive " by Bournemouth vice @-@ chairman Jeff Mostyn . Pugh made his debut on 7 August 2010 in a 1 – 0 away defeat to Charlton Athletic , and his first goal of 2010 – 11 came after heading in a Liam Feeney cross in a 5 – 1 home win over Peterborough United on 14 August . He was praised for a " virtuoso performance " by the Bournemouth Daily Echo . Pugh had a strong start to his Bournemouth career , and was leading the club 's goalscoring charts with six goals by mid @-@ October 2010 . Bournemouth qualified for the League One play @-@ offs with a sixth @-@ place finish , and Pugh played in both legs of their semi @-@ final with Huddersfield . They were eliminated after a 4 – 2 defeat on penalties , having drawn 4 – 4 on aggregate over the two legs . Pugh was Bournemouth 's top scorer in 2010 – 11 , with 13 goals from 47 appearances .
Pugh was one of Bournemouth 's most consistent players as they made an indifferent start to 2011 – 12 , having scored 4 goals from 11 appearances by mid @-@ September 2011 . Bournemouth opened contract talks with him in December 2011 , and he opted to bide his time over the offer of a new three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year deal to concentrate on his playing performances . Pugh finished 2011 – 12 as Bournemouth 's top scorer for the second season running , with 12 goals from 49 appearances , while they finished in 11th @-@ place in League One . He was voted the Bournemouth Daily Echo Supporters ' Player of the Year ; this newspaper described him as " a rare shining light during an up @-@ and @-@ down campaign " . He decided not to sign a new contract with Bournemouth in July 2012 , and the club was willing to listen to offers for him .
Pugh remained with Bournemouth for 2012 – 13 , with the club not receiving any offers for him over the summer of 2012 . He started the season in indifferent form , much like the rest of the team , and had a brief spell on the bench during September 2012 . He described Eddie Howe as a manager who " expects and demands the best " upon his re @-@ appointment at Bournemouth ; Pugh scored in the returning manager 's first match in charge , a 2 – 0 home win over Leyton Orient on 13 October 2012 . Pugh signed a new three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract with the club in November 2012 , tying him to the club until the summer of 2016 . He cited the return of Howe and Bournemouth 's promotion credentials as his reasons for signing a new contract . He established himself as an important player for Bournemouth in 2012 – 13 , as they pushed for promotion . They finished the season with promotion into the Championship as League One runners @-@ up , Pugh having contributed with 8 goals from 46 appearances .
He formed an effective partnership with fellow winger Ryan Fraser as Bournemouth enjoyed their best start to a season in the second tier in 2013 – 14 . Im mid @-@ November 2013 Pugh stated his belief that Bournemouth had made a " decent start " to the season ; by this point he had scored 4 goals from 16 appearances . He believed his playing intelligence improved by playing against more attack @-@ minded full @-@ backs in the Championship , saying that " They are still quick to react and you have got to use your brain a little bit more than in League One . It 's developed me as a player because you need to learn how to perform in different situations against different players " . Pugh made 45 appearances and scored 5 goals in 2013 – 14 as Bournemouth finished in 10th @-@ place in the Championship , which at the time was the highest league ranking in the club 's history .
In Bournemouth 's first match of 2014 – 15 , a 4 – 0 away win over Huddersfield on 9 August 2014 , Pugh opened the scoring after only 26 seconds with a composed finish from Matt Ritchie 's cross . On 25 October 2014 , Pugh played as Bournemouth beat Birmingham City 8 – 0 away to set a club record win , in which he second the first hat @-@ trick of his career in the second half . Pugh and full @-@ back Charlie Daniels formed a partnership on the left @-@ hand side of the pitch during 2014 – 15 , the duo starting all matches but one of a 14 @-@ match unbeaten run for Bournemouth . He scored the first goal in a 3 – 0 win over Bolton Wanderers on 27 April 2015 with a left @-@ footed shot into the top corner ; this result all but sealed Bournemouth 's promotion into the Premier League . He played in a 3 – 0 away win against Charlton on 2 May 2015 , which confirmed promotion and , thanks to Watford drawing their last match , the Championship title . This was the first time Bournemouth had been promoted into the top flight in the club 's 125 @-@ year history . Pugh was one of Bournemouth 's most consistent players in 2014 – 15 , and contributed with 9 goals from 44 matches .
Pugh scored his first Premier League goal in Bournemouth 's 4 – 3 away win over West Ham United on 22 August 2015 , with a curling shot past Darren Randolph in the 66th minute . This goal meant he had scored in each of the top five divisions of the English football league system . In November 2015 , Pugh signed a new two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract with Bournemouth , tying him to the club until the summer of 2018 .
= = Style of play = =
Pugh primarily plays as a winger but can also play as an attacking midfielder . He has been noted for his dribbling skills and his ability to get past opposition players , and in February 2015 was praised by manager Eddie Howe for adding " real intelligence with his movement " .
= = Personal life = =
Pugh was born in Bacup , Lancashire to Tony and Denise . He grew up in Stacksteads and attended All Saints ' Catholic High School , Rawtenstall . He is married to Laura , with whom he has two daughters .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 17 May 2016 .
= = Honours = =
Bournemouth
Football League One runner @-@ up : 2012 – 13
Football League Championship : 2014 – 15
= Rogers Hornsby =
Rogers Hornsby , Sr. ( April 27 , 1896 – January 5 , 1963 ) , nicknamed " The Rajah " , was an American baseball infielder , manager , and coach who played 23 seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He played for the St. Louis Cardinals ( 1915 – 1926 , 1933 ) , New York Giants ( 1927 ) , Boston Braves ( 1928 ) , Chicago Cubs ( 1929 – 1932 ) , and St. Louis Browns ( 1933 – 1937 ) . Hornsby had 2 @,@ 930 hits and 301 home runs in his career ; his career .358 batting average is second only to Ty Cobb 's average . He was named the National League ( NL ) ' s Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) twice , and was a member of one World Series championship team .
Born and raised in Texas , Hornsby played for several semi @-@ professional and minor league teams . In 1915 , he began his major league career with the St. Louis Cardinals and remained with the team for 12 seasons ; during this period , Hornsby won his first MVP Award and the Cardinals won the 1926 World Series . After that season , he spent one season with the New York Giants and another with the Boston Braves before being traded to the Chicago Cubs . He played with the Cubs for four years and won his second MVP Award before the team released him in 1932 . Hornsby re @-@ signed with the Cardinals in 1933 , but was released partway through the season and was picked up by the St. Louis Browns . He remained there until his final season in 1937 . From 1925 to 1937 , Hornsby was intermittently his own manager . After retiring as a player , he managed the Browns in 1952 and the Cincinnati Reds from 1952 to 1953 .
Hornsby is one of the best hitters of all time . His career batting average of .358 is second only to Ty Cobb , at .367 , in MLB history . He also won two Triple Crowns and batted .400 or more three times during his career . He is the only player to hit 40 home runs and bat .400 in the same year ( 1922 ) . His batting average for the 1924 season was .424 , a mark that no player has matched since . He was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1942 and the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame in 2014 .
Hornsby married three times , in 1918 , 1924 , and 1957 , and had two children , one from each of his first two marriages .
Known as someone difficult to get along with , he was not at all well @-@ liked by his fellow players . He never smoked , drank , or went to the movies , but frequently gambled on horse races during his career .
= = Early life = =
Hornsby was born in Winters , Texas , the last of Ed and Mary ( Rogers ) Hornsby 's six children . When Hornsby was two years old , his father died of unknown causes . Four years later , the surviving Hornsbys moved to Fort Worth , Texas , so Hornsby 's brothers could get jobs in the meat packing industry to support the family .
Hornsby started playing baseball at a very young age ; he once said , " I can 't remember anything that happened before I had a baseball in my hand . " He took a job with the Swift and Company meat industry plant as a messenger boy when he was 10 years old , and he also served as a substitute infielder on its baseball team . By the age of 15 , Hornsby was already playing for several semi @-@ professional teams . He also played baseball for North Side High School until 10th grade , when he dropped out to take a full @-@ time job at Swift and Company . While he was in high school , Hornsby also played on the football team , alongside future College Football Hall of Famer Bo McMillin .
= = Minor league career = =
In 1914 , Hornsby 's older brother Everett , a minor league baseball player for many years , arranged for Rogers to get a tryout with the Texas League 's Dallas Steers . He made the team , but did not play in any games for the Steers ; he was released after only two weeks . Following his dismissal , he signed with the Hugo Scouts of the Class D Texas – Oklahoma League as their shortstop for $ 75 per month ( $ 1 @,@ 772 today ) . The Scouts went out of business a third of the way through the season , and Hornsby 's contract was sold to the Denison Champions of the same league for $ 125 ( $ 2 @,@ 953 today ) . With both teams in 1914 , Hornsby batted .232 and committed 45 errors in 113 games .
The Denison team changed its name to the Denison Railroaders and joined the Western Association in 1915 . They raised Hornsby 's salary to $ 90 per month ( $ 2 @,@ 105 today ) . Hornsby 's average improved that season to .277 in 119 games , but he made 58 errors . Nonetheless , his contributions helped the Railroaders win the Western Association pennant . At the end of the season , a writer from The Sporting News said that Hornsby was one of about a dozen Western Association players to show any major league potential .
= = St. Louis Cardinals = =
= = = 1915 – 1919 = = =
Hornsby came to the attention of the St. Louis Cardinals during an exhibition series between that team and the Railroaders in spring training in 1915 . Cardinals ' manager Miller Huggins told his only scout , Bob Connery , to look for minor league players to fill the roster of their financially struggling team . In September , the Cardinals purchased Hornsby 's contract from Denison and added him to their major league roster , although his only professional baseball experience had been in Class D. Hornsby 's first game came on September 10 , when he relieved Art Butler at shortstop in a 7 – 1 loss to the Cincinnati Reds . Three days later he started a game , and he got his first hit the next day against Rube Marquard of the Brooklyn Robins . Hornsby finished the season with a .246 average in 57 at @-@ bats while the Cardinals finished in sixth place in the National League ( NL ) . At only 19 years old , Hornsby was the fourth @-@ youngest player in the NL that year .
The Cardinals picked up Roy Corhan from the San Francisco Seals of the Pacific Coast League to play at shortstop in 1916 , making Hornsby one of three candidates for the position . Hornsby 's great performance in spring training , a shoulder injury to Corhan , and poor hitting by Butler meant Hornsby was the starting shortstop on Opening Day . He had both runs batted in ( RBIs ) in the Cardinals ' 2 – 1 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates that day . On May 14 , he hit his first major league home run against Jeff Pfeffer of Brooklyn . He rotated among infield positions before finally settling in at third base for much of the second half of the year . Late in the season , he missed 11 games with a sprained ankle . He finished 1916 with a .313 average , fourth in the NL , and he was one short of the league lead in triples with 15 .
Hornsby returned to the shortstop position in 1917 after Corhan returned to San Francisco and Butler was released . After playing nearly every game throughout the first month of the season , Hornsby was called away from the team on May 29 after his brother William was shot and killed in a saloon . Rogers attended the funeral on June 1 and returned to the Cardinals on June 3 , finishing the season without missing any more playing time . His batting statistics improved from the previous season ; his .327 batting average was second in the league , and he led the league in triples ( 17 ) , total bases ( 253 ) , and slugging percentage ( .484 ) .
Many baseball players were drafted to fight in World War I in 1918 , but Hornsby was given a draft deferment because he was supporting his family . During the offseason , Miller Huggins , unhappy with the Cardinals ' management , left the team to manage the New York Yankees . He was replaced by Jack Hendricks , who had managed the Indianapolis Indians to a pennant in the American Association the previous year . Hornsby lacked confidence in Hendricks 's ability to run the Cardinals , and the two men developed animosity towards each other as a result of Hornsby 's growing egotism and fondness for former manager Huggins . Under Hendricks , Hornsby 's batting average dipped to .281 . He had problems off the field too ; on June 17 , Hornsby hit St. Louis resident Frank G. Rowe with his Buick when Rowe stepped out in front of traffic to cross an intersection . Rowe sued Hornsby for $ 15 @,@ 000 ( $ 235 @,@ 985 today ) , but Hornsby eventually settled for a smaller , undisclosed amount , and the case was dismissed . He was still among the league leaders in triples and slugging percentage in 1918 , but after the season ended with the Cardinals in last place , he announced that he would never play under Hendricks again . Partially due to Hornsby 's complaints , Hendricks was fired after the season and replaced by Branch Rickey , then president of the Cardinals .
In 1919 , after the Cardinals acquired shortstop Doc Lavan , Rickey tried converting Hornsby into a second baseman in spring training . Hornsby played third base for most of the year . His batting average was low at the beginning of the season but improved by June . At season 's end , his average of .318 was second @-@ highest in the league , and he also finished second in total bases and runs batted in .
= = = 1920 – 1926 = = =
In 1920 , Rickey moved Hornsby to second base , where he remained for the rest of his career . He started the year with a 14 @-@ game hitting streak . On June 4 , he had two triples and two RBIs as the Cardinals defeated the Chicago Cubs 5 – 1 , a game that ended future Hall of Famer Grover Cleveland Alexander 's 11 @-@ game winning streak . Hornsby finished the season with the first of seven batting titles by hitting .370 , and he also led the league in on @-@ base percentage ( .431 ) , slugging percentage ( .559 ) , hits ( 218 ) , total bases ( 329 ) , doubles ( 44 ) , and RBIs ( 94 ) .
The beginning of the live @-@ ball era led to a spike in hitting productivity throughout the majors , which helped Hornsby to hit with increased power during the 1921 season . He hit .397 in 1921 , and his 21 home runs were second in the league , more than twice his total in any previous season . He also led the league in on @-@ base percentage ( .458 ) , slugging percentage ( .639 ) , runs scored ( 131 ) , RBIs ( 126 ) , doubles ( 44 ) , and triples ( 18 ) . The Cardinals held a special day in Hornsby 's honor on September 30 before a home game against the Pittsburgh Pirates , and they presented Hornsby with multiple awards before the game , including a baseball autographed by President of the United States Warren G. Harding . The Cardinals beat the Pirates 12 – 4 that day as Hornsby hit a home run and had two doubles .
By the 1922 season , Hornsby was considered a big star , having led the league in batting average , hits , doubles , and runs batted in multiple times . As a result , he sought a three @-@ year contract for $ 25 @,@ 000 per season . After negotiating with Cardinals management , he settled for a three @-@ year , $ 18 @,@ 500 contract ( $ 261 @,@ 538 today ) , which made him the highest @-@ paid player in league history to that point . He then became the only player in history to hit over 40 home runs and bat over .400 in the same season . On August 5 , Hornsby set a new NL record when he hit his 28th home run of the season off of Jimmy Ring of the Philadelphia Phillies . From August 13 through September 19 , he had a 33 @-@ game hitting streak . He finished the year with a new record of 42 home runs , and he also set NL records in hits ( 250 ) and slugging percentage ( .722 , the highest ever for 600 + at @-@ bat players ) . He won the first of his two Triple Crowns that year , and he led the league in batting average ( .401 ) , RBIs ( 152 ) , on @-@ base percentage ( .459 ) , doubles ( 46 ) , and runs scored ( 141 ) . His 450 total bases was the highest mark for any NL player ever . On defense , Hornsby led all second basemen in putouts , double plays , and fielding percentage . His batting performance that year was , and still is , one of the finest in MLB history , and his 42 home runs are still the most ever for a .400 hitter .
On May 8 , 1923 , Hornsby suffered an injury to his left knee in a game against the Phillies when he turned to make a throw . He returned 10 days later , but the injury lingered , and he was removed from a game against the Pirates on May 26 to be examined by Robert Hyland , the Cardinals ' physician . Hyland had Hornsby 's knee placed in a cast for two weeks , after which he returned to the Cardinals . During a game in August , Hornsby was on third base late in the game and threw up his hands in disgust in response to a sign flashed by Rickey ; he had given the current batter the take sign , and Hornsby felt the batter should have hit the ball . After the game , he and Rickey fought in the clubhouse , but teammates quickly broke it up . Hornsby missed several games late in the year with injuries that the Cardinals ( and Hyland ) did not believe to be serious ; as a result he was fined $ 500 ( $ 6 @,@ 944 today ) and suspended for the last five games of the year . However , Hornsby still won his fourth consecutive NL batting title with a batting average of .384 . He also repeated as the leader in on @-@ base percentage ( .459 ) and slugging percentage ( .627 ) .
Hornsby raised his average to .424 in 1924 , which is the sixth @-@ highest batting average in a single
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season in 1927 , as he hit .361 and led the league in runs scored ( 133 ) , walks ( 86 ) , and on @-@ base percentage ( .448 ) . He managed the Giants for part of the year as well , as manager John McGraw dealt with health problems . Hornsby 's performance helped guide the Giants to a 92 – 62 win – loss record during the season , which was good enough for third place in the NL . However , Hornsby 's gambling problems at the racetrack and distrust of Giants ' management annoyed team owner Charles Stoneham . During the offseason he was traded to the Boston Braves for Jimmy Welsh and Shanty Hogan .
= = Boston Braves = =
With the Braves in 1928 , Hornsby was again the league 's most productive hitter ; he won his seventh batting title with a .387 average , also leading the league in on @-@ base percentage ( .498 ) , slugging percentage ( .632 ) , and walks ( 107 ) . One month into the season , manager Jack Slattery resigned , and the Braves hired Hornsby to be his replacement . The Braves , however , lost 103 games and finished in seventh place out of eight teams in the NL . They were struggling financially as well , and when the Chicago Cubs offered $ 200 @,@ 000 ( $ 2 @,@ 756 @,@ 202 today ) and five players for Hornsby , the Braves found the offer too good to pass up .
= = Chicago Cubs = =
Hornsby hit .380 in 1929 for Chicago while recording 39 home runs and leading the league with a .679 slugging percentage and 156 runs scored ; the .380 batting average set a Cubs team record . He also collected another MVP award , and the Cubs won the NL pennant . However , they lost in the 1929 World Series to the Philadelphia Athletics in five games , as Hornsby batted .238 with one RBI . He also set a World Series record for strikeouts with eight .
After the first two months of the 1930 season , Hornsby was batting .325 with two home runs . In the first game of a doubleheader against the Cardinals , Hornsby broke his ankle while advancing to third base . He did not return until August 19 , and he was used mostly as a pinch @-@ hitter for the rest of the season . When Joe McCarthy was fired with four games remaining in the season Hornsby became the team 's manager . Hornsby finished the year with a .308 batting average and two home runs .
On April 24 , 1931 , Hornsby hit three home runs and drove in eight runs in a 10 – 6 victory over Pittsburgh . Hornsby played in 44 of the first 48 games , but after a disappointing performance he only played himself about half the time for the rest of the year . In 100 games , he had 90 RBIs , 37 doubles , and a batting average of .331 . He also led the league in on @-@ base percentage ( .421 ) for the ninth time in his career . The team finished 84 – 70 , 17 games back of the pennant @-@ winning Cardinals , and four games back of the Giants .
The 1931 season was Hornsby 's last as a full @-@ time player . Boils on his feet bothered him during the start of the 1932 season , and he did not play his first game until May 29 . Hornsby played right field from May 29 to June 10 , appeared in two games as a pinch hitter , played third base from July 14 through July 18 , and played one last game as a Cub when he pinch @-@ hit on July 31 .
William Veeck , Sr. , who was running the team , was unhappy with Hornsby 's management of the team . Hornsby maintained strict rules , and Veeck thought his managing style hurt team morale . Veeck believed Hornsby broke a cardinal rule of baseball in one particular incident . Hornsby disagreed with a call made by the umpire . Instead of disputing the call himself , as was the manager 's job , Hornsby sent another player to argue with the umpire . That player was ejected from the game . On August 2 , although the Cubs were in second place , Hornsby was released , and Charlie Grimm replaced him as manager . Hornsby had played 19 games , batting .224 with one home run and seven RBIs . Although the Cubs advanced to the 1932 World Series , the players voted not to give Hornsby any of the World Series money .
= = St. Louis Cardinals and Browns = =
Hornsby did not play for the rest of 1932 , but the Cardinals signed him as a player on October 24 for the 1933 season . He played regularly at second base from April 25 through May 5 , but he was used mostly as a pinch hitter with the Cardinals . On July 22 , he had his final NL hit in a 9 – 5 loss to the Braves . Through July 23 , Hornsby was batting .325 with two home runs and 21 RBIs . However , the Cardinals chose to place him on waivers .
Hornsby was claimed by the last @-@ place St. Louis Browns of the American League ( AL ) on July 26 as player @-@ manager . Bill Killefer had just resigned as Browns manager , and Browns owner Phil Ball wanted Hornsby as a replacement . Hornsby appeared in 11 games for the Browns . He had three hits , including a home run , in nine at @-@ bats . The Browns finished in last place in the AL . That year , Hornsby began operating a baseball school in Hot Springs , Texas , which he ran on and off between 1933 and 1951 with various associates .
In 1934 , Hornsby started only two games , one at third base , and the other in right field . In all of his other appearances , he was a pinch hitter . For the season , he batted .304 with one home run and 11 RBIs . The Browns improved on their previous season , finishing in sixth place out of eight teams in the AL .
Hornsby played in 10 games in the 1935 season , starting in 4 . From April 16 through April 21 , he started at first base , and he started at third base on May 22 . He finished the year with five hits and a .208 average , while the Browns slipped to seventh place .
Hornsby only appeared in two games with the team during the 1936 season . On May 31 , his pinch @-@ hit single in the ninth inning gave the Browns an 11 – 10 win over the Detroit Tigers . In his other appearance on June 9 , he played first base in a 5 – 3 win over the Yankees . The Browns again finished in seventh place .
In 1937 , Hornsby played in 20 games . On April 21 , in his first game of the year , Hornsby hit the final home run of his career in a 15 – 10 victory over the Chicago White Sox . On July 5 , he had the final hit of his career in a 15 – 4 loss in the second game of a doubleheader with the Cleveland Indians .
On July 20 , Hornsby appeared in what would be his final game , a 5 – 4 loss to the Yankees . A day later , Hornsby was fired as manager and released as a player by the Browns , who were in last place at the time of his release . His release was partly due to an incident with Browns owner Donald Barnes . On July 15 , Hornsby won $ 35 @,@ 000 ( $ 576 @,@ 123 today ) from betting on a horse race . When he tried to use $ 4 @,@ 000 of this money to pay off a debt to Barnes , Barnes refused it , since it had come from a bookmaker . Hornsby protested to Barnes , " The money is as good as the money you take from people in the loan @-@ shark business . It 's better than taking interest from widows and orphans ... " ; that made his release five days later an easy decision for Barnes . Hornsby finished the 1937 season with a .321 batting average and 18 hits in 20 games , and was the oldest player in the AL that season .
= = Baseball schools = =
Before opening his own baseball school , Hornsby was an instructor at the " Roy Doan Baseball School " , which operated from 1934 @-@ 38 at Ban Johnson Park , Fogel Field and Majestic Park in Hot Springs , Arkansas , the site of many early Spring training facilities . Then , in 1939 , Hornsby , started the " Rogers Hornsby Baseball College " in Hot Springs after Doan moved his School elsewhere . Hornsby ran the six @-@ week event annually until 1952 , usually attracting 100 @-@ 200 prospects . Cy Young , Jimmie Foxx , Tris Speaker and Schoolboy Rowe were among the instructors for Hornsby 's School . Held in conjunction with the baseball schools was " The George Barr Umpire School " , the first umpire instructional school , with students under the direction of Barr , a Major League Umpire .
= = Later baseball career = =
Following his release from the Browns , Hornsby was unable to retire because he had lost so much money gambling over the years . He signed as a player @-@ coach with the Baltimore Orioles of the International League in 1938 before leaving them to play for and manage the Chattanooga Lookouts of the Southern Association for the rest of the season . Hornsby then returned to the Orioles to manage them for 1939 , but he did not return to the club following the season . Halfway through 1940 , he signed to manage the Oklahoma City Indians of the Texas League . He led them from last place to the Texas League playoffs , where they fell to the Houston Buffaloes in four games . Hornsby began 1941 managing the Indians once again , but he resigned in the middle of the season . In November , he became the general and field manager of the Fort Worth Cats , also of the Texas league . Fort Worth finished in third place and made the playoffs in 1942 , but they were eliminated in the first round by the Shreveport Sports .
Hornsby went unsigned by any team in 1943 , but he signed as a player @-@ manager with the Vera Cruz Blues of La Liga Mexicana in Mexico in 1944 . After hitting a game @-@ winning grand slam for the second win of a series in March , he resigned when the team owner complained that the win would diminish the crowd for the third game of the series . Following his release , he did some commentary for radio station WTMV , assisted the Cleveland Indians in spring training in 1947 , and became a TV announcer for Chicago Cubs games in 1949 .
Hornsby did not become a manager or coach again until 1950 , when he was hired to manage the Texas League 's Beaumont Roughnecks . Beaumont won the pennant , but they were swept in the first round of the playoffs by the San Antonio Missions . The next year , in 1951 , Hornsby managed the Seattle Rainiers of the Pacific Coast League . Under Hornsby 's leadership , the Rainiers won the pennant .
In 1952 , Hornsby was again hired to manage the St. Louis Browns , his first major league job in 16 years . The Browns ' owner , Bill Veeck , was the son of former Cubs president and general manager William Veeck , Sr. Hornsby was not well received by the players , however . On June 9 , he was fired due to a disagreement with Veeck over an incident against the Yankees the day before . During the game , a fan prevented Gil McDougald of the Yankees from catching a fly ball , and the umpire ruled that it was fan interference . Hornsby did not initially argue the call , and a few minutes later Veeck forced him to do it ( when it was already too late to do anything about it ) . This led to Hornsby and the Browns parting ways . The Browns players were so happy about Hornsby 's firing that they gave Veeck an engraved trophy to thank him .
A little over a month later , on July 26 , Hornsby was hired to replace Luke Sewell as manager of the Cincinnati Reds . After Hornsby completed two mediocre seasons with the club , the Reds announced that he would not return for 1954 . He finished his MLB managerial career with a record of 701 – 812 . Following his dismissal , Hornsby worked as a coach for the Chicago Cubs from 1958 to 1960 before becoming a scout and third base coach for the New York Mets in 1962 . In 1963 , Hornsby died of a heart attack . He was buried in Hornsby Bend Cemetery near Austin , Texas .
= = Managerial record = =
= = Legacy = =
Baseball experts and sportswriters consider Hornsby to be one of the greatest hitters of all time . His lifetime batting average of .358 is only exceeded by Ty Cobb 's career mark of .367 . He won seven batting titles in total , a feat tied or exceeded by only five players ( Cobb ( 11 or 12 , depending on the source ) , Tony Gwynn ( 8 ) , Honus Wagner ( 8 ) , Rod Carew ( 7 ) , and Stan Musial ( 7 ) ) . Hornsby led the National League in slugging percentage nine times , a record that still stands . He also hit more home runs , drove in more runs , and had a higher batting average than any other National League player during the 1920s , which makes him one of four players in baseball history ( along with Honus Wagner , Ted Williams , and Albert Pujols ) to win a decade " triple crown " . He hit a career total of 301 home runs and was the first National League player to hit 300 . His 264 home runs as a second baseman was a major league record for that position until Joe Morgan surpassed him in 1984 . Hornsby was also a very consistent hitter whether he was playing at home or on the road . His lifetime home batting average was .359 , and his lifetime away batting average was .358 . Ted Williams , who had the highest career batting average since Hornsby , said that Hornsby was the greatest hitter for power and average in baseball , and Frankie Frisch said of him , " He 's the only guy I know who could hit .350 in the dark . " Hornsby also holds second place on the unofficial major league record list of " consecutive games with two or more hits " with 13 games , first place honors going to Count Campau 's 15 @-@ game streak . Hornsby is only the second right @-@ handed batter in history to hit over .400 three times and is considered , according to the Los Angeles Times , to be the greatest right @-@ handed hitter in history . He led the National League in batting average , on @-@ base percentage , slugging percentage , and total bases every year from 1920 to 1925 . He is one of only two players ( the other being Ted Williams ) to win the batting Triple Crown more than once , but only Hornsby batted .400 on both occasions .
Rogers Hornsby was so respected as a hitter that once , when a rookie pitcher complained to umpire Bill Klem that he thought he had thrown Rogers a strike , Klem replied , " Son , when you pitch a strike , Mr. Hornsby will let you know . "
Hornsby was also renowned for his speed , and was considered to be the fastest player in the National League in his prime . He did not try to steal very often but used his speed to take extra bases . Between 1916 and 1927 Hornsby had 30 inside @-@ the @-@ park home runs , and he led the league with 17 triples in 1917 and 18 triples in 1921 ; he had 20 triples in 1920 .
However , Hornsby was often hard to get along with , a major reason he changed teams so frequently in the last decade of his career . He usually left due to falling out with the front office . Most of the players he managed did not like him due to his insistence that others follow his lifestyle , although some ( like Woody English and Clint Courtney ) did . Hornsby never played cards , but he did bet frequently on horse races , and he lost more than he won . His gambling was often a factor in his dismissal from a team . By most contemporary accounts , he was at least as mean and nasty as Cobb , who was known in his time for his aggressive attitude and dirty play . He never went to movies or read books , convinced that it would harm a batter 's eyesight , and he never smoked or drank .
Hornsby was elected into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1942 . In 1999 , Hornsby was ranked ninth on The Sporting News list of Baseball 's Greatest Players . Later that year , he was named to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team . In 2001 , writer Bill James ranked him as the 22nd @-@ greatest player and the third @-@ greatest second baseman in baseball history , while at the same time documenting his unpopularity and his difficult personality . He is also tied for eighth overall with Stan Musial in wins above replacement for position players . Hornsby has also been recognized on the St. Louis Walk of Fame In January , 2014 , the Cardinals announced Hornsby among 22 former players and personnel to be inducted into the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum for the inaugural class of 2014 .
= = Personal life = =
On September 23 , 1918 , Hornsby married Sarah Elizabeth Martin , whom he had known since he played for the Denison Railroaders , in Philadelphia . They had a son , Rogers Hornsby , Jr . , on November 15 , 1920 . Rogers Jr. died in a plane crash on December 23 , 1949 near Savannah , Georgia .
During 1922 he began seeing Jeanette Pennington Hine , who was married to an automobile @-@ supply salesman named John Hine . On June 12 , 1923 , Hornsby divorced Sarah , and Hine divorced her spouse in 1923 as well ; the two were married on February 28 , 1924 . As a result of the divorce , Sarah took custody of Rogers Jr .
Hornsby and Jeanette had a son , Billy , on June 2 , 1925 . Billy played baseball for several years in the minor leagues , but never reached the majors . Hornsby and Jeanette became estranged in December 1944 , and Hornsby began seeing a woman named Bernadette Harris , whom he called his " personal good friend and secretary " , in 1945 . They lived together after 1948 , until Harris committed suicide by jumping out of a third @-@ story window on September 7 , 1953 . The suicide was attributed to depression . Following Jeanette 's death on June 1 , 1956 , Hornsby married Marjorie Bernice Frederick Porter on January 27 , 1957 . They remained together until Hornsby 's death in 1963 .
= The Great Milenko =
The Great Milenko is the fourth studio album by American hip hop group Insane Clown Posse , released on August 12 , 1997 , by Hollywood Records , in association with Psychopathic Records . As the fourth Joker 's Card in the group 's Dark Carnival mythology , the album 's lyrics focus on the titular Great Milenko , an illusionist who tries to trick individuals into greed and other such sins .
The album was recorded and initially released by the Disney @-@ owned record label Hollywood Records . The album was taken off shelves by Hollywood hours after its release , in response to criticism from the Southern Baptist Church of decisions that the church believed did not reflect Disney 's family @-@ friendly image , although Disney claimed that the album was released due to an oversight by its review board . After Hollywood terminated the group 's contract , Insane Clown Posse signed a new contract with Island Records ( whose parent at the time , PolyGram , distributed Hollywood releases in North America ) , which agreed to release the album as it was originally intended .
The music of The Great Milenko features a rock sound and features guest appearances by popular rock stars Alice Cooper , Steve Jones and Slash . Although the album was poorly received by critics , it debuted at number 63 on the Billboard charts , and was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . It is the group 's 10th overall release .
= = Conception = =
= = = Background = = =
Following the 1994 release of the album Ringmaster , Insane Clown Posse started to attract a strong local following in Detroit , Michigan . The group began selling out large clubs such as St. Andrew 's Hall and the State Theater , and drew the attention of major record label Jive Records . The next year , Insane Clown Posse signed with the label Battery , a subsidiary Jive Records . Battery / Jive released the duo 's third studio album , Riddle Box ( 1995 ) , but showed little interest in promoting the album . The group 's manager Alex Abbiss negotiated a contract with the Disney 's Hollywood Records label , which reportedly paid $ 1 million to purchase the Insane Clown Posse contract from Battery / Jive Records .
The expansion of the Juggalo fanbase into its own culture inspired Insane Clown Posse to write the songs " What Is A Juggalo ? " and " Down With The Clown " for this album .
= = = Recording = = =
The group started recording The Great Milenko in 1996 , and Violent J began thinking of a title for the album shortly after . Bruce later came up with the title The Great Milenko . Bruce also admitted that he had always liked the ring name of professional wrestler Dean Simon ( " Dean Malenko " ) , because he felt that the name Malenko had a " carnival " sound to it . Believing that he had created the name himself , Bruce later realized that he had unwittingly used the nickname of Dean 's father , Boris " The Great " Malenko .
The band wanted to include famous rock stars on the album . Julian Raymond , the artists and repertoire representative for Hollywood Records contacted Slash , Steve Jones , and Alice Cooper . Slash , who was a self @-@ professed fan of the band 's music , reportedly only asked for Wild Irish Rose as payment for his contributions . Bruce , who knew very little about the Sex Pistols or Steve Jones , declined to show up at the studio when Jones played his guitar part for " Piggy Pie " . Although not knowing much about Alice Cooper either , Bruce decided to fly to Arizona and coach Cooper on his parts . Bruce and Clark also met George Clinton , who was staying in the same hotel , and recorded his voice in his room , but it did not fit anywhere on the album .
After the recording sessions were finished , executives at Hollywood Records — and the label 's parent company , Disney — expressed dissatisfaction with several tracks . Disney requested that the tracks " The Neden Game , " " Under the Moon , " and " Boogie Woogie Wu " be removed because of lyrics referencing abuse of women , rape and murder , and the slaughter of children , respectively . Disney also asked that the lyrics of " Piggy Pie " be changed , due to lyrics about murdering police officers . Disney threatened not to release the album if their requests were not met . Begrudgingly , Bruce and Utsler complied with Disney 's requests . The uncensored version of " Piggy Pie " was later released on Forgotten Freshness Volumes 1 & 2 . After recording was finalized , the duo planned to go on a national tour with House of Krazees and Myzery as its opening acts . Several songs were recorded with the intention of releasing them on The Great Milenko . One such song , " House of Wonders " was recorded but was later released on Mutilation Mix ( 1997 ) and Forgotten Freshness Volumes 1 & 2 ( 1998 ) .
= = = Joker 's Cards = = =
The Great Milenko is the fourth Joker 's Card in Insane Clown Posse 's Dark Carnival concept album series . The Dark Carnival is a concept of the afterlife in which souls are sent to a form of limbo while waiting to be sent to heaven or hell based on their individual actions . These concepts are related by Insane Clown Posse in a series of albums called the six Joker 's Cards . Each of the six Joker 's Cards relate to a specific character — an entity of the Dark Carnival — that tries to " save the human soul " by showing the wickedness inside of one 's self .
This Joker 's Card is a necromancer and illusionist who tries to trick individuals into acts of greed , envy , and lust . The Card ultimately issues a warning against such acts of sin , and enlightens listeners that The Great Milenko is a part of every individual , and that they have the power to fall under his illusions or cast his hoaxes aside .
= = Music = =
= = = Style = = =
The Great Milenko featured more rock influences than previous Insane Clown Posse albums , including an introduction performed by Alice Cooper and guitar tracks performed by Steve Jones ( on " Piggie Pie " ) , and Slash ( on " Halls of Illusions " ) . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic wrote , in his review of The Amazing Jeckel Brothers ( 1999 ) that , " The Great Milenko [ ... ] was targeted at white @-@ boy , adolescent metalheads -- really , how could any album that contained guest spots from Alice Cooper , Slash , Steve Jones and Legs Diamond be anything else ? "
Insane Clown Posse hired renowned Detroit record producer and DJ Mike E. Clark to produce the record . Clark made the album sound more rock @-@ oriented , as opposed to the duo 's earlier material , which featured a more prominent hip @-@ hop sound . To create the record , Clark utilized standard hip hop techniques such as record scratching , and mixed them with elements of rock and heavy metal .
= = = Lyricism = = =
According to the group 's mythology , The Great Milenko is a necromancer and illusionist who tries to trick individuals into greed and other such sins . He takes out the worst in an individual and creates powerful illusions in an attempt to cause them to become hedonistic and greedy . An honorable individual must fight his magic in order to make it to Shangri @-@ La ( as revealed in the track " Pass Me By " ) .
The album 's themes mostly revolve around those of death , morality , and everyday decisions . For instance , " How Many Times ? " talks about annoying traffic jams and other everyday @-@ life inconveniences . " Piggy Pie " references the Three Little Pigs and tells Violent J 's story of murdering three kinds of people : an incest @-@ prone redneck , cops who wrongly arrest and harass people , and stuck @-@ up wealthy people . " Under the Moon " tells the tale of a man convicted after killing a man who tried to rape his girlfriend . " Boogie Woogie Wu " is told from the perspective of the boogie man and talks about the slaughter of children . The " Neden Game " takes the form of a Dating Game @-@ esque show , albeit with added misogynistic banter for humor . Finally , the lyrics to " Hellalujah " target money @-@ hungry preachers .
= = = Singles = = =
Two singles were released from the album : " Halls of Illusions " and " Hokus Pokus . " " Halls of Illusions " was the first single released in 1997 . The single peaked at number 56 on the UK Singles Chart , and its accompanying music video peaked at number one on The Box video request channel . The album 's second single , " Hokus Pokus , " was released in June 1997 . In 1998 , it peaked at number 54 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Promotion and release = =
Initially , Hollywood Records shipped 100 @,@ 000 copies of The Great Milenko to various record stores . During a music @-@ store autograph signing , Insane Clown Posse was notified that Hollywood Records had deleted the album within hours of its release , despite having sold 18 @,@ 000 copies and reaching number 63 on the Billboard 200 . The group was also informed that its in @-@ store signings and 25 @-@ city nationwide tour had been canceled , commercials for the album and the music video for " Halls of Illusions " ( which had reached number one on The Box video request channel ) were pulled from television , and that the group was dropped from the label . It was later revealed that Disney was being criticized by the Southern Baptist Church at the time because of Disney 's promotion of Gay Days at Disneyland , in addition to producing and distributing the gay @-@ themed television sitcom Ellen . The church claimed Disney was turning its back on family values . Although Abbiss told the press that Disney had stopped production of The Great Milenko to avoid further controversy , Disney claimed instead that the release of the album was an oversight by their review board , and that the album " did not fit the Disney image " because of its " inappropriate " lyrics , which they claimed were offensive to women . Although Hollywood Records had ordered record stores to return shipments of the now @-@ deleted album , many record stores refused , including the Michigan @-@ based Harmony House where 1 @,@ 700 CDs were sold in 36 stores after the termination order .
After the termination of the Hollywood Records contract , labels such as Interscope and Geffen Records wanted to sign the group , but Island Records ' Chris Blackwell came to the group 's rescue and agreed to release The Great Milenko as it was originally intended . As part of the deal , Island also agreed to rerelease the group 's first two Joker 's Card albums . Milenko was released in four colors : red , green , purple , and gold . Each color had a different secret message that would help reveal the title of the fifth Joker 's Card , The Amazing Jeckel Brothers . Music videos were filmed for " Halls of Illusions , " " How Many Times , " and " Piggy Pie . " An unofficial music video for " Down with the Clown " was featured on the home @-@ video release Juggalo Championshxt Wrestling Volume 1 . A music video for the Headhuntaz Remix of " Hokus Pokus " was produced after the release of the album . The video featured appearances by Twiztid and Myzery . Blackwell left Island Records shortly after the group released Forgotten Freshness Volumes 1 & 2 , and the merger of PolyGram into Universal Music Group ( which owned Interscope and Geffen ) affected the way the label handled its next Joker 's Card release . Despite the rough start , The Great Milenko has sold well over the years . On May 5 , 1998 , the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . A year later , on April 21 , 1999 , the album was certified platinum for shipments of over one million copies . As of 2007 , the album has sold over 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States .
= = Critical reception = =
Reviews for The Great Milenko were generally very mixed reviews . Entertainment Weekly music critic David Browne gave the record a C @-@ minus rating : " [ With ] its puerile humor and intentionally ugly metal @-@ rap tunes , the album feels oddly dated . " Allmusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that The Great Milenko is " the sort of record you wish they would take off the stereo at excruciating frat parties . " In The Great Rock Discography , Martin Charles Strong gave the album five out of ten stars . The album received two out of five stars in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide , in which Ben Sisario identified it as the album in which " the group came into its own " .
Although the reviews were mostly negative , some critics complimented the album 's improved sound over its precursors . Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that the album was " a better record than [ its ] predecessors , boasting a tougher sound and some actual hooks , without losing the juvenile vulgarity that pleased their following , " and added that " it is better than the rest of ICP 's work . " David Browne said that " Milenko is better produced than the duo 's earlier output ( Slash grinds out metal chords on Halls of Illusions ) , and Pass Me By is a genuinely melodic song . " In 2009 , Fangoria named The Great Milenko an iconic horrorcore album .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Singles = = =
= Kerala =
Kerala ( / ˈkɛrələ / ) , historically known as Keralam , is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar coast . It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam @-@ speaking regions . Spread over 38 @,@ 863 km2 ( 15 @,@ 005 sq mi ) , it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast , Tamil Nadu to the east and south , and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west . With 33 @,@ 387 @,@ 677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census , Kerala is the thirteenth largest state by population and is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram . Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state .
The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE . The Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala , though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas . In the 15th century , the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala , and paved the way for the European colonisation of India . After independence , Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore @-@ Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949 . In 1956 , Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district , Travancore @-@ Cochin ( excluding four southern taluks ) , and the taluk of Kasargod , South Kanara .
Kerala has the lowest positive population growth rate in India , 3 @.@ 44 % ; highest Human Development Index ( HDI ) , 0 @.@ 790 in 2011 ; the highest literacy rate , 93 @.@ 91 % in the 2011 census ; the highest life expectancy , 77 years ; and the highest sex ratio , 1 @,@ 084 women per 1000 men . The state has witnessed significant emigration , especially to Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s , and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community . Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population , followed by Islam and Christianity . The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures , developed over millennia , under influences from other parts of India and abroad .
The production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output . In the agricultural sector , coconut , tea , coffee , cashew and spices are important . The state 's coastline extends for 595 kilometres ( 370 mi ) , and around 1 @.@ 1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3 % to the state 's income . The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages , mainly English and Malayalam . Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India , with backwaters , beaches , Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions .
= = Etymology = =
The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology . " Keralam " may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive @-@ alam ( " declivity of a hill or a mountain slope " ) or chera alam ( " Land of the Cheras " ) . While " Kerala " may represent an imperfect Malayalam portmanteau fusing kera ( " coconut palm tree " ) and alam ( " land " or " location " ) . " Kerala " can also be derived from the word " Cheral " that refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings . The word " Cheral " is derived from the Proto @-@ Tamil @-@ Malayalam word for " lake " .
The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda . It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , the two Hindu epics . The word Kerala is first recorded ( as Keralaputra , meaning Cherathala makan or Cheraman ) in a 3rd @-@ century BCE rock inscription ( Rock Edict 2 ) left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka ( 274 – 237 BCE ) . The inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra ( Sanskrit for " son of Kerala " ) ; or " son of Chera [ s ] " . This contradicts a popular theory that its etymology derives " Kerala " from " Kera " ( coconut tree in Malayalam ) . At that time , one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil : Chera and Kera are variants of the same word . The Greco @-@ Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra .
= = History = =
= = = Mythology = = =
According to Hindu mythology , the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe @-@ wielding warrior sage Parasurama , the sixth avatar of Vishnu , hence Kerala is also called Parasurama Kshetram ( " The Land of Parasurama " ) . Parasurama threw his axe across the sea , and the water receded as far as it reached . According to legend , this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari . The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation ; so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki , who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land . Out of respect , Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land . The legend was later expanded , and found literary expression in the 17th or 18th century with Keralolpathi , which traces the origin of aspects of early Kerala society , such as land tenure and administration , to the story of Parasurama . In medieval times Kuttuvan may have emulated the Parasurama tradition by throwing his spear into the sea to symbolise his lordship over it .
Another much earlier Puranic character associated with Kerala is Mahabali , an Asura and a prototypical just king , who ruled the earth from Kerala . He won the war against the Devas , driving them into exile . The Devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu , who took his fifth incarnation as Vamana and pushed Mahabali down to Patala ( the netherworld ) to placate the Devas . There is a belief that , once a year during the Onam festival , Mahabali returns to Kerala . The Matsya Purana , among the oldest of the 18 Puranas , uses the Malaya Mountains of Kerala ( and Tamil Nadu ) as the setting for the story of Matsya , the first incarnation of Vishnu , and Manu , the first man and the king of the region .
= = = Pre @-@ history = = =
A substantial portion of Kerala may have been under the sea in ancient times . Marine fossils have been found in an area near Changanacherry , thus supporting the hypothesis . Pre @-@ historical archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area of the Idukki district . They are locally known as " muniyara " , derived from muni ( hermit or sage ) and ara ( dolmen ) . Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves , in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE . Archaeological studies have identified Mesolithic , Neolithic and Megalithic sites in Kerala . The studies point to the development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic Age , through the Mesolithic , Neolithic and Megalithic Ages . Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation ; historians suggest a possible relationship with Indus Valley Civilization during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age .
= = = Ancient period = = =
Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE , according to Sumerian records and it is still referred to as the " Garden of Spices " or as the " Spice Garden of India " . Kerala 's spices attracted ancient Babylonians , Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE . Arabs and Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period . The Land of Keralaputra was one of the four independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka 's time , the others being Chola , Pandya , and Satiyaputra . Scholars hold that Keralaputra is an alternate name of the Cheras , the first dominant dynasty based in Kerala . These territories once shared a common language and culture , within an area known as Tamilakam . While the Cheras ruled most of modern Kerala , its southern tip was in the kingdom of Pandyas , which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda ( or Neacyndi ) in Quilon . Later , the region fell under the control of the Pandyas , Cheras , and Cholas . Ays and Mushikas were two other dynasties of ancient Kerala , whose kingdoms lay to the south and north of Cheras respectively .
In the last centuries BCE the coast became important to the Greeks and Romans for its spices , especially black pepper . The Cheras had trading links with China , West Asia , Egypt , Greece , and the Roman Empire . In foreign @-@ trade circles the region was known as Male or Malabar . Muziris , Berkarai , and Nelcynda were among the principal ports at that time . The value of Rome 's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sesterces ; contemporary Sangam literature describes Roman ships coming to Muziris in Kerala , laden with gold to exchange for pepper . One of the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to reach Kerala was Eudoxus of Cyzicus , around 118 or 166 BCE , under the patronage of Ptolemy VIII , king of the Hellenistic P
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felt confused while listening to the album , saying that while it was " interesting , even entertaining " , he felt that he was " on the outside of an inside joke " and that only fans of Ito 's music would appreciate the album .
= = = Romancing SaGa 3 Original Sound Version = = =
Romancing SaGa 3 Original Sound Version is a soundtrack album for Romancing SaGa 3 . It was entirely composed by Kenji Ito . The album covers 70 tracks over three discs and has a duration of 2 : 29 : 19 . It was first published by NTT Publishing on November 25 , 1995 with the catalog numbers PSCN @-@ 5033 ~ 5 , and reprinted by NTT Publishing on October 1 , 2004 with the numbers NTCP @-@ 5033 ~ 5 .
The album was well received by Patrick Gann , who termed it " above expectations " and " some of Ito 's finest work " . He highlighted the third disc and the character themes as the best tracks on the album .
Track list
= = = Windy Tale = = =
Romancing SaGa 3 Windy Tale is an arranged album of music from Romancing SaGa 3 . The pieces were arranged by Taro Iwashiro from tracks composed by Kenji Ito . The album 's 10 tracks cover a duration of 45 : 47 . It was first published by NTT Publishing on January 25 , 1996 with the catalog number PSCN @-@ 5043 , and reprinted by NTT Publishing on October 1 , 2004 with the number NTCP @-@ 5043 .
The album was well received by critics such as Eric Farand of RPGFan , who appreciated the slower feel of the album which in his opinion allowed it to focus on " delivering beautiful melodies " and made it " a pleasure to listen to " . Dave of Square Enix Music Online agreed , saying it took the original soundtrack and " improve [ d ] an already good album " . In his opinion , each track was " masterfully composed " and the album was " diverse " in genres .
= = = Prologue = = =
Romancing SaGa 3 Prologue is a promotional album of music from Romancing SaGa 3 . The tunes were composed by Kenji Ito . The album contains the character themes from the game , and was included in an identically @-@ titled book detailing the game 's story , characters and artwork . The album 's eight tracks cover a duration of 18 : 40 . It was published by NTT Publishing on November 11 , 1995 with the catalog number RSS @-@ 0001 .
= = = Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song Original Soundtrack = = =
Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song Original Soundtrack is an arranged album of music from Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song , the 2005 enhanced remake of Romancing SaGa . The tracks were primarily composed by Kenji Ito , with one track contributed by Tsuyoshi Sekito and one track contributed by Nobuo Uematsu , and were arranged from those compositions by Ito and Sekito . When Ito arranged the music of Romancing SaGa 1 for Minstrel Song , he felt that because of all of the fans who had played the original game and the change in audio hardware from the Super Famicom to the PlayStation 2 he did not want to simply re @-@ arrange the pieces , but instead tried to " re @-@ make " the soundtrack into something which could stand on its own from the original soundtrack and the game . He spent two years completing the remake . The game 's theme song , " Minuet " , is sung by Masayoshi Yamazaki . The album 's 103 tracks cover a duration of 3 : 47 : 32 across four discs . It was published by Universal Music on April 27 , 2005 with the catalog numbers UPCH @-@ 1411 ~ 4 .
The album was well received by critics such as Derek Strange of RPGFan , who described it as a " must @-@ have soundtrack " and complimented Ito in both arranging tracks from Romancing SaGa " to both sterling and awesome heights " and in composing new tracks that blended well with the older ones . Chris Greening of Square Enix Music Online agreed , saying that it exceeded expectations and was Ito 's " finest work to date " . Both reviewers cited the fourth disc as the weakest , with Chris referring to it as " mostly filler tracks " .
Track list
= = = Minuet = = =
Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song : Minuet is the single for " Minuet " , the theme song of Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song . The song was written , composed , and sung by Masayoshi Yamazaki . The album contains the original song , an acoustic version , and a karaoke version , all performed by Yamazaki . The album 's 3 tracks cover a duration of 14 : 18 . It was published by Universal Music on April 13 , 2005 with the catalog number UPCH @-@ 5303 , and also as a limited edition version with the catalog number of UPCH @-@ 9176 , and included a screensaver and wallpapers for a computer .
Like the soundtrack it was featured on , Minuet was well received by critics . Patrick Gann called it " strangely beautiful " , and described the genre as either " pop or neo @-@ renaissance " . He said that the acoustic version was his favorite version of the song on the album . Totz of Square Enix Music Online called it " a CD with one incredibly wonderful song " , but stated that he wished there were more works by Yamazaki on the album than just the one song . He concluded that while the album was definitely " worth it " from a " musical perspective " , but might not be from a " buyer 's perspective " .
= = SaGa Frontier = =
The SaGa Frontier subseries consists of SaGa Frontier , a 1997 PlayStation game , and SaGa Frontier 2 , released on the PlayStation in 1999 . SaGa Frontier was composed by Kenji Ito , the last SaGa game he has worked on besides the remake of Romancing SaGa 1 , while SaGa Frontier 2 saw the first work in the series by Masashi Hamauzu . The series has sparked three albums , which are the soundtrack albums to the two games and a collection of piano and orchestral arrangements of music from SaGa Frontier 2 . SaGa Frontier 2 was the first soundtrack from the SaGa series that Ito was not a composer for since SaGa 3 nine years prior and the second solo project by Hamauzu after Chocobo no Fushigina Dungeon . Hamauzu has stated that his intention for the soundtrack was to " compose outside the field of conventional ' game music ' , " and that to do this he " took a lot of chances in every possible way " . In the liner notes for the soundtrack album , Hamauzu explained that when he began the project he felt pressured to compose music in the same vein as the previous soundtracks in the series , but in the final months before finishing he decided to abandon any preconceived notions of what the music should sound like and instead to " express [ his ] own unique character " .
= = = SaGa Frontier Original Soundtrack = = =
SaGa Frontier Original Soundtrack is an album of music from SaGa Frontier , composed by Kenji Ito . The album 's 75 tracks cover a duration of 3 : 33 : 41 across three discs . The third disc contains a hidden track , track 0 , which can be found be rewinding the album back from track 1 . The album was published by DigiCube on April 21 , 1999 with the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10009 , and re @-@ released by Square Enix on February 1 , 2006 with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10058 ~ 60 .
The album reached # 69 on the Japan Oricon charts . It was well received by critics such as RPGFan , which said that almost every track was " excellent " and complimented Ito on combining melodies and styles from his Romancing SaGa soundtracks with new styles to form a unique Frontier sound . Ashley Winchester of Square Enix Music Online was more hesitant , saying that while the score had a " lighthearted and easy listening quality " that made it " easy to digest " , it was also lacking any " real innovation " and its arrangements were " somewhat simpler " than expected .
Track list
= = = SaGa Frontier II Original Soundtrack = = =
SaGa Frontier II Original Soundtrack is an album of music from SaGa Frontier . The tracks were composed by Masashi Hamauzu . The album 's 76 tracks cover a duration of 3 : 05 : 14 across three discs . The album was published by DigiCube on April 21 , 1999 with the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10031 , and re @-@ released by Square Enix on February 1 , 2006 with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10061 ~ 3 .
The album reached # 88 on the Japan Oricon charts . It was well received by critics such as Patrick Gann , who described Hamauzu 's inaugural work on the series as " different , but also extremely well @-@ done " . He said that the individual tracks were " darn good " and applauded the innovative synthesizer techniques used . Nathan Black of Square Enix Music Online also highly praised the album , calling it " excellent " and saying that it " amazed him " . Terming the soundtrack Hamauzu 's " first major work " , he ascribed the album 's quality to Hamauzu wanting to " take chances " and make a name for himself . He concluded that because of this there was nothing " bland " , " boring " or " predictable " about the soundtrack .
Track list
= = = Piano Pieces " SF2 " ~ Rhapsody on a Theme of SaGa Frontier 2 = = =
Piano Pieces " SF2 " ~ Rhapsody on a Theme of SaGa Frontier 2 is an arranged album of music from SaGa Frontier 2 . The tracks were composed and arranged by Masashi Hamauzu and performed by Naoko Endo , Daisuke Hara , Mikiko Saiki , Daisuke Karasuda , and Michiko Minakata . The album 's 24 tracks are broken up into groupings of tracks with the same name , with each group of tracks performed by a different person or group of people . Every grouping but the last consists of piano arrangements , while the last grouping , " Rhapsody on a Theme of SaGa Frontier 2 " , is a full orchestral arrangement . The album has a length of 50 : 44 . It was published by DigiCube on July 7 , 1999 with the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10033 . The album included a booklet with the full score to all of the piano arrangements in the album . It was reprinted by Square Enix on July 21 , 2010 , with the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10197 . This version of the album included an extra track number 25 , a new version of " ' β ' 1 " , which extended the length of the album to 52 : 52 .
The album was well received by critics such as Patrick Gann , who called it " amazing " and a " must @-@ have " . He felt that the " Rhapsody on a Theme " tracks were the best on the album . Aevloss of Square Enix Music Online said that each track was " of a consistently high standard " and that the album as a whole was better than the original soundtrack , which he held to be " very impressive " . He singled out the variety of styles used in the album as particularly worthy of praise .
= = Unlimited Saga = =
Unlimited Saga is the newest SaGa game , first published on the PlayStation 2 in 2002 and was composed for by Masashi Hamauzu ; it has not yet received any sequels . Unlimited Saga has sparked two albums , a soundtrack album and a promotional single . In the liner notes for the soundtrack album , Hamauzu estimated that he had completed the tunes for the soundtrack at a rate of one per day . He also noted that the game was Square Enix 's first " all streaming audio RPG " , which meant that the composer and synthesizer operator could use live recordings of each instrument in the final composition rather than using approximations created in a synthesizer . Despite this , some tracks , including " Judy 's Theme " , use only synthesized sounds as the synthesizer demo created prior to recording a live version sounded so real as to not need to be re @-@ recorded . Hamauzu said that the tracks that used live instruments almost exclusively were the ones that were " Latin " in style , such as " Anxiety towards a Wonder " and " Battle Theme IV " . Hamauzu also stated that for the soundtrack he reused several older pieces , with the oldest being " Mysterious Plan " which had been composed 10 years prior , though he said that amount of work that needed to be done to update the pieces required more effort than if he had composed a new piece instead .
= = = Unlimited Saga Original Soundtrack = = =
Unlimited Saga Original Soundtrack is an arranged album of music from Unlimited Saga . The tracks were composed by Masashi Hamauzu , with some tracks arranged for orchestral performance by Shiro Hamaguchi . Hamauzu described the major differences between this soundtrack and his previous works as being the result of changes in technology , which allowed him to include a wider variety of musical genres as well as " ample " acoustic instruments . He has said that his favorite tune from the soundtrack is " Soaring Wings " , the theme song for the game , particularly given the short amount of time he had to compose the soundtrack . When Hamauzu thought to use a song in the soundtrack , he decided to cast Mio Kashiwabara as the singer , despite having only met her once at the Tokyo University of Art festival two years before and never working with her . Despite her having never sung a non @-@ classical work before , he was very satisfied with how the song came out . The album 's 58 tracks cover a duration of 2 : 07 : 03 across two discs . The final four tracks of the album are arrangements of other pieces on the soundtrack . It was published by DigiCube on January 22 , 2003 with the catalog numbers SSCX @-@ 10078 ~ 9 .
The album reached # 115 on the Japan Oricon charts . It was well received by critics such as Jeff Tittsworth of RPGFan , who applauded its variety , saying that each track had a " distinct feel " even as the album as a whole felt " cohesive " . He also noted that each disc had its own feel , with the first disc containing more mellow and emotional pieces , while the second held " harder " rock , techno and jazz pieces , a dichotomy that he felt strengthened the album as a whole . James McCawley of RPGFan agreed ; while he preferred the sound of the second disc , he felt that together they created a stronger album which reflected " the split sides of Hamauzu 's musical character " . Chris Greening of Square Enix Music Online also enjoyed the album , calling it " an accomplished piece of experimentation that is also often satisfying on an emotional and melodic level " , though he added a caveat that if the listener did not enjoy electronic music , they would find the album " often wonderful but also hugely inconsistent " .
Track list
= = = Unlimited Saga Maxi Single CD = = =
Unlimited Saga Maxi Single CD is a promotional album of music from Unlimited Saga . All three tracks on the album were composed by Masashi Hamauzu , while " Unlimited SaGa Overture " was arranged for orchestra by Shiro Hamaguchi and " Soaring Wings " was sung by Mio Kashiwabara . The album contains a sampling of the tracks from the game . The album 's three tracks cover a duration of 9 : 29 . It was published by Square on December 12 , 2002 with the catalog number SQCD @-@ 30001 , and was included with the limited edition version of the game in Japan .
The single was poorly received by Chris Greening of Square Enix Music Online , who said that while it worked well as a promotional album , it did not work as a stand @-@ alone single after the release of the full soundtrack . He described it as " very limited " and " a pointless and thankfully obsolete album " .
= = Multiple series = =
Two albums have been or are planned to be produced that cover more than one SaGa series . The first , SaGa Battle Music Collection , is an album of battle music , while the second , the SaGa Series 20th Anniversary Original Soundtrack -Premium Box- is a box set of every soundtrack album produced to date from the SaGa series as a whole .
= = = SaGa Battle Music Collection = = =
SaGa Battle Music Collection is an album of battle music from across the SaGa series . The pieces were all composed by Kenji Ito ; the album does not include any tracks originally composed by other series composers such as Hamauzu or Uematsu . The album 's 14 tracks cover a duration of 46 : 39 and cover battle music from SaGa 2 , Romancing SaGa 1 , 2 , and 3 , SaGa Frontier , and Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song . The final two tracks of the album are piano solos by Ito , and are arrangements of themes common to the series as a whole . The album was produced as a promotional album for the release of Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song to be included with pre @-@ orders of the Japanese release of the game , and was published by Square Enix on April 21 , 2005 with the catalog number ROMA @-@ 0001 . The album was well received by Patrick Gann , who said that it included some of Ito 's most memorable tracks . He called it a " great idea " and said that it was " worth hunting down " .
= = = SaGa Series 20th Anniversary Original Soundtrack -Premium Box- = = =
The SaGa Series 20th Anniversary Original Soundtrack -Premium Box- is a soundtrack album collection of music from every released SaGa game . The compilation features 515 tracks on 20 CDs with a total length of 19 : 02 : 45 , and includes a DVD of developer interviews , a stand display showing an illustration painted by Tomomi Kobayashi , and materials to build a display box for the CDs . The set consists of all of the soundtrack albums from the SaGa series , with All Sounds of SaGa broken up into one disc per game , rather than the original two discs . The set was published on August 26 , 2009 to coincide with the 20th anniversary of the release of the first SaGa video game with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10145 ~ 65 . Patrick Gann described it as an excellent collection that was worth the purchase for anyone who wanted to own the entire set and did not already have most of the albums , though he noted that as it included multiple composers and styles the compilation box would not be justified for everyone who liked just some of the music of the SaGa series .
= = Legacy = =
" Overture " from Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song was performed at the " Press Start -Symphony of Games- 2006 " concert in Tokyo on September 22 , 2006 . Kenji Ito performed " Passionate Rhythm " from Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song at the " Extra : Hyper Game Music Event 2007 " concert in Tokyo on July 7 , 2007 along with other performers . Music from SaGa Frontier 2 was played at the fifth Symphonic Game Music Concert , held in Leipzig , Germany on August 22 , 2007 . The FILMharmonic Orchestra and Choir was conducted by Andy Brick and featured Jaromir Klepac as the pianist ; they performed " Feldschlacht V " , or " Field Battle 1 " . Selections from Piano Pieces " SF2 " ~ Rhapsody on a Theme of SaGa Frontier 2 were played in a concert in Paris of Hamauzu 's work on May 22 , 2011 . An arrangement of " Main Theme " from SaGa I and " Save the World " from SaGa 2 was performed on July 9 , 2011 at the Symphonic Odysseys concert , which commemorated the music of Uematsu .
In addition to the albums produced , music from the original soundtracks of the SaGa games has been arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing . Books are available for Romancing SaGa 3 , Romancing SaGa Minstrel Song , SaGa Frontier , SaGa Frontier II , and Unlimited SaGa . The compositions from Unlimited SaGa were rewritten by Tadaomi Idogawa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos , though they are meant to sound as much like the originals as possible . The music for the other books was written by Asako Niwa for piano solos of similar difficulty .
= World Chess Championship 1972 =
The World Chess Championship 1972 was a match for the World Chess Championship between challenger Bobby Fischer of the United States and defending champion Boris Spassky of the Soviet Union . The match took place in the Laugardalshöll arena in Reykjavík , Iceland and has been dubbed the Match of the Century . Fischer became the first American born in the United States to win the world title , and the second American overall ( Wilhelm Steinitz , the first world champion , became a naturalized American citizen in 1888 ) . Fischer 's win also ended , for a short time , 24 years of Soviet domination of the World Championship .
The first game was played on July 11 , 1972 . The last game began on August 31 , was adjourned after 40 moves , and Spassky resigned the next day without resuming play . Fischer won the match 12 ½ – 8 ½ , becoming the eleventh undisputed World Champion .
In 2016 , former World Chess Champion Garry Kasparov commented on the global significance of the match , saying :
I think the reason you look at these matches probably was not so much the chess factor but to the political element , which was inevitable because in the Soviet Union , chess was treated by the Soviet authorities as a very important and useful ideological tool to demonstrate the intellectual superiority of the Soviet communist regime over the decadent West . That ’ s why the Spassky defeat [ ... ] was treated by people on both sides of the Atlantic as a crushing moment in the midst of the Cold War .
= = Background = =
The match was played during the Cold War , but during a period of increasing détente . The Soviet Chess School had long held a monopoly on the game at the highest level . Spassky was the latest in an uninterrupted chain of Soviet world chess champions , stretching back to the 1948 championship .
Fischer , an eccentric 29 @-@ year @-@ old American , was a vocal critic of the Soviet domination of chess , because he believed that Soviet players gained an unfair advantage by agreeing to short draws among themselves in tournaments . In August 1962 Sports Illustrated , and then in October the German magazine Der Spiegel , published a famous article by Fischer " The Russians Have Fixed World Chess " in which he expounded this view . Fischer himself rarely agreed to early draws in unclear positions .
The expectations on Spassky were enormous because for the Soviets , chess was part of the political system . While Fischer was often famously critical of his home country ( " Americans want to plunk in front of a TV and don 't want to open a book ... " ) , he too carried the burden of expectation because of the political significance of the match . No American had achieved the world championship since the first champion , Wilhelm Steinitz , became a naturalized American citizen in 1888 . The excitement surrounding the match was such that it was called the " Match of the Century " , even though the same term had been applied to the USSR vs. Rest of the World match just two years before .
Spassky , the champion , had lost the world championship match against Tigran Petrosian in 1966 . In 1968 , he won matches against Efim Geller , Bent Larsen , and Viktor Korchnoi to again win the right to challenge Petrosian for the title . This time Spassky triumphed , winning 12 ½ – 10 ½ . He is often said to have ( had ) a " universal style " , " involving an ability to play the most varied types of positions " . However , Garry Kasparov notes that " from childhood he clearly had a leaning toward sharp , attacking play , and possessed a splendid feel for the initiative . " Before the match , Fischer had played five games against Spassky , with two draws and Spassky winning three .
However , in the Candidates matches en route to becoming the challenger , Fischer had demolished world @-@ class grandmasters Mark Taimanov and Bent Larsen , each by a perfect score of 6 – 0 , a feat no one else had ever accomplished in any Candidates match . After that , Fischer had split the first five games of his match against former World Champion Tigran Petrosian , then closed out the match by winning the last four games . " No bare statement conveys the magnitude and impact of these results . ... Fischer sowed devastation . " From the last seven rounds of the Interzonal until the first game against Petrosian , Fischer won 20 consecutive games , nearly all of which were against top grandmasters .
Fischer also had a much higher Elo rating than Spassky . On the July 1972 FIDE rating list , Fischer 's 2785 was a record 125 points ahead of the number two player – Spassky , whose rating was 2660 . Fischer 's recent results and record Elo rating made him the pre @-@ match favorite . Other observers , however , noted that Fischer had never won a game against Spassky .
Spassky 's seconds for the match were Efim Geller , Nikolai Krogius and Iivo Nei . Fischer 's second was William Lombardy . His entourage also included lawyer Paul Marshall , who would play a significant role in the events surrounding the match , and USCF representative Fred Cramer . The match referee was Lothar Schmid .
For some time , it was doubtful that the match would be played at all . Shortly before the match , Fischer demanded that the players receive , in addition to the agreed @-@ upon prize fund of $ 125 @,@ 000 ( 5 / 8 to the winner , 3 / 8 to the loser ) and 30 % of the proceeds from television and film rights , 30 % of the box @-@ office receipts . He failed to arrive in Iceland for the opening ceremony on July 1 . Fischer 's behavior was seemingly full of contradictions , as it had been throughout his career . He finally flew to Iceland and agreed to play after a two @-@ day postponement of the match by FIDE President Max Euwe , a surprise doubling of the prize fund by British investment banker Jim Slater , and much persuasion , including a phone call by Henry Kissinger to Fischer . Many commentators , particularly from the USSR , have suggested that all this ( and his continuing demands and unreasonableness ) was part of Fischer 's plan to " psych out " Spassky . Fischer 's supporters say that winning the World Championship was the mission of his life , that he simply wanted the setting to be perfect for it when he took the stage , and that his behavior was the same as it had always been .
World @-@ class match play ( i.e. , a series of games between the same two opponents ) often involves one or both players preparing one or two openings very deeply , and playing them repeatedly during the match . Preparation for such a match also involves analysis of those opening lines known to be played by the opponent . Fischer had been famous for his unusually narrow opening repertoire : for example , almost invariably playing 1.e4 as White , and almost always playing the Najdorf Variation of the Sicilian Defence as Black against 1.e4. He surprised Spassky by repeatedly switching openings , and by playing openings that he had never , or only rarely , played before ( such as 1.c4 as White , and Alekhine 's Defence , the Pirc Defence , and the Paulsen Sicilian as Black ) . Even in openings that Fischer had played before in the match , he continually deviated from the variations he had previously played , almost never repeating the same line twice in the match .
= = 1970 Interzonal tournament = =
The Interzonal tournament was held in Palma de Mallorca , Spain , in November and December 1970 . The top six players of the interzonal ( shown in bold in the table below ) qualified for the Candidates Tournament . Bobby Fischer was originally unqualified to play in this event , as he had not participated in the 1969 US Championship ( Zonal ) . However , Benko ( and the reserve Lombardy ) gave up his spot , and FIDE President Max Euwe controversially allowed Fischer to participate instead . A compensation of US $ 1 @,@ 500 was paid to Benko for this to occur .
Portisch and Smyslov contested a six @-@ game playoff in Portorož , Yugoslavia in early 1971 for the reserve position for the Candidates Tournament . The match ended 3 – 3 ; Portisch was declared the winner because of a better tie @-@ break score in the main tournament .
= = 1971 Candidates Tournament = =
Petrosian as the loser of the last championship match and Korchnoi as runner @-@ up of the previous Candidates final were seeded directly into the tournament and joined by the top six from the Interzonal .
Fischer 's victory earned him the right to challenge reigning champion Spassky for the title .
= = 1972 World Championship match = =
= = = Schedule and results = = =
The match was played as the best of 24 games , with wins counting 1 point and draws counting ½ point , and would end when one of the players scored 12 ½ points . If the match ended in a 12 – 12 tie , the defending champion ( Spassky ) would retain the title . The first time control was 40 moves in 2 ½ hours . Three games per week were scheduled . Each player was entitled to three postponements for medical reasons during the match . Games were scheduled to start on Sunday , Tuesday , and Thursday . If a game was adjourned , it was to be continued the next day . Saturday was a rest day .
Fischer insisted that a Staunton chess set from Jaques of London be used . The chessboard had to be remade at Fischer 's request . The match was covered throughout the world . Fischer became a worldwide celebrity , described as the Einstein or Hitler of chess . His hotel received dozens of calls each day from women attracted to him , and Fischer enjoyed reading the numerous letters and telegrams that arrived with compliments or criticisms . Excitement grew as the match was postponed and people questioned whether Fischer would appear . Previously , he had come to the airport and , surrounded by reporters , left . The combination of " Will he play ? " and " American versus Russian " created excitement throughout the world .
= = = Games = = =
= = = = Game 1 : Spassky 1 Fischer 0 ( Nimzo @-@ Indian ) = = = =
The opening was a placid Nimzo @-@ Indian Defence , and after 17 ... Ba4 the game was even ( Filip ) . After a series of piece exchanges the position in the diagram was reached after 29.b5. It appeared to be a dead @-@ drawn ending , and no one would have been remotely surprised if the players had agreed to a draw here .
Shockingly , Fischer played 29 ... Bxh2 ? , a move that few players would consider in light of the obvious 30.g3 , trapping the bishop . In exchange for the lost bishop , Black is only able to obtain two pawns ( see chess piece relative value ) . Gligorić , Kasparov and other commentators have suggested that Fischer may have miscalculated , having planned 30 ... h5 31.Ke2 h4 32.Kf3 h3 33.Kg4 Bg1 , but overlooking that 34.Kxh3 Bxf2 35.Bd2 keeps the bishop trapped . Anatoly Karpov suggested that Spassky was afraid of Fischer and wanted to show that he could draw with the white pieces , while Fischer wanted to disprove that as the game headed for a stale draw . Owing to unusual features in the position , Fischer had good drawing chances despite having only two pawns for the bishop . However , the position became hopeless after he made at least one more bad move before the adjournment , which took place after move 40 . Fischer could still have drawn the game with the correct 39th or 40th move . He resigned on move 56 .
Spassky – Fischer , game 1 ; Nimzo @-@ Indian Defence , Main Variation ( ECO E56 )
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 d5 4.Nc3 Bb4 5.e3 0 @-@ 0 6.Bd3 c5 7 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nc6 8.a3 Ba5 9.Ne2 dxc4 10.Bxc4 Bb6 11.dxc5 Qxd1 12.Rxd1 Bxc5 13.b4 Be7 14.Bb2 Bd7 15.Rac1 Rfd8 16.Ned4 Nxd4 17.Nxd4 Ba4 18.Bb3 Bxb3 19.Nxb3 Rxd1 + 20.Rxd1 Rc8 21.Kf1 Kf8 22.Ke2 Ne4 23.Rc1 Rxc1 24.Bxc1 f6 25.Na5 Nd6 26.Kd3 Bd8 27.Nc4 Bc7 28.Nxd6 Bxd6 29.b5 ( diagram ) Bxh2 30.g3 h5 31.Ke2 h4 32.Kf3 Ke7 33.Kg2 hxg3 34.fxg3 Bxg3 35.Kxg3 Kd6 36.a4 Kd5 37.Ba3 Ke4 38.Bc5 a6 39.b6 f5 40.Kh4 f4 41.exf4 Kxf4 42.Kh5 Kf5 43.Be3 Ke4 44.Bf2 Kf5 45.Bh4 e5 46.Bg5 e4 47.Be3 Kf6 48.Kg4 Ke5 49.Kg5 Kd5 50.Kf5 a5 51.Bf2 g5 52.Kxg5 Kc4 53.Kf5 Kb4 54.Kxe4 Kxa4 55.Kd5 Kb5 56.Kd6 1 – 0
= = = = Game 2 : Fischer forfeits = = = =
Following his loss Fischer made further demands on the organizers , including that all cameras be removed . When they were not , he refused to appear for game 2 , giving a default win to Spassky . His appeal was rejected . Karpov speculates that this forfeited game was actually a masterstroke on Fischer 's part , a move designed specifically to upset Spassky 's equanimity .
With the score now 2 – 0 in favor of Spassky , many observers believed that the match was over and Fischer would leave Iceland , and , indeed , Fischer looked to board the next plane out of Iceland , only to be dissuaded by his second , William Lombardy . His decision to stay in the match was attributed by some to another phone call from Kissinger and a deluge of cablegrams to Fischer . Spassky , owing to his sporting spirit and respect and sympathy for Fischer , agreed to play the third game in a small room backstage , out of sight of the spectators . According to Pal Benko and Burt Hochberg , this concession was a psychological mistake by Spassky .
= = = = Game 3 : Spassky 0 Fischer 1 ( Modern Benoni ) = = = =
This game proved to be the turning point of the match . After 11.Qc2 ( diagram ) , Fischer demonstrated his acute intuitive feel for the position with 11 ... Nh5 ! ? — a seemingly antipositional move allowing White to shatter Black 's kingside pawn structure , but Fischer 's assessment that his kingside attack created significant counterplay proved correct . Surprised by Fischer 's novelty , Spassky did not react in the best way . Instead of 15.Bd2 , 15.Ne2 ! ? was possible ( Zaitsev ) , or 15.f3 to prevent ... Ng4 . In particular , Spassky 's 18th move , weakening the light squares , was a mistake . The game was adjourned , and Spassky resigned the next day upon seeing that Fischer had sealed the best move , 41 ... Bd3 + ! The win was Fischer 's first ever win against Spassky .
Spassky – Fischer , game 3 ; Modern Benoni Defence , Classical Main Line ( ECO A77 )
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 c5 4.d5 exd5 5.cxd5 d6 6.Nc3 g6 7.Nd2 Nbd7 8.e4 Bg7 9.Be2 0 @-@ 0 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Re8 11.Qc2 ( diagram ) Nh5 12.Bxh5 gxh5 13.Nc4 Ne5 14.Ne3 Qh4 15.Bd2 Ng4 16.Nxg4 hxg4 17.Bf4 Qf6 18.g3 Bd7 19.a4 b6 20.Rfe1 a6 21.Re2 b5 22.Rae1 Qg6 23.b3 Re7 24.Qd3 Rb8 25.axb5 axb5 26.b4 c4 27.Qd2 Rbe8 28.Re3 h5 29.R3e2 Kh7 30.Re3 Kg8 31.R3e2 Bxc3 32.Qxc3 Rxe4 33.Rxe4 Rxe4 34.Rxe4 Qxe4 35.Bh6 Qg6 36.Bc1 Qb1 37.Kf1 Bf5 38.Ke2 Qe4 + 39.Qe3 Qc2 + 40.Qd2 Qb3 41.Qd4 Bd3 + 0 – 1
= = = = Game 4 : Fischer ½ Spassky ½ ( Sicilian Sozin ) = = = =
Fischer as White played the Sozin Attack against Spassky 's Sicilian Defence . Spassky sacrificed a pawn , and after 17 ... Bxc5 + had a slight advantage ( Nunn ) . Spassky developed a strong kingside attack , but failed to convert it into a win , the game ending in a draw .
Fischer – Spassky , game 4 ; Sicilian Defence , Sozin Attack ( ECO B88 )
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 Nc6 6.Bc4 e6 7.Bb3 Be7 8.Be3 0 @-@ 0 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 a6 10.f4 Nxd4 11.Bxd4 b5 12.a3 Bb7 13.Qd3 a5 14.e5 dxe5 15.fxe5 Nd7 16.Nxb5 Nc5 17.Bxc5 Bxc5 + 18.Kh1 Qg5 19.Qe2 Rad8 20.Rad1 Rxd1 21.Rxd1 h5 22.Nd6 Ba8 23.Bc4 h4 24.h3 Be3 25.Qg4 Qxe5 26.Qxh4 g5 27.Qg4 Bc5 28.Nb5 Kg7 29.Nd4 ( diagram ) Rh8 30.Nf3 Bxf3 31.Qxf3 Bd6 32.Qc3 Qxc3 33.bxc3 Be5 34.Rd7 Kf6 35.Kg1 Bxc3 36.Be2 Be5 37.Kf1 Rc8 38.Bh5 Rc7 39.Rxc7 Bxc7 40.a4 Ke7 41.Ke2 f5 42.Kd3 Be5 43.c4 Kd6 44.Bf7 Bg3 45.c5 + ½ – ½
= = = = Game 5 : Spassky 0 Fischer 1 ( Nimzo @-@ Indian ) = = = =
Another Nimzo @-@ Indian , this time the Hübner Variation : 4.Nf3 c5 5.e3 Nc6 6.Bd3 Bxc3 + 7.bxc3 d6 . Fischer rebuffed Spassky 's attempt to attack ; after 15 ... 0 @-@ 0 the game was even ( Adorján ) . Fischer obtained a blocked position where Spassky was saddled with weak pawns and his bishop pair had no prospects . After 26 moves , Spassky faced the position in the diagram , in which he blundered with 27.Qc2 ? ? , and resigned after Fischer 's 27 ... Bxa4 ! After 28.Qxa4 Qxe4 , Black 's dual threats of 29 ... Qxg2 # and 29 ... Qxe1 # would decide ; alternatively , 28.Qd2 ( or 28.Qb1 ) Bxd1 29.Qxd1 Qxe4 30.Qd2 a4 wins .
Spassky – Fischer , game 5 ; Nimzo @-@ Indian Defence , Hübner Variation ( ECO E41 )
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4 4.Nf3 c5 5.e3 Nc6 6.Bd3 Bxc3 + 7.bxc3 d6 8.e4 e5 9.d5 Ne7 10.Nh4 h6 11.f4 Ng6 12.Nxg6 fxg6 13.fxe5 dxe5 14.Be3 b6 15 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 16.a4 a5 17.Rb1 Bd7 18.Rb2 Rb8 19.Rbf2 Qe7 20.Bc2 g5 21.Bd2 Qe8 22.Be1 Qg6 23.Qd3 Nh5 24.Rxf8 + Rxf8 25.Rxf8 + Kxf8 26.Bd1 Nf4 ( diagram ) 27.Qc2 Bxa4 0 – 1
Thus Fischer had drawn level ( the score was now 2 ½ – 2 ½ ) , although FIDE rules stipulated that the champion retained the title if after 24 games the match ended in a tie .
After game 5 , Fischer hinted to Lombardy about a surprise he had in store for game 6 .
= = = = Game 6 : Fischer 1 Spassky 0 ( QGD Tartakower ) = = = =
Before the match began , the Soviet team that had been training Spassky debated about whether Fischer might play an opening move different from his usual 1.e4. " But when the question was raised as to whether 1 d4 or 1 c4 could be expected of Fischer , Spassky replied : ' Let 's not bother with such nonsense – I 'll play the [ Tartakower ] Defence . What can he achieve ? ... ' "
Fischer played 1.c4 ( instead of 1.e4 ) for only the third time in a serious game . With 3.d4 the game transposed to the Queen 's Gambit , surprising many who had never seen Fischer play the White side of that opening . In fact , he had previously openly condemned it .
Spassky played Tartakower 's Defense ( 7 ... b6 ) , his favorite choice in many tournaments and a line with which he had never lost . After 14.Bb5 ! ? ( introduced in Furman – Geller , Moscow 1970 ) , Spassky responded with 14 ... a6 ? ! . Geller had previously shown Spassky 14 ... Qb7 ! , the move with which Geller later beat Jan Timman at Hilversum 1973 , but Spassky apparently forgot about it . After 21.f4 Fischer had the upper hand ( Hort ) . After 26.f5 , White had a crushing attack .
Fischer – Spassky , game 6 ; Queen 's Gambit Declined , Tartakower Defense ( ECO D59 )
1.c4 e6 2.Nf3 d5 3.d4 Nf6 4.Nc3 Be7 5.Bg5 0 @-@ 0 6.e3 h6 7.Bh4 b6 8.cxd5 Nxd5 9.Bxe7 Qxe7 10.Nxd5 exd5 11.Rc1 Be6 12.Qa4 c5 13.Qa3 Rc8 14.Bb5 a6 15.dxc5 bxc5 16 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Ra7 17.Be2 Nd7 18.Nd4 Qf8 19.Nxe6 fxe6 20.e4 ( diagram ) d4 21.f4 Qe7 22.e5 Rb8 23.Bc4 Kh8 24.Qh3 Nf8 25.b3 a5 26.f5 exf5 27.Rxf5 Nh7 28.Rcf1 Qd8 29.Qg3 Re7 30.h4 Rbb7 31.e6 Rbc7 32.Qe5 Qe8 33.a4 Qd8 34.R1f2 Qe8 35.R2f3 Qd8 36.Bd3 Qe8 37.Qe4 Nf6 38.Rxf6 gxf6 39.Rxf6 Kg8 40.Bc4 Kh8 41.Qf4 1 – 0
After this game , Spassky joined the audience in applauding Fischer 's win . This astounded Fischer , who called his opponent " a true sportsman " .
" Lombardy was ecstatic : ' " Bobby has played a steady , fluent game , and just watched Spassky make horrendous moves . Spassky has not met a player of Bobby 's genius and caliber before , who fights for every piece on the board ; he doesn 't give in and agree to draws like the Russian grandmasters . This is a shock to Spassky ' " .
According to C.H.O 'D . Alexander :
This game was notable for two things . First , Fischer played the Queen 's Gambit for the first time in his life in a serious game ; second , he played it to perfection , the game indeed casting doubt on Black 's whole opening system .
The win gave Fischer the lead ( 3 ½ – 2 ½ ) for the first time in the match .
= = = = Game 7 : Spassky ½ Fischer ½ ( Sicilian Najdorf ) = = = =
Spassky played 1.e4 for the first time in the match . Fischer defended aggressively with his favorite Poisoned Pawn Variation of the Najdorf Sicilian , and after 17 ... Nc6 had the upper hand ( Gipslis ) . He consolidated his extra pawn and reached a winning endgame , but then played carelessly , allowing Spassky to salvage a draw . In the final position , Fischer had two extra pawns but had to execute a draw by perpetual check in order to escape being checkmated by Spassky 's two rooks and knight .
Spassky – Fischer , game 7 ; Sicilian Defence , Najdorf Variation , Poisoned Pawn Variation ( ECO B97 )
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Qb6 8.Qd2 Qxb2 9.Nb3 Qa3 10.Bd3 Be7 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 h6 12.Bh4 Nxe4 13.Nxe4 Bxh4 14.f5 exf5 15.Bb5 + axb5 16.Nxd6 + Kf8 17.Nxc8 Nc6 18.Nd6 Rd8 19.Nxb5 Qe7 20.Qf4 g6 21.a4 Bg5 22.Qc4 Be3 + 23.Kh1 f4 24.g3 g5 25.Rae1 Qb4 26.Qxb4 + Nxb4 27.Re2 Kg7 28.Na5 b6 29.Nc4 Nd5 30.Ncd6 Bc5 31.Nb7 Rc8 32.c4 Ne3 33.Rf3 Nxc4 34.gxf4 g4 35.Rd3 h5 36.h3 Na5 37.N7d6 Bxd6 38.Nxd6 Rc1 + 39.Kg2 Nc4 40.Ne8 + Kg6 41.h4 f6 42.Re6 Rc2 + 43.Kg1 Kf5 44.Ng7 + Kxf4 45.Rd4 + Kg3 46.Nf5 + Kf3 47.Ree4 Rc1 + 48.Kh2 Rc2 + 49.Kg1 ½ – ½
= = = = Game 8 : Fischer 1 Spassky 0 ( English Symmetrical ) = = = =
Fischer again played 1.c4 ; the game remained an English Opening rather than transposing to another opening as in game 6 . After 14 ... a6 the game was even . Spassky gave up an exchange with 15 ... b5 ? for little compensation in the way of a positional advantage , and it is unclear whether it was a sacrifice or a blunder . Fischer won , putting him ahead 5 – 3 .
Fischer – Spassky , game 8 ; English Opening , Symmetrical Defense ( ECO A39 )
1.c4 c5 2.Nc3 Nc6 3.Nf3 Nf6 4.g3 g6 5.Bg2 Bg7 6 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 7.d4 cxd4 8.Nxd4 Nxd4 9.Qxd4 d6 10.Bg5 Be6 11.Qf4 Qa5 12.Rac1 Rab8 13.b3 Rfc8 14.Qd2 a6 15.Be3 b5 16.Ba7 bxc4 17.Bxb8 Rxb8 18.bxc4 Bxc4 19.Rfd1 ( diagram ) Nd7 20.Nd5 Qxd2 21.Nxe7 + Kf8 22.Rxd2 Kxe7 23.Rxc4 Rb1 + 24.Bf1 Nc5 25.Kg2 a5 26.e4 Ba1 27.f4 f6 28.Re2 Ke6 29.Rec2 Bb2 30.Be2 h5 31.Rd2 Ba3 32.f5 + gxf5 33.exf5 + Ke5 34.Rcd4 Kxf5 35.Rd5 + Ke6 36.Rxd6 + Ke7 37.Rc6 1 – 0
= = = = Game 9 : Spassky ½ Fischer ½ ( QGD Semi @-@ Tarrasch ) = = = =
The game was delayed when Spassky took time off ( pleading illness ) . The opening was the Semi @-@ Tarrasch Defense of the Queen 's Gambit Declined . Fischer played a theoretical novelty on the ninth move . After 13 ... 0 @-@ 0 the game was even ( Parma ) , and the game ended in a quiet draw after just 29 moves .
Spassky – Fischer , game 9 ; Queen 's Gambit Declined , Semi @-@ Tarrasch Defense ( ECO D41 )
1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 d5 4.Nc3 c5 5.cxd5 Nxd5 6.e4 Nxc3 7.bxc3 cxd4 8.cxd4 Nc6 9.Bc4 b5 ( diagram ) 10.Bd3 Bb4 + 11.Bd2 Bxd2 + 12.Qxd2 a6 13.a4 0 @-@ 0 14.Qc3 Bb7 15.axb5 axb5 16 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Qb6 17.Rab1 b4 18.Qd2 Nxd4 19.Nxd4 Qxd4 20.Rxb4 Qd7 21.Qe3 Rfd8 22.Rfb1 Qxd3 23.Qxd3 Rxd3 24.Rxb7 g5 25.Rb8 + Rxb8 26.Rxb8 + Kg7 27.f3 Rd2 28.h4 h6 29.hxg5 ½ – ½
= = = = Game 10 : Fischer 1 Spassky 0 ( Ruy Lopez Breyer ) = = = =
Fischer played the Ruy Lopez , an opening on which he was a great expert . After 25 ... Qxa5 ? ! ( 25 ... axb5 ! ? 26.Rxb5 Ba6 gives Spassky a better chance ; Gligorić ) , Fischer obtained the upper hand by initiating a dangerous attack on Spassky 's king with 26.Bb3 ! ( Matanović ) , suddenly placing Black in a critical situation . Spassky sacrificed the exchange for a pawn , reaching a sharp endgame where his two connected passed pawns gave almost sufficient compensation for Fischer 's small material advantage . Spassky had drawing chances , but played inexactly , and Fischer won the game with precise play .
Fischer – Spassky , game 10 ; Ruy Lopez , Breyer Variation ( ECO C95 )
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6 5 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Be7 6.Re1 b5 7.Bb3 d6 8.c3 0 @-@ 0 9.h3 Nb8 10.d4 Nbd7 11.Nbd2 Bb7 12.Bc2 Re8 13.b4 Bf8 14.a4 Nb6 15.a5 Nbd7 16.Bb2 Qb8 17.Rb1 c5 18.bxc5 dxc5 19.dxe5 Nxe5 20.Nxe5 Qxe5 21.c4 Qf4 22.Bxf6 Qxf6 23.cxb5 Red8 24.Qc1 Qc3 25.Nf3 Qxa5 26.Bb3 ( diagram ) axb5 27.Qf4 Rd7 28.Ne5 Qc7 29.Rbd1 Re7 30.Bxf7 + Rxf7 31.Qxf7 + Qxf7 32.Nxf7 Bxe4 33.Rxe4 Kxf7 34.Rd7 + Kf6 35.Rb7 Ra1 + 36.Kh2 Bd6 + 37.g3 b4 38.Kg2 h5 39.Rb6 Rd1 40.Kf3 Kf7 41.Ke2 Rd5 42.f4 g6 43.g4 hxg4 44.hxg4 g5 45.f5 Be5 46.Rb5 Kf6 47.Rexb4 Bd4 48.Rb6 + Ke5 49.Kf3 Rd8 50.Rb8 Rd7 51.R4b7 Rd6 52.Rb6 Rd7 53.Rg6 Kd5 54.Rxg5 Be5 55.f6 Kd4 56.Rb1 1 – 0
= = = = Game 11 : Spassky 1 Fischer 0 ( Sicilian Najdorf ) = = = =
This game was a dramatic win for Spassky , his first since games 1 and 2 . As in game 7 , Fischer essayed his favorite Poisoned Pawn Variation ; Spassky surprised him with the startling 14.Nb1 ( given ! ! by many annotators at the time ) , retreating the knight to its starting position . Although later analysis showed that the move was only sufficient for equality if Black responded correctly , Fischer did not . If 15 ... Ne7 ! ? by Black then 16.N1d2 ! ? and the game is unclear ( Gipslis ) . After inferior defense by Fischer , Spassky trapped Fischer 's queen and handed him his only defeat ever as Black in the Poisoned Pawn .
Spassky – Fischer , game 11 ; Sicilian Defence , Najdorf Variation , Poisoned Pawn Variation ( ECO B97 )
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Qb6 8.Qd2 Qxb2 9.Nb3 Qa3 10.Bxf6 gxf6 11.Be2 h5 12 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nc6 13.Kh1 Bd7 ( diagram ) 14.Nb1 Qb4 15.Qe3 d5 16.exd5 Ne7 17.c4 Nf5 18.Qd3 h4 19.Bg4 Nd6 20.N1d2 f5 21.a3 Qb6 22.c5 Qb5 23.Qc3 fxg4 24.a4 h3 25.axb5 hxg2 + 26.Kxg2 Rh3 27.Qf6 Nf5 28.c6 Bc8 29.dxe6 fxe6 30.Rfe1 Be7 31.Rxe6 1 – 0
= = = = Game 12 : Fischer ½ Spassky ½ ( QGD Orthodox ) = = = =
A quiet Queen 's Gambit Declined . After 19.Be4 ! , Fischer had a slight advantage ( Yudovich ) , and after 24 ... a5 the game was even ( Polugaevsky ) . The game ended in an opposite @-@ colored bishops endgame draw after 55 moves .
Fischer – Spassky , game 12 ; Queen 's Gambit Declined , Orthodox Defence ( ECO D66 )
1.c4 e6 2.Nf3 d5 3.d4 Nf6 4.Nc3 Be7 5.Bg5 h6 6.Bh4 0 @-@ 0 7.e3 Nbd7 8.Rc1 c6 9.Bd3 dxc4 10.Bxc4 b5 11.Bd3 a6 12.a4 bxa4 13.Nxa4 Qa5 14.Nd2 Bb4 15.Nc3 c5 16.Nb3 Qd8 17 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 cxd4 18.Nxd4 Bb7 19.Be4 Qb8 ( diagram ) 20.Bg3 Qa7 21.Nc6 Bxc6 22.Bxc6 Rac8 23.Na4 Rfd8 24.Bf3 a5 25.Rc6 Rxc6 26.Bxc6 Rc8 27.Bf3 Qa6 28.h3 Qb5 29.Be2 Qc6 30.Bf3 Qb5 31.b3 Be7 32.Be2 Qb4 33.Ba6 Rc6 34.Bd3 Nc5 35.Qf3 Rc8 36.Nxc5 Bxc5 37.Rc1 Rd8 38.Bc4 Qd2 39.Rf1 Bb4 40.Bc7 Rd7 41.Qc6 Qc2 42.Be5 Rd2 43.Qa8 + Kh7 44.Bxf6 gxf6 45.Qf3 f5 46.g4 Qe4 47.Kg2 Kg6 48.Rc1 Ba3 49.Ra1 Bb4 50.Rc1 Be7 51.gxf5 + exf5 52.Re1 Rxf2 + 53.Kxf2 Bh4 + 54.Ke2 Qxf3 + 55.Kxf3 Bxe1 ½ – ½
= = = = Game 13 : Spassky 0 Fischer 1 ( Alekhine 's Defence ) = = = =
Fischer avoided the Sicilian Defence , with which he had lost game 11 , instead preferring Alekhine 's Defence . After 8 ... a5 ! 9.a4 ? ( 9.c3 ! ? and Black is only slightly better ; Gligorić ) dxe5 10.dxe5 Na6 ! 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nc5 , Fischer had the upper hand ( Bagirov ) . The game swung one way , then another , and was finally adjourned at move 42 with Fischer having an edge in a sharp position but no clear win . The Soviet team 's analysis convinced them that the position was drawn . Fischer stayed up until 8 a.m. the following morning analyzing it ( the resumption being at 2 : 30 p.m. ) . He had not found a win either . Amazingly , he managed to set traps for Spassky , who fell into them and lost . Spassky 's seconds were stunned , and Spassky himself refused to leave the board for a long time after the game was over , unable to believe the result . He remarked , " It is very strange . How can one lose with the opponent 's only rook locked in completely at g8 ? "
Lombardy noted the shock that Spassky was in after he resigned :
While Fischer dashed for his car , Spassky remained glued to his seat . A sympathetic Lothar Schmid came over , and the two shifted the pieces about with Boris demonstrating his careless mistakes . The two were left wondering how Bobby could have squeezed a win from a position which a night of competent analysis by a renowned Soviet team had showed to be a guaranteed draw .
Former World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik said that this game made a particularly strong impression on him . He called it " the highest creative achievement of Fischer " . He resolved a drawish opposite @-@ colored bishops endgame by sacrificing his bishop and trapping his own rook . " Then five passed pawns struggled with the white rook . Nothing similar had been seen before in chess " .
David Bronstein said " Of all the games from the match , the 13th appeals to me most of all . When I play through the game I still cannot grasp the innermost motive behind this or that plan or even individual move . Like an enigma , it still teases my imagination . "
Spassky – Fischer , game 13 ; Alekhine 's Defence , Modern Variation ( ECO B04 )
1.e4 Nf6 2.e5 Nd5 3.d4 d6 4.Nf3 g6 5.Bc4 Nb6 6.Bb3 Bg7 7.Nbd2 0 @-@ 0 8.h3 a5 9.a4 dxe5 10.dxe5 Na6 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nc5 12.Qe2 Qe8 13.Ne4 Nbxa4 14.Bxa4 Nxa4 15.Re1 Nb6 16.Bd2 a4 17.Bg5 h6 18.Bh4 Bf5 19.g4 Be6 20.Nd4 Bc4 21.Qd2 Qd7 22.Rad1 Rfe8 23.f4 Bd5 24.Nc5 Qc8 25.Qc3 e6 26.Kh2 Nd7 27.Nd3 c5 28.Nb5 Qc6 29.Nd6 Qxd6 30.exd6 Bxc3 31.bxc3 f6 32.g5 hxg5 33.fxg5 f5 34.Bg3 Kf7 35.Ne5 + Nxe5 36.Bxe5 b5 37.Rf1 Rh8 38.Bf6 a3 39.Rf4 a2 40.c4 Bxc4 41.d7 Bd5 42.Kg3 Ra3 + 43.c3 Rha8 44.Rh4 e5 45.Rh7 + Ke6 46.Re7 + Kd6 47.Rxe5 Rxc3 + 48.Kf2 Rc2 + 49.Ke1 Kxd7 50.Rexd5 + Kc6 51.Rd6 + Kb7 52.Rd7 + Ka6 53.R7d2 Rxd2 54.Kxd2 b4 55.h4 Kb5 56.h5 c4 57.Ra1 gxh5 58.g6 h4 59.g7 h3 60.Be7 Rg8 61.Bf8 ( diagram ) h2 62.Kc2 Kc6 63.Rd1 b3 + 64.Kc3 h1 = Q 65.Rxh1 Kd5 66.Kb2 f4 67.Rd1 + Ke4 68.Rc1 Kd3 69.Rd1 + Ke2 70.Rc1 f3 71.Bc5 Rxg7 72.Rxc4 Rd7 73.Re4 + Kf1 74.Bd4 f2 0 – 1
When Spassky and Fischer shook hands , many in the audience thought that they had agreed to a draw , thinking that 75.Rf4 draws . But 75 ... Rxd4 ! 76.Rxd4 Ke2 wins ; 75.Be5 Rd1 76.Kxb3 Re1 also wins for Black .
The next seven games ( games 14 through 20 ) were drawn . Fischer was unable to get the initiative . Spassky was choosing lines that Fischer was unable to break . With a three @-@ point lead , Fischer was content to inch towards the title , and Spassky seemed resigned to his fate . The off @-@ the @-@ board antics continued , including a lawsuit against Fischer for damages by Chester Fox , who had filming rights to the match ( Fischer had objected to what he said were noticeable camera noises , and the Icelandic hosts had reluctantly – they were to share in film revenues along with the two contestants – removed the television cameras ) , a Fischer demand to remove the first seven rows of spectators ( eventually , three rows were cleared ) , and Soviet claims that Fischer was using electronic and chemical devices to ' control ' Spassky , resulting in an Icelandic police sweep of the hall .
= = = = Game 14 : Fischer ½ Spassky ½ ( QGD Harrwitz ) = = = =
The game was postponed at Spassky 's request . Fischer was again White in a Queen 's Gambit Declined . After 18.Be5 ? ( 18.Nxb6 Qxb6 19.Be5 and Fischer keeps a slight advantage ; Gligorić ) Bxa4 ! 19.Qxa4 Nc6 ! Spassky had the upper hand ( Karpov ) . Fischer played carelessly and lost a pawn on move 21 . Spassky blundered it back on move 27 , however , and the game settled into a 40 @-@ move draw .
Fischer – Spassky , game 14 ; Queen 's Gambit Declined , Harrwitz Attack ( ECO D37 )
1.c4 e6 2.Nf3 d5 3.d4 Nf6 4.Nc3 Be7 5.Bf4 0 @-@ 0 6.e3 c5 7.dxc5 Nc6 8.cxd5 exd5 9.Be2 Bxc5 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Be6 11.Rc1 Rc8 12.a3 h6 13.Bg3 Bb6 14.Ne5 Ne7 15.Na4 Ne4 16.Rxc8 Bxc8 17.Nf3 Bd7 18.Be5 Bxa4 19.Qxa4 Nc6 20.Bf4 Qf6 ( diagram ) 21.Bb5 Qxb2 22.Bxc6 Nc3 23.Qb4 Qxb4 24.axb4 bxc6 25.Be5 Nb5 26.Rc1 Rc8 27.Nd4 f6 28.Bxf6 Bxd4 29.Bxd4 Nxd4 30.exd4 Rb8 31.Rxc6 Rxb4 32.Kf1 Rxd4 33.Ra6 Kf7 34.Rxa7 + Kf6 35.Rd7 h5 36.Ke2 g5 37.Ke3 Re4 + 38.Kd3 Ke6 39.Rg7 Kf6 40.Rd7 Ke6 ½ – ½
= = = = Game 15 : Spassky ½ Fischer ½ ( Sicilian Najdorf ) = = = =
Fischer returned to the Najdorf Sicilian , but played the
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was to annexe the ambiguous territories of the Ordos and to clearly define the Qin 's northern borders . Once the Xiongnu were chased away , Meng Tian introduced 30 @,@ 000 settler families to colonize the newly conquered territories .
Wall configurations were changed to reflect the new borders under the Qin . General Meng Tian erected walls beyond the northern loop of the Yellow River , effectively linking the border walls of Qin , Zhao , and Yan . Concurrent to the building of the frontier wall was the destruction of the walls within China that used to divide one warring state from another — contrary to the outer walls , which were built to stabilize the newly united China , the inner walls threatened the unity of the empire . In the following year , 214 BC , Qin Shi Huang ordered new fortifications to be built along the Yellow River to the west of the Ordos while work continued in the north . This work was completed probably by 212 BC , signalled by Qin Shi Huang 's imperial tour of inspection and the construction of the Direct Road ( 直道 ) connecting the capital Xianyang with the Ordos . The result was a series of long walls running from Gansu to the seacoast in Manchuria .
Details of the construction were not found in the official histories , but it could be inferred that the construction conditions were made especially difficult by the long stretches of mountains and semi @-@ desert that the Great Wall traversed , the sparse populations of these areas , and the frigid winter climate . Although the walls were rammed earth , so the bulk of the building material could be found in situ , transportation of additional supplies and labour remained difficult for the reasons named above . The sinologist Derk Bodde posits in The Cambridge History of China that " for every man whom Meng Tian could put to work at the scene of actual construction , dozens must have been needed to build approaching roads and to transport supplies . " This is supported by the Han dynasty statesman Zhufu Yan 's description of Qin Shi Huang 's Ordos project in 128 BC :
... the land was brackish and arid , crops could not be grown on them . ... At the time , the young men being drafted were forced to haul boats and barges loaded with baggage trains upstream to sustain a steady supply of food and fodder to the front . ... Commencing at the departure point a man and his animal could carry thirty zhong ( about 176 kilograms ( 388 lb ) ) of food supply , by the time they arrived at the destination , they merely delivered one dan ( about 29 kilograms ( 64 lb ) ) of supply . ... When the populace had become tired and weary they started to dissipate and abscond . The orphans , the frail , the widowed and the seniors were desperately trying to escape from their appallingly derelict state and died on the wayside as they wandered away from their home . People started to revolt .
The settlement of the north continued up to Qin Shi Huang 's death in 210 BC , upon which Meng Tian was ordered to commit suicide in a succession conspiracy . Before killing himself , Meng Tian expressed regret for his walls : " Beginning at Lintao and reaching to Liaodong , I built walls and dug moats for more than ten thousand li ; was it not inevitable that I broke the earth 's veins along the way ? This then was my offense . "
Meng Tian 's settlements in the north were abandoned , and the Xiongnu nomads moved back into the Ordos Loop as the Qin empire became consumed by widespread rebellion due to public discontent . Owen Lattimore concluded that the whole project relied upon military power to enforce agriculture on a land more suited for herding , resulting in " the anti @-@ historical paradox of attempting two mutually exclusive forms of development simultaneously " that was doomed to fail .
= = Han dynasty ( 206 BC – 220 AD ) = =
In 202 BC , the former peasant Liu Bang emerged victorious from the Chu – Han Contention that followed the rebellion that toppled the Qin dynasty , and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Han dynasty , becoming known as Emperor Gaozu of Han ( r . 202 – 195 BC ) to posterity . Unable to address the problem of the resurgent Xiongnu in the Ordos region through military means , Emperor Gaozu was forced to appease the Xiongnu . In exchange for peace , the Han offered tributes along with princesses to marry off to the Xiongnu chiefs . These diplomatic marriages would become known as heqin , and the terms specified that the Great Wall ( determined to be either the Warring States period Qin state wall or a short stretch of wall south of Yanmen Pass ) was to serve as the line across which neither party would venture . In 162 BC , Gaozu 's son Emperor Wen clarified the agreement , suggesting the Xiongnu chanyu held authority north of the Wall and the Han emperor held authority south of it . Sima Qian , the author of the Records of the Grand Historian , describes the result of this agreement as one of peace and friendship : " from the chanyu downwards , all the Xiongnu grew friendly with the Han , coming and going along the Long Wall " . However , Chinese records show that the Xiongnu often did not respect the agreement , as the Xiongnu cavalry numbering up to 100 @,@ 000 made several intrusions into Han territory despite the intermarriage .
To Chinese minds , the heqin policy was humiliating and ran contrary to the Sinocentric world order like " a person hanging upside down " , as the statesman Jia Yi ( d . 169 BC ) puts it . These sentiments manifested themselves in the Han court in the form of the pro @-@ war faction , who advocated the reversal of Han 's policy of appeasement . By the reign of Emperor Wu ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) , the Han felt comfortable enough to go to war with the Xiongnu . After a botched attempt at luring the Xiongnu army into an ambush at the Battle of Mayi in 133 BC , the era of heqin @-@ style appeasement was broken and the Han – Xiongnu War went into full swing .
As the Han – Xiongnu War progressed in favour of the Han , the Wall became maintained and extended beyond Qin lines . In 127 BC , General Wei Qing invaded the much @-@ contested Ordos region as far as the Qin fortifications set up by Meng Tian . In this way , Wei Qing reconquered the irrigable lands north of the Ordos and restored the spur of defences protecting that territory from the steppe . In addition to rebuilding the walls , archeologists believe that the Han also erected thousands of kilometres of walls from Hebei to Inner Mongolia during Emperor Wu 's reign . The fortifications here include embankments , beacon stations , and forts , all constructed with a combination of tamped @-@ earth cores and stone frontages . From the Ordos Loop , the sporadic and non @-@ continuous Han Great Wall followed the northern edge of the Hexi Corridor through the cities of Wuwei , Zhangye , and Jiuquan , leading into the Juyan Lake Basin , and terminating in two places : the Yumen Pass in the north , or the Yang Pass to the south , both in the vicinity of Dunhuang . Yumen Pass was the most westerly of all Han Chinese fortifications – further west than the western terminus of the Ming Great Wall at Jiayu Pass , about 460 kilometres ( 290 mi ) to the east . The garrisons of the watchtowers on the wall were supported by civilian farming and by military agricultural colonies known as tuntian . Behind this line of fortifications , the Han government was able to maintain its settlements and its communications to the Western Regions in central Asia , generally secure from attacks from the north .
The campaigns against the Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples of the west exhausted the imperial treasury , and the expansionist policies were reverted in favour of peace under Emperor Wu 's successors . The peace was largely respected even when the Han throne was usurped by the minister Wang Mang in 9 AD , beginning a brief 15 @-@ year interregnum known as the Xin dynasty ( 9 – 23 ) . Despite high tensions between the Xin and the Xiongnu resulting in the deployment of 300 @,@ 000 men on the Great Wall , no major fighting broke out beyond minor raids . Instead , popular discontent led to banditry and , ultimately , full @-@ scale rebellion . The civil war ended with the Liu clan on the throne again , beginning the Eastern Han dynasty ( 25 – 220 ) .
The restorer Emperor Guangwu ( r . 25 – 57 AD ) initiated several projects to consolidate his control within the frontier regions . Defense works were established to the east of the Yanmen Pass , with a line of fortifications and beacon fires stretching from Pingcheng County ( present @-@ day Datong ) through the valley of the Sanggan River to Dai County , Shanxi . By 38 AD , as a result of raids by the Xiongnu further to the west against the Wei River valley , orders were given for a series of walls to be constructed as defences for the Fen River , the southward course of the Yellow River , and the region of the former imperial capital , Chang 'an . These constructions were defensive in nature , which marked a shift from the offensive walls of the preceding Emperor Wu and the rulers of the Warring States . By the early 40s AD the northern frontiers of China had undergone drastic change : the line of the imperial frontier followed not the advanced positions conquered by Emperor Wu but the rear defences indicated roughly by the modern ( Ming dynasty ) Great Wall . The Ordos region , northern Shanxi , and the upper Luan River basin around Chengde were abandoned and left to the control of the Xiongnu . The rest of the frontier remained somewhat intact until the end of the Han dynasty , with the Dunhuang manuscripts ( discovered in 1900 ) indicating that the military establishment in the northwest was maintained for most of the Eastern Han period .
= = Period of Disunity to the Sui dynasty ( 220 – 618 ) = =
Following the end of the Han dynasty in 220 , China disintegrated into warlord states , which in 280 were briefly reunited under the Western Jin dynasty ( 265 – 316 ) . There are ambiguous accounts of the Jin rebuilding the Qin wall , but these walls apparently offered no resistance during the Wu Hu uprising , when the nomadic tribes of the steppe evicted the Chinese court from northern China . What followed was a succession of short @-@ lived states in northern China known as the Sixteen Kingdoms , until they were all consolidated by the Xianbei @-@ led Northern Wei dynasty ( 386 – 535 ) .
As Northern Wei became more economically dependent on agriculture , the Xianbei emperors made a conscious decision to adopt Chinese customs , including passive methods of frontier defence . In 423 , a defence line over 2 @,@ 000 li ( 1 @,@ 080 kilometres ( 670 mi ) ) long was built to resist the Rouran ; its path roughly followed the old Zhao wall from Chicheng County in Hebei Province to Wuyuan County , Inner Mongolia . In 446 , 100 @,@ 000 men were put to work building an inner wall from Yanqing , passing south of the Wei capital Pingcheng , and ending up near Pingguan on the eastern bank of the Yellow River . The two walls formed the basis of the double @-@ layered Xuanfu – Datong wall system that protected Beijing a thousand years later during the Ming dynasty .
The Northern Wei collapsed in 535 due to civil insurrection to be eventually succeeded by the Northern Qi ( 550 – 575 ) and Northern Zhou ( 557 – 580 ) . Faced with the threat of the Göktürks from the north , from 552 to 556 the Qi built up to 3 @,@ 000 li ( about 1 @,@ 600 kilometres ( 990 mi ) ) of wall from Shanxi to the sea at Shanhai Pass . Over the course of the year 555 alone , 1 @.@ 8 million men were mobilized to build the Juyong Pass and extend its wall by 450 kilometres ( 280 mi ) through Datong to the eastern banks of the Yellow River . In 557 a secondary wall was built inside the main one . These walls were built quickly from local earth and stones or formed by natural barriers . Two stretches of the stone @-@ and @-@ earth Qi wall still stand in Shanxi today , measuring 3 @.@ 3 metres ( 11 ft ) wide at their bases and 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) high on average . In 577 the Northern Zhou conquered the Northern Qi and in 580 made repairs to the existing Qi walls . The route of the Qi and Zhou walls would be mostly followed by the later Ming wall west of Gubeikou , which includes reconstructed walls from Qi and Zhou . In more recent times , the reddish remnants of the Zhou ramparts in Hebei gave rise to the nickname " Red Wall " .
The Sui took power from the Northern Zhou in 581 before reuniting China in 589 . Sui 's founding emperor , Emperor Wen of Sui ( r . 581 – 604 ) , carried out considerable wall construction in 581 in Hebei and Shanxi to defend against Ishbara Qaghan of the Göktürks . The new walls proved insufficient in 582 when Ishbara Qaghan avoided them by riding west to raid Gansu and Shaanxi with 400 @,@ 000 archers . Between 585 and 588 Emperor Wen sought to close this gap by putting walls up in the Ordos Mountains ( between Suide and Lingwu ) and Inner Mongolia . In 586 as many as 150 @,@ 000 men are recorded as involved in the construction . Emperor Wen 's son Emperor Yang ( r . 604 – 618 ) continued to build walls . In 607 – 8 he sent over a million men to build a wall from Yulin to near Huhhot to protect the newly refurbished eastern capital Luoyang . Part of the Sui wall survives to this day in Inner Mongolia as earthen ramparts some 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) high with towers rising to double that . The dynastic history of Sui estimates that 500 @,@ 000 people died building the wall , adding to the number of casualties caused by Emperor Yang 's projects including the aforementioned redesign of Luoyang , the Grand Canal , and two ill @-@ fated campaigns against Goguryeo . With the economy strained and the populace resentful , the Sui dynasty erupted in rebellion and ended with the assassination of Emperor Yang in 618 .
= = Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) = =
Frontier policy under the Tang dynasty reversed the wall @-@ building activities of most previous dynasties that had occupied northern China since the third century BC , and no extensive wall building took place for the next several hundred years .
Soon after the establishment of the Tang dynasty , during the reign of Emperor Taizong ( r . 626 – 649 ) , the threat of Göktürk tribesmen from the north prompted some court officials to suggest drafting corvée labourers to repair the aging Great Wall . Taizong scoffed at the suggestion , alluding to the Sui walls built in vain : " The Emperor Yang of Sui made the people labor to construct the Great Wall in order to defend against the Turks , but in the end this was of no use . " Instead of building walls , Taizong claimed he " need merely to establish Li Shiji in Jinyang for the dust on the border to settle . " Accordingly , Taizong sent talented generals like Li Shiji with mobile armies to the frontier , while fortifications were mostly limited to a series of walled garrisons , such as the euphemistically @-@ named " cities for accepting surrender " ( 受降城 , shòuxiáng chéng ) that were actually bases from which to launch attacks . As a result of this military strategy , the Tang grew to become one of the largest of all the Chinese empires , destroying the Göktürks of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and acquiring territory stretching all the way to Kazakhstan .
Nevertheless , records show that in the Kaiyuan era ( 713 – 742 ) of Emperor Xuanzong 's reign , the general Zhang Yue built a wall 90 li ( 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) ) to the north of Huairong ( 懷戎 ; present @-@ day Huailai County , Hebei ) , although it remains unclear whether he erected new walls or only reinforced the existing Northern Qi walls .
The Great Wall , or the ruins of it , features prominently in the subset of Tang poetry known as biansai shi ( 邊塞詩 , " frontier verse " ) written by scholar @-@ officials assigned along the frontier . Emphasizing the poets ' loneliness and longing for home while hinting at the pointlessness of their posts , these frontier verses are characterized by imagery of desolate landscapes , including the ruins of the now @-@ neglected Great Wall — a direct product of Tang 's frontier policy .
= = Song and the conquest dynasties ( 907 – 1368 ) = =
= = = The northern walls of the Khitan , Jurchens , and Tanguts = = =
After the Tang dynasty ended in 907 , the northern frontier area remained out of Han Chinese hands until the establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368 . During this period , non @-@ Han " conquest dynasties " ruled the north : the Khitan Liao dynasty ( 907 – 1125 ) and the succeeding Jurchen Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) in the east and the Tangut Western Xia ( 1038 – 1227 ) in the west , all of which had built walls against the north .
In 907 , the Khitan chieftain Abaoji succeeded in getting himself appointed khaghan of all Khitan tribes in the north , laying the foundations to what would officially become the Liao dynasty . In 936 , the Khitan supported the Shanxi rebel Shi Jingtang in his revolt against the Shatuo Turkic Later Tang , which had destroyed the usurpers of the Tang in 923 . The Khitan leader , Abaoji 's second son Yelü Deguang , convinced Shi to found a new dynasty ( the Later Jin , 936 – 946 ) , and received the crucial border region known as the Sixteen Prefectures in return . With the Sixteen Prefectures , the Khitan now possessed all the passes and fortifications that controlled access to the plains of northern China , including the main Great Wall line .
Settling in the transitional area between agricultural lands and the steppe , the Khitans became semi @-@ sedentary like their Xianbei predecessors of the Northern Wei , and started to use Chinese methods of defence . In 1026 walls were built through central Manchuria north of Nong 'an County to the banks of the Songhua River . When the Jurchens , once Liao vassals , rose up to overthrow their masters and established the Jin dynasty , they continued Liao 's wall @-@ building activities with extensive work begun before 1138 . Further wall construction took place in 1165 and 1181 under the Jin Emperor Shizhong , and later from 1192 to 1203 during the reign of his successor Emperor Zhangzong .
This long period of wall @-@ building burdened the populace and provoked controversy . Sometime between 1190 and 1196 , during Zhangzong 's reign , the high official Zhang Wangong ( 張萬公 ) and the Censorate recommended that work on the wall be indefinitely suspended due to a recent drought , noting : " What has been begun is already being flattened by sandstorms , and bullying the people into defence works will simply exhaust them . " However , Chancellor Wanyan Xiang ( 完顏襄 ) convinced the emperor of the walls ' merits based on an optimistic cost estimate – " Although the initial outlay for the walls will be one million strings of cash , when the work is done the frontier will be secure with only half the present number of soldiers needed to defend it , which means that every year you will save three million strings of cash ... The benefits will be everlasting " – and so construction continued unabated . All this work created an extensive systems of walls , which consisted of a 700 kilometres ( 430 mi ) " outer wall " from Heilongjiang to Mongolia and a 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 620 mi ) network of " inner walls " north and northeast of Beijing . Together , they formed a roughly elliptical web of fortifications 1 @,@ 400 kilometres ( 870 mi ) in length and 440 kilometres ( 270 mi ) in diameter . Some of these walls had inner moats ( from 10 to 60 metres ( 33 to 197 ft ) in width ) , beacon towers , battlements , parapets , and outward @-@ facing semicircular platforms protruding from the wall — features that set the Jin walls apart from their predecessors .
In the west , the Tanguts took control of the Ordos region , where they established the Western Xia dynasty . Although the Xia were not traditionally known for building walls , in 2011 archeologists uncovered 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) of walls at Ömnögovi Province in Mongolia in what had been Western Xia territory . Radiocarbon analysis showed that they were constructed from 1040 to 1160 . The walls were as tall as 2 @.@ 75 metres ( 9 ft 0 in ) at places when they were discovered , and may have been around 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) taller originally . They were built with mud and saxaul ( a desert shrub ) in one section , and dark basalt blocks in another , suggesting that the rocks may have been quarried from nearby extinct volcanoes and transported to the construction site . Archaeologists have not yet found traces of human activity around this stretch of wall , which suggests that the Xia wall in this location may have been incomplete and not ready for use .
= = = The old Great Walls as Song boundary lines = = =
Han Chinese power during the tumultuous post @-@ Tang era was represented by the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) , which completed its unification of the Chinese states with the conquest of Wuyue in 971 . Turning to the north after this victory , in 979 the Song eliminated the Northern Han , ultimate successors to the Later Jin , but were unable to take the Sixteen Prefectures from the Liao dynasty . As a result of Song 's military aggression , relations between the Song and Liao remained tense and hostile . One of the battlegrounds in the Song – Liao War was the Great Wall Gap ( 長城口 ) , so named because the southern Yan wall of the Warring States period crossed the Juma River here into Liao territory . The Great Wall Gap saw action in 979 , 988 – 989 , and 1004 , and a Song fortress was built there in 980 . Intermittent wars between the Song and the Liao lasted until January 1005 , when a truce was called and led to the Treaty of Chanyuan . This agreement , among other things , required the Song to pay tribute to the Liao , recognized the Song and Liao as equals , and demarcated the Song – Liao border , the course of which became more clearly defined in a series of subsequent bilateral agreements . Several stretches of the old Great Walls , including the Northern Qi Inner Wall near the Hengshan mountain range , became the border between the Song and the Liao .
In the northwest , the Song were in conflict with the Western Xia , since they occupied what the Song considered as Chinese land lost during the Tang dynasty . The Song utilized the walls built during the reign of Qin 's King Zhaoxiang of the Warring States period , making it the Song – Western Xia border , but the topography of the area was not as sharp and distinct as the Song – Liao defences to the east . The border general Cao Wei ( 曹瑋 ; 973 – 1030 ) deemed the Old Wall itself insufficient to slow a Tangut cavalry attack , and had a deep trench dug alongside . This trench , between 15 and 20 metres ( 49 and 66 ft ) in width and depth , proved an effective defence , but in 1002 the Tanguts caught the Song patrollers off guard and filled the trench to cross the Old Wall . Later , in 1042 , the Tanguts turned the trench against the Song by removing the bridges over it , thereby trapping the retreating army of Ge Huaimin ( 葛懷敏 ) before annihilating it at the Battle of Dingchuan Fortress ( 定川寨 ) .
Despite the war with the Western Xia , the Song also settled land disputes with them by referring to prior agreements , as with the Liao . However , soon after the Jin dynasty overthrew the Liao dynasty , the Jurchens sacked the Song capital in 1127 during the Jin – Song wars , causing the Song court to flee south of the Yangtze River . For the next two and a half centuries , the Great Wall played no role in Han Chinese geopolitics .
= = = The onset of the Mongols = = =
In the 13th century , the Mongol leader Genghis Khan , once a vassal of the Jurchens , rose up against the Jin dynasty . In the ensuing Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty , the nomadic invaders avoided direct attacks on the Jin fortifications . Instead , when they could , the Mongols simply rode around the walls ; an effective example of this tactic is in 1211 , when they circumvented the substantial fortress in Zhangjiakou and inflicted a terrible defeat upon the Jin armies at the Battle of Yehuling . The Mongols also took advantage of lingering Liao resentment against the Jin ; the Khitan defenders of the garrisons along the Jin walls , such as those in Gubeikou , often preferred to surrender to the Mongols rather than fight them . The only major engagement of note along the main Great Wall line was at the heavily defended Juyong Pass : instead of laying siege , the Mongol general Jebe lured the defenders out into an ambush and charged in through the opened gates . In 1215 , Genghis Khan besieged , captured , and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing ( modern @-@ day Beijing ) . The Jin dynasty eventually collapsed following the siege of Caizhou in 1234 . Western Xia had already fallen in 1227 , and the Southern Song resisted the Mongols until 1279 .
With that , the Yuan dynasty , established by Genghis Khan 's grandson Khublai Khan , became the first foreign dynasty to rule all of China . Despite being the head of the Mongol Empire , Khublai Khan 's rule over China was not free from the threat of the steppe nomads . The Yuan dynasty faced challenges from rival claimants to the title of Great Khan and from rebellious Mongols in the north . Khublai Khan dealt with such threats by using both military blockades and economic sanctions . Although he established garrisons along the steppe frontier from the Juyan Lake Basin in the far west to Yingchang in the east , Khublai Khan and the Yuan emperors after him did not add to the Great Wall ( except for the ornate Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass ) . When the Venetian traveller Marco Polo wrote of his experiences in China during the reign of Khublai Khan , he did not mention a Great Wall .
= = Ming dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 ) = =
= = = The early walls = = =
In 1368 , the Hongwu Emperor ( Zhu Yuanzhang , r . 1368 – 98 ) ousted the Mongol @-@ led Yuan dynasty from China to inaugurate the Ming dynasty . The Mongols fled back to Mongolia , but even after numerous campaigns , the Mongol problem remained .
During his early reign , Hongwu set up the " eight outer garrisons " close to the steppe and an inner line of forts more suitable for defence . The inner line was the forerunner to the Ming Great Wall . In 1373 , as Ming forces encountered setbacks , Hongwu put more emphasis on defence and adopted Hua Yunlong 's ( 華雲龍 ) suggestion to establish garrisons at 130 passes and other strategic points in the Beijing area . More positions were set up in the years up Hongwu 's death in 1398 , and watchtowers were manned from the Bohai Sea to Beijing and further onto the Mongolian steppes . These positions , however , were not for a linear defence but rather a regional one in which walls did not feature heavily , and offensive tactics remained the overarching policy at the time . In 1421 , the Ming capital was relocated from Nanjing in the south to Beijing in the north , partly to better manage the Mongol situation . Thus defenses were concentrated around Beijing , where stone and earth began to replace rammed earth in strategic passes . A wall was erected by the Ming in Liaodong to protect Han settlers from a possible threat from the Jurched @-@ Mongol Oriyanghan around 1442 . In 1467 – 68 , expansion of the wall provided further protection for the region from against attacks by the Jianzhou Jurchens in the northeast .
Meanwhile , the outer defenses were gradually moved inward , thereby sacrificing a vital foothold in the steppe transitional zone . Despite the withdrawal from the steppe , the Ming military remained in a strong position against the nomads until the Tumu Crisis in 1449 , which caused the collapse of the early Ming security system . Over half of the campaigning Chinese army perished in the conflict , while the Mongols captured the Zhengtong Emperor . This military debacle shattered the Chinese military might that had so impressed and given pause to the Mongols since the beginning of the dynasty , and caused the Ming to be on the defensive ever since .
The deterioration of the Ming military position in the steppe transitional zone gave rise to nomadic raids into Ming territory , including the crucial Ordos region , on a level unprecedented since the dynasty 's founding . After decades of deliberation between an offensive strategy and an accommodative policy , the decision to build the first major Ming walls in the Ordos was agreed upon as an acceptable compromise the 1470s .
Yu Zijun ( 余子俊 ; 1429 – 1489 ) first proposed constructing a wall in the Ordos region in August 1471 , but not until 20 December 1472 did the court and emperor approve the plan . The 1473 victory in the Battle of Red Salt Lake ( 紅鹽池 ) by Wang Yue ( 王越 ) deterred Mongol invasions long enough for Yu Zijun to complete his wall project in 1474 . This wall , a combined effort between Yu Zijun and Wang Yue , stretched from present day Hengcheng ( 橫城 ) in Lingwu ( northwestern Ningxia province ) to Huamachi town ( 花馬池鎮 ) in Yanchi County , and from there to Qingshuiying ( 清水營 ) in northeastern Shaanxi , a total of more than 2000 li ( about 1 @,@ 100 kilometres ( 680 mi ) ) long . Along its length were 800 strong points , sentry posts , beacon @-@ fire towers , and assorted defences . 40 @,@ 000 men were enlisted for this effort , which was completed in several months at a cost of over one million silver taels . This defence system proved its initial worth in 1482 , when a large group of Mongol raiders were trapped within the double lines of fortifications and suffered a defeat by the Ming generals . This was seen as a vindication of Yu Zijun 's strategy of wall @-@ building by the people of the border areas . By the mid @-@ 16th century , Yu 's wall in the Ordos had seen expansion into an extensive defence system . It contained two defence lines : Yu 's wall , called the " great border " ( 大邊 , dàbiān ) , and a " secondary border " ( 二邊 , èrbiān ) built by Yang Yiqing ( 楊一清 ; 1454 – 1530 ) behind it .
Following the success of the Ordos walls , Yu Zijun proposed construction of a further wall that would extend from the Yellow River bend in the Ordos to the Sihaiye Pass ( 四海冶口 ; in present @-@ day Yanqing County ) near the capital Beijing , running a distance of more than 1300 li ( about 700 kilometres ( 430 mi ) ) . The project received approval in 1485 , but Yu 's political enemies harped on the cost overruns and forced Yu to scrap the project and retire the same year . For more than 50 years after Yu 's resignation , political struggle prevented major wall constructions on a scale comparable to Yu 's Ordos project .
However , wall construction continued regardless of court politics during this time . The Ordos walls underwent extension , elaboration , and repair well into the 16th century . Brick and stone started to replace tamped earth as the wall building material , because they offered better protection and durability . This change in material gave rise to a number of necessary accommodations with regard to logistics , and inevitably a drastic increase in costs . Instead of being able to draw on local resources , building projects now required brick @-@ kilns , quarries , and transportation routes to deliver bricks to the work site . Also , masons had to be hired since the local peasantry proved inadequate for the level of sophistication that brick constructions required . Work that originally could be done by one man in a month with earth now required 100 men to do in stone .
= = = The Walls of Xuanfu – Datong and the western reaches = = =
With the Ordos now adequately fortified , the Mongols avoided its walls by riding east to invade Datong and Xuanfu ( 宣府 ; present @-@ day Xuanhua , Hebei Province ) , which were two major garrisons guarding the corridor to Beijing where no walls had been built . The two defence lines of Xuanfu and Datong left by the Northern Qi and the early Ming had deteriorated by this point , and for all intents and purposes the inner line was the capital 's main line of defence .
From 1544 to 1549 , Weng Wanda ( 翁萬達 ; 1498 – 1552 ) embarked on a defensive building program on a scale unprecedented in Chinese history . Troops were re @-@ deployed along the outer line , new walls and beacon towers were constructed , and fortifications were restored and extended along both lines . Firearms and artillery were mounted on the walls and towers during this time , for both defence and signalling purposes . The project 's completion was announced in the sixth month of 1548 . At its height , the Xuan – Da portion of the Great Wall totalled about 850 kilometres ( 530 mi ) of wall , with some sections being doubled @-@ up with two lines of wall , some tripled or even quadrupled . The outer frontier was now protected by a wall called the " outer border " ( 外邊 , wàibiān ) that extended 380 kilometres ( 240 mi ) from the Yellow River 's edge at the Piantou Pass ( 偏頭關 ) along the Inner Mongolia border with Shanxi into Hebei province ; the " inner border " wall ( 內邊 , nèibiān ) ran southeast from Piantou Pass for some 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) , ending at the Pingxing Pass ; a " river wall " ( 河邊 , hébiān ) also ran from the Piantou Pass and followed the Yellow River southwards for about 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) .
As with Yu Zijun 's wall in the Ordos , the Mongols shifted their attacks away from the newly strengthened Xuan – Da sector to less well @-@ protected areas . In the west , Shaanxi province became the target of nomads riding west from the Yellow River loop . The westernmost fortress of Ming China , the Jiayu Pass , saw substantial enhancement with walls starting in 1539 , and from there border walls were built discontinuously down the Hexi Corridor to Wuwei , where the low earthen wall split into two . The northern section passed through Zhongwei and Yinchuan , where it met the western edge of the Yellow River loop before connecting with the Ordos walls , while the southern section passed through Lanzhou and continued northeast to Dingbian . The origins and the exact route of this so @-@ called " Tibetan loop " are still not clear .
= = = From Beijing to Shanhai Pass = = =
In 1550 , having once more been refused a request for trade , the Tümed Mongols under Altan Khan invaded the Xuan – Da region . However , despite several attempts , he could not take Xuanfu due to Weng Wanda 's double fortified line while the garrison at Datong bribed him to not attack there . Instead of continuing to operate in the area , he circled around Weng Wanda 's wall to the relatively lightly defended Gubeikou , northeast of Beijing . From there Altan Khan passed through the defences and raided the suburbs of Beijing . According to one contemporary source , the raid took more than 60 @,@ 000 lives and an additional 40 @,@ 000 people became prisoners . As a response to this raid , the focus of the Ming 's northern defences shifted from the Xuan – Da region to the Jizhou ( 薊州鎮 ) and Changping Defence Commands ( 昌平鎮 ) where the breach took place . Later in the same year , the dry @-@ stone walls of the Jizhou – Changping area ( abbreviated as " Ji @-@ Chang " ) were replaced by stone and mortar . These allowed the Chinese to build on steeper , more easily defended slopes and facilitated construction of features such as ramparts , crenelations , and peepholes . The effectiveness of the new walls was demonstrated in the failed Mongol raid of 1554 , where raiders expecting a repeat of the events of 1550 were surprised by the higher wall and stiff Chinese resistance .
In 1567 Qi Jiguang and Tan Lun , successful generals who fended off the coastal pirates , were reassigned to manage the Ji – Chang Defense Commands and step up the defences of the capital region . Under their ambitious and energetic management , 1200 brick watchtowers were built along the Great Wall from 1569 to 1571 . These included the first large @-@ scale use of hollow watchtowers on the Wall : up until this point , most previous towers along the Great Wall had been solid , with a small hut on top for a sentry to take shelter from the elements and Mongol arrows ; the Ji – Chang towers built from 1569 onwards were hollow brick structures , allowing soldiers interior space to live , store food and water , stockpile weapons , and take shelter from Mongol arrows .
Altan Khan eventually made peace with China when it opened border cities for trade in 1571 , alleviating the Mongol need to raid . This , coupled with Qi and Tan 's efforts to secure the frontier , brought a period of relative peace along the border . However , minor raids still happened from time to time when the profits of plunder outweighed those of trade , prompting the Ming to close all gaps along the frontier around Beijing . Areas of difficult terrain once considered impassable were also walled off , leading to the well @-@ known vistas of a stone @-@ faced Great Wall snaking over dramatic landscapes that tourists still see today .
Wall construction continued until the demise of the Ming dynasty in 1644 . In the decades that led to the fall of the Ming dynasty , the Ming court and the Great Wall itself had to deal with simultaneous internal rebellions and the Manchu invasions . In addition to their conquest of Liaodong , the Manchus had raided across the Great Wall for the first time in 1629 , and again in 1634 , 1638 , and 1642 . Meanwhile , the rebels led by warlord Li Zicheng had been gathering strength . In the early months of 1644 , Li Zicheng declared himself the founder of the Shun and marched towards the Ming capital from Shaanxi . His route roughly followed the line of the Great Wall , in order to neutralize its heavily fortified garrisons . The crucial defences of Datong , Xuanfu , and Juyong Pass all surrendered without a fight , and the Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself on 25 April as the Shun army entered Beijing . At this point , the largest remaining Ming fighting force in North China was in Shanhai Pass , where the Great Wall meets the Bohai Sea . Its defender Wu Sangui , wedged between the Shun army within and the Manchus without , decided to surrender to the Manchus and opened the gates for them . The Manchus , having thus entered through the Great Wall , defeated Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass and seized Beijing on June 5 . They eventually defeated both the rebel @-@ founded Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance , establishing their rule over all of China as the Qing dynasty .
Opinions about the Wall 's role in the Ming dynasty 's downfall are mixed . Historians such as Arthur Waldron and Julia Lovell are critical of the whole wall @-@ building exercise in light of its ultimate failure in protecting China ; the former compared the Great Wall with the failed Maginot Line of the French in World War II . However , independent scholar David Spindler notes that the Wall , being only part of a complex foreign policy , received " disproportionate blame " because it was the most obvious relic of that policy .
= = Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1911 ) = =
The usefulness of the Great Wall as a defence line against northern nomads became questionable under the Qing dynasty , since their territory encompassed vast areas inside and outside the wall : China proper , Manchuria , and Mongolia were all under Qing control . So instead , the Great Wall became the means to limit Han Chinese movement into the steppes . In the case of Manchuria , considered to be the sacred homeland by the ruling Manchu elites , some parts of the Ming Liaodong Wall were repaired so it could serve to control Han Chinese movement into Manchuria alongside the newly erected Willow Palisade .
Culturally , the wall 's symbolic role as a line between civilized society and barbarism was suppressed by the Qing , who were keen to weaken the Han culturalism that had been propagated by the Ming . As a result , no special attention was paid to the Great Wall until the mid @-@ Qing dynasty , when Westerners started to show interest in the structure .
= = = Western appreciation of the Wall = = =
The existence of a colossal wall in Asia had circulated in the Middle East and the West even before the first Europeans arrived in China by sea . The late antiquity historian Ammianus Marcellinus ( 330 ? – 395 ? ) mentioned " summits of lofty walls " enclosing the land of Seres , the country that the Romans believed to be at the eastern end of the Silk Road . In legend , the tribes of Gog and Magog were said to have been locked out by Alexander the Great with walls of steel . Later Arab writers and travellers , such as Rashid @-@ al @-@ Din Hamadani ( 1248 – 1318 ) and Ibn Battuta ( 1304 – 377 ) , would erroneously identify the Great Wall in China with the walls of the Alexander romances . This indicated that Arabs may have heard about China 's Great Wall during earlier periods of China 's history , and associated it with the wall in the Gog and Magog legend , a tale that found its way into the Quran .
Soon after Europeans reached Ming China in the early 16th century , accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe , even though no European would see it with their own eyes for another century . The work A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions by Gaspar da Cruz ( c . 1520 – 70 ) offered an early discussion of the Great Wall in which he noted , " a Wall of an hundred leagues in length . And some will affirme to bee more than a hundred leagues . " Another early account written by Bishop Juan González de Mendoza ( 1550 – 1620 ) reported a wall five hundred leagues long , but suggested that only one hundred leagues were man @-@ made , with the rest natural rock formations . The Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci ( 1552 – 1610 ) mentioned the Great Wall once in his diary , noting the existence of " a tremendous wall four hundred and five miles long " that formed part of the northern defences of the Ming Empire .
Europeans first witnessed the Great Wall in the early 1600s . Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605 , when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Góis reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India . Ivan Petlin 's 1619 deposition for his Russian embassy
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The title was briefly revived through reprints in 1955 . Penrod Shoes issued a giveaway coeval edition of Boys ' Ranch # 5 and # 6 , and the same issues were reprinted by Harvey Thriller in Witches Western Tales ( 1955 ) # 29 – 30 , with further reprints in Western Tales # 31 – 32 .
Marvel Comics published Kid Cowboys of Boys Ranch , a hardcover reprint edition of all six issues in 1991 ( ISBN 087135859X ) . A Boys ' Ranch portfolio of illustrations from the original series ' artwork appeared in Joe Simon 's The Comic Book Makers in 2003 . Some Boys ' Ranch selections appeared in 2009 Titan Books anthology , The Best of Simon & Kirby ( ISBN 1845769317 ) .
= = Characters and story = =
Clay Duncan is an Indian scout who serves as foreman at the Boys ' Ranch . Modelled on frontiersman such as Kit Carson , Buffalo Bill Cody , and Davy Crockett , he serves as role model to the boy characters . While a young child , Duncan 's parents were killed by bandits . He was rescued by a passing band of Apache Indians , and adopted by the Apache Running Bear , alongside his son , Geronimo . On reaching manhood , he left the Apache under the tutelage of Miles Freeman , a frontier scout . Running Bear 's parting words were ' The war clouds darken once more over the white man and the Indian nations ... there is much need for warriors who talk peace to both sides ! Freeman 's words are that the great spirit has given you to us for such a mission ' . He occasionally takes on other jobs such as army scout , mail delivery driver , and US Marshal . His horse 's name is Ghost .
Dandy is a ' well @-@ liked kid with a ready smile and a confident air ' who served in the American Civil War . Usually depicted wearing a Union Army uniform , he left his adoptive parents from a small Ohio farm to explore the west . He has a noticeably greater active interest in the opposite sex , as exemplified in " I 'll fight you for Lucy " .
Wabash is an easy @-@ going lad who " springs from the hill @-@ folk " His dubious banjo @-@ accompanied singing skills are a source of comedy relief . His family history is explicated in the Johnny Appleseed / Paul Bunyan @-@ style tale " The Legend of Alby Fleezer . "
Angel is a long @-@ haired blond youth inspired by Billy the Kid . He is a skilled gunfighter , and possesses a fiery temper . Nicknamed ' the fire @-@ eatin ' , lead @-@ throwin ' angel ' , when first meeting Clay Duncan , he presents himself thus : " Got not peeve ! I live alone ... and I want to be left alone ! I ain 't like other kids ! They got mothers and fathers to fuss over ' em ! Well , I don 't need nobody ! Nobody ! I kin handle myself against any man ! " His horse 's name is Paint .
Wee Willie Weehawken is the first arrival at Boys ' Ranch . Styled the " oldest boy at Boys ' Ranch " due to his advanced years , he cooks the meals at the ranch . " A very dangerous dude ! " , Boys ' Ranch # 1 reveals he had been a lawyer in his youth .
Happy Boy is a young Native American boy who appeared at the ranch one day . Never appearing on the cover , he does appear in one of the pin @-@ up illustrations . He begins to communicate using sign language in Boys ' Ranch # 6 and plays a more prominent role in the story " Happy Boy carries the ball " .
Palomino Sue hails from Abilene , Texas . Her father was a wagon master . She arrived at Boys ' Ranch after a trip on the wagon her father was driving was intercepted by Indians . She was the only survivor . When expressing a desire to get involved in fighting , Clay Duncan insists that , because it 's too dangerous for a woman , she must remain at the ranch . She agrees , but her acquiescence was a pretence , as she later joins the fray , offering opportune assistance . Similar scenes recur in her two subsequent appearances in issues # 5 and 6 .
Geronimo is portrayed as a fierce Apache military leader . As the son of Running Bear , he was a boyhood companion to Clay Duncan . Resentful of Duncan 's position in the tribe , they become bitter rivals " The Clay Duncan Story " .
Various Native American tribes appear as protagonists throughout . The conflict between Caucasians and American Indians is often the result of manipulation and exploitation by dishonest Caucasians . For example , in issue # 2 , Comanche and Blackfoot tribes are falsely told by white traffickers that their land will be seized so they can sell them rifles . In issue # 5 , the Apache Indians are blamed for robbing mail wagons , but in reality the perpetrators were white robbers using subterfuge to place blame on the Apaches .
The début issue opens with the chance meeting of Dandy and Wabash , who had been on opposite sides of the then recent Civil War , but became friends and decided to head out West together . Meanwhile , Clay Duncan meets up with Angel and the four come together in the defence of a ranch belonging to Jason Harper against an attack by Apache warriors . The story reveals Geronimo is the leader of that band when he joins the fray to order the band 's retreat . As his dying act , he bequeathed the ranch to the youngsters for use as a shelter for homeless boys . They are later joined by Wee Willie Weehawken , because he was a middle @-@ aged man , cited the technicality that the will didn 't specify the maximum age to qualify as a " boy " . Happy Boy joins the ranch shortly after . The ranch is near a town called Four Massacres .
= = Critical analysis = =
= = = Series commentary = = =
Boys ' Ranch has become one of Simon and Kirby 's most critically acclaimed creations and is held in high esteem by both creators . R. J. Vitone qualifies the series as having " much more depth than previous S & K kid @-@ gang strips – the basic elements that had made the romance and crime books so thematically strong were applied here as well . " Mendryk points out a certain drop of quality in later issues : " It was part of the Simon and Kirby modus operandi to make heavy use of Kirby ’ s talents in the early issues of a new title and afterwards make more frequent use of other artists . For Boys ' Ranch the change seems much more dramatic then in other titles . The last three issues are good , but they are not the masterpieces that the earlier issues were . "
According to Richard Morrissey , Simon and Kirby 's final effort in the " kid gang " genre showed signs of evolving in new directions : " In Boys ' Ranch , Kirby seemed to be attempting to be going beyond his previous limitations ... More and more , the team was abandoning adolescent adventure for more adult concerns ... more than one observer has noted the similarities between the kid gangs of the ' 40s and early ' 50s with the adult teams of the late ' 50s and early ' 60s . "
= = = Mother Delilah = = =
The first story from issue # 3 , " Mother Delilah " , has been singled out as one of Simon and Kirby 's finest . Kirby has cited it as a personal favorite , and it has received accolades by critics , comic book professionals and fans alike .
A 20 @-@ page tale of betrayal , revenge , and redemption referencing the similarly themed biblical story of Samson and Delilah , the story features Clay Duncan , Angel , and Delilah Barker , a character influenced by Marlene Dietrich 's character from Destry Rides Again . A character named Virgil Underwood provides a Greek chorus @-@ like background commentary : " Those who find love are indeed fortunate , but woe betide them who demand it " ; the story 's final panel reads :
" And thus it ends . But ever to repeat
Again and again in reality and rhyme –
Love 's ever new as morning 's dew ,
And hate is as old as time . "
Analyzing the story , R. C. Harvey concludes with : " From hate springs the desire for vengeance , and that desire , as Angel discovers , is debilitating . And even love can turn to hate unless love 's motive is a giving spirit . But a giving love is the ultimate redemption . "
= Wilhelm Steinitz =
Wilhelm ( later William ) Steinitz ( May 17 , 1836 – August 12 , 1900 ) was an Austrian and later American chess Master player , and the first undisputed world chess champion from 1886 to 1894 . He was also a highly influential writer and chess theoretician .
When discussing chess history from the 1850s onwards , commentators have debated whether Steinitz could be effectively considered the champion from an earlier time , perhaps as early as 1866 . Steinitz lost his title to Emanuel Lasker in 1894 , and also lost a rematch in 1896 – 97 .
Statistical rating systems give Steinitz a rather low ranking among world champions , mainly because he took several long breaks from competitive play . However , an analysis based on one of these rating systems shows that he was one of the most dominant players in the history of the game . Steinitz was unbeaten in match play for 32 years , from 1862 to 1894 .
Although Steinitz became " world number one " by winning in the all @-@ out attacking style that was common in the 1860s , he unveiled in 1873 a new positional style of play , and demonstrated that it was superior to the previous style . His new style was controversial and some even branded it as " cowardly " , but many of Steinitz 's games showed that it could also set up attacks as ferocious as those of the old school .
Steinitz was also a prolific writer on chess , and defended his new ideas vigorously . The debate was so bitter and sometimes abusive that it became known as the " Ink War " . Steinitz was the target of anti @-@ Semitic abuse , and moved to the United States to escape this . By the early 1890s , Steinitz 's approach was widely accepted , and the next generation of top players acknowledged their debt to him , most notably his successor as world champion , Emanuel Lasker .
As a result of the " Ink War " , traditional accounts of Steinitz 's character depict him as ill @-@ tempered and aggressive ; but more recent research shows that he had long and friendly relationships with some players and chess organizations . Most notably from 1888 to 1889 he co @-@ operated with the American Chess Congress in a project to define rules governing the conduct of future world championships . Steinitz was unskilled at managing money , and lived in poverty all his life .
= = Early stages of chess career = =
Steinitz was born on May 17 , 1836 , in the Jewish ghetto of Prague ( now capital of the Czech Republic ; then in Bohemia , a part of the Austrian Empire ) . The last of a hardware retailer 's thirteen sons , he learned to play chess at age 12 . He began playing serious chess in his twenties , after leaving Prague in 1857 to study mathematics in Vienna , at the Vienna Polytechnic . Steinitz spent two years at the university .
He improved rapidly in chess during the late 1850s , progressing from third place in the 1859 Vienna City championship to first in 1861 , with a score of 30 / 31 . During this period he was nicknamed " the Austrian Morphy " . This achievement meant that he had become the strongest player in Austria .
= = International debut = =
Steinitz was then sent to represent Austria in the London 1862 chess tournament . He placed sixth , but his win over Augustus Mongredien was awarded the tournament 's brilliancy prize . He immediately challenged the fifth @-@ placed contestant , the strong veteran Italian Master Serafino Dubois , to a match , which Steinitz won ( five wins , one draw , three losses ) . This encouraged him to turn professional , and he took up residence in London . In 1862 – 63 Steinitz scored a crushing win in a match with Joseph Henry Blackburne , who went on to be one of the world 's top ten for 20 years , but who had only started playing chess two years earlier . Steinitz then beat some leading UK players in matches : Frederic Deacon and Augustus Mongredien in 1863 , and Valentine Green in 1864 . This charge up the rankings had a price : in March 1863 Steinitz apologized in a letter to Ignác Kolisch for not repaying a loan , because while Steinitz had been beating Blackburne , Daniel Harrwitz had " taken over " all of Steinitz 's clients at the London Chess Club , who had provided Steinitz 's main source of income .
= = Match against Anderssen = =
These successes established Steinitz as one of the world 's top players , and he was able to arrange a match in 1866 in London against Adolf Anderssen , who was regarded as the world 's strongest active player because he had won the 1851 and 1862 London International Tournaments and his one superior , Paul Morphy , had retired from competitive chess . Steinitz won with eight wins and six losses ( there were no draws ) , but it was a hard fight ; after 12 games the scores were level at 6 – 6 , then Steinitz won the last two games .
As a result of this match victory , Steinitz was generally regarded as the world 's best player . The prize money for this match was £ 100 to the winner ( Steinitz ) and £ 20 for the loser ( Anderssen ) . The winner 's prize was a large sum by the standards of the times , equivalent to about £ 57 @,@ 500 in 2007 's money .
= = Continued match play success = =
Steinitz won every serious match he played from 1862 until 1892 inclusive , sometimes by wide margins .
In the years following his victory over Anderssen , he beat Henry Bird in 1866 ( seven wins , five losses , five draws ) . He comfortably beat Johannes Zukertort in 1872 ( seven wins , four draws , one loss ; Zukertort had proved himself one of the elite by beating Anderssen by a large margin in 1871 ) .
= = Gradually improves tournament results = =
It took longer for Steinitz to reach the top in tournament play . In the next few years he took : third place at Paris 1867 behind Ignatz Kolisch and Simon Winawer ; and second place at Dundee ( 1867 ; Gustav Neumann won ) , and Baden @-@ Baden 1870 chess tournament ; behind Anderssen but ahead of Blackburne , Louis Paulsen and other strong players . His first victory in a strong tournament was London 1872 , ahead of Blackburne and Zukertort ; and the first tournament in which Steinitz finished ahead of Anderssen was Vienna 1873 , when Anderssen was 55 years old .
= = Changes style , introduces positional school = =
All of Steinitz 's successes up to 1872 inclusive were achieved in the attack @-@ at @-@ all @-@ costs " Romantic " style exemplified by Anderssen . But in the Vienna 1873 chess tournament , Steinitz unveiled a new " positional " style of play which was to become the basis of modern chess . He tied for first place with Blackburne , ahead of Anderssen , Samuel Rosenthal , Paulsen and Henry Bird , and won the play @-@ off against Blackburne . Steinitz made a shaky start , but won his last 14 games in the main tournament ( including 2 – 0 results over Paulsen , Anderssen , and Blackburne ) plus the two play @-@ off games – this was the start of a 25 @-@ game winning streak in serious competition .
= = Hiatus from competitive chess = =
Between 1873 and 1882 Steinitz played no tournaments and only one match ( a 7 – 0 win against Blackburne in 1876 ) . His other games during this period were in simultaneous and blindfold exhibitions , which contributed an important part of a professional chess @-@ player 's income in those days ( for example in 1887 Blackburne was paid 9 guineas for two simultaneous exhibitions and a blindfold exhibition hosted by the Teesside Chess Association ; this was equivalent to about £ 4 @,@ 800 at 2007 values ) .
= = Chess journalist = =
Instead , Steinitz concentrated on his work as a chess journalist , notably for The Field , which was Britain 's leading sports magazine . Some of Steinitz 's commentaries aroused heated debates , notably from Zukertort and Leopold Hoffer in The Chess Monthly ( which they founded in 1879 ) . This " Ink War " escalated sharply in 1881 , when Steinitz mercilessly criticized Hoffer 's annotations of games in the 1881 Berlin Congress ( won by Blackburne ahead of Zukertort ) . Steinitz was eager to settle the analytical debates by a second match against Zukertort , whose unwillingness to play provoked scornful comments from Steinitz . In mid @-@ 1882 James Mason , a consistently strong player , challenged Steinitz to a match , and accused Steinitz of cowardice when Steinitz insisted the issue with Zukertort should be settled first . Steinitz responded by inviting Mason to name a sufficiently high stake for a match , at least £ 150 per player ( equivalent to about £ 73 @,@ 000 in 2007 's money ) , but Mason was unwilling to stake more than £ 100 . Mason later agreed to play a match with Zukertort for a stake of £ 100 per player , but soon " postponed " that match , " circumstances having arisen that make it highly inconvenient for me to proceed ... "
= = = Rivalry with Zukertort = = =
Steinitz 's long lay @-@ off caused some commentators to suggest that Zukertort , who had scored some notable tournament victories , should be regarded as the world chess champion .
= = Comeback success = =
Steinitz returned to serious competitive chess in the Vienna 1882 chess tournament , which has been described as the strongest chess tournament of all time at that point . Despite a shaky start he took equal first place with Szymon Winawer , ahead of James Mason , Zukertort , George Henry Mackenzie , Blackburne , Berthold Englisch , Paulsen and Mikhail Chigorin , and drew the play @-@ off match .
= = = Victim of anti @-@ Semitic attacks = = =
In 1882 , while Steinitz was playing in Vienna and sending weekly reports on the tournament to The Field , there was a plot against him back in England . Just after the end of the tournament The Field published an anti @-@ Semitic article by Hoffer that praised the efforts of the English players and those of English origin in Vienna , but disparaged the victory of Steinitz and Winawer , both Jews . Steinitz stopped working for The Field and was replaced by Hoffer , a close friend of Zukertort and a bitter enemy of Steinitz . Sources differ about exactly when the Hoffer @-@ Zukertort faction took over the chess columns at The Field ; some say it was after the 1883 London tournament , so there was a gap between Steinitz 's tenure and Hoffer 's .
= = = Visits USA = = =
Steinitz visited the USA , mainly the Philadelphia area , from December 1882 to May 1883 . He was given an enthusiastic reception . Steinitz played several exhibitions , many casual games , and a match for stakes of £ 50 with a wealthy amateur . He also won three more serious matches with two New World professionals , Alexander Sellman ( Steinitz won both ) and the Cuban champion Celso Golmayo Zúpide . The match with Golmayo was abandoned when Steinitz was leading ( eight wins , one draw , one loss ) . His hosts even arranged a visit to New Orleans , where Paul Morphy lived .
= = = Return to London = = =
Later in 1883 , Steinitz took second place in the extremely strong London 1883 chess tournament behind Zukertort , who made a brilliant start , faded at the end but finished 3 points ahead . Steinitz finished 2 ½ points ahead of the third @-@ placed competitor , Blackburne . Zukertort 's victory again led some commentators to suggest that Zukertort should be regarded as the world chess champion , while others said the issue could only be resolved by a match between Steinitz and Zukertort .
= = Settles in USA = =
In 1883 , shortly after the London tournament , Steinitz decided to leave England and moved to New York , where he lived for the rest of his life . This did not end the " Ink War " : his enemies persuaded some of the American press to publish anti @-@ Steinitz articles , and in 1885 Steinitz founded the International Chess Magazine , which he edited until 1895 . In his magazine he chronicled the lengthy negotiations for a match with Zukertort . He also managed to find supporters in other sections of the American press including Turf , Field and Farm and the St. Louis Globe @-@ Democrat , both of which reported Steinitz 's offer to forgo all fees , expenses or share in the stake and make the match " a benefit performance , solely for Mr Zukertort 's pecuniary profit " .
= = World Championship match = =
Eventually it was agreed that in 1886 Steinitz and Zukertort would play a match in New York , St. Louis and New Orleans , and that the victor would be the player who first won 10 games . At Steinitz 's insistence the contract said it would be " for the Championship of the World " . After the five games played in New York , Zukertort led by 4 – 1 , but in the end Steinitz won decisively by 12 ½ – 7 ½ ( ten wins , five draws , five losses ) . The collapse by Zukertort , who won only one of the last 15 games , has been described as " perhaps the most thoroughgoing reversal of fortune in the history of world championship play . "
Though not yet officially an American citizen , Steinitz wanted the United States flag to be placed next to him during the match . He became a U.S. citizen on November 23 , 1888 , having resided for five years in New York , and changed his first name from Wilhelm to William .
In 1887 the American Chess Congress started work on drawing up regulations for the future conduct of world championship contests . Steinitz actively supported this endeavor , as he thought he was becoming too old to remain world champion – he wrote in his own magazine " I know I am not fit to be the champion , and I am not likely to bear that title for ever " .
= = Defeats Chigorin = =
In 1888 the Havana Chess Club offered to sponsor a match between Steinitz and whomever he would select as a worthy opponent . Steinitz nominated the Russian Mikhail Chigorin , on the condition that the invitation should not be presented as a challenge from him . There is some doubt about whether this was intended to be a match for the world championship : both Steinitz 's letters and the publicity material just before the match conspicuously avoided the phrase . The proposed match was to have a maximum of 20 games , and Steinitz had said that fixed @-@ length matches were unsuitable for world championship contests because the first player to take the lead could then play for draws ; and Steinitz was at the same time supporting the American Chess Congress ' world championship project . Whatever the status of the match , it was played in Havana in January to February 1889 , and won by Steinitz ( ten wins , one draw , six losses ) .
= = = New York 1889 tournament = = =
The American Chess Congress ' final proposal was that the winner of a tournament to be held in New York in 1889 should be regarded as world champion for the time being , but must be prepared to face a challenge from the second or third placed competitor within a month . Steinitz wrote that he would not play in the tournament and would not challenge the winner unless the second and third placed competitors failed to do so . The tournament was duly played , but the outcome was not quite as planned : Mikhail Chigorin and Max Weiss tied for first place ; their play @-@ off resulted in four draws , and Weiss then wanted to get back to his work for the Rothschild Bank , conceding the title to Chigorin .
However , the third prize @-@ winner Isidore Gunsberg was prepared to play Chigorin for the title . The match was played in Havana in 1890 and ended in a 9 @-@ 9 tie ; this match is not considered as a World Championship encounter . The American Chess Congress 's experiment was not repeated , and Steinitz 's last three matches were private arrangements between the players .
= = Wins rematch against Chigorin = =
In 1891 the Saint Petersburg Chess Society and the Havana Chess Club offered to organize another Steinitz – Chigorin match for the world championship . Steinitz played against Chigorin in Havana in 1892 , and won narrowly ( ten wins , five draws , eight losses ) .
German Dr. Siegbert Tarrasch turned down an opportunity in 1892 to challenge Steinitz in a world championship match , because of the demands of his medical practice .
= = Loses title to Lasker = =
Around this time Steinitz publicly spoke of retiring , but changed his mind when Emanuel Lasker , 32 years younger and comparatively untested at the top level , challenged him . Lasker had been earlier that year refused a non @-@ title challenge by fellow German , Dr. Siegbert Tarrasch , who was at the time the world 's most dominant tournament player .
Initially , Lasker wanted to play for $ 5 @,@ 000 a side , and a match was agreed at stakes of $ 3 @,@ 000 a side , but Steinitz agreed to a series of reductions when Lasker found it difficult to raise the money , and the final figure was $ 2 @,@ 000 each , which was less than for some of Steinitz 's earlier matches ( the final combined stake of $ 4 @,@ 000 would be worth about $ 495 @,@ 500 at 2007 values ) . Although this was publicly praised as an act of sportsmanship on Steinitz 's part , Steinitz may have desperately needed the money .
The match was played in 1894 , at venues in New York , Philadelphia and Montreal . The 32 @-@ year age difference between the combatants was the largest in the history of world championship play , and remains so today . Steinitz had previously declared he would win without doubt , so it came as a shock when Lasker won the first game . Steinitz responded by winning the second , and was able to maintain the balance until the sixth . However , Lasker won all the games from the seventh to the 11th , and Steinitz asked for a one @-@ week rest . When the match resumed , Steinitz looked in better shape and won the 13th and 14th games . Lasker struck back in the 15th and 16th , and Steinitz was unable to compensate for his losses in the middle of the match . Hence Lasker won with ten wins , five losses and four draws . Some commentators thought Steinitz 's habit of playing " experimental " moves in serious competition was a major factor in his downfall .
= = = Increased tournament activity = = =
After losing the title , Steinitz played in tournaments more frequently than he had previously . He won at New York 1894 , and was fifth at Hastings 1895 ( winning the first brilliancy prize for his game with Curt von Bardeleben ) . At Saint Petersburg 1895 , a super @-@ strong four player , multi @-@ round @-@ robin event , with Lasker , Chigorin and Pillsbury , he took second place . Later his results began to decline : 6th in Nuremberg 1896 , 5th in Cologne 1898 , 10th in London 1899 .
In early 1896 , Steinitz defeated the Russian Emanuel Schiffers in a match ( winning 6 games , drawing 1 , losing 4 ) .
= = = Outclassed in rematch with Lasker = = =
In November , 1896 to January , 1897 Steinitz played a return match with Lasker in Moscow , but won only 2 games , drawing 5 , and losing 10 . This was the last world chess championship match for eleven years . Shortly after the match , Steinitz had a mental breakdown and was confined for 40 days in a Moscow sanatorium , where he played chess with the inmates .
= = Questions : The beginning of Steinitz 's reign = =
There is a long @-@ running debate among chess writers about whether Steinitz 's reign as World Chess Champion began in 1866 , when he beat Anderssen , or in 1886 , when he beat Zukertort . Based on In April 1894 the British Chess Magazine described Steinitz as holding " the chess championship of the world for 28 years " . However , there is no evidence that he claimed the title for himself in 1866 , although in the 1880s he claimed to have been the champion since his win over Anderssen . It has been suggested that Steinitz could not make such a claim while Paul Morphy was alive . Morphy had defeated Anderssen by a far wider margin , 8 – 3 , in 1858 , but retired from chess competition soon after he returned to the USA in 1859 , and died in 1884 . The 1886 Steinitz vs. Zukertort match was the first that was explicitly described as being for the World Championship , but Howard Staunton and Paul Morphy had been unofficially described as " World Chess Champion " around the middle of the 19th century . In fact one of the organizers of the 1851 London International tournament had said the contest was for " the baton of the World 's Chess Champion " , and in mid @-@ 1840s Ludwig Bledow wrote a letter to Tassilo von Heydebrand und der Lasa suggesting they should organize a world championship tournament in Germany . Some commentators described Steinitz as " the champion " in the years following his 1872 match victory against Zukertort . In the late 1870s and early 1880s some regarded Steinitz as the champion and others supported Johannes Zukertort , and the 1886 match was not regarded as creating the title of World Champion , but as resolving conflicting claims to the title . On the other hand George Alcock MacDonnell hailed Joseph Blackburne as " World Champion " for his win in the 1881 Berlin Tournament , George Henry Mackenzie as having " won the Chess Championship of the World " in 1887 , and Isidore Gunsberg as " among the champions of the world " following his win at " Bradford Place " in 1888 . However , Steinitz regarded G.A. MacDonnell as " one of my bitterest and most untruthful persecutors " .
= = Personal life = =
Steinitz lived with a lady named Caroline Golder ( born 1846 ) in the 1860s , and their only daughter Flora was born in 1866 . Flora died in 1888 at the age of 21 , and Caroline died in 1892 . He married his second wife a few years later , and had two children by her . In 1897 he dedicated a pamphlet to the memory of his first wife and their daughter .
In February 1897 , the New York Times prematurely reported his death in a New York mental asylum . Some authors claim that he contracted syphilis , which may have been a cause of the mental breakdowns he suffered in his last years . In the months prior to his death , he spent some time in institutions as a result of his failing mental health . His chess activities had not yielded any great financial rewards , and he died a pauper in the Manhattan State Hospital ( Ward Island ) of a heart attack on August 12 , 1900 . Steinitz is buried in the Cemetery of the Evergreens in Brooklyn , New York . His second wife and their two young children were still alive at his death .
= = Writings = =
Steinitz was the main chess correspondent of the The Field ( in London ) from 1873 to 1882 , and used this to present his ideas about chess strategy . In 1885 he founded the International Chess Magazine in New York and edited it until 1891 . In addition to game commentaries and blow @-@ by @-@ blow accounts of the negotiations leading to his 1886 match with Johann Zukertort and of the American Chess Congress ' world championship project , he wrote a long series of articles about Paul Morphy , who had died in 1884 . He wrote the book of the 1889 New York tournament , in which he commented on all of the games 432 of them , and in 1889 he published a textbook , The Modern Chess Instructor .
Steinitz also allegedly wrote a pamphlet entitled Capital , Labor , and Charity while confined at River Crest Sanitarium in New York during the final months of his life .
= = Assessment = =
The book of the Hastings 1895 chess tournament , written collectively by the players , described Steinitz as follows :
Mr. Steinitz stands high as a theoretician and as a writer ; he has a powerful pen , and when he chooses can use expressive English . He evidently strives to be fair to friends and foes alike , but appears sometimes to fail to see that after all he is much like many others in this respect . Possessed of a fine intellect , and extremely fond of the game , he is apt to lose sight of all other considerations , people and business alike . Chess is his very life and soul , the one thing for which he lives .
= = = Influence on the game = = =
Steinitz 's play up to and including 1872 was similar to that of his contemporaries : sharp , aggressive , and full of sacrificial play . This was the style in which he became " world number one " by beating Adolf Anderssen in 1866 and confirmed his position by beating Zukertort in 1872 and winning the 1872 London International tournament ( Zukertort had claimed the rank of number two by beating Anderssen in 1871 ) .
In 1873 , however , Steinitz 's play suddenly changed , giving priority to what is now called the positional elements in chess : pawn structure , space , outposts for knights , the advantage of the two bishops , etc . Although Steinitz often accepted unnecessarily difficult defensive positions in order to demonstrate the superiority of his theories , he also showed that his methods could provide a platform for crushing attacks . Steinitz 's successor as world champion , Emanuel Lasker , summed up the new style as : " In the beginning of the game ignore the search for combinations , abstain from violent moves , aim for small advantages , accumulate them , and only after having attained these ends search for the combination – and then with all the power of will and intellect , because then the combination must exist , however deeply hidden . "
Although Steinitz 's play changed abruptly , he said had been thinking along such lines for some years :
Some of the games which I saw Paulsen play during the London Congress of 1862 gave a still stronger start to the modification of my own opinions , which has since developed , and I began to recognize that Chess genius is not confined to the more or less deep and brilliant finishing strokes after the original balance of power and position has been overthrown , but that it also requires the exercise of still more extraordinary powers , though perhaps of a different kind to maintain that balance or respectively to disturb it at the proper time in one 's own favor .
During his nine @-@ year layoff from tournament play ( 1873 – 82 ) and later in his career , Steinitz used his chess writings to present his theories – while in the UK he wrote for The Field ; in 1885 after moving to New York he founded the " International Chess Magazine " , of which he was the chief editor ; and in 1889 he edited the book of the great New York 1889 tournament ( won by Mikhail Chigorin and Max Weiss ) , in which he did not compete as the tournament was designed to produce his successor as World Champion . Many other writers found his new approach incomprehensible , boring or even cowardly ; for example Adolf Anderssen said , " Kolisch is a highwayman and points the pistol at your breast . Steinitz is a pick @-@ pocket , he steals a pawn and wins a game with it . "
But when he contested the first World Championship match in 1886 against Johannes Zukertort , it became evident that Steinitz was playing on another level . Although Zukertort was at least Steinitz 's equal in spectacular attacking play , Steinitz often outmaneuvered him fairly simply by the use of positional principles .
By the time of his match in 1890 – 91 against Gunsberg , some commentators showed an understanding of and appreciation for Steinitz 's theories . Shortly before the 1894 match with Emanuel Lasker , even the New York Times , which had earlier published attacks on his play and character , paid tribute to his playing record , the importance of his theories , and his sportsmanship in agreeing to the most difficult match of his career despite his previous intention of retiring .
By the end of his career , Steinitz was more highly esteemed as a theoretician than as a player . The comments about him in the book of the Hastings 1895 chess tournament focus on his theories and writings , and Emanuel Lasker was more explicit : " He was a thinker worthy of a seat in the halls of a University . A player , as the world believed he was , he was not ; his studious temperament made that impossible ; and thus he was conquered by a player ... "
As a result of his play and writings Steinitz , along with Paul Morphy , is considered by many chess commentators to be the founder of modern chess . Lasker , who took the championship from Steinitz , wrote , " I who vanquished him must see to it that his great achievement , his theories should find justice , and I must avenge the wrongs he suffered . " Vladimir Kramnik emphasizes Steinitz 's importance as a pioneer in the field of chess theory : " Steinitz was the first to realise that chess , despite being a complicated game , obeys some common principles . ... But as often happens the first time is just a try . ... I can 't say he was the founder of a chess theory . He was an experimenter and pointed out that chess obeys laws that should be considered . "
= = Playing strength and style = =
Statistical rating systems are unkind to Steinitz . " Warriors of the Mind " gives him a ranking of 47th , below several obscure Soviet grandmasters ; Chessmetrics places him only 15th on its all @-@ time list . Chessmetrics penalizes players who play infrequently ; opportunities for competitive chess were infrequent in Steinitz 's best years , and Steinitz had a few long absences from competitive play ( 1873 – 76 , 1876 – 82 , 1883 – 86 , 1886 – 89 ) . However , in 2005 Chessmetrics ' author , Jeff Sonas , wrote an article which examined various ways of comparing the strength of " world number one " players , using data provided by Chessmetrics , and found that : Steinitz was further ahead of his contemporaries in the 1870s than Bobby Fischer was in his peak period ( 1970 – 72 ) ; that Steinitz had the third @-@ highest total number of years as the world 's top player , behind Emanuel Lasker and Garry Kasparov ; and that Steinitz placed 7th in a comparison of how long players were ranked in the world 's top three . Between his victory over Anderssen ( 1866 ) and his loss to Emanuel Lasker ( 1894 ) , Steinitz won all his " normal " matches , sometimes by wide margins ; and his worst tournament performance in that 28 @-@ year period was third place in Paris ( 1867 ) . { } ( He also lost two handicap matches and a match by telegraph in 1890 against Mikhail Chigorin , where Chigorin was allowed to choose the openings in both games and won both . )
Initially Steinitz played in the all @-@ out attacking style of contemporaries like Anderssen , and then changed to the positional style with which he dominated competitive chess in the 1870s and 1880s . Max Euwe wrote , " Steinitz aimed at positions with clear @-@ cut features , to which his theory was best applicable . " However , he retained his capacity for brilliant attacks right to the end of his career ; for example in the 1895 Hastings tournament ( when he was 59 ) he beat von Bardeleben in a spectacular game in which in the closing stages Steinitz deliberately exposed all his pieces to attack simultaneously ( except his king , of course ) . His most significant weaknesses were his habits of playing " experimental " moves and getting into unnecessarily difficult defensive positions in top @-@ class competitive games .
= = = Personality = = =
" Traditional " accounts of Steinitz describe him as having a sharp tongue and violent temper , perhaps partly because of his short stature ( barely five feet ) and congenital lameness . He admitted that " Like the Duke of Parma , I always hold the sword in one hand and the olive branch in the other " , and under severe provocation he could become abusive in published articles . He was aware of his own tendencies and said early in his career , " Nothing would induce me to take charge of a chess column ... Because I should be so fair in dispensing blame as well as praise that I should be sure to give offence and make enemies . " When he embarked on chess journalism , his brutally frank review of Wormald 's The Chess Openings in 1875 proved him right on both counts .
However , his personal correspondence , his own articles and some third @-@ party articles show that he had long and friendly relationships with many people and groups in the chess world , including Ignác Kolisch ( one of his earliest sponsors ) , Mikhail Chigorin , Harry Nelson Pillsbury , Bernhard Horwitz , Amos Burn and the Cuban and Russian chess communities . He even co @-@ operated with the American Chess Congress in its project to regulate future contests for the world title that he had earned .
Steinitz strove to be objective in his writings about chess competitions and games , for example he attributed to sheer bad luck a poor tournament score by Henry Edward Bird , whom he considered no friend of his , and was generous in his praise of great play by even his bitter enemies . He could poke fun at some of his own rhetoric , for example " I remarked that I would rather die in America than live in England . ... I added that I would rather lose a match in America than win one in England . But after having carefully considered the subject in all its bearings , I have come to the conclusion that I neither mean to die yet nor to lose the match . " At a joint simultaneous display in Russia around the time of the 1895 – 96 Saint Petersburg tournament , Emanuel Lasker and Steinitz formed an impromptu comedy double act .
Although he had a strong sense of honour about repaying debts , Steinitz was poor at managing his finances : he let a competitor " poach " many of his clients in 1862 – 63 , offered to play the 1886 world title match against Johannes Zukertort for free , and died in poverty in 1900 , leaving his widow to survive by running a small shop .
= = Notable games = =
Wilhelm Steinitz vs Augustus Mongredien , London 1862 Awarded the brilliancy prize at the 1862 London International Tournament .
Adolf Anderssen vs Wilhelm Steinitz ; 13th match game , London 1866 Emanuel Lasker regarded this well @-@ prepared attack as a precursor of the positional approach that Steinitz later advocated .
Johannes Zukertort vs Wilhelm Steinitz , WCH ( 9th game of the match ) 1886 , Queen 's Gambit Declined : Vienna . Quiet Variation ( D37 ) , 0 – 1 Steinitz exchanges his powerful centre to create two weak hanging pawns on White 's queenside and creates strong pressure against them . Zukertort eventually tries to slug his way out of trouble , but Steinitz wins with a sharp counter @-@ attack .
Wilhelm Steinitz vs Mikhail Chigorin , Havana WCH 1892 ( 2nd game of the match ) , Ruy Lopez , 1 – 0 Steinitz weakens Chigorin 's pawns , gains superior mobility then forces a pawn promotion with the aid of a little combination .
Wilhelm Steinitz vs Mikhail Chigorin , Havana WCH 1892 ( 4th game of the match ) , Spanish Game : General ( C65 ) , 1 – 0 Positional preparation creates the opportunity for a swift attack leading to mate on the 29th move .
Wilhelm Steinitz vs Curt von Bardeleben , Hastings 1895 , Italian Game : Classical Variation . Greco Gambit Traditional Line ( C54 ) , 1 – 0 A great attacking combination in the old 1860s style . After White 's 22nd move , all the White pieces are en prise but Black is lost . The game won the first brilliancy prize of the tournament .
= = Tournament results = =
Sources :
= = Match results = =
Sources :
= Guepinia =
Guepinia is a genus of fungus in the Auriculariales order . It is a monotypic genus , containing the single species Guepinia helvelloides , commonly known as the apricot jelly . The fungus produces salmon @-@ pink , ear @-@ shaped , gelatinous fruit bodies that grow solitarily or in small tufted groups on soil , usually associated with buried rotting wood . The fruit bodies are 4 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) tall and up to 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) wide ; the stalks are not well @-@ differentiated from the cap . The fungus , although rubbery , is edible , and may be eaten raw with salads , pickled , or candied . It has a white spore deposit , and the oblong to ellipsoid spores measure 9 – 11 by 5 – 6 micrometers . The fungus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere , and has also been collected from South America .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described and illustrated as Tremella rufa by Nicolaus Joseph von Jacquin in 1778 . Elias Magnus Fries later ( 1828 ) called it Guepinia helvelloides in his Elenchus Fungorum , based on Augustin Pyramus de Candolle 's Tremella helvelloides , both being names he sanctioned . This has made Tremella rufa and all names based on it unavailable for use , as they are conserved . Later , Lucien Quélet erected a separate monotypic genus Phlogiotis for Jacquin 's species , whereas Julius Oscar Brefeld placed it ( as Gyrocephalus rufa ) in Persoon 's small genus Gyrocephalus ( rejected name for Gyromitra ) . The proper name for the fungus was debated for some time , as the name Guepinia is a homonym ( pointed out by Fries in 1828 ) , because it had been used by Toussaint Bastard in 1812 for a genus of flowering plants in the Cruciferae family . To further complicate matters , the generic name Teesdalia , originally considered to have priority over the name Guepinia for the plant genus , was later determined to have been validly published after Guepinia , rendering Teesdalia an illegitimate name . In 1982 , changes in the International Code for Botanical Nomenclature gave protected status to all names adopted by Fries in the Elenchus Fungorum , and established Guepinia as the correct genus name .
Guepinia is variously classified in the Auriculariales order , with uncertain familial position ( incertae sedis ) , or as part of the Exidiaceae family .
The genus is named after French mycologist Jean @-@ Pierre Guépin ( 1779 – 1858 ) . The mushroom is commonly known as the " red jelly fungus " , or " apricot jelly " .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of Guepinia helvelloides grow singly or in small clumps . Although they can appear to be growing in the soil , their mycelium lives in buried wood . They are 4 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) tall and 3 – 17 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) wide , spoon- or tongue @-@ shaped , and twisted like a cornet or horn so that they look like a slender funnel , cut out on one side and often with a wavy margin . The fruit bodies are flexible , 2 – 3 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 14 in ) thick , and smooth on the outer side which they are usually attenuated on the underside into a cylindrical or depressed stem that is up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) high and about 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The stem is normally covered with a white tomentum at the base . The upper side ( inside ) of the fruit body is usually quite sterile or with a few isolated basidia and is slightly verrucose as a result of the densely crowded protruding ends of the hyphae . The sterile and fertile surfaces of the fruit body are almost the same color , transparent reddish @-@ orange to flesh pink or flesh orange , at other times more purplish @-@ red . The fruit bodies usually develop a slightly brownish tinge when they are old . The underside is usually slightly more vividly colored than the upper side . The flesh is gelatinous , softly so in the upper part of the fruit body and with a more cartilage @-@ like consistency in the stem . It has a nondescript odor , and a watery , insignificant taste .
The hymenium is developed on the under ( outer ) side of the fruit body . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) consist of a globular part ( the hypobasidia ) to which inflated or elongated epibasidia are attached . In Guepinia , the hypobasidia are egg @-@ shaped to ellipsoid , measuring 12 – 16 by 9 – 12 μm , and attached to fibril @-@ like epibasidia that are 20 – 45 by 3 – 4 μm . The spore deposit is white , while the spores are 9 – 11 by 5 – 6 μm , hyaline ( translucent ) , cylindrical to elongated ellipsoid in shape , and have a large oil drop .
= = = Edibility = = =
Guepinia helvelloides is an edible , but bland , fungus . Older specimens are usually tough and indigestible . It can be used raw in salads , for pickling in vinegar and also for preserving in sugar like candied fruit . One source reports using it to prepare a wine by fermenting with wine yeast .
= = = Similar species = = =
Guepinia helvelloides has a rather unusual appearance , and is not likely to be mistaken for other fungi . However , the red chanterelle species Cantharellus cinnabarinus is superficially similar ; unlike G. helvelloides , however , it does not have a rubbery and gelatinous texture , and its undersurface is wrinkled , not smooth .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Guepinia helvelloides is saprobic , deriving nutrients by breaking down organic matter . The fruit bodies of G. helveloides typically grow solitarily or in small tufts on soil , usually in association with buried rotting wood . Although the fruit bodies sometimes appear in the spring , they are more commonly found in the summer and autumn months . In North America , it is associated with coniferous forests . It is also found throughout temperate North America , from Canada to Mexico . Europe , Iran , and Turkey . It is also known from Brazil and Puerto Rico . The fungus has also been collected from the Qinling region of China .
= German aircraft carrier I ( 1915 ) =
The aircraft carrier I was the first planned aircraft carrier conversion project of the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The Imperial Navy had experimented previously with seaplane carriers , though these earlier conversions were too slow to operate with the High Seas Fleet and carried an insufficient number of aircraft . I was intended to carry between 23 and 30 aircraft , including fighters , bombers , and torpedo @-@ bombers .
The ship was based on the incomplete hull of the Italian passenger ship Ausonia , which was being built in Hamburg . The conversion was proposed by the Air Department of the Reichs Navy Office , but it was abandoned after negotiations within the German Navy over a proposed moratorium on new ships at the end of the war . After World War I ended , high inflation in Germany added to the cost of the ship , and as a result , the Italian shipping company for whom the ship was originally built , declined to purchase her . The vessel was therefore sold to shipbreakers and dismantled in 1922 .
= = Design = =
Ausonia began her existence as a turbine @-@ powered passenger steamer , ordered by Italian Sitmar in 1914 . The ship was built in the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg , under construction number 236 . At the time , the only German seaplane carrier was the armored cruiser Friedrich Carl , which carried two planes . The leadership of the German Navy believed that zeppelins were much more effective than seaplanes , both for reconnaissance and attack . Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , the architect of the German Navy , was particularly unimpressed by the performance of fixed @-@ wing aircraft . Nevertheless , the Navy developed several naval aircraft before and during the war , including a pair of seaplane fighters , the W.12 and the W.29 , both built by Hansa @-@ Brandenburg . Twin @-@ engined torpedo @-@ floatplanes were also designed .
Regardless of the preference toward airships , several small merchant vessels were converted into seaplane carriers during World War I. They carried only two to four aircraft each , however , and were too slow to operate with the High Seas Fleet . The light cruiser Stuttgart , which was fast enough to steam with the Fleet , was converted into a seaplane carrier in 1918 . She too , though , only carried two seaplanes . It was decided to convert the liner Ausonia into a flight @-@ deck carrier for wheeled aircraft as well as floatplanes . The plan for the conversion was drawn up by Leutnant zur See Jürgen Reimpell in 1918 , an officer of the 1st Aviation Detachment .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Once converted , I was to have been 158 meters long overall and 149 @.@ 6 m long between perpendiculars . The ship had a beam of 18 @.@ 8 m and a draft of 7 @.@ 43 m , and displaced 12 @,@ 585 metric tons . The ship was powered by two sets of Blohm & Voss geared turbines that drove a pair of screws , the diameter of which is not known . The details of the boiler system and electrical power plant are unknown .
The ship was to have been equipped with two 82 m @-@ long hangar decks for wheeled aircraft and a third 128 m @-@ long hangar deck for seaplanes ; all of the hangars were 18 @.@ 5 m wide . The flight deck would have been 128 @.@ 5 m long and 18 @.@ 7 m wide . All three of the hangars and flight deck were intended to have been mounted above the main structural deck . The ship 's designers intended to mount a take off deck on the bow , which would have been 30 m long and 10 @.@ 5 m wide . According to naval historian Erich Gröner , the ship was designed to carry either 13 fixed @-@ wing or 19 folding @-@ wing seaplanes , along with around 10 wheeled aircraft . Rene Greger estimated the ship to carry eight to ten fighter aircraft and a combination of fifteen to twenty bombers and torpedo @-@ floatplanes .
= = Conversion = =
She was launched as the passenger ship Ausonia on 15 April 1915 . While the ship was still being fitted out , the German navy decided to convert her into an aircraft carrier . The proposed design was completed by 1918 , but by then , the majority of naval construction efforts were diverted to building new U @-@ boats . The demands on labor and resources the war imposed on the German economy reduced the shipbuilding industry to barely being able to cover the maintenance and repair needs of the High Seas Fleet . What resources were left over were by 1918 funneled into U @-@ boat production . As a result of the growing importance of U @-@ boat construction and a moratorium on new surface ships imposed by the Reichsmarineamt ( RMA — the Imperial Navy Office ) , the conversion project was abandoned .
The design influenced the planned conversion of the armored cruiser SMS Roon into a seaplane carrier . This plan too , however , was scrapped . In 1920 , the Italian shipping company canceled its order for Ausonia because the post @-@ war inflation in Germany substantially increased the price of the ship . As a result , she was sold to ship breakers in 1922 and broken up for scrap .
= Kit ( association football ) =
In association football , kit ( also referred to as strip or soccer uniform ) is the standard equipment and attire worn by players . The sport 's Laws of the Game specify the minimum kit which a player must use , and also prohibit the use of anything that is dangerous to either the player or another participant . Individual competitions may stipulate further restrictions , such as regulating the size of logos displayed on shirts and stating that , in the event of a match between teams with identical or similar colours , the away team must change to different coloured attire .
Footballers generally wear identifying numbers on the backs of their shirts . Originally a team of players wore numbers from 1 to 11 , corresponding roughly to their playing positions , but at the professional level this has generally been superseded by squad numbering , whereby each player in a squad is allocated a fixed number for the duration of a season . Professional clubs also usually display players ' surnames or nicknames on their shirts , above ( or , infrequently , below ) their squad numbers .
Football kit has evolved significantly since the early days of the sport when players typically wore thick cotton shirts , knickerbockers and heavy rigid leather boots . In the twentieth century , boots became lighter and softer , shorts were worn at a shorter length , and advances in clothing manufacture and printing allowed shirts to be made in lighter synthetic fibres with increasingly colourful and complex designs . With the rise of advertising in the 20th century , sponsors ' logos began to appear on shirts , and replica strips were made available for fans to purchase , generating significant amounts of revenue for clubs .
= = Equipment = =
= = = Basic equipment = = =
The Laws of the Game set out the basic equipment which must be worn by all players in Law 4 : The Players ' Equipment . Five separate items are specified : shirt ( also known as a jersey ) , shorts , socks ( also known as stockings ) , footwear and shin pads . Goalkeepers are allowed to wear tracksuit bottoms instead of shorts .
While most players wear studded football boots ( " soccer shoes " or " cleats " in U.S. English ) , the Laws do not specify that these are required . Shirts must have sleeves ( both short and long sleeves are accepted ) , and goalkeepers must wear shirts which are easily distinguishable from all other players and the match officials . Thermal undershorts may be worn , but must be the same colour as the shorts themselves . Shin pads must be covered entirely by the stockings , be made of rubber , plastic or a similar material , and " provide a reasonable degree of protection " . The only other restriction on equipment defined in the Laws of the Game is the requirement that a player " must not use equipment or wear anything that is dangerous to himself or another player " .
It is normal for individual competitions to specify that all outfield players on a team must wear the same colours , though the Law states only " The two teams must wear colours that distinguish them from each other and also the referee and the assistant referees " . In the event of a match between teams who would normally wear identical or similar colours the away team must change to a different colour . Because of this requirement a team 's second @-@ choice is often referred to as its " away kit " or " away colours " , although it is not unknown , especially at international level , for teams to opt to wear their away colours even when not required to by a clash of colours , or to wear them at home . The England national team sometimes plays in red shirts even when it is not required , as this was the strip worn when the team won the 1966 FIFA World Cup . Many professional clubs also have a " third kit " , ostensibly to be used if both their first @-@ choice and away colours are deemed too similar to those of an opponent . Most professional clubs have retained the same basic colour scheme for several decades , and the colours themselves form an integral part of a club 's culture . Teams representing countries in international competition generally wear national colours in common with other sporting teams of the same nation . These are usually based on the colours of the country 's national flag , although there are exceptions — the Italian national team , for example , wear blue as it was the colour of the House of Savoy , the Australian team like most Australian sporting teams wear the Australian National Colours of green and gold , neither of which appear on the flag , and the Dutch national team wear orange , the colour of the Dutch Royal House .
Shirts are normally made of a polyester mesh , which does not trap the sweat and body heat in the same way as a shirt made of a natural fibre . Most professional clubs have sponsors ' logos on the front of their shirts , which can generate significant levels of income , and some also offer sponsors the chance to place their logos on the back of their shirts . Depending on local rules , there may be restrictions on how large these logos may be or on what logos may be displayed . Competitions such as the Premier League may also require players to wear patches on their sleeves depicting the logo of the competition . A player 's number is usually printed on the back of the shirt , although international teams often also place numbers on the front , and professional teams generally print a player 's surname above his number . The captain of each team is usually required to wear an elasticated armband around the left sleeve to identify him as the captain to the referee and supporters .
Most current players wear specialist football boots , which can be made either of leather or a synthetic material . Modern boots are cut slightly below the ankles , as opposed to the high @-@ ankled boots used in former times , and have studs attached to the soles . Studs may be either moulded directly to the sole or be detachable , normally by means of a screw thread . Modern boots such as the Adidas Predator , originally designed by former Liverpool player Craig Johnston , feature increasingly intricate , scientifically aided designs and features such as air pockets in the soles and rubber " blades " on the sole rather than studs . The blades have been the subject of controversy as several top managers have blamed them for injuries both to opposition players and to the wearers themselves .
The Laws of the Game specify that all players , regardless of gender , must wear the same kit , however in September 2008 the Dutch women 's team FC de Rakt made international headlines by swapping its old strip for a new one featuring short skirts and tight @-@ fitting shirts . This innovation , which had been requested by the team itself , was initially vetoed by the KNVB , Dutch football 's governing body , but this decision was reversed when it was revealed that the FC de Rakt team were wearing hot pants under their skirts , and were therefore technically in compliance .
= = = Other equipment = = =
All players are permitted to wear gloves , and goalkeepers usually wear specialist goalkeeping gloves . Prior to the 1970s , gloves were rarely worn , but it is now extremely unusual to see a goalkeeper without gloves . In Portugal 's match against England in the Euro 2004 tournament , Ricardo drew much comment for deciding to remove his gloves during the penalty shoot @-@ out . Since the 1980s significant advancements have been made in the design of gloves , which now feature protectors to prevent the fingers bending backwards , segmentation to allow greater flexibility , and palms made of materials designed to protect the hand and to enhance a player 's grip . Gloves are available in a variety of different cuts , including " flat palm " , " roll finger " and " negative " , with variations in the stitching and fit . Goalkeepers sometimes also wear caps to prevent glare from the sun or floodlights affecting their performance . Players with sight problems may wear glasses as long as there is no risk of them falling off or breaking and thereby becoming dangerous . Most players affected choose to wear contact lenses , although Dutch player Edgar Davids , who is unable to wear contact lenses due to his glaucoma , is known for his distinctive wraparound goggles . Other items that may be dangerous to other players , such as jewellery , however , are not allowed . Players may also choose to wear headgear to protect themselves from head injury as long as it presents no risk to the safety of the wearer or any other player .
= = = Match officials ' kit = = =
Referees , assistant referees and fourth officials wear kits of a similar style to that worn by players ; until the 1950s it was more common for a referee to wear a blazer than a jersey . Although not specified in the Laws of the Game , it is considered a principle of football that officials wear shirts of a different colour to those worn by the two teams and their goalkeepers . Black is the traditional colour worn by officials , and " the man in black " is widely used as an informal term for a referee , although increasingly other colours are being used in the modern era to minimise colour clashes . The 1994 World Cup was the first in which FIFA allowed officials to wear colours other than black . In 1998 Premier League referee David Elleray was forced to change his black shirt for a white one midway through a match between Aston Villa and Wimbledon as it was deemed too similar to the navy blue worn by the Wimbledon players . Referees also sometimes have sponsors ' logos on their shirts , although these are normally confined to the sleeves .
= = History = =
= = = Victorian era = = =
The first written evidence of a clothing item specifically dedicated to football comes in 1526 from the Great Wardrobe of King Henry VIII of England , which included a reference to a pair of football boots . The earliest evidence of coloured shirts used to identify football teams comes from early English public school football games , for example an image of Winchester College football from before 1840 is entitled " The commoners have red and
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British clubs again resisted change and stuck resolutely to kits little different from those worn before the war , and Eastern European teams continued to wear kits that were deemed old @-@ fashioned elsewhere . The FC Dynamo Moscow team that toured Western Europe in 1945 drew almost as much comment for the players ' long baggy shorts as for the quality of their football . With the advent of international competitions such as the European Cup , the southern European style spread to the rest of the continent and by the end of the decade the heavy shirts and boots of the pre @-@ war years had fallen entirely out of use . The 1960s saw little innovation in kit design , with clubs generally opting for simple colour schemes which looked good under the newly adopted floodlights . Designs from the late 1960s and early 1970s are highly regarded by football fans .
= = = Modern era = = =
In the 1970s clubs began to create strongly individual strips , and in 1975 Leeds United , who had changed their traditional blue and gold colours to all white in the 1960s to mimic Real Madrid , became the first club to design shirts which could be sold to fans in the form of replicas . Driven by commercial concerns , other clubs soon followed suit , adding manufacturers ' logos and a higher level of trim . In 1973 , German team Eintracht Braunschweig signed a deal with local alcohol producer Jägermeister to display its logo on the front of their shirts . Soon almost all major clubs had signed such deals , and the cost to companies who sponsor large teams has increased dramatically . In 2008 German club FC Bayern Munich received € 25 million in sponsorship money from Deutsche Telekom . However Spanish clubs FC Barcelona and Athletic Bilbao refused to allow sponsors ' logos to appear on their shirts as recently as 2005 . Until 2011 Barcelona refused paying sponsors in favour of wearing the UNICEF logo on their shirts while donating € 1 @.@ 5 million to the charity per year . Players also began to sign sponsorship deals with individual companies . In 1974 Johan Cruijff refused to wear the Dutch national team 's strip as its Adidas branding conflicted with his own individual contract with Puma , and was permitted to wear a version without the Adidas branding . Puma had also paid Pelé $ 120 @,@ 000 to wear their boots and specifically requested that he bend down and tie his laces at the start of the 1970 FIFA World Cup final , ensuring a close @-@ up of the boots for a worldwide television audience .
In the 1980s manufacturers such as Hummel and Adidas began to design shirts with increasingly intricate designs , as new technology led to the introduction of such design elements as shadow prints and pinstripes . Hummel 's distinctive halved strip designed for the Danish national team for the 1986 FIFA World Cup caused a stir in the media but FIFA worried about moiré artefacts in television pictures . Shorts became shorter than ever during the 1970s and 1980s , and often included the player 's number on the front . In the 1991 FA Cup Final Tottenham Hotspur 's players lined up in long baggy shorts . Although , the new look was derided , clubs in Britain and elsewhere had within a short time adopted the longer shorts . In the 1990s shirt designs became increasingly complex , with many teams sporting extremely gaudy colour schemes . Design decisions were increasingly driven by the need for the shirt to look good when worn by fans as a fashion item , but many designs from this era have since come to be regarded as amongst the worst of all time . In 1996 , Manchester United notoriously introduced a grey strip which had been specifically designed to look good when worn with jeans , but abandoned it halfway through a match after manager Alex Ferguson claimed that the reason why his team was losing 3 – 0 was that the players could not see each other on the pitch . United switched to different colours for the second half and scored one goal without reply . The leading leagues also introduced squad numbers , whereby each player is allocated a specific number for the duration of a season . A brief fad arose for players celebrating goals by lifting or completely removing their shirts to reveal political , religious or personal slogans printed on undershirts . This led to a ruling from the International Football Association Board in 2002 that undershirts must not contain slogans or logos ; since 2004 it has been a bookable offence for players to remove their shirts .
The market for replica shirts has grown enormously , with the revenue generated for leading clubs and the frequency with which they change designs coming under increased scrutiny , especially in the United Kingdom , where the market for replicas is worth in excess of £ 200m . Several clubs have been accused of price fixing , and in 2003 Manchester United were fined £ 1.65m by the Office of Fair Trading . The high prices charged for replicas have also led to many fans buying fake shirts which are imported from countries such as Thailand and Malaysia . Nonetheless , the chance for fans to purchase a shirt bearing the name and number of a star player can lead to significant revenue for a club . In the first six months after David Beckham 's transfer to Real Madrid the club sold more than one million shirts bearing his name . A market has also developed for shirts worn by players during significant matches , which are sold as collector 's items . The shirt worn by Pelé in the 1970 FIFA World Cup Final sold at auction for over £ 150 @,@ 000 in 2002 .
A number of advances in kit design have taken place since 2000 , with varying degrees of success . In 2002 the Cameroon national team competed in the African Cup of Nations in Mali wearing shirts with no sleeves , but FIFA later ruled that such garments were not considered to be shirts and therefore were not permitted under the Laws of the Game . Manufacturers Puma AG initially added " invisible " black sleeves to comply with the ruling , but later supplied the team with new one @-@ piece singlet @-@ style tops . FIFA ordered the team not to wear the tops but the ruling was disregarded , with the result that the Cameroon team was docked six points in its qualifying campaign for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , a decision later reversed after an appeal . More successful were the skin @-@ tight shirts designed for the Italian national team by manufacturers Kappa , a style subsequently emulated by other national teams and club sides .
A brief fashion for men wearing snood @-@ scarf neckwarmers ended in 2011 when the IFAB banned them as potentially dangerous . A ban on women wearing the hijab was introduced by the IFAB in 2007 , but lifted in 2012 after pressure from Prince Ali of Jordan . In keeping with French views , the French Football Federation said it would maintain its ban .
= USS West Avenal ( ID @-@ 3871 ) =
USS West Avenal ( ID @-@ 3871 ) was a cargo ship in the United States Navy during World War I. She had been built as SS West Avenal for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) as part of the West boats , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States . West Avenal was launched in October 1918 by the Western Pipe and Steel Company of San Francisco , California , and delivered to the US Navy when she was completed in February 1919 . After she was commissioned and had taken on a load of flour , West Avenal sailed to Norfolk , Virginia , where she was decommissioned in early April .
Though little is available regarding West Avenal 's civilian career , she is known from contemporary news account to have visited ports in Spain , Italy , France , Brazil and Uruguay in the early 1920s . In January 1920 , West Avenal was rammed by a British cargo ship in New York Harbor and was grounded to prevent her sinking . By late 1928 , West Avenal had been abandoned by the USSB , and was scrapped in August 1929 .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Avenal , one of some 15 West ships built by the Western Pipe and Steel Company of San Francisco , California .
West Avenal ( Western Pipe and Steel No. 3 ) was launched on 13 October 1918 , and delivered to the Navy upon completion on 1 February 1919 . The ship was 5 @,@ 692 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 410 feet 5 inches ( 125 @.@ 10 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet ( 16 @.@ 5 m ) abeam . West Avenal had a steel hull and a 29 @-@ foot @-@ 9 @-@ inch ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) deep hold . She displaced 12 @,@ 200 t , and had a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 735 DWT .
In common with the first eight ships built by Western Pipe & Steel , West Avenal was powered by a single General Electric steam turbine rated at 2 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower , that drove a single screw propeller , and moved the ship at a 10 @.@ 5 kn ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ; 12 @.@ 1 mph ) pace . These General Electric turbines proved unreliable and most of the ships powered by them were either lost or scrapped by the end of the 1920s . Later vessels of the same type built by WPS for the USSB were powered by much more reliable Joshua Hendy triple expansion steam engines , and had considerably longer service lives .
= = Career = =
USS West Avenal ( ID @-@ 3871 ) was commissioned into the Navy on 1 February with Lieutenant Commander Franz Patterson , USNRF , in command . West Avenal took on an initial load of flour and departed San Francisco on 17 April for New York . She soon developed a steering gear problem and put in at San Diego for repairs . After getting underway again , she transited the Panama Canal and , cutting short her journey , arrived at Norfolk , Virginia , on 4 April . There she was decommissioned the next day and returned to the USSB .
West Avenal departed Norfolk on a voyage to Leith , Scotland on 9 April 1919 , but was forced to return to port after suffering an engine breakdown . Following repairs , she made several voyages between the East Coast of the United States and various destinations in South America , Spain , France and England . A few mentions of the ship crop up in contemporary news accounts . In August 1919 , for example , The New York Times shows West Avenal slated for departure to Buenos Aires , Argentina , on 12 August . The following January , the newspaper reported that West Avenal was rammed by the British Leyland Line cargo ship Lacastrian . Departing New York in a dense fog on the morning of 9 January 1920 for Antwerp , Lacastrian rammed into the port side of West Avenal , which was inbound with a load of onions from Valencia , Spain . The damage was severe enough that West Avenal 's captain ordered her grounded to avoid sinking in New York Harbor . More than two weeks later , The Washington Post printed a photograph of West Avenal , still grounded off the Red Hook flats . Another report in the Times a year later showed her arrival in Saint @-@ Nazaire , France , on 13 August 1920 .
In January 1921 , The Atlanta Constitution ran a travelogue of a local man who had sailed on West Avenal to South America in August 1919 . During his travels , West Avenal had departed the US on 27 August and called at Saint Thomas , U.S. Virgin Islands ; Rio de Janeiro ( where the ship arrived on 24 September ) Santos in Brazil ; and Montevideo , Uruguay . Another report in The New York Times the following year listed West Avenal 's arrival in Genoa , Italy , on 19 January 1921 .
West Avenal underwent further repairs in 1921 , after which she was laid up by the USSB in the Staten Island Reserve Fleet 3 Section 1 . The vessel was delivered at New York to the Union Shipbuilding Company of Baltimore , Maryland for scrapping on 29 August 1929 .
= A Ballads =
A Ballads ( stylized as BALLADS ) is the second greatest hits compilation by Japanese recording artist Ayumi Hamasaki . It was released physically on March 12 , 2003 through Avex Trax , and digitally distributed worldwide on September 14 , 2006 by Avex Entertainment Inc . It is her first compilation release in two years since A Best ; it premiered three months after her sixth studio album Rainbow . The compilation compiles ballad @-@ inspired singles released by Hamasaki between 1998 and 2003 , whilst the material is divided into new @-@ arrangement remixes and the original versions . With all the tracks written by Hamasaki , it includes two new songs — " Rainbow " , which served as the album 's promotional single , and a cover version of Japanese singer Yumi Matsutoya 's 1975 track " Sotsugyō Shashin " .
Released in six formats featuring a photograph by JFKK , A Ballads received favorable reviews from music critics . Many praised the collection for including some of Hamasaki 's best vocal work , and commended the songwriting . Minor criticism was aimed on the newer renditions of the original songs . Commercially , the album was a success in Japan , reaching number one on the Oricon Albums Chart , making it Hamasaki 's second compilation and eighth album to reach the top spot . It was certified Million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of one million units . The album experienced limited promotion during its release , with some of the tracks appearing during Japanese commercial endorsements .
= = Background and material = =
In December 2002 , Hamasaki released her sixth studio album Rainbow . Early issues of the album included a code number and URL address that allowed customers to visit an exclusive website that promoted the album and listen to a 40 @-@ second demo of her unfinished song " Rainbow " . During its promotion , Avex Trax and Hamasaki received over 100 @,@ 000 messages from fans , telling them their opinions about the unfinished demo . Due to the mixed response of her fanbase , Hamasaki decided to develop the song further and release it as part of an upcoming compilation album , which was later named A Ballads . During the process , Hamasaki confessed that " [ she ] had never before written lyrics that were based on messages received directly from [ her ] fans . It was with " Rainbow " that [ she ] decided to give this approach a try " .
A Ballads is Hamasaki 's first compilation to compile songs that were inspired by ballad music , with it portraying her second greatest hits album after A Best ( 2001 ) . Each track from the album was released either as a single or as a promotional recording , recorded between the years 1998 and 2003 . Six of the tracks on the album were composed and co @-@ produced by Hamasaki , who used the alias Crea . The album consists of fifteen tracks , including two new recordings — " Rainbow " and a cover version of Japanese singer Yumi Matsutoya 's 1975 track " Sotsugyō Shashin " . Seven of the album 's tracks — " Appears " , " You " , " To Be " , " M " , " Seasons " , " A Song for × × " and " Who ... " — feature new arrangements and compositions , whilst the songs " Key " , " Hanabi " , " Dearest " and " Voyage " are included with their original versions .
= = Songs = =
To explain Hamasaki 's the background and development , Hamasaki hosted a commentary on her website . The first song , " Rainbow " , was originally composed by CMJK , but Hamasaki felt the finishing product was " missing something " , and re @-@ worked the demo version with Japanese musician Dai Nagao . According to Hamasaki , she wanted to reflect the emotion and words used in each 100 @,@ 000 messages she received from her fans to create the song , but because there were numerous emails , she decided to write it as a summary and her feelings as an " aftermath " from reading the messages . The song was described by a staff member at CD Journal as an " organic midtempo pop ballad " song . " Appears " was remixed by Japanese group HΛL . According to Hamasaki , she had asked the group to re @-@ compose their original version of the track in order to reflect " current [ musical ] themes of 2003 . "
The album included the original version of " Key ( Eternal Tie ) " as Hamasaki felt that the original was " more important and unknown " than the proposed @-@ reworked version she had planned . " You ( Northern Breeze ) " was one of the last reworked tracks , and was described by Hamasaki as being influenced by Western music . " To Be ( 2003 ReBirth Mix ) " was not re @-@ worked or re @-@ arranged by any of the album 's collaborators , with it being purely remastered and mixed again by music engineer Koji Morimoto . " Hanabi " was one of the album 's only tracks to appear in its original version , and has been described by a CD Journal staff member to have been inspired by Europop , trip hop , and dub music . " Dolls " , a J @-@ pop influenced pop ballad , remained the sophomore original track to make part of the record .
Like " To Be " , the next track " Seasons " was remastered and mixed by Morimoto . The final original track , " Voyage " , was described by CD Journal as a midtempo ballad influenced by gospel music , layered with several string arrangements and other instrumentation . " A Song for × × " was re @-@ worked as a live demo , recorded at the Avex Trax studios in Japan . For the promotional track " Who ... " , Hamasaki asked CMJK to create a more " warmer " version than the original . The closing track for A Ballads was " Sotsugyō Shashin " . According to Hamasaki , she had imagined recording a cover for a studio album , but was unsuccessful at doing so . To compose the track , she and the songs co @-@ composer Tasuku composed it by using a Fender Rhodes Suitcase Mk I electric piano in order to reflect the songs original 1960s – 1970s pop influence .
= = Release = =
A Ballads was released physically on March 12 , 2003 through Avex Trax in five formats , and digitally distributed worldwide on September 14 , 2006 by Avex Entertainment Inc . The first five formats were compact discs ; each one of the four early editions included a slipcase sleeve that had two clones of Hamasaki asleep next to each other , with the inner booklet portraying four different photographs of the clones . The four alternative covers were different variations of the two Hamasaki figures in a pink @-@ coloured room . The fifth format came without a slipcase , and had the slipcase image as the inner booklet cover . The digital release featured the slipcase cover and the entire photo shoot was photographed by JFKK .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , A Ballads received favorable reviews from most music critics . Tetsuo Hiraga from Hot Express believed that the album 's material was able to connect with both younger and older audiences . He also pointed out the " Royal @-@ esque " tracks " Seasons " and " Dearests " as some of her best recordings . An editorial review on HMV singled out A Ballads as one of the best ballad albums in recent history ; the review labelled it a " classic " , and commended Hamasaki 's vocal abilities , her songwriting and her vulnerability . In a similar review , a staff member of CD Journal enjoyed the album and complimented it 's new additions to the album .
Commercially , the album was successful in Japan , with it debuting at number one on the Oricon Albums Chart and replacing 200 Km / h in the Wrong Lane ( 2002 ) by Russian female duo t.A.T.u. at the top spot . Hamasaki 's entry sold 561 @,@ 127 units in comparison to t.A.T.u. ' s 167 @,@ 627 unit sales . By the end of 2003 , A Ballads was ranked at number eight as the best selling album in Japan of that year . It sold 917 @,@ 555 units , and was also her second album to enter the top ten , just behind Rainbow which sold 1 @,@ 856 @,@ 919 units . As of July 2016 , it has sold over 924 @,@ 242 units , her first greatest hits album to not sell over the one million mark . Nevertheless , it was certified Million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipments of one million units . It is Hamasaki 's ninth best selling album based on Oricon 's sale database .
= = Promotion = =
The album experienced limited promotion during its release , with some of the tracks appearing during Japanese commercial endorsements . The compilation 's only release was promotional song " Rainbow " , which was used as the theme song for Hamasaki 's Japanese talk show Ayuready ? , and to promote products by Lumix . An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Wataru Takeishi , featuring two clones of Hamasaki chasing each other , and eventually meeting at a dinner in Japan . Near the end of the video , it is revealed that the second clone is in fact her imagination or conscious .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Ayumi Hamasaki with the exception of Yumi Matsutoya 's contribution on track 14 ..
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Russell Howarth =
Russell Michael Howarth ( born 27 March 1982 ) is an English former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper .
Howarth started his career in the youth system of hometown club York City in 1996 while a schoolboy , before becoming a trainee in 1998 . He made his first team debut at the age of 17 , playing in the first six games of the 1999 – 2000 season . During this run in the team he signed a professional contract with the club . However , he was unable to play regularly for York because of the form of Bobby Mimms and Alan Fettis . After having trials with Premier League and First Division clubs , Howarth left York in November 2002 to sign for Tranmere Rovers for a five @-@ figure fee . Here , he again played sporadically , only having runs in the team when first @-@ choice goalkeeper John Achterberg was unavailable . After being released by Tranmere in 2005 , Howarth signed for Bradford City . However , he was unable to dislodge Donovan Ricketts in goal and was released in 2007 . He immediately retired from football and started working as a paramedic .
While at York , Howarth played for England at a number of youth levels . He was capped twice at under @-@ 16 level in 1999 , while still a trainee at York . He tussled with Chelsea 's Rhys Evans for a starting place in the under @-@ 18 side , playing for them in 2001 UEFA European Under @-@ 19 Football Championship qualifying . After making four under @-@ 18 appearances from 2000 to 2001 , he progressed to the under @-@ 20 side , competing with Evans , Stephen Bywater and Boaz Myhill for a place in the side . He was capped four times for the side from 2001 to 2002 before being given a late call @-@ up to the under @-@ 21 squad for the 2002 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship . Following his move to Tranmere he was still included in under @-@ 21 squads , but failed to be capped at that level .
= = Early life = =
Howarth was born in York , North Yorkshire to Michael and Lyn Howarth ( née Hammond ) . He was baptised in Riccall , North Yorkshire . He attended Barlby High School . As a youth he played as a goalkeeper for Olympia Station FC , before representing York and District Schools at the age of 12 . In one season however he played as a left @-@ sided midfielder and scored 29 goals . He soon returned to playing in goal and impressed Huntington School teacher Alan Whitehead , a former York City player , who was running the York and District team .
= = Club career = =
= = = York City = = =
Howarth started his career with hometown club York City in their youth system , joining in 1996 on schoolboy terms . In the summer of 1998 he signed a three @-@ year academy scholarship at York and became a first @-@ year trainee . During May 1999 he played for York in the Candia @-@ 66 International Under @-@ 20s Tournament , a youth tournament hosted in Europe . York won the tournament after defeating Trenkvin Slowakigie in the final ; Howarth saved two penalty kicks in the 4 – 2 penalty shoot @-@ out victory . At the age of 17 he made his first team debut for Third Division York in a 1 – 0 victory at home to Swansea City in the opening game of the 1999 – 2000 season on 7 August . He started the season as York 's first @-@ choice first team goalkeeper ahead of the experienced Bobby Mimms , keeping clean sheets in the first three games of the campaign . On 26 August , two days after making his fifth successive appearance , Howarth signed a three @-@ year professional contract with York . However , after conceding 11 goals in three games , and having played in York 's first six games of the season , manager Neil Thompson dropped him in favour of the more experienced Mimms . York 's management team insisted Howarth 's exclusion was intended to safeguard the player , and was not based on merit . His next appearance came as a 72nd @-@ minute substitute in York 's 2 – 0 defeat away at Plymouth Argyle on 19 February 2000 following an injury to Mimms . Howarth was favoured over Mimms for the following game , a 0 – 0 draw at home to Exeter City on 26 February , in which he gave a " solid showing " . However , following the signing of Northern Ireland international Alan Fettis , Howarth was once again restricted to the York bench . His first season in senior football finished with eight appearances .
In May Howarth played for Premier League club Leeds United in a seven @-@ a @-@ side tournament in Singapore , because their own goalkeepers were unavailable . He also represented York in the Candia @-@ 66 International Under @-@ 20s Tournament for a second successive summer , although he only played one game as he was being rested after playing for Leeds . His first appearance of the 2000 – 01 season came in York 's 5 – 1 defeat at home to Stoke City in the League Cup first round first leg . During the match he fumbled a Graham Fenton cross , and Stoke were able to open the scoring from the error . He garnered praise from York 's part @-@ time goalkeeping coach and former Everton player Neville Southall , who Howarth held as a boyhood hero , by saying " Russ can be as good as he wants to be . He works hard and has a great attitude when a lot of youngsters today at big clubs don 't have such a good attitude . He will succeed . Even if it is in three , five or even ten years , he will succeed . " With Fettis being rested Howarth made his second appearance of the season on 9 January 2001 , starting in a 4 – 0 defeat at home to Darlington in the Football League Trophy Northern Section first round . Despite conceding four goals he was the only player to escape criticism from manager Terry Dolan , who said " He was let down by everyone else around him . He had no protection whatsoever . His kicking was excellent and he did everything else he had to do without a problem . " Due to the good form of Fettis , Howarth finished the season with only two appearances .
Howarth made his first appearance of the 2001 – 02 season in the 2 – 0 defeat away at Notts County on 16 October in the Football League Trophy Northern Section first round . Having made a number of fine saves he was named man of the match and Dolan remarked that " he is playing as well as I have seen him and he is putting real pressure on Alan Fettis . " Despite not featuring regularly for York he spent four days on trial with Premier League outfit Sunderland , training with the side for three days and playing 45 minutes of a practice match against Huddersfield Town . Howarth then spent a brief period on trial with Wolverhampton Wanderers of the First Division in January 2002 . He played in a reserve team game against Huddersfield and reportedly impressed manager Dave Jones . Howarth made his first league appearance for York in over two years as a substitute for an injured Fettis in the 65th minute of a 3 – 0 home win over Bristol Rovers on 17 April . Two days later he was offered a new contract by York . With Fettis still injured for the following game , Howarth was selected to start for the first time since February 2000 in the 1 – 0 defeat away at Scunthorpe United , York 's final game of the season . He finished the season with three appearances .
Larger clubs became interested in buying him during the summer and he decided to consider his options before deciding on his future . He trialled with Everton in May 2002 , and played in a friendly against Falkirk in the Alex Scott Memorial Trophy , in which he kept a clean sheet . He later revealed he was interested in a move to Everton and due to Fettis ' good form for York he decided to pursue a move from the club . After his York contract expired on 30 June Howarth joined Wolves for a second trial in July for a two @-@ week period . After playing in Wolves ' opening pre @-@ season friendly against Morecambe he was invited to join them for their pre @-@ season tour of Portugal . Despite being out of contract at York the club was entitled a fee as he was under 24 years of age , but a bid of £ 60 @,@ 000 from Wolves was rejected . He was recalled by York to take part in a pre @-@ season friendly against Sunderland , although he refused to participate . Howarth told Dolan he did not want to play for the club as any potential injury could have ended his proposed transfer to Wolves . His proposed move to Wolves continued until August and late that month he trained with Premier League side Tottenham Hotspur . He played in a practice match for Tottenham , but after they failed to follow up their interest in him Wolves made a bid to sign him on loan , which York again rejected . After Marlon Beresford left York and Howarth 's proposed moves elsewhere fell through he re @-@ signed for the club on a week @-@ to @-@ week contract . Despite this , he spent two days on trial with Premier League side Newcastle United in late September . Howarth 's first appearance of the 2002 – 03 season came in a 4 – 3 defeat to Lincoln City on 22 October in the Football League Trophy Northern Section first round after Fettis was rested due to injury .
= = = Tranmere Rovers = = =
Howarth eventually completed a move away from York , signing for Second Division club Tranmere Rovers for an undisclosed five @-@ figure fee on 5 November . York chairman John Batchelor later revealed the transfer fee was an initial figure of £ 25 @,@ 000 . After signing Howarth said , " I felt I had gone a little bit stale at York and the time was right to move on " . He made his debut for Tranmere three weeks later in the 2 – 1 defeat away at Cardiff City in an FA Cup first round replay on 26 November , entering play as a 72nd @-@ minute substitute after John Achterberg was sent off . Tranmere did not concede a goal during Howarth 's 18 minutes on the pitch and his performance was positive , as he looked " cool and composed between the sticks " . However , with Achterberg established in the Tranmere goal Howarth had to wait until 4 February 2003 to make his league debut against Cheltenham Town , coming on as a substitute in the 57th minute after Achterberg sustained an injury . He conceded two goals in 33 minutes on the pitch on as Tranmere went on to lose the game 3 – 1 . Howarth returned to the substitutes ' bench for the following game against Swindon Town on 8 February as Achterberg had recovered from his injury . His first start in a Tranmere shirt came over two months later in a 0 – 0 draw away at Luton Town on 5 April after Achterberg picked up an injury in training the previous day . He kept his starting place for the following match , a 1 – 0 victory at home to Wycombe Wanderers on 12 April . Despite keeping clean sheets in both of these games , he was dropped for the next game against Notts County on 19 April .
Howarth continued to be kept out of the side in the 2003 – 04 season and only made his first appearance after Achterberg was injured during the warm @-@ up against Swindon on 3 March 2004 . Tranmere lost the game 2 – 0 although his performance was positive , making a number of good saves . However , Achterberg was declared fit for the following game against Millwall on 7 April and Howarth returned to the bench . He did not play another game for Tranmere that season . Howarth 's first appearance of the 2004 – 05 season came as a 20th @-@ minute substitute after Achterberg was injured away at Hull City on 18 December . After conceding a goal scored by Ian Ashbee in the 34th minute , Howarth was then also injured in a challenge with Stuart Elliott , and was substituted at half @-@ time . He was available for Tranmere 's next game against Barnsley on 26 December , and with Achterberg ruled out for the Christmas period with a knee injury he started in a 1 – 1 draw . This meant Howarth had a run of nine consecutive games in goal for Tranmere , with an appearance against Oldham Athletic in the Football League Trophy Northern semi @-@ final on 25 January 2005 being his last before Achterberg made a return against Luton on 29 January . He failed to play for the side again that season , and was released by Tranmere on 24 May .
= = = Bradford City = = =
On 8 June 2005 , Howarth signed a two @-@ year contract with League One club Bradford City . He was signed to provide competition for Donovan Ricketts ; manager Colin Todd said " It was a position we needed filling badly . I am delighted to have got a keeper of Russell 's calibre " . Despite being given a chance to affirm himself in pre @-@ season with Ricketts away on international duty , it was Ricketts who started the 2005 – 06 season as first @-@ choice goalkeeper . Howarth made his debut in Bradford 's fourth game of the season away at Rotherham United on 20 August , coming on as a 27th @-@ minute substitute after Ricketts was injured . The match finished in a 1 – 1 draw . He made his first start in the subsequent 5 – 0 victory over League Two side Rochdale in the League Cup first round on 23 August . These were the first two appearances of a 12 @-@ game run in the team , before being dropped after nearly two months when Ricketts returned from injury against Port Vale on 15 October . His last two appearances for Bradford that season , which came when Ricketts was suspended , were a 5 – 3 defeat at home to Barnsley in an FA Cup second round replay and a 2 – 1 defeat at home to Rotherham on 17 December . Howarth finished his first campaign at Bradford with a career @-@ record 15 appearances .
After starting the 2006 – 07 season again as second @-@ choice to Ricketts , he revealed his desire for a loan away from Bradford for first team football , saying " It is approaching make or break in terms of my career . I need to start playing regularly again as soon as possible " . Former club York , by this time playing in the Conference National , made a failed bid to sign him on loan in September 2006 . Howarth 's first and only appearance of the season , a 2 – 1 defeat at home to Scunthorpe in the Football League Trophy Northern Section first round on 17 October , proved to be the last game of his career . He was released by Bradford on 9 May 2007 and subsequently retired from professional football at the age of 25 .
= = International career = =
= = = England under @-@ 16 = = =
Howarth received his first international call @-@ up when he was included in the England national under @-@ 16 team to play Turkey on 12 January 1999 . He was the only player with a club from below the top two divisions to have been selected . He made his debut in the match as a 70th minute substitute for Chelsea 's Rhys Evans , with England winning 2 – 0 . His second cap and first start for the side came two months later in a 1 – 0 victory at home to Turkey on 30 March . Following the game , Sky Sports commentator Brian Marwood described his performance as " outstanding " .
= = = England under @-@ 18 = = =
Howarth 's next international call @-@ up came over a year later when selected for the under @-@ 18s for a game against Luxembourg on 27 April 2000 , this time being one of two players with clubs below the top two divisions . He debuted for the side after coming on as a 60th @-@ minute substitute for Evans in this game , in a 2 – 0 victory for England . Howarth was then called up for a friendly with Israel on 1 September , although he did not feature in the game as Evans was chosen to start . In September he was named in the team that would participate in a 2001 UEFA European Under @-@ 18 Football Championship qualifying mini @-@ tournament hosted in Ancona , Italy . He failed to appear in the first game against Andorra on 7 October , but made his first start for the under @-@ 18s in the next game , a 5 – 0 victory over the Faroe Islands on 9 October . Howarth was excluded from the line @-@ up for the final game against Italy , which England won to progress to the intermediate qualifying round .
Howarth was called up for a friendly against Belgium at Bradford City 's Valley Parade on 16 November , in which he started as England won 3 – 2 , despite Evans having seemingly established himself as the number one goalkeeper for the under @-@ 18s . He was then included in the squad for another friendly against the Netherlands on 1 March 2001 , although Evans was eventually chosen to play ahead of Howarth . He was called into the squads to play Poland in the intermediate qualifying round , although he failed to play a part in either leg of the tie , as Evans started in both the 1 – 0 loss at White Hart Lane on 22 March and the 0 – 0 away draw on 26 April . With Evans omitted from the squad to play Switzerland at FC Grenchen 's Stadion Brühl in a friendly on 30 May , Howarth started in a 1 – 0 defeat . The match , in which he was substituted for Boaz Myhill of Aston Villa , proved to be his final appearance for the under @-@ 18s .
= = = England under @-@ 20 = = =
Howarth was ineligible to play for the under @-@ 19 team due to an alteration to the England set @-@ up , and was subsequently called up for the under @-@ 20 game against Portugal at St Mary 's Stadium on 21 November . The game was England 's first at under @-@ 20 level since the 1999 FIFA World Youth Championship . He started the game and was substituted for Myhill after half @-@ time , with the side winning the game 1 – 0 . Howarth came on for England as a half @-@ time substitute for Evans in a 3 – 0 victory over Finland in their penultimate friendly ahead of the 2002 Toulon Tournament . A call @-@ up came for the final friendly away at Portugal on 10 April , and he again entered as a half @-@ time substitute , this time for Myhill .
After originally being left out the squad , he was given a last minute call @-@ up to play at the Toulon Tournament in May , after Stephen Bywater was called up for the under @-@ 21 team . Howarth did not play in the first group game against Poland on 10 May as Bywater started , but in the second game against Portugal he was chosen ahead of Evans in a 1 – 0 victory over Portugal on 12 May . However , he was dropped for the final group game against Brazil on 14 May to make way for Evans , who also played in England 's final game in the tournament against Japan on 17 May .
= = = England under @-@ 21 = = =
Shortly after the under @-@ 20s ' exit from the Toulon Tournament , Howarth was called up for the under @-@ 21 side playing in the 2002 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship after Bywater and Evans picked up injuries . He was on the bench for England 's final two group games against Italy and Portugal , and after losing both of these games the team was eliminated . Following the tournament he was re @-@ called by the under @-@ 21s for a game against Yugoslavia on 6 September , although Liverpool 's Chris Kirkland started . He was then included in the squad for the under @-@ 21s ' next game against Slovakia on 11 October in qualification Group 7 of the 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship and , despite Kirkland being injured , he failed to play as Wolves ' Matt Murray was selected . For the following qualifier against Macedonia on 15 October Howarth failed to make the bench . Following his move to Tranmere his international call @-@ ups continued , and he was selected for a get @-@ together of the under @-@ 21s in November , ahead of their 2004 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Football Championship qualifiers against Portugal and Turkey in March and April 2003 . However , he did not play in either game , with Bywater and Murray starting . He was given a late call @-@ up to the squad for qualifiers against Macedonia and Portugal in September , but did not eventually meet up with the team as an agreement was reached that he would only be on standby for the games .
= = Post @-@ football = =
Following his retirement from football , Howarth became a paramedic . He became a coach for City Football Development in August 2009 , which was set up to offer coaching to youngsters in York .
= = Personal life = =
Howarth has been an Everton supporter since the early 1990s . His girlfriend Victoria worked as a deputy head teacher and while Howarth was a Tranmere player the couple lived on the Wirral . Their daughter , Georgia May , was born in late 2004 . After signing for Bradford in 2005 , Howarth briefly lived with his parents in Riccall before purchasing a second home in Halifax , West Yorkshire to live in with his partner .
= = Career statistics = =
= A Man Will Rise =
A Man Will Rise ( originally known as Local Hero ) is an uncompleted comedy western film directed by Tony Jaa and Vitidnan Rojanapanich , and starring Jaa , Dolph Lundgren , Conan Stevens , and Byron Gibson . Set in 1950s Thailand , the film follows a local gangster who terrorizes a town . When a young man opposes him , the gangster hires a group of foreign hit men to kill the rebel and silence the town .
In January 2013 , Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme was rumored to be co @-@ starring alongside Jaa ; in reality , he was never available due to scheduling issues , and as a result , Lundgren was cast as an alternative . The film entered production in April 2013 , but came to an abrupt halt after three months of filming . Sahamongkol Film International filed a $ 49 – 50 million lawsuit against Jaa , Universal Pictures , and United International Pictures , claiming Jaa was in breach of his contract by accepting a role in Fast and Furious 7 . After two years of legal proceedings , Sahamongkol dropped the lawsuit in July 2015 . Despite this , production of A Man Will Rise has not continued , and the film remains uncompleted .
= = Background = =
News of the film first emerged under the working title of Local Hero in January 2013 . Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme was rumored to be co @-@ starring alongside Jaa , but he could not commit due to scheduling issues ; he was filming Swelter at the time . Dolph Lundgren was cast as an alternative .
Filming began in April 2013 ; Jaa was announced as co @-@ director the same month . After three months of filming , production came to an abrupt halt with only 20 % of the film complete . Sahamongkol Film International filed a $ 49 – 50 million lawsuit against Jaa , Universal Pictures , and United International Pictures in September 2013 , claiming that Jaa was in breach of his contract by accepting the role of Kiet in Fast and Furious 7 . Sahamongkol based their sum on the cost of launching Jaa 's career and loss of future earnings , plus an additional 7 @.@ 5 % interest . They attempted to halt the release of Fast and Furious 7 in Thailand , and on March 27 , 2015 , a civil court approved , blocking release the film until a settlement had been reached by both parties . The court came to its decision after interviewing two employees of Sahamongkol : Akarapol Karasaranee , the son of the company 's president , Somsak Techaratanaprasert ; and Suwat Apaipak , a member of Sahamongkol 's legal team . In response to the allegations , Jaa stated that his contract with Sahamongkol had ended . He claimed that it was terminated through his lawyer in 2013 , describing it as " business slavery " due to its allegedly overrestrictive terms and conditions . Sahamongkol claimed that the contract had been renewed for another ten years , through 2023 . In the suit , Sahamangkol also requested that Jaa pay back his salary for A Man Will Rise , reportedly ฿ 26 million ( $ 722 @,@ 000 ) . The legal matters surrounding the lawsuit have prevented the completion of the film , and although the lawsuit was dropped in July 2015 , the film remains unfinished . There are currently no plans to complete the film .
= = Cast ( preliminary ) = =
Tony Jaa as Unknown
Dolph Lundgren as Cowboy Hitman
Conan Stevens as Cowboy Hitman
David Islamone as Cowboy Hitman
Byron Gibson as Diego
Damian Mavis as Cowboy Gangster
Russell Geoffrey Banks as Cowboy Gangster
Manel Soler as Cowboy Gangster
Jakkrit Kanokpodjananon as Unknown
Leigh Barwell as Mexican Prostitute
Alexandra Merle as Mexican Prostitute
= California State Route 57 =
State Route 57 ( SR 57 ) , also known as the Orange Freeway for most of its length , is a north – south state highway in the Greater Los Angeles Area of California . It connects the interchange of Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) and SR 22 near downtown Orange , locally known as the Orange Crush , to the Glendora Curve interchange with I @-@ 210 and SR 210 in Glendora . The highway provides a route across several spurs of the Peninsular Ranges , linking the Los Angeles Basin with the Pomona Valley and San Gabriel Valley .
A predecessor to this road ran through Brea Canyon by the early 20th century and was added to the state highway system . The freeway was built in stages during the 1950s , one of which included the Brea Canyon Freeway ; SR 57 was designated as part of the 1964 state highway renumbering . The final portion of the present @-@ day Orange Freeway was not completed until the mid 1970s . The latest piece of SR 57 to be added was formerly part of I @-@ 210 , after SR 210 was legislatively extended to San Bernardino in 1998 . An unconstructed extension from Santa Ana south to Huntington Beach remains in the legal definition of SR 57 , and has been studied as a toll road above the Santa Ana River .
= = Route description = =
SR 57 begins at the Orange Crush interchange near downtown Orange , where it meets the northwest – southeast Santa Ana Freeway ( I @-@ 5 ) and the east – west Garden Grove Freeway ( SR 22 ) . The Orange Crush interchange , which had long been considered a major bottleneck , was rebuilt in the 1990s and 2000s . The freeway heads north from the junction and soon crosses to the west side of the Santa Ana River , continuing north through suburban portions of Anaheim and passing next to Anaheim Regional Transportation Intermodal Center , Angel Stadium and Honda Center . In northern Anaheim , SR 57 meets the Riverside Freeway ( SR 91 ) . SR 57 briefly passes through Placentia and Fullerton , providing access to California State University , Fullerton . As it crosses Imperial Highway ( SR 90 ) near the Brea Mall and enters Brea , SR 57 enters more rugged terrain before climbing through Brea Canyon , the gap between the Chino Hills and Puente Hills . Near the rim of the canyon , the highway curves north out of the Brea Canyon , and descends slightly to a junction with the Pomona Freeway ( SR 60 ) in Diamond Bar , right on the edge of the San Gabriel Valley .
A short overlap carries SR 57 traffic on the same roadway as SR 60 . The two routes head northeast through an arm of the San Gabriel Valley ; after they split , SR 57 ascends slightly and then slopes through the edge of the Puente Hills and into the west end of the Pomona Valley . Here it meets the San Bernardino Freeway ( I @-@ 10 ) and Chino Valley Freeway ( SR 71 ) at the four @-@ level Kellogg Hill Interchange . In the north half of that interchange , SR 57 enters the San Jose Hills , climbing to its highest elevation before descending back into the connected San Gabriel and Pomona Valleys and ending at the Glendora Curve interchange with the Foothill Freeway ( I @-@ 210 ) in Glendora .
High @-@ occupancy vehicle lanes ( HOV ) exist in the median of SR 57 south of SR 60 in Diamond Bar . Elevated ramps allow HOV traffic bound to or from Brea Canyon to connect with I @-@ 5 towards the southeast , SR 91 towards the west , or SR 60 towards the east without entering the main lanes .
SR 57 is legally eligible for the State Scenic Highway System through Brea Canyon , between SR 90 and SR 60 , though it has not officially been designated by Caltrans as such because it has not successfully been through the nomination process . The entire route is in the California Freeway and Expressway System , and is a freeway for its entire constructed length . SR 57 is also part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of highways that are essential to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . The highway from SR 1 to SR 60 in Diamond Bar is officially designated as the Orange Freeway . In 2013 , SR 57 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 129 @,@ 000 between SR 60 and Sunset Crossing Road in Diamond Bar , and 278 @,@ 500 between SR 91 in Anaheim and Orangethorpe Avenue in Placentia , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
The road through Brea Canyon was oiled dirt by the late 1910s , providing a good connection across an outbranching of the Peninsular Ranges between the Los Angeles Basin and Pomona Valley . This road left the main coast highway ( Harbor Boulevard ) at Fullerton and followed the present Brea Boulevard and Brea Canyon Road , merging with the Valley Boulevard from Los Angeles near Walnut and continuing east to Pomona via Valley and Pomona Boulevards . Los Angeles County paved the road in concrete in early 1923 , and in 1931 it was added to the state highway system as a branch of Route 19 . Until then , Route 19 had connected Route 9 near Claremont with Riverside , following Garey Avenue and Mission Boulevard through Pomona .
The state built a bypass of the Valley Boulevard portion of the route in the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 1930s , leaving the old road near Diamond Bar and heading northeast through the foothills , along the present freeway alignment and Mission Boulevard . To the south , the legislature added then @-@ unrelated Route 180 along State College Boulevard in 1933 , connecting Route 2 ( I @-@ 5 ) near the Santa Ana River with Route 175 ( Orangethorpe Avenue , later replaced by SR 91 ) near Placentia . By 1955 , the Brea Canyon Freeway was proposed to begin at the Santa Ana Freeway ( I @-@ 5 ) near La Veta Avenue in Santa Ana and head north , paralleling Routes 180 and 19 to Pomona . The portion northeast of Diamond Bar into Pomona soon became part of the planned Pomona Freeway , and the name of the remainder was changed to Orange Freeway . The state legislature altered the definition of Route 19 to reflect this in 1957 by moving its south end to Santa Ana .
Then , in 1957 , the northernmost part of present SR 57 was added to the state highway system as part of Route 240 , which the legislature designated along the route planned for I @-@ 210 . This became part of the proposed Temescal Freeway , later the Corona Freeway ; a southerly extension of the Orange Freeway to Legislative Route 60 ( SR 1 ) near Huntington Beach was added in 1959 as Route 273 . Also in 1959 , the legislature created Route 272 , extending the line of the Orange Freeway north from the Pomona Freeway to the Temescal Freeway , completing the proposed freeway corridor that is now SR 57 . When the entire route , except Route 240 which was still part of I @-@ 210 , was redesignated SR 57 in the 1964 renumbering , none of these proposed freeways had been built ; the only constructed segment was the old surface road from Fullerton towards Pomona . The part of old Route 19 east of Route 272 became part of SR 60 . As part of the same renumbering , Route 180 on State College Boulevard became Route 250 , which was amended the next year to provide for its deletion once that portion of the SR 57 freeway was completed ( between I @-@ 5 and SR 91 ) .
A groundbreaking ceremony was held in Placentia on January 30 , 1967 , to begin construction of the Orange Freeway . The first portion was dedicated on May 16 , 1969 , and opened soon after , extending north from the Riverside Freeway ( SR 91 ) to Nutwood Avenue in Fullerton . Over the next few years , the freeway was completed from SR 91 north to I @-@ 10 , and I @-@ 210 was built north to the present end of SR 57 ; the Pomona Freeway ( SR 60 ) , which overlaps it through Diamond Bar , was constructed at the same time . The last pieces of that portion were the freeway through Brea Canyon , which opened March 13 , 1972 , and the four @-@ level Kellogg Hill Interchange at I @-@ 10 , which was dedicated May 1 , 1972 , and opened soon thereafter . Finally , the Orange Freeway was extended south from SR 91 to I @-@ 5 in the mid @-@ 1970s , allowing Route 250 to be turned back to local governments , though the subsequent deletion from the Streets and Highways Code did not take place until 1981 . With the extension of SR 210 around San Bernardino in 1998 , the former easternmost piece of I @-@ 210 to the Kellogg Hill Interchange instead became a northerly extension of SR 57 , though it remains officially part of the Interstate Highway System .
= = Future = =
The southerly extension to Huntington Beach remains unconstructed . In 1986 , Orange County 's plans were for a toll road elevated above the Santa Ana River rather than through existing neighborhoods , only extending south to the San Diego Freeway ( I @-@ 405 ) in Costa Mesa with connections to the Corona del Mar Freeway ( SR 73 ) ; this was largely inspired by congestion on SR 55 through the Santa Ana area . The extension was considered by Caltrans as two 11 @.@ 2 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 18 @.@ 0 km ) , two @-@ lane viaducts that would cost $ 950 million . The toll road franchise that American Transportation Development ( ATD ) held for this portion of SR 57 expired in January 2001 , after a request to delay the expiration until January 2007 . Following this , ATD sued to restore the franchise , and this case lasted until November 2003 . The termination was due to ATD not beginning the construction during the first ten years of the franchise , after it had been enacted by the state legislature .
In April 2009 , the Orange County Transportation Authority continued to study the extension of SR 57 , where the freeway would travel along the Santa Ana River and terminate at I @-@ 405 in Fountain Valley .
= = Exit list = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= Interstate 375 ( Michigan ) =
Interstate 375 ( I @-@ 375 ) in Detroit , at only 1 @.@ 062 miles ( 1 @.@ 71 km ) in length , once had the distinction of being the shortest signed Interstate Highway in the country . It is the southernmost leg of the Walter P. Chrysler Freeway and a spur of I @-@ 75 into downtown Detroit , ending at the unsigned Business Spur Interstate 375 ( BS I @-@ 375 ) , better known as Jefferson Avenue . The freeway opened on June 12 , 1964 . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) announced in 2013 that it may remove I @-@ 375 in the future .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 375 and the Chrysler Freeway begin at Jefferson Avenue and St. Antoine Street in downtown Detroit near the Renaissance Center . They run east before turning north . Just about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) after the southern terminus , I @-@ 375 meets the Fisher Freeway which carries I @-@ 75 north of downtown . At this interchange , I @-@ 75 takes ramps to leave the Fisher Freeway and use the Chrysler Freeway , replacing I @-@ 375 . I @-@ 375 is a four @-@ lane freeway the entire length . The entire length of I @-@ 375 is included on the National Highway System , a network of road
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before continuing through marshland and woodland . After crossing Raccoon Creek on another drawbridge , the road passes some homes in Bridgeport before reaching a cloverleaf interchange that provides access to US 322 / CR 536 and the Commodore Barry Bridge . At this point , a freeway section of US 130 begins . The freeway heads east to its first interchange after US 322 , a right @-@ in right @-@ out at Barker Avenue , with an overpass just to the west at Springers Road . Barker Avenue leads east to the south end of Route 44 . The next interchange provides direct access to Route 44 . After Route 44 is the last interchange , with Cedar Swamp Road , before US 130 merges into I @-@ 295 for a concurrency .
Along I @-@ 295 , the route is a six @-@ lane freeway , coming to an exit for CR 684 . Continuing east , the freeway crosses into Greenwich Township and has an interchange with CR 607 . After passing near Greenwich Lake , there are exits for CR 653 and CR 673 within a short distance of each other . I @-@ 295 / US 130 reaches an interchange with CR 680 on the border of Greenwich Township and East Greenwich Township . The road runs through a portion of East Greenwich Township before crossing back into Greenwich Township and coming to an interchange with CR 678 and CR 667 on the border of Greenwich Township and Paulsboro . Past this point , the freeway runs through marshy areas of Mantua Creek and continues into West Deptford Township . Here , there is an exit for CR 656 . Passing near more industrial areas , I @-@ 295 / US 130 has an interchange with the Mid @-@ Atlantic Parkway , which provides access to Route 44 as well as to CR 643 and CR 660 . Continuing northeast , the freeway reaches an interchange with Route 44 and CR 640 . At this point , Route 44 begins to parallel I @-@ 295 / US 130 on its northwest side as the two roads cross the Woodbury Creek . Route 44 ends at a cul @-@ de @-@ sac that has a ramp from the southbound direction of I @-@ 295 / US 130 prior to another interchange that provides access to CR 644 . The freeway passes near some homes before US 130 splits from I @-@ 295 .
After splitting from I @-@ 295 , US 130 continues northeast as a four @-@ lane divided road called Crown Point Avenue . The route passes past an oil refinery before forming the border between West Deptford Township to the north and Westville to the south , where it begins to pass residences along the south side of the road . The road fully enters Westville before encountering the northern terminus of Route 45 at a Y @-@ intersection . Past this intersection , the lanes of US 130 split briefly before rejoining .
= = = Camden County = = =
Upon crossing Big Timber Creek , the route enters Brooklawn , Camden County , where the name becomes Crescent Boulevard and it comes to a traffic circle with CR 551 . Here , US 130 and CR 551 head concurrent to the east , passing under the Conrail Vineland Secondary , and come to another traffic circle . At this circle , Route 47 and CR 551 head south while US 130 continues east on Crescent Boulevard , lined with suburban shopping centers . After CR 551 Spur heads east , US 130 makes a turn to the northeast , widening into a six @-@ lane highway with many intersections controlled by jughandles and crossing Little Timber Creek into Gloucester City . In Glocuester City , the median of the route widens as it interchanges with I @-@ 76 at a partial interchange . From this interchange , the road continues north @-@ northeast and crosses Newton Creek into Haddon Township . US 130 comes to an interchange with Route 76C that has access towards I @-@ 76 , I @-@ 676 , and the Walt Whitman Bridge to and from the northbound direction of US 130 . The highway continues to a channelized intersection with Route 168 . Following this intersection , US 130 continues through urban areas , passing through a small corner of Camden before entering Collingswood . In Sayville , the road is lined with suburban businesses again prior to meeting US 30 at the former Collingswood Circle .
At this point , US 30 forms a concurrency with US 130 and the two routes head north , passing under the PATCO Speedline before meeting CR 561 at an interchange . Past CR 561 , the road passes to the east of Harleigh Cemetery prior to crossing Cooper River into Pennsauken Township . In Pennsauken , US 30 / US 130 comes to the Airport Circle . Airport Circle is an intersection with several flyovers ; US 30 splits to the west , while Route 38 heads east , soon splitting with Route 70 . US 130 , meanwhile , continues northeast through more commercial areas . The road briefly enters Camden again right before an interchange with CR 537 . The route crosses under New Jersey Transit ’ s Atlantic City Line before coming to a large interchange with Route 90 that provides access to the Betsy Ross Bridge . Within this interchange , the lanes of US 130 split . A short distance later , the route reaches an interchange with Route 73 , which runs to the Tacony @-@ Palmyra Bridge .
= = = Burlington County = = =
A short distance after the Route 73 interchange , US 130 crosses North Branch of Pennsauken Creek into Cinnaminson Township , Burlington County and continues northeast . The route turns to the east @-@ northeast and enters Delran Township , where there is an interchange with CR 613 . Immediately after this interchange , the road crosses Rancocas Creek and forms the border between Delanco Township to the northwest and Willingboro Township to the southeast as it passes a couple of lakes . US 130 continues along the border of Edgewater Park Township and Willingboro Township . After briefly forming the border between Burlington Township and Willingboro Township , the road entirely enters Burlington Township . The route forms a concurrency with CR 543 prior to entering Burlington . A bypass takes US 130 and CR 543 around the downtown area of Burlington . The road comes to an intersection with Route 413 , which provides access to the Burlington @-@ Bristol Bridge . Past this intersection , US 130 / CR 543 turns east , with the median widening to include businesses . Along this portion of road , there is an intersection with the northern terminus of CR 541 . The six @-@ lane section of US 130 decreases to four lanes as it crosses Assicunk Creek , where the median also narrows . The road turns northeast into a residential area , and CR 543 splits from US 130 by heading to the east .
Past this intersection , US 130 passes some businesses and crosses back into Burlington Township , where it runs a short distance to the southeast of New Jersey Transit ’ s River Line . The road enters less dense commercial and industrial development , along with some farmland and woodland , as it continues into Florence Township . An interchange with the Pennsylvania Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike ( I @-@ 95 ) is present in Florence Township . Following this interchange , US 130 continues through development before crossing Crafts Creek into Mansfield Township Here , the surroundings become more wooded with a few areas of agriculture . The route continues into Bordentown Township , where the road widens to six lanes as it has a partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 295 . From this point , US 130 continues to an intersection with CR 545 , where it narrows back to four lanes . The surroundings become more developed as US 130 merges with US 206 at an interchange , bypassing Bordentown to the east . The two routes continue north on a six @-@ lane divided highway , briefly skirting the eastern edge of Bordentown as the road crosses CR 528 . After entering Bordentown Township again , US 130 splits from US 206 by heading to the northeast at an interchange . Upon splitting , the route becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway again , passing homes and businesses with areas of woods .
= = = Mercer County = = =
After crossing Crosswicks Creek , US 130 continues into Hamilton Township , Mercer County , where Route 156 splits to the west to parallel US 130 as it bypasses Yardville to the east . The route intersects several roads at northbound @-@ only interchanges , including CR 609 , CR 672 ( South Broad Street ) , and CR 524 ( Yardville- Allentown Road ) ; Route 156 provides southbound access . Past these interchanges , the road passes some homes before Route 156 merges back into it . From this point , US 130 runs through commercial areas , where it has a brief six @-@ lane segment prior to reaching a cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 195 . Following this interchange , the road enters Robbinsville Township . In Robbinsville , the route forms a short concurrency with CR 526 . At the point CR 526 turns east , Route 33 joins US 130 from the west . US 130 and Route 33 run together through rural areas with some development . The road bypasses Windsor to the east prior to entering East Windsor Township . Here , the road widens to six lanes and Route 33 splits from US 130 , heading east into Hightstown . US 130 narrows back to four lanes and runs around the commercial west side of Hightstown , crossing CR 571 . Shortly after this intersection , the route has a partial cloverleaf interchange with Route 133 .
= = = Middlesex County = = =
US 130 crosses Millstone River into Cranbury Township , Middlesex County , where it has an intersection with the northern terminus of CR 539 . From this point , the route heads north through a mix of rural surroundings and inhabited neighborhoods , bypassing downtown Cranbury to the east and crossing CR 615 . Past this intersection , the road continues into development , crossing Brainerd Lake before forming a short concurrency with CR 535 . US 130 briefly forms the border between South Brunswick Township to the west and Cranbury Township to the east before fully entering South Brunswick Township as the road runs through a mix of rural areas and business parks . The road comes to a directional Y @-@ intersection with the western terminus of Route 32 , which provides access to the New Jersey Turnpike and Monroe Township . Following Route 32 , US 130 crosses over a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line before coming to an interchange with CR 522 . At this point , CR 522 forms a brief concurrency with US 130 before splitting to the west . After the CR 522 concurrency , the route continues north into mostly forested areas , crossing Davidsons Mill Pond before continuing into North Brunswick Township . In North Brunswick Township , the road heads northeast through increasing development as the route starts to turn more to the north . US 130 comes to an end at an interchange with US 1 , where the road continues north as Route 171 ( locally known as Georges Road ) into New Brunswick .
= = History = =
The entire length of US 130 follows a part of the Ocean Highway , a coastal highway that ran from New Brunswick south to Jacksonville , Florida . The current route was designated as portions of three state routes prior to 1927 . In 1916 , the road between the Camden area and Bordentown was legislated as part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 2 while the current US 130 north of Robbinsville was to become a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 1 . In addition , pre @-@ 1927 Route 17S was legislated to run from Penns Grove northeast to Westville in 1923 ; the only portion of road built ran from Pennsville south to Salem . When the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926 , US 130 was designated to connect US 30 in Camden to US 1 in Trenton , following pre @-@ 1927 Route 2 . In the 1927 renumbering a year later , the US 130 alignment was designated Route 25 from Camden to Bordentown , Route 39 from Bordentown to White Horse , and Route 37 from White Horse to Trenton .
By 1938 , US 130 was extended south along Route 45 and Route 44 to end at US 40 in Pennsville where the connection to Hook Road now hits Route 49 . By the 1940s , it was rerouted to follow Route 25 and Route 25M from Bordentown to Route 27 in New Brunswick The former US 130 between Bordentown and Trenton was designated as a part of US 206 . During the 1940s , a new alignment for US 130 was built through South Brunswick Township . After the Delaware Memorial Bridge opened in 1951 , the south end of US 130 was moved to its current location . Shortly before the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , US 130 was aligned to bypass Yardville with the old route becoming Route 156 in 1953 . Also , prior to 1953 , US 130 had been aligned to bypass Carneys Point and a stretch of Route 44 between Bridgeport and Westville .
In the 1953 renumbering , US 130 replaced Route 44 and parts of Route 45 and Route 25 , as well as the short Route 25M into New Brunswick . With the 1953 renumbering freeing up the Route 44 designation , that number was eventually assigned to the two sections of old road . In the 1960s , I @-@ 295 was built through Salem and Gloucester counties , following a portion of the US 130 freeway bypass of Carneys Point as well as the freeway portion of the route from north of Bridgeport to Westville . As a result of this construction , US 130 was moved back to its original alignment in Carneys Point , replacing that portion of Route 44 . US 130 was cut back to its current north end at US 1 in 1969 , and the continuation into New Brunswick was assigned Route 171 .
In the late 1960s , a freeway was proposed by the Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commission to alleviate traffic on US 130 between Camden and Burlington . This freeway was originally planned as a parkway between the two cities in 1932 that never materialized . The proposed freeway , which was to connect the Ben Franklin Bridge to I @-@ 295 near the Assicunk Creek , was to cost $ 53 million and mostly follow a Conrail railroad line between the two cities . However , the NJDOT never followed through with the proposal . In 2009 , the Collingswood Circle at the southern terminus of the US 30 concurrency was replaced with an at @-@ grade intersection with jughandles .
In 2013 the road was one of three that tied for the # 1 ranking on the Tri @-@ State Transportation Campaign 's list of the top ten most dangerous roads for pedestrians in New Jersey , New York and Connecticut . The route , along with U.S. Route 40 / U.S. Route 322 in Atlantic County and U.S. Route 1 in Middlesex County , were so ranked due to the nine pedestrian deaths that occurred on each of those roads from 2009 to 2011 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Dennō Senshi Porygon =
" Dennō Senshi Porygon " ( でんのうせんしポリゴン , Dennō Senshi Porigon , translated as " Cyber Soldier Porygon " , although more commonly " Electric Soldier Porygon " ) is the thirty @-@ eighth episode of the Pokémon anime 's first season . Its only broadcast was in Japan on December 16 , 1997 . In the episode , Ash and his friends find at the local Pokémon Center that there is something wrong with the Poké Ball transmitting device . To find out what is wrong , they must go inside the machine .
The episode is infamous for certain repetitive visual effects which induced photosensitive epileptic seizures in a substantial number of Japanese viewers , an incident referred to as the " Pokémon Shock " ( ポケモンショック , Pokemon Shokku ) by the Japanese press . As a result of the seizures 685 viewers were taken to hospitals ; 2 people remained hospitalized for more than two weeks . Due to this , the episode has not been rebroadcast worldwide . After the incident , the Pokémon anime went into a four @-@ month hiatus , and it returned on TV Tokyo in April 16 , 1998 , thus making the episode perhaps the most controversial episode of the entire Pokémon series . Since then , the episode has been parodied and referenced in cultural media , including The Simpsons and South Park .
= = Plot = =
Ash , Misty , Brock and Pikachu discover that the system used to transfer Pokémon from one Pokémon Center to the other is malfunctioning . On Nurse Joy 's request , they go to Professor Akihabara , the one who created the Poké Ball transfer system . He tells them that Team Rocket stole his prototype Porygon , a digital Pokémon that can exist in cyberspace , and is using it to steal trainers ' Pokémon from inside the computer system .
Akihabara sends Ash , Misty , Brock , Pikachu and his second Porygon into the system to stop Team Rocket , whom they learn have set up a blockade that stops Pokéballs from traveling the network . Porygon is able to defeat Team Rocket 's Porygon , but Nurse Joy , monitoring the situation and unaware that Ash and the others are inside , has sent an anti @-@ virus program into the system to combat what she thinks is a computer virus . Pikachu uses a Thunderbolt attack on the program , which manifests as " vaccine missiles " , which causes an explosion . The group and Team Rocket successfully escape the computer , and with Team Rocket 's blockade removed , the system returns to normal .
= = Reception and controversy = =
" Dennō Senshi Porygon " aired in Japan on December 16 , 1997 at 6 : 30 PM Japan Standard Time ( 09 : 30 UTC ) . The episode , which was broadcast over thirty @-@ seven TV stations that Tuesday night , held the highest ratings for its time slot , and was watched by approximately 4 @.@ 6 million households .
Twenty minutes into the episode , there is a scene in which Pikachu stops " vaccine " missiles with its Thunderbolt attack , resulting in a huge explosion that flashes red and blue lights . Although there were similar parts in the episode with red and blue flashes , two anime techniques , " paka paka " and " flash " made this scene extremely intense . These flashes were bright strobe lights , with blinks at a rate of about 12 Hz for approximately six seconds .
At this point , viewers started to complain of blurred vision , headaches , dizziness and nausea . Some experienced seizures , blindness , convulsions and loss of consciousness . Japan 's Fire Defense Agency reported that a total of 685 viewers – 310 boys and 375 girls – were taken to hospitals by ambulances . Although many victims recovered during the ambulance trip , more than 150 of them were admitted to hospitals . Two people remained hospitalized for more than two weeks . Some other people had seizures when parts of the scene were rebroadcast during news reports on the seizures . Only a small fraction of the 685 children treated were diagnosed with photosensitive epilepsy . This phenomenon was later called " Pokémon Shock " .
Later studies showed that 5 – 10 % of the viewers had mild symptoms that did not need hospital treatment . Twelve thousand children who did not get sent to hospital by ambulance reported mild symptoms of illness ; however , their symptoms more closely resembled mass hysteria than a grand mal seizure . A study following 103 patients over three years after the event found that most of them had no further seizures . Scientists believe that the flashing lights triggered photosensitive seizures in which visual stimuli such as flashing lights can cause altered consciousness . Although approximately 1 in 4 @,@ 000 people are susceptible to these types of seizures , the number of people affected by this Pokémon episode was unprecedented .
An article in USA Today reassured parents that " American children aren 't likely to suffer seizures provoked by TV cartoons " , because U.S. networks " don 't air the graphic Japanese cartoons known as ' anime ' " with their " fast @-@ paced style of animation " , although anime has become more prevalent on American television since then . The incident , which was referred to as the " Pokémon Shock " ( ポケモンショック , Pokemon Shokku ) by the Japanese press , was included in the 2004 edition and the 2008 Gamer 's Edition of the Guinness World Records book , with the honor of holding the record for " Most Photosensitive Epileptic Seizures Caused by a Television Show " .
= = Aftermath = =
News of the incident spread quickly through Japan . The following day the television station that had originated the lone broadcast of that episode , TV Tokyo , issued an apology to the Japanese people , suspended the program , and said it would investigate the cause of the seizures . Officers from Atago Police stations were ordered by Japan 's National Police Agency to question the anime 's producers about the show 's contents and production process . An emergency meeting was held by the Ministry of Health , Labour and Welfare , in which the case was discussed with experts and information collected from hospitals . Video retailers all over Japan removed the Pokémon anime from their rental shelves .
Reaction was swift on the Tokyo Stock Exchange , and Nintendo 's shares went down 400 yen ( almost 5 % ) the following morning to 12 @,@ 200 yen as news of the incident spread . Nintendo produces the game upon which the Pokémon anime series is based . Then @-@ president of Nintendo , Hiroshi Yamauchi , said at a press conference the day after the episode had aired that the video game company was not responsible since the original Pokémon game for its Game Boy product was presented in black and white .
After the airing of " Dennō Senshi Porygon " , the Pokémon anime went into a four @-@ month hiatus until it returned in April 16 , 1998 with airing of " Pikachu 's Goodbye " and " The Battling Eevee Brothers " . After the hiatus , the time slot changed from Tuesday to Thursday . The opening theme was also redone , and black screens showing various Pokémon in spotlights were broken up into four images per screen . Before the seizure incident , the opening was originally one Pokémon image per screen . Before the resumption of broadcast , " Problem Inspection Report on Pocket Monster Animated Series " ( アニメ ポケットモンスター問題検証報告 , Anime Poketto Monsutā Mondai Kenshō Hōkoku ) was shown . Broadcast in Japan on April 16 , 1998 , host Miyuki Yadama went over the circumstances of the program format and the on @-@ screen advisories at the beginning of animated programs , as well as showing letters and fan drawings sent in by viewers , most of whom were concerned that the incident would lead to the anime being cancelled . Many Japanese television broadcasters and medical officials came together to find ways to make sure the incident was not repeated . They established a series of guidelines for future animated programs , including :
Flashing images , especially those with red , should not flicker faster than three times per second . If the image does not have red , it still should not flicker faster than five times per second .
Flashing images should not be displayed for a total duration of more than two seconds .
Stripes , whirls and concentric circles should not take up a large part of the television screen .
This episode kept the episodes " Rougela 's Christmas " ( " Holiday Hi @-@ Jynx " ) and " Iwark as a Bivouac " ( " Snow Way Out ! " ) off their original broadcast date in Japan following the incident . Those two episodes were about to air after " Dennō Senshi Porygon " on December 23 , 1997 and January 6 , 1998 respectively . They were eventually only aired on October 5 , 1998 as an hour @-@ long special . Airing out of order caused confusion to viewers because Ash still had a Charmander instead of Charizard , and Misty did not have Togepi yet , but Starmie and Horsea . Also , a New Year special was about to air between these episodes on December 30 , 1997 , but it was cancelled after TV Tokyo pulled any mention of Pokémon from their channel following the incident .
To prevent any similar incidents from reoccurring , Nintendo quickly ordered the episode pulled , and it has not aired since , not even outside Japan . Maddie Blaustein , the English dub voice of Meowth , has said twice on the Serebii.net forums that this episode was dubbed in the United States by 4Kids Entertainment . On the other hand , Veronica Taylor , the English voice of Ash , claimed that this episode was never dubbed and will not be dubbed . Regardless , any plans to release this episode outside Japan were abandoned after Nintendo objected , and it was never broadcast anywhere else in the world . Coincidentally , the episode aired around the same time Pokémon was being adapted for American audiences . 4Kids Entertainment took extra precaution in bright and flashing lights in the show , altering lighting and the frequency of flashing lights for earlier episodes of their American release .
In an effort to put the event out of the public 's minds and prevent trauma , the anime has not featured Porygon in any subsequent episodes . As a consequence of this , the popularity of Porygon and its derivates among the fans of the series has suffered . However , Porygon2 and Porygon @-@ Z were featured during ' World of Pokémon ' opening of Pokémon Movie 15 . Porygon2 has also appeared in the opening song of English dubbed version of Pokémon Chronicles and Pokérap GS , which includes all Generation II Pokémon excluding Celebi .
= = Cultural impact = =
The " Pokémon Shock " incident has been parodied many times in popular culture , including an episode of The Simpsons entitled " Thirty Minutes over Tokyo " . In the episode , the Simpson family travels to Japan . When they arrive at their hotel in Tokyo , Bart is seen watching an anime entitled Battling Seizure Robots featuring robots with flashing eye lasers , and asks : " Isn 't this that cartoon that causes seizures ? " , and the flashing eyes cause him to have a seizure . Marge and Lisa are also affected and Homer walks in seeing them all convulsing on the floor and joins in .
An episode of South Park that first aired in November 1999 , called " Chinpokomon " , revolves around a Pokémon @-@ like phenomenon , called Chinpokomon , with which the children of South Park become obsessed . Chinpokomon toys and video games are sold to American children in South Park by a Japanese company . The company 's president , Mr. Hirohito , uses the toys to brainwash the American children , making them into his own army to topple the " evil " American " empire " . These toys included a video game in which the player attempts to bomb Pearl Harbor . While playing this game , Kenny has an epileptic seizure and later dies , in reference to the Pokémon seizure incident .
In the pilot episode of Drawn Together , Ling @-@ Ling , who is a parody of Pikachu , states that his goal in the Drawn Together house is to " destroy all , and give children seizures " . There follows a scene with flashing lights , a direct reference to this episode . In So Yesterday , a novel by Scott Westerfeld , this episode is mentioned and shown to one of the characters . The flashing red light that caused the seizure is also used in the story telling elements .
= Ferris Bueller 's Day Off =
Ferris Bueller 's Day Off is a 1986 American teen comedy film written , co @-@ produced and directed by John Hughes , and co @-@ produced by Tom Jacobson . The film stars Matthew Broderick as Ferris Bueller , a high @-@ school slacker who spends a day off from school , with Mia Sara and Alan Ruck . Ferris regularly breaks character to explain techniques and inner thoughts .
Hughes wrote the screenplay in less than a week and shot the film over three months in 1985 . Featuring many landmarks , notably the Sears Tower and the Art Institute of Chicago , the film was Hughes ' love letter to Chicago : " I really wanted to capture as much of Chicago as I could . Not just in the architecture and landscape , but the spirit . "
Released by Paramount Pictures on June 11 , 1986 , the film became one of the top @-@ grossing films of the year , receiving $ 70 @.@ 1 million over a $ 5 @.@ 8 million budget , and was enthusiastically acclaimed by critics and audiences alike . In 2014 , the film was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry as per being deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . " In 2016 , Paramount , Turner Classic Movies , and Fathom Events re @-@ released the film and Pretty in Pink to celebrate its 30th anniversary .
= = Plot = =
In suburbian Chicago , high school senior Ferris Bueller fakes sickness to stay home . Ferris frequently breaks character , giving the audience advice on how to skip school . His younger sister Jeannie is less @-@ convinced , but goes to school anyway . Dean of Discipline Edward Rooney notes and suspects Ferris absence and commits to catching him . However , Ferris uses a computer to alter the school 's records to indicate his absences from 9 to 2 . Ferris convinces his friend Cameron Frye , who is also absent , to report that his girlfriend Sloane Peterson 's grandmother has died . Rooney doubts this , but they succeed as planned .
Borrowing Cameron 's father 's prized 1961 Ferrari 250 GT California Spyder against Cameron 's instinct , Ferris , Cameron , and Sloane drive into Chicago to sightsee . Leaving the car with two parking attendants , who promptly joyride it unknowingly to them , the trio visit the Art Institute of Chicago , Sears Tower , Chicago Mercantile Exchange , and Wrigley Field . They then go to a French restaurant for lunch where Ferris poses as the " Sausage King of Chicago " , Abe Froman , while narrowly avoiding his father , who is eating lunch at the restaurant . Meanwhile , after humiliatingly failing to find Ferris , Rooney visits the Bueller residence and fails to enter , being attacked by the family rotweiller as his car is towed . Jeannie , skipping class , returns home and discovers her brother 's ruse , but encounters Rooney snooping . She kicks him and calls the police , who arrest her for false reporting after Rooney leaves . While at the station , Jeannie meets a juvenile delinquent , who advises her not to worry about Ferris .
After a cab ride where Cameron exclaims disinterest , Ferris impromptu joins a parade float during the Von Steuben Day parade and lip @-@ syncs Wayne Newton 's cover of " Danke Schoen " , as well as a rendition of The Beatles ' " Twist and Shout " that gets the entire crowd dancing . Just as things shine bright , they retrieve the car and notice that , due to the attendants ' joyride , over 100 miles have been added . The revelation shocks Cameron into a state of self @-@ analysis , realizing his life is controlled by his father 's figure . After coming sane , they return the car to Cameron 's garage and try to unsuccessfully run it backwards to remove the miles ; Ferris suggests that they crack it open and turn it back manually . Cameron refuses and vents anger towards his father , kicking , severely denting , and leaning on the car , which falls off the jack and flies out the back , crashing into a ravine behind . Despite Ferris ' insistence , Cameron decides to take blame for the car 's destruction . At the police station , Mrs. Bueller picks up Jeannie , who she finds kissing the delinquent .
Ferris returns Sloane home , but realizes he only has a limited time to return home to avoid trouble . He rushes back to the house , but is spotted by Jeannie driving their mother home , and tries to run him down . Ferris avoids being noticed by Mrs. and Mr. Bueller , who is coming from another direction . They make it home at the same time , but Rooney catches Ferris trying to enter the back door and rhetorically asks if he would like to spend another year under supervision . However , Jeannie discovers his wallet on the kitchen floor as proof he broke in , and she has a change of heart , letting Ferris in and telling Rooney he was hospitalized – indicating awareness of the break @-@ in . She slams the door , and their dog attacks Rooney again . Ferris leaps into his bed at the last second , assuring his parents don 't suspect a thing . As they leave , Ferris reminds the audience , " Life moves pretty fast . If you don 't stop and look around once in a while , you could miss it . " Ferris then smiles at the camera before fading to black .
As the credits roll , the defeated Rooney heads home and is picked up by a school bus , further humiliated by the students , one offering him a gummy bear . In a post @-@ credits scene , Ferris emerges from his room and bids everyone that " It 's over . " and to go home .
= = Cast = =
Matthew Broderick as Ferris Bueller , a good @-@ hearted , streetwise and troublemaking kid who wants to skip school and have a day with his friends before his life changes .
Alan Ruck as Cameron Frye , Ferris ' depressive friend
Mia Sara as Sloane Peterson , Ferris ' younger , lovely girlfriend
Jeffrey Jones as Edward R. Rooney , Dean of Students
Jennifer Grey as Jeannie Bueller
Lyman Ward as Tom Bueller
Cindy Pickett as Katie Bueller
Edie McClurg as Grace
Ben Stein as Economics Teacher
Del Close as English Teacher
Virginia Capers as Florence Sparrow
Charlie Sheen as Garth Volbeck , the boy in the police station
Richard Edson as Parking Garage Attendant
Larry " Flash " Jenkins as Attendant 's Co @-@ Pilot
Kristy Swanson as Simone Adamley , the Economics student
Jonathan Schmock as Maitre 'd of Chez Quis
Stephanie Blake as Singing Nurse
Dee Dee Rescher as Bus Driver
= = Production = =
As he was writing the film in 1985 , John Hughes kept track of his progress in a spiral @-@ bound logbook . He noted that the basic storyline was developed on February 25 . It was successfully pitched the following day to Paramount Studios chief Ned Tanen . Tanen was intrigued by the concept , but wary that the Writers Guild of America was hours away from picketing the studio . Hughes wrote the screenplay in less than a week , as his logbook notes : " 2 – 26 Night only 10 pages ... 2 – 27 26 pages ... 2 – 28 19 pages ... 3 – 1 9 pages ... 3 – 2 20 pages ... 3 – 3 24 pages . " Editor Paul Hirsch explained that Hughes had a trance @-@ like concentration to his script @-@ writing process , working for hours on end , and would later shoot the film on essentially what was his first draft of the script . " The first cut of Ferris Bueller 's Day Off ended up at two hours , 45 minutes . The shortening of the script had to come in the cutting room " , said Hirsch . " Having the story episodic and taking place in one day ... meant the characters were wearing the same clothes . I suspect that Hughes writes his scripts with few , if any costume changes just so he can have that kind of freedom in the editing . " Hughes intended the movie to be more focused on the characters rather than the plot . " I know how the movie begins , I know how it ends " , said Hughes . " I don 't ever know the rest , but that doesn 't seem to matter . It 's not the events that are important , it 's the characters going through the event . Therefore , I make them as full and real as I can . This time around , I wanted to create a character who could handle everyone and everything . "
= = = Casting = = =
Hughes said that he had Broderick in mind when he wrote the screenplay , saying Broderick was the only actor he could think of who could pull the role off , calling him clever and charming . " Certain guys would have played Ferris and you would have thought , ' Where 's my wallet ? ' " Hughes said . " I had to have that look ; that charm had to come through . Jimmy Stewart could have played Ferris at 15 ... I needed Matthew . " Other actors who were considered for the role included Jim Carrey , John Cusack , Tom Cruise and Michael J. Fox .
Sara surprised Hughes when she auditioned for the role of Sloane Peterson . " It was funny . He didn 't know how old I was and said he wanted an older girl to play the 17 @-@ year @-@ old . He said it would take someone older to give her the kind of dignity she needed . He almost fell out of his chair when I told him I was only 18 . " Molly Ringwald had also wanted to play Sloane , but according to Ringwald , " John wouldn 't let me do it : he said that the part wasn 't big enough for me . "
Ruck had previously auditioned for the Bender role in The Breakfast Club which went to Judd Nelson , but Hughes remembered Ruck and cast him as the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Cameron Frye . According to Hughes , the character of Cameron was based , in large part , on a friend of his in high school . " He was sort of a lost person . His family neglected him , so he took that as license to really pamper himself . When he was legitimately sick , he actually felt good , because it was difficult and tiring to have to invent diseases but when he actually had something , he was relaxed . " Ruck said the role of Cameron had originally been offered to Emilio Estevez who turned it down . " Every time I see Emilio , I want to kiss him " , said Ruck . " Thank you ! " Ruck , then 29 , worried about the age difference . " I was worried that I 'd be 10 years out of step , and I wouldn 't know anything about what was cool , what was hip , all that junk . But when I was going to high school , I didn 't know any of that stuff then , either . So I just thought , well , hell — I 'll just be me . The character , he 's such a loner that he really wouldn 't give a damn about that stuff anyway . He 'd feel guilty that he didn 't know it , but that 's it . " Ruck wasn 't surprised to find himself cast young . " No , because , really , when I was 18 , I sort of looked 12 " , he said . " Maybe it 's a genetic imbalance . "
Ruck and Broderick had previously acted together in the Broadway production of Biloxi Blues . Cameron 's Mr. Peterson voice was an in @-@ joke imitation of their former director Gene Saks . Ruck felt at ease working with Broderick , often crashing in his trailer . " We didn 't have to invent an instant friendship like you often have to do in a movie " , said Ruck . " We were friends . "
Jones was cast as Rooney based on his role in Amadeus , where he played the emperor ; Hughes thought that character 's modern equivalent was Rooney . " My part was actually quite small in the script , but what seemed to be the important part to me was that I was the only one who wasn 't swept along by Ferris " , recalls Jones . " So I was the only one in opposition , which presented a lot of opportunities , some of which weren 't even in the script or were expanded on . John was receptive to anything I had to offer , and indeed got ideas along the way himself . So that was fun , working with him . " " Hughes told me at the time — and I thought he was just blowing his own horn — he said , ' You are going to be known for this for the rest of your life . ' And I thought , ' Sure ' ... but he was right . "
Stein says he got the role of Bueller 's Economics teacher through six degrees of separation . " Richard Nixon introduced me to a man named Bill Safire , who 's a New York Times columnist . He introduced me to a guy who 's an executive at Warner Brothers . He introduced me to a guy who 's a casting director . He introduced me to John Hughes . John Hughes and I are among the only Republicans in the picture business , and John Hughes put me in the movie " , Stein said . Hughes said that Stein was an easy and early choice for the role of the teacher : " He wasn 't a professional actor . He had a flat voice , he looked like a teacher . "
= = = Filming = = =
" Chicago is what I am , " said Hughes . " A lot of Ferris is sort of my love letter to the city . And the more people who get upset with the fact that I film there , the more I 'll make sure that 's exactly where I film . It 's funny — nobody ever says anything to Woody Allen about always filming in New York . America has this great reverence for New York . I look at it as this decaying horror pit . So let the people in Chicago enjoy Ferris Bueller . "
For the film , Hughes got the chance to take a more expansive look at the city he grew up in . " We took a helicopter up the Chicago River . This is the first chance I 'd really had to get outside while making a movie . Up to this point , the pictures had been pretty small . I really wanted to capture as much of Chicago as I could , not just the architecture and the landscape , but the spirit . " Shooting began in Chicago on Monday , September 9 , 1985 . In late October 1985 , the production moved to Los Angeles ; shooting ended on Friday , November 22 . The Von Steuben Day Parade scene was filmed on Saturday , September 28 . Scenes were filmed at several locations in downtown Chicago and Winnetka ( Ferris 's home , his mother 's real estate office , etc . ) . Many of the other scenes were filmed in Northbrook , Illinois , including at Glenbrook North High School , on School Drive , the long , curvy street on which Glenbrook North and neighboring Maple Middle School are situated . The exterior of Ferris 's house is located at 4160 Country Club Drive , Long Beach , California .
The modernist house of Cameron Frye is located at 370 Beech Street , Highland Park , Illinois , known as Ben Rose House designed by architects A. James Speyer , who designed the main building in 1954 , and David Haid , who designed the pavilion in 1974 , and once owned by photographer Ben Rose . Ben Rose had a car collection in the pavilion , as Cameron 's father has the Ferrari 250 GT California in the same pavilion in the movie . According to Lake Forest College art professor Franz Shulze , during the filming of the scene where the Ferrari crashes out of the window , Haid explained to Hughes that he could prevent the car from damaging the rest of the pavilion . Haid fixed connections in the wall and the building remained intact . Haid said to Hughes afterward , " You owe me $ 25 @,@ 000 " , which Hughes paid . Other scenes were shot in Chicago , River Forest , Oak Park , Northbrook , Highland Park , Glencoe and Winnetka , Lake Forest and Long Beach , California . After Ben Rose 's death in 2009 the house came up for sale and was sold in 2014 .
According to Hughes , the scene at the Art Institute of Chicago was " a self @-@ indulgent scene of mine — which was a place of refuge for me , I went there quite a bit , I loved it . I knew all the paintings , the building . This was a chance for me to go back into this building and show the paintings that were my favorite . " The museum had not been shot in , until the producers of the film approached them . " I remember Hughes saying , ' There are going to be more works of art in this movie than there have ever been before , ' " recalled Jennifer Grey .
According to editor Paul Hirsch , in the original cut , the museum scene fared poorly at test screenings until he switched sequences around and Hughes changed the soundtrack .
The piece of music I originally chose was a classical guitar solo played on acoustic guitar . It was nonmetrical with a lot of rubato . I cut the sequence to that music and it also became nonmetrical and irregular . I thought it was great and so did Hughes . He loved it so much that he showed it to the studio but they just went " Ehhh . " Then after many screenings where the audience said " The museum scene is the scene we like least " , he decided to replace the music . We had all loved it , but the audience hated it . I said , ' I think I know why they hate the museum scene . It 's in the wrong place . ' Originally , the parade sequence came before the museum sequence , but I realized that the parade was the highlight of the day , there was no way we could top it , so it had to be the last thing before the three kids go home . So that was agreed upon , we reshuffled the events of the day , and moved the museum sequence before the parade . Then we screened it and everybody loved the museum scene ! My feeling was that they loved it because it came in at the right point in the sequence of events . John felt they loved it because of the music . Basically , the bottom line is , it worked .
The music used for the final version of the museum sequence is an instrumental cover version of The Smiths ' " Please , Please , Please , Let Me Get What I Want " , performed by The Dream Academy . A passionate Beatles fan , Hughes makes multiple references to them and John Lennon in the script . During filming , Hughes " listened to The White Album every single day for fifty @-@ six days " . Hughes also pays tribute to his childhood hero Gordie Howe with Cameron 's Detroit Red Wings jersey . " I sent them the jersey " , said Howe . " It was nice seeing the No. 9 on the big screen . "
= = = = Car = = = =
In the film , Ferris convinces Cameron to borrow his father 's rare 1961 Ferrari GT California . " The insert shots of the Ferrari were of the real 250 GT California " , Hughes explains in the DVD commentary . " The cars we used in the wide shots were obviously reproductions . There were only 100 of these cars , so it was way too expensive to destroy . We had a number of replicas made . They were pretty good , but for the tight shots I needed a real one , so we brought one in to the stage and shot the inserts with it . "
Prior to filming , Hughes learned about Modena Design and Development who produced the Modena Spyder California , a replica of the Ferrari 250 GT . This prototype is now offered for US $ 79 @,@ 900 @.@ 00 on JamesEdition . Hughes saw a mention of the company in a car magazine and decided to research them . Neil Glassmoyer recalls the day Hughes contacted him to ask about seeing the Modena Spyder :
The first time he called I hung up on him because I thought it was a friend of mine who was given to practical jokes . Then he called back and convinced me it really was him , so Mark and I took the car to his office . While we were waiting outside to meet Hughes this scruffy @-@ looking fellow came out of the building and began looking the car over ; we thought from his appearance he must have been a janitor or something . Then he looked up at a window and shouted , ' This is it ! ' and several heads poked out to have a look . That scruffy @-@ looking fellow was John Hughes , and the people in the window were his staff . Turned out it was between the Modena Spyder and a Porsche Turbo , and Hughes chose the Modena .
Automobile restorationist Mark Goyette designed the kits for three reproductions used in the film and chronicled the whereabouts of the cars today :
" Built by Goyette and leased to Paramount for the filming . It 's the one that jumps over the camera , and is used in almost every shot . At the end of filming , Paramount returned it to Goyette , with the exhaust crushed and cracks in the body . " There was quite a bit of superficial damage , but it held up amazingly well " , he said . He rebuilt it , and sold it to a young couple in California . The husband later ran it off the road , and Goyette rebuilt the front end for him . That owner sold it in the mid @-@ 90s , and it turned up again around 2000 , but hasn 't emerged since . "
" Sold to Paramount as a kit for them to assemble as their stunt car , they did such a poor job that it was basically unusable , aside from going backwards out the window of Cameron 's house . Rebuilt , it ended up at Planet Hollywood in Minneapolis and was moved to Planet Hollywood in Cancun when this one was closed . "
" Another kit , supposed to be built as a shell for the out the window scene , it was never completed at all , and disappeared after the film was completed . Goyette thinks he once heard it was eventually completed and sold off , but it could also still be in a back lot at Paramount . "
One of the " replicars " was sold by Bonhams on April 19 , 2010 at the Royal Air Force Museum at Hendon , United Kingdom for £ 79 @,@ 600 .
The " replicar " was " universally hated by the crew " , said Ruck . " It didn 't work right . " The scene in which Ferris turns off the car to leave it with the garage attendant had to be shot a dozen times because it would not start . The car was built with a real wheel base , but used a Ford V8 engine instead of a V12 . At the time of filming , the original 250 GT California model was worth $ 350 @,@ 000 . Since the release of the film , it has become one of the most expensive cars ever sold , going at auction in 2008 for $ 10 @,@ 976 @,@ 000 and more recently in 2015 for $ 16 @,@ 830 @,@ 000 . The vanity plate of Cameron 's dad 's Ferrari spells NRVOUS and the other plates seen in the film are homages to Hughes 's earlier works , VCTN ( National Lampoon 's Vacation ) , TBC ( The Breakfast Club ) , MMOM ( Mr. Mom ) , as well as 4FBDO ( Ferris Bueller 's Day Off ) .
= = = = Economic lecture = = = =
Ben Stein 's famous monotonous lecture about the Smoot @-@ Hawley Tariff Act was not originally in Hughes 's script . Stein , by happenstance , was lecturing off @-@ camera to the amusement of the student cast . " I was just going to do it off camera , but the student extras laughed so hard when they heard my voice that ( Hughes ) said do it on camera , improvise , something you know a lot about . When I gave the lecture about supply @-@ side economics , I thought they were applauding . Everybody on the set applauded . I thought they were applauding because they had learned something about supply @-@ side economics . But they were applauding because they thought I was boring ... It was the best day of my life " , Stein said .
= = = = Parade scene = = = =
The parade scene took multiple days of filming ; Broderick spent some time practicing the dance moves . " I was very scared " , Broderick said . " Fortunately , the sequence was carefully choreographed beforehand . We worked out all the moves by rehearsing in a little studio . It was shot on two Saturdays in the heart of downtown Chicago . The first day was during a real parade , and
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Galván Gómez =
Benjamín Galván Gómez ( 10 June 1972 – 28 February 2014 ) was a Mexican businessman and politician of the Institutional Revolutionary Party ( PRI ) . He was the mayor of Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas , from 1 January 2011 to 30 September 2013 . His political projects focused on promoting education , improving the standards of living , and in bringing back a sense of public security to the citizens of the city . He also owned the newspapers Primera Hora and Última Hora . During his mayoral administration in Nuevo Laredo , Galván received numerous threats from organized crime . Five months after his term , he was kidnapped and killed by alleged members of the Los Zetas crime syndicate .
= = Early life and career = =
Benjamín Galván Gómez was born in Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas , Mexico , on 10 June 1972 . His parents were Benjamín Galván Maytonera and Martha Graciela Gómez . He was married to Martha Alicia Aldapa Campos and had three children . Galván graduated from the Autonomous University of Tamaulipas ( UAT ) in 1993 with a degree in Accounting , as well as from the Universidad Valle del Bravo with a degree in Law in 1997 .
As a businessman , Galván was the general @-@ director and owner of the newspapers Primera Hora and Última Hora . He also taught as a professor at the UAT and served as president of the Cruz Roja and Casa del Migrante in Nuevo Laredo . In politics , Galván held the following positions : head of the Fiscal Office of Tamaulipas in Nuevo Laredo , director of Protección Civil y Bomberos , director and delegate of the Tamaulipas Department of Tourism , member of the Binational Committee of Tourism , and leader of Frente Juvenil .
= = Mayoralty = =
From 1 January 2011 to 30 September 2013 , Galván served as the municipal president ( mayor ) of Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas , a border city on the U.S.-Mexico border . Sponsored by the Institutional Revolutionary Party ( PRI ) , Galván had won the mayoral election with 73 % of the votes , succeeding former Nuevo Laredo mayor Ramón Garza Barrios ( 2008 – 2010 ) . The PRI created a party coalition known as " Todos Tamaulipas " ( All Tamaulipas ) with the Ecologist Green Party of Mexico and the New Alliance Party . Galván won with 83 @,@ 250 votes in favor , while the runner @-@ up contender José Salvador Rosas Quintanilla of the National Action Party ( PAN ) received 22 @,@ 330 votes . The other candidates that ran for office were Everardo Quiroz Torres of the Party of the Democratic Revolution , who received 3 @,@ 917 votes ; Angélica López Quiroz of the Labor Party , who received 1 @,@ 138 ; and Jorge Alejandro García Amador of Convergence , who received 963 . Galván 's mayor pro tempore was Delfino Eduardo González Muñoz .
During his administration Galván said his projects were based on three main pillars : bringing back tranquility to Neolaredenses ( citizens of Nuevo Laredo ) ; improving employment and the standard of living ; and working to promote education . In his first annual government speech after a year in office , Galván talked about the administration 's projects in security , financing , and public works . He stated that by the end of 2011 , the Nuevo Laredo municipal government managed to reduce its debt by 600 million pesos ( equivalent to US $ 45 @,@ 826 @,@ 200 ) . In coordination with the state government and federal authorities , he emphasized the importance of Operation Security Tamaulipas for crime prevention in Nuevo Laredo . In his second annual speech , he talked about the projects carried out in his administration , recognizing that public debt and security were the biggest challenges and priorities in his term . In his third and final annual speech , Galván talked about the city 's advances in infrastructure and other public works . City officials , including politicians from other parties and the mayor of Laredo , Texas , Raul G. Salinas , graded Galván 's term as " Good " .
In his term Galván inaugurated the Dr. Rodolfo Torre Cantú Auditorium with a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ seat capacity and the future home stadium of the Toros de Nuevo Laredo basketball team ; the Unidad Deportiva Benito Juárez ( Benito Juárez Sport Complex ) , the home stadium of the Bravos de Nuevo Laredo football club ; Nuevo Laredo 's first aquarium in Parque Viveros and its first amusement park with mechanical dinosaurs and other educational attractions at Park Narcisco Mendoza , as well as the reconstruction of other installations for social events . In the last year of his administration , however , the Superior Audit Office of Mexico , the audit office of the Mexican federal government , discovered two irregularities in the city 's spending and budget .
On 30 September 2013 , at the end of his mayoral administration , Galván was succeeded by Carlos Enrique Canturosas Villarreal of the PAN .
= = = Threats from organized crime = = =
During his tenure as mayor , Galván received death threats from organized crime . Nuevo Laredo has been the battleground among Mexico 's drug trafficking organizations given its proximity to the U.S – Mexico border and Interstate 35 , a lucrative route where most of the cocaine , marijuana and methamphetamine that reaches the United States are smuggled through . In May 2012 , alleged organized crime members left the headless corpses of 14 men inside a vehicle near the Nuevo Laredo city hall . Alongside the corpses was a written message reportedly from the Sinaloa Cartel that accused Galván and other city officials of working for Los Zetas ( such accusations between gangsters and local officials are common in Mexico ) . In June 2012 , a car bomb detonated outside the Nuevo Laredo city hall at Galván 's parking area , injuring several bystanders . On February 2013 , the Nuevo Laredo police chief Roberto Alejandro Balmori Garza was kidnapped and his two brothers were found dead . He had been appointed by Galván as head of the police in 2011 following the murder of Manuel Farfán Carriola , the former police chief of Nuevo Laredo .
In an interview held in 2013 , Galván said that Nuevo Laredo , aside from the violence generated by organized crime , was plagued with extortions , armed robberies , car hijackings , and regular thefts . He recognized that restoring public safety was possible , but reiterated that it was a difficult and long process for all branches of the government . Among the solutions he proposed was the reconstruction of Nuevo Laredo 's social fiber , since he believed that that would keep the younger generations and those suffering from poverty away from the lure of organized crime . Galván admitted that the Nuevo Laredo police force was composed entirely of members of the Mexican Armed Forces , the Federal Police , and Tamaulipas state law enforcement and not by municipal police officers , who had all been suspended for investigation and training . However , he said that the military had a role to play , but that he wanted to see civilian forces step up to the job in the future .
= = Kidnapping and death = =
As Galván left a Farmacia Guadalajara drugstore near his home in Nuevo Laredo , Tamaulipas , on the evening of 27 February 2014 , he was kidnapped along with businessman Miguel Ángel Ortiz . His vehicle was discovered abandoned with open doors in the pharmacy 's parking lot by his wife . The following day , a disfigured corpse found in the trunk of a pickup truck in the town of García , Nuevo León , was taken to the hospital of the Autonomous University of Nuevo León . After more than a month of forensic examination , experts officially identified the corpse as that of Galván on 31 March 2014 . Post @-@ mortem reports concluded that Galván had been tortured before being killed with a coup de grâce . The exact location of Galván 's murder remains unknown , although authorities tend to believe he was most likely killed in Tamaulipas .
On 11 March 2014 , Mexican authorities arrested Carlos Pérez González , a former member of the Mexican Army Special Forces and ex @-@ policeman from Nuevo León , for his involvement in Galván 's murder . Pérez González confessed following his arrest , alleging that Los Zetas had recruited him . The police reported that unidentified gangsters ordered Pérez González and Oziel Enrique Medina Rangel ( alias " El Trompas " ) to transport the former mayor 's corpse through Nuevo León and into Coahuila state . But because of law enforcement surveillance on their planned route , they abandoned the truck with Galván 's corpse in García , Nuevo León . For disobeying those orders , organized crime members killed " El Trompas " and dumped his body in Salinas Victoria .
On 17 March 2014 , José Isidro Cruz Villarreal ( alias " El Pichilo " ) was arrested for his involvement in the murder . Investigators believe he was one of the men in charge of ordering Pérez González and " El Trompas " to transport the body to Coahuila . " El Pichilo " , who had escaped from prison during the Apodaca prison riot in 2012 , was arrested following information provided by Pérez González . On 12 April 2014 , Pérez González was stabbed to death by unknown assailants in the restroom area at the Topo Chico prison in Monterrey .
The kidnapping and murder of the former mayor came as a surprise to some law enforcement authorities given the fact that Galván was living a seemingly ordinary life as a citizen of Laredo – Nuevo Laredo border area . " He didn 't have to worry about anything and then he gets kidnapped " , said Webb County Sheriff Martin Cuellar . The authorities believe that the attack was perpetrated by Los Zetas , but the motives behind the incident remain unknown .
= = = Funeral = = =
Hundreds of people , including family members , friends , local citizens , and politicians , attended Galván 's funeral at the Catholic Catedral del Espíritu Santo in Nuevo Laredo on 4 April 2014 . Nuevo Laredo bishop Gustavo Rodríguez Vega and Laredo , Texas bishop James Anthony Tamayo jointly conducted the mass , assisted by 12 priests . Following the ceremony , the former mayor was buried at the Panteón de Los Ángeles cemetery .
= Chicago Pile @-@ 1 =
Chicago Pile @-@ 1 ( CP @-@ 1 ) was the world 's first nuclear reactor to achieve criticality . Its construction was part of the Manhattan Project , the Allied effort to create atomic bombs during World War II . It was built by the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago , under the west viewing stands of the original Stagg Field . The first man @-@ made self @-@ sustaining nuclear chain reaction was initiated in CP @-@ 1 on 2 December 1942 , under the supervision of Enrico Fermi , who described the apparatus as " a crude pile of black bricks and wooden timbers " .
The reactor was assembled in November 1942 , by a team that included Fermi , Leo Szilard , discoverer of the chain reaction , and Herbert L. Anderson , Walter Zinn , Martin D. Whitaker , and George Weil . It contained 45 @,@ 000 graphite blocks weighing 400 short tons ( 360 t ) used as a neutron moderator , and was fueled by 6 short tons ( 5 @.@ 4 t ) of uranium metal and 50 short tons ( 45 t ) of uranium oxide . In the pile , some of the free neutrons produced by the natural decay of uranium were absorbed by other uranium atoms , causing nuclear fission of those atoms , and the release of additional free neutrons . Unlike most subsequent nuclear reactors , it had no radiation shield or cooling system as it only operated at very low power . The shape of the pile was intended to be roughly spherical , but as work proceeded Fermi calculated that critical mass could be achieved without finishing the entire pile as planned .
In 1943 , CP @-@ 1 was moved to Red Gate Woods , and reconfigured to become Chicago Pile @-@ 2 ( CP @-@ 2 ) . There , it was operated until 1954 , when it was dismantled and buried . The stands at Stagg Field were demolished in August 1957 , but the site is now a National Historic Landmark and a Chicago Landmark .
= = Origins = =
The idea of chemical chain reactions was first put forth in 1913 by the German chemist Max Bodenstein for a situation in which two molecules react to form not just the molecules of the final reaction products , but also some unstable molecules which can further react with the parent molecules to cause more molecules to react . The concept of a nuclear chain reaction was first hypothesized by the Hungarian scientist Leo Szilard on 12 September 1933 . Szilard realized that if a nuclear reaction produced neutrons or dineutrons , which then caused further nuclear reactions , the process might be self @-@ perpetuating . Szilard proposed using mixtures of lighter known isotopes which produced neutrons in copious amounts , although he did entertain the possibility of using uranium as a fuel . He filed a patent for his idea of a simple nuclear reactor the following year . The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938 , followed by its theoretical explanation ( and naming ) by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch , opened up the possibility of creating a nuclear chain reaction with uranium or indium , but initial experiments were unsuccessful .
In order for a chain reaction to occur , additional neutrons had to be emitted from fissioning uranium atoms . At Columbia University in New York , Enrico Fermi , John Dunning , Herbert L. Anderson , Eugene T. Booth , G. Norris Glasoe , and Francis G. Slack conducted the first nuclear fission experiment in the United States on 25 January 1939 . Subsequent work confirmed that fast neutrons were indeed produced by fission . Szilard obtained permission from the head of the Physics Department at Columbia , George B. Pegram , to use a laboratory for three months , and persuaded Walter Zinn to become his collaborator . They conducted a simple experiment on the seventh floor of Pupin Hall at Columbia , using a radium @-@ beryllium source to bombard uranium with neutrons . They discovered significant neutron multiplication in natural uranium , proving that a chain reaction might be possible .
As a neutron moderator , Szilard suggested Fermi use carbon in the form of graphite . Szilard felt he would need about 50 tonnes ( 49 long tons ; 55 short tons ) of graphite and 5 tonnes ( 4 @.@ 9 long tons ; 5 @.@ 5 short tons ) of uranium . As a back @-@ up plan , he also considered where to find a few tons of heavy water ; deuterium would not absorb neutrons like ordinary hydrogen , and was a better moderator than carbon , but was difficult and expensive to produce . Fermi and Szilard still believed that enormous quantities of uranium would be required for an atomic bomb , and therefore concentrated on producing a controlled chain reaction . Fermi determined that a fissioning uranium atom produced 1 @.@ 73 neutrons on average . It was enough , but a careful design was called for to minimize losses .
Fermi and Szilard met with representatives of National Carbon Company , who manufactured the graphite , and Szilard made another important discovery . By quizzing them about impurities in their graphite , he found that it contained boron , a neutron absorber . He then had graphite manufacturers produce boron @-@ free graphite . Had he not done so , they might have concluded , as the Germans did , that graphite was unsuitable for use as a neutron moderator .
= = Government support = =
Szilard drafted a confidential letter to the President , Franklin D. Roosevelt , explaining the possibility of nuclear weapons , warning of a German nuclear weapon project , and encouraging the development of a program that could result in their creation . With the help of Eugene Wigner and Edward Teller , he approached his old friend and collaborator Albert Einstein in August 1939 , and convinced him to sign the letter , lending his fame to the proposal . The Einstein – Szilard letter resulted in the establishment of research into nuclear fission by the U.S. government . An Advisory Committee on Uranium was formed under Lyman J. Briggs , a scientist and the director of the National Bureau of Standards . Its first meeting on 21 October 1939 , was attended by Szilard , Teller and Wigner , who persuaded the Army and Navy to provide $ 6 @,@ 000 for Szilard to purchase supplies for experiments — in particular , more graphite .
In April 1941 , the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) , created a special project headed by physicist , Arthur Compton , a Nobel @-@ Prize @-@ winning professor at the University of Chicago , to report on the uranium program . Compton 's report , submitted in May 1941 , foresaw the prospects of developing radiological weapons , nuclear propulsion for ships , and nuclear weapons using uranium @-@ 235 or the recently discovered plutonium . In October he wrote another report on the practicality of an atomic bomb . For this report , he worked with Fermi on calculations of the critical mass of uranium @-@ 235 . He also discussed the prospects for uranium enrichment with Harold Urey .
Niels Bohr and John Wheeler had theorized that heavy isotopes with odd atomic numbers were fissile . If so , then plutonium @-@ 239 was likely to be . In May 1941 , Emilio Segrè and Glenn Seaborg at the University of California produced 28 μg of plutonium in the 60 @-@ inch cyclotron there , and found that it had 1 @.@ 7 times the thermal neutron capture cross section of uranium @-@ 235 . At the time only such minute quantities of plutonium @-@ 239 had been produced , in cyclotrons , and it was not possible to produce a sufficiently large quantity that way . Compton discussed with Wigner how plutonium might be produced in a nuclear reactor , and with Robert Serber about how the plutonium produced in a reactor might be separated from uranium . His report , submitted in November , stated that a bomb was feasible .
The final draft of Compton 's November 1941 report made no mention of using plutonium , but after discussing the latest research with Ernest Lawrence , Compton became convinced that a plutonium bomb was also feasible . In December , Compton was placed in charge of the plutonium project . Its objectives were to produce reactors to convert uranium to plutonium , to find ways to chemically separate the plutonium from the uranium , and to design and build an atomic bomb . It fell to Compton to decide which of the different types of reactor designs that the scientists should pursue , even though a successful reactor had not yet been built . He proposed a schedule to achieve a controlled nuclear chain reaction by January 1943 , and to have an atomic bomb by January 1945 .
= = Development = =
In a nuclear reactor , criticality is achieved when the rate of neutron production is equal to the rate of neutron losses , including both neutron absorption and neutron leakage . Thus , in the simplest case of a bare , homogeneous , steady state nuclear reactor , the neutron leakage and neutron absorption must be equal to neutron production in order to reach criticality . The critical radius of an unreflected , homogeneous , spherical reactor was calculated to be :
<formula>
where M is the migration area and k is the medium neutron multiplication factor . The first generation of the reaction will produce k neutrons , the second will produce k2 , the third k3 and so on . In order for a self @-@ sustaining nuclear chain reaction to occur , k must be greater than 1 . For a practical reactor configuration , it needs to be at least 3 or 4 percent more .
Fermi christened his apparatus a " pile " . Emilio Segrè later recalled that :
I thought for a while that this term was used to refer to a source of nuclear energy in analogy with Volta 's use of the Italian term pila to denote his own great invention of a source of electrical energy . I was disillusioned by Fermi himself , who told me that he simply used the common English word pile as synonymous with heap . To my surprise , Fermi never seemed to have thought of the relationship between his pile and Volta 's .
Another grant , this time of $ 40 @,@ 000 , was obtained from the S @-@ 1 Uranium Committee to purchase more materials , and in August 1941 Fermi began to plan for a new test . The pile he proposed to build was 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) long , 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) wide and 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) high . This was too large to fit in the Pupin Physics Laboratories . Fermi recalled that :
We went to Dean Pegram , who was then the man who could carry out magic around the University , and we explained to him that we needed a big room . He scouted around the campus and we went with him to dark corridors and under various heating pipes and so on , to visit possible sites for this experiment and eventually a big room was discovered in Schermerhorn Hall .
The pile was built in September 1941 from 4 @-@ by @-@ 4 @-@ by @-@ 12 @-@ inch ( 10 by 10 by 30 cm ) graphite blocks and tinplate iron cans of uranium oxide . The cans were 8 @-@ by @-@ 8 @-@ by @-@ 8 @-@ inch ( 20 by 20 by 20 cm ) cubes . When filled with uranium oxide , each weighed about 60 pounds ( 27 kg ) . There were 288 cans in all , and each was surrounded by graphite blocks so the whole would form a lattice structure . The uranium oxide was heated to remove moisture , and packed into the cans while still hot on a shaking table . The cans were then soldered shut . For a workforce , Pegram secured the services of Columbia 's football team . It was the custom at the time for football players to perform odd jobs around the university . They were able to manipulate the heavy cans with ease . The final result was a disappointing k of 0 @.@ 87 .
Compton felt that having teams at Columbia University , Princeton University , the University of Chicago and the University of California was creating too much duplication and not enough collaboration , and he resolved to concentrate the work in one location . Nobody wanted to move , and everybody argued in favor of their own location . In January 1942 , soon after the United States entered World War II , Compton decided on his own location , the University of Chicago , where he knew he had the unstinting support of university administration . Other factors in the decision were that scientists , technicians and facilities were more readily available in the Midwest , where war work had not yet taken them away , and Chicago 's central location . In contrast , Columbia University was engaged in uranium enrichment efforts under Harold Urey and John Dunning , and was hesitant to add a third secret project .
Before leaving for Chicago , Fermi 's team made one last attempt to build a working pile at Columbia . Since the cans had absorbed neutrons , they were dispensed with . Instead , the uranium oxide , heated to 480 ° F ( 249 ° C ) to dry it out , was pressed into cylindrical holes 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) long and 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) in diameter drilled into the graphite . The entire pile was then canned by soldering sheet metal around it , and the contents heated above the boiling point of water to remove moisture . The result was a k of 0 @.@ 918 .
= = Choice of site = =
In Chicago , Samuel K. Allison had found a suitable space 60 feet ( 18 m ) long , 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide and 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) high , sunk slightly below ground level , in a space under the stands at Stagg Field originally built as a rackets court . Stagg Field had been largely unused since the University of Chicago had given up playing American football in 1939 , but the rackets courts under West Stands were still used for playing squash and handball . Leona Woods and Anthony L. Turkevich played squash there in 1940 . Being intended for strenuous exercise , the area was unheated . The nearby North Stands had a pair of ice skating rinks on the ground floor , which although unrefrigerated , seldom melted in winter . Allison used the rackets court area to construct a 7 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) experimental pile before Fermi 's group arrived in 1942 .
The United States Army Corps of Engineers assumed control of the nuclear weapons program in June 1942 , and Compton 's Metallurgical Laboratory became part of what came to be called the Manhattan Project . Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr. became director of the Manhattan Project on 23 September 1942 . He visited the Metallurgical Laboratory for the first time on 5 October . Between 15 September and 15 November 1942 , groups under Herbert Anderson and Walter Zinn constructed 16 experimental piles under the Stagg Field stands .
Fermi designed a new pile , which would be spherical to maximize k , which was predicted to be around 1 @.@ 04 , thereby achieving criticality . Leona Woods completed her doctoral thesis and then was detailed to build boron trifluoride neutron detectors . She also helped Anderson locate the large number of 4 @-@ by @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 10 by 15 cm ) timbers required at lumber yards in Chicago 's south side . Shipments of high @-@ purity graphite arrived , mainly from National Carbon , and high @-@ purity uranium dioxide from Mallinckrodt in St Louis , which was now producing 30 short tons ( 27 t ) a month . Metallic uranium also began arriving in larger quantities , the product of newly developed techniques .
On 25 June , the Army and the Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) had selected a site in the Argonne Forest near Chicago for a plutonium pilot plant . This became known as Site A. 1 @,@ 025 acres ( 415 ha ) were leased from Cook County in August , but by September it was apparent that the proposed facilities would be too extensive for the site , and it was decided to build the pilot plant elsewhere . The subcritical piles posed little danger , but Groves felt that it would be prudent to locate a critical pile — a fully functional nuclear reactor — at a more remote site . A building at Argonne to house Fermi 's experimental pile was commenced , with its completion scheduled for 20 October . Due to industrial disputes , construction fell behind schedule , and it became clear the materials for Fermi 's new pile would be on hand before the new structure was completed . In early November , Fermi came to Compton with a proposal to build the experimental pile under the stands at Stagg Field .
The safety of building an operational reactor running at criticality in a populated area was a significant issue . However , the physics of the system suggested that the pile could be safely shut down even in the event of a runaway reaction . When a fuel atom undergoes fission , it releases neutrons that strike other fuel atoms and leads to the chain reaction . The time between absorbing the neutron and undergoing fission is measured in nanoseconds , often using a convenient unit for this purpose , the shake . Szilard had noted that this reaction leaves behind fission products that may also release neutrons , but do so over much longer periods , from microseconds to as long as minutes . In a slow reaction like the one in a pile where the fission products build up , these neutrons account for about three percent of the total flux .
Fermi argued that by using these delayed neutrons , and by carefully controlling the reaction rates as the power is ramped up , a pile can reach criticality at fission rates slightly below that of a chain reaction relying solely on the prompt neutrons from the fission reactions . Since the rate of release of these neutrons depends on fission events taking place some time earlier , there is a delay between any power spikes and the later criticality event . This time gives the operators leeway ; if a spike in the prompt neutron flux is seen , they have several minutes before this causes a runaway reaction . If a neutron absorber , or neutron poison , is injected at any time during this period , the reactor will shut down . Compton felt this delay was enough to provide a critical margin of safety , and allowed Fermi to build Chicago Pile @-@ 1 at Stagg Field . There was a fear of a catastrophic nuclear meltdown blanketing one of the United States ' major urban areas in radioactive fission products .
Compton later explained that :
As a responsible officer of the University of Chicago , according to every rule of organizational protocol , I should have taken the matter to my superior . But this would have been unfair . President Hutchins was in no position to make an independent judgment of the hazards involved . Based on considerations of the University 's welfare , the only answer he could have given would have been — no . And this answer would have been wrong .
Compton informed Groves of his decision at the 14 November meeting of the S @-@ 1 Executive Committee . Although Groves " had serious misgivings about the wisdom of Compton 's suggestion " , he did not interfere . James Bryant Conant , the chairman of the NDRC , was reported to have turned white . But because of the urgency and their confidence in Fermi ’ s calculations , no one objected .
= = Construction = =
Chicago Pile 1 was encased within a balloon so that the air inside could be replaced by carbon dioxide . Anderson had a dark gray balloon manufactured by Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company . A 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) cube @-@ shaped balloon was somewhat unusual , but the Manhattan Project 's AAA priority rating ensured prompt delivery with no questions asked . A block and tackle was used to haul it into place , with the top secured to the ceiling and three sides to the walls . The remaining side , the one facing the balcony from which Fermi directed the operation , was furled like an awning . A circle was drawn on the floor , and the stacking of graphite blocks began on the morning of 16 November 1942 . The first layer placed was made up entirely of graphite blocks , with no uranium . Layers without uranium were alternated with two layers containing uranium , so the uranium was enclosed in graphite . Unlike later reactors , it had no radiation shielding or cooling system , as it was only intended to be operated at very low power .
The work was carried out in twelve @-@ hour shifts , with a day shift under Zinn and a night shift under Anderson . For a work force they hired thirty high school dropouts that were eager to earn a bit of money before being drafted into the Army . They machined 45 @,@ 000 graphite blocks enclosing 19 @,@ 000 pieces of uranium metal and uranium oxide . The graphite arrived from the manufacturers in 4 @.@ 25 @-@ by @-@ 4 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 10 @.@ 8 by 10 @.@ 8 cm ) bars of various lengths . They were cut into standard lengths of 16 @.@ 5 inches ( 42 cm ) , each weighing 19 pounds ( 8 @.@ 6 kg ) . A lathe was used to drill 3 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 8 @.@ 3 cm ) holes in the blocks for the control rods and the uranium . A hydraulic press was used to shape the uranium oxide into " pseudospheres " , cylinders with rounded ends . Drill bits had to be sharpened after each 60 holes , which worked out to be about once an hour . Graphite dust soon filled the air and made the floor slippery .
Another group , under Volney C. Wilson , was responsible for instrumentation . They also fabricated the control rods , which were cadmium sheets nailed to flat wooden strips , cadmium being a potent neutron absorber , and the scram line , a Manila rope that when cut would drop a control rod into the pile and stop the reaction . Richard Fox , who made the control @-@ rod mechanism for the pile , remarked that the manual speed control that the operator had over the rods was simply a variable resistor , controlling an electric motor that would spool the " clothesline " wire over a pulley that also had two lead weights attached to ensure it would ' fail @-@ safe " and return to its zero position when released .
About two layers were laid per shift . Woods ' boron trifluoride neutron counter was inserted at the 15th layer . Thereafter , readings were taken at the end of each shift . Fermi divided the square of the radius of the pile by the intensity of the radioactivity to obtain a metric that counted down to one as the pile approached criticality . At the 15th layer , it was 390 ; at the 19th it was 320 ; at the 25th it was 270 and by the 36th it was only 149 . The original design was for a spherical pile , but as work proceeded , it became clear that this would not be necessary . The graphite was now more pure than hitherto , and 6 short tons ( 5 @.@ 4 t ) of very pure metallic uranium began to arrive from the Ames Project at Iowa State University , where a team under Frank Spedding had developed a new process to produce uranium metal . Westinghouse Lamp Plant supplied 3 short tons ( 2 @.@ 7 t ) , which it produced in a rush with a makeshift process .
The 2 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 7 cm ) metallic uranium cylinders , known as " Spedding 's eggs " , were dropped in the holes in the graphite in lieu of the uranium oxide pseudoshperes . The process of filling the balloon with carbon dioxide would not be necessary , and twenty layers could be dispensed with . According to Fermi 's new calculations , the countdown would reach 1 between the 56th and 57th layers . The resulting pile was therefore flatter on the top than on the bottom . Anderson called a halt after the 57th layer was placed . When completed , the wooden frame supported an elliptical @-@ shaped structure , 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high , 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide at the ends and 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) across the middle . It contained 6 short tons ( 5 @.@ 4 t ) of uranium metal , 50 short tons ( 45 t ) of uranium oxide and 400 short tons ( 360 t ) of graphite , at an estimated cost of $ 2 @.@ 7 million .
= = First nuclear chain reaction = =
The next day , 2 December 1942 , everybody assembled for the experiment . There were 49 scientists present . Although most of the S @-@ 1 Executive Committee was in Chicago , only Crawford Greenewalt was present , at Compton 's invitation . Other dignitaries present included Szilard , Wigner and Spedding . Fermi , Compton , Anderson and Zinn gathered around the controls on the balcony , which was originally intended as a viewing platform . Samuel Allison stood ready with a bucket of concentrated cadmium nitride , which he was to throw over the pile in the event of an emergency . The start up began at 09 : 54 . Walter Zinn removed the zip , the emergency control rod , and secured it . Norman Hilberry stood ready with an axe to cut the scram line , which would allow the zip to fall under the influence of gravity . While Leona Woods called out the count from the boron trifluoride detector in a loud voice , George Weil , the only one on the floor , withdrew all but one of the control rods . At 10 : 37 Fermi ordered Weil to remove all but 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) of the last control rod . Weil withdrew it 6 inches ( 15 cm ) at a time , with measurements being taken at each step .
The process was abruptly halted by the automatic control rod reinserting itself , due to its trip level being set too low . At 11 : 25 , Fermi ordered the control rods reinserted . He then announced that it was lunch time .
The experiment resumed at 14 : 00 . Weil worked the final control rod while Fermi carefully monitored the neutron activity . Fermi announced that the pile had gone critical ( reached a self @-@ sustaining reaction ) at 15 : 25 . Fermi switched the scale on the recorder to accommodate the rapidly increasing electrical current from the beryllium trifluoride detectors . He wanted to test the control circuits but after 28 minutes , the alarm bells went off to notify everyone that the neutron flux had passed the preset safety level , and he ordered Zinn to release the zip . The reaction rapidly halted . The pile had run for about 4 @.@ 5 minutes at about 0 @.@ 5 watts . Wigner opened a bottle of Chianti , which they drank from paper cups .
Compton notified Conant by telephone . The conversation was in an impromptu code :
Compton : The Italian navigator has landed in the New World .
Conant : How were the natives ?
Compton : Very friendly .
= = Later operation = =
On 12 December 1942 CP @-@ 1 's power output was increased to 200 W , enough to power a light bulb ; but lacking shielding of any kind , it was a radiation hazard for everyone in the vicinity . Thereafter , testing was continued , but at 0 @.@ 5 W. Operation was terminated on 28 February 1943 , and the pile was dismantled and moved to Site A in the Argonne Forest , now known as Red Gate Woods . There the original materials were used to build Chicago Pile @-@ 2 ( CP @-@ 2 ) . Instead of being spherical , the new reactor was built in a cube @-@ like shape , about 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) tall with a base approximately 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) square . It was surrounded by concrete walls 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) thick that acted as a radiation shield , with overhead protection from 6 inches ( 15 cm ) of lead and 50 inches ( 130 cm ) of wood . More uranium was used , so it contained 52 short tons ( 47 t ) of uranium and 472 short tons ( 428 t ) of graphite . No cooling system was provided as it only ran at a few kilowatts . CP @-@ 2 became operational in March 1943 , with a k of 1 @.@ 055 . During the war Zinn allowed CP @-@ 2 to be run around the clock , and its design made it easy to conduct experiments . CP @-@ 2 was joined by Chicago Pile @-@ 3 , the first heavy water reactor , which went critical on 15 May 1944 .
The reactors were used to undertake research related to weapons , such as investigations of the properties of tritium . Wartime experiments included measuring the neutron absorption cross @-@ section of elements and compounds . Albert Wattenberg recalled that about 10 elements were studied each month , and 75 over the course of a year . An accident involving radium and beryllium powder caused a dangerous drop in his white blood cell count that lasted for three years . As the dangers of things such as inhaling uranium oxide became more apparent , experiments were conducted on the effects of radioactive substances on laboratory test animals .
The Red Gate Woods later became the original site of Argonne National Laboratory , which replaced the Metallurgical Laboratory on 1 July 1946 , with Zinn as its first director . CP @-@ 2 and CP @-@ 3 operated for ten years before they outlived their usefulness , and Zinn ordered them shut down on 15 May 1954 . Their remaining usable fuel was transferred to Chicago Pile @-@ 5 at the Argonne National Laboratory 's new site in DuPage County , and the CP @-@ 2 and CP @-@ 3 reactors were dismantled in 1955 and 1956 . High @-@ level nuclear waste such as fuel and heavy water were shipped to Oak Ridge , Tennessee , for disposal . The rest was encased in concrete and buried in a 40 @-@ foot @-@ deep ( 12 m ) trench in what is now known as the Site A / Plot M Disposal Site . It is marked by a commemorative boulder .
By the 1970s there was increased public concern about the levels of radioactivity at the site , which was used by the local residents for recreational purposes . Surveys conducted in the 1980s found strontium @-@ 90 in the soil at Plot M , trace amounts of tritium in nearby wells , and plutonium , technetium , cesium , and uranium in the area . In 1994 , the United States Department of Energy and the Argonne National Laboratory yielded to public pressure and earmarked $ 24 @.@ 7 million and $ 3 @.@ 4 million respectively to rehabilitate the site . As part of the clean up , 500 cubic yards ( 380 m3 ) of radioactive waste was removed and sent to the Hanford Site for disposal . By 2002 , the Illinois Department of Public Health had determined that the remaining materials posed no danger to public health .
= = Significance and commemoration = =
A commemorative plaque was unveiled at Stagg Field on 2 December 1952 , the occasion of the tenth anniversary of CP @-@ 1 going critical . It read :
On December 2 , 1942 man achieved here the first self @-@ sustaining chain reaction and thereby initiated the controlled release of nuclear energy .
The plaque was saved when the West Stands were demolished in August 1957 . The site of CP @-@ 1 was designated as a National Historic Landmark on 18 February 1965 . When the National Register of Historic Places was created in 1966 , it was immediately added to that as well . The site was also named a Chicago Landmark on 27 October 1971 .
Today the site of the old Stagg Field is occupied by the University 's Regenstein Library , which was opened in 1970 , and the Joe and Rika Mansueto Library , which was opened in 2011 . A Henry Moore sculpture , Nuclear Energy , stands in a small quadrangle just outside the Regenstein Library . It was dedicated on 2 December 1967 , to commemorate the 25th anniversary of CP @-@ 1 going critical . The commemorative plaques from 1952 , 1965 and 1967 are nearby . A graphite block from CP @-@ 1 can be seen at the Bradbury Science Museum in Los Alamos , New Mexico ; another is on display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago .
= 7th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 7th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . Raised in 1914 as part of the Australian Imperial Force during the First World War , the battalion was completely recruited from the state of Victoria and formed the 2nd Brigade , 1st Division . The battalion served during the Gallipoli campaign where it had the distinction of having four of its members awarded the Victoria Cross . In 1916 , it was transferred to Europe , fighting in the trenches along the Western Front for the next two and a half years .
Although disbanded in 1919 following the end of hostilities , it was re @-@ raised in 1921 in the Citizens Force ( later known as the Militia ) as a part @-@ time infantry battalion based in Victoria . However , due to lack of funding following the Great Depression and a shortage of manpower following the suspension of the compulsory training scheme in 1929 , the battalion was amalgamated with the 38th Battalion as the 7th / 38th Battalion , although it was delinked again in 1936 when the Army was expanded due to rising tensions in Europe .
During the Second World War , the 7th Battalion served primarily in a garrison role , firstly being used to defend the Australian mainland before deploying late in the war to take part in the Bougainville campaign in 1944 – 45 . On Bougainville , as part of the 23rd Brigade , they took part in the fighting in the central sector of the island in the last months of the war . Following the end of hostilities , the battalion was once again used in the garrison role before being returned to Australia and disbanding in early 1946 .
In 1948 , the battalion was re @-@ raised as an amalgamated unit with the 8th Battalion when the Citizens Military Force was reformed . Today , it exists as the 8th / 7th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = First World War = = =
= = = = Formation = = = =
Following the outbreak of the First World War , the Australian government decided to raise an all volunteer force for overseas service due to the provisions of the Defence Act ( 1903 ) which precluded sending the Militia outside of Australian territory to fight . While this force would draw from the military forces that already existed — the part @-@ time Citizens Force and the Permanent Military Force — it would be largely be made up from recruits not currently serving . Known as the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) , initially it was to consist of 20 @,@ 000 men , comprising one infantry division and a light horse brigade . Recruitment for the first intake began on 10 August 1914 , and the 7th Battalion was among the first units raised , forming less than a fortnight after the declaration of war .
Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Harold Elliot , the battalion was brigaded with the 5th , 6th and 8th Battalions to form the 2nd Brigade under Brigadier James Whiteside McCay . Elliott took personal control over the recruitment process , selecting only those officers that he had known from his service in the Citizens Forces as his company commanders , who he in turn entrusted with choosing their own subordinates . Recruitment was conducted over a period of three weeks and by the end of the period the process had been so successful that the battalion was over establishment . Initially , the battalion was organised into eight companies , designated ' A ' to ' H ' , while recruitment and initial training was undertaken at Broadmeadows , however , this was later reduced to the standard four companies , designated ' A ' to ' D ' .
= = = = Gallipoli = = = =
In September the battalion marched through the city of Melbourne and a fortnight later they embarked upon HMT Hororata bound for the Middle East . They arrived in Egypt on 2 December 1914 after which they undertook further training before being called to undertake defensive duties along the Suez Canal following the failed Turkish First Suez Offensive in February 1915 . However the battalion did not take part in direct combat , and during this time a number of the its non commissioned officers were allowed to apply for commissions in British Army units .
In early April the battalion was moved to Alexandria and from there on to Lemnos Island . On the morning of 25 April 1915 , the battalion took part in the Landing at Anzac Cove , coming ashore as part of the second wave . Over the course of the first week the battalion was involved in establishing the beachhead and suffered heavily , losing five officers and 179 men killed or died of wounds . This was higher than any other subsequent battle that the battalion fought during the war . On 29 April , the 2nd Brigade was relieved by the 12th ( Deal ) Battalion and in early May the battalion was able to reorganise itself after its baptism of fire . The respite did not last long , however , for only ten days after the landing at Anzac Cove , the 2nd Brigade was transferred to Cape Helles in order to take part in an attack on Krithia on 8 May 1915 . The attack was a very costly failure , with the battalion losing a further six officers and 87 men killed . Nevertheless , they were involved in what is believed to be the first brigade @-@ level attack conducted by an Australian force against an entrenched enemy and the attack earned the Victorians many plaudits .
After the attack the battalion was given a weeks rest at Cape Helles , where it received a number of reinforcements before being sent back to the lodgement at Anzac Cove , where a stalemate situation had developed . In an effort to break this deadlock , the Allies launched an offensive in August and the battalion took part in the Battle of Lone Pine . After taking over positions that had been captured by the 1st Brigade , the battalion defended the trenches against repeated Turkish counterattacks and , in the process , four of its members performed acts of gallantry that later led to them receiving the Victoria Cross ( VC ) , the nation 's highest military decoration . These men were : Corporal Alexander Stewart Burton , Corporal William Dunstan , Lieutenant William John Symons and Captain Frederick Harold Tubb . During this fighting , the 7th Battalion lost 87 men killed .
Despite the battalion 's success in holding the trenches at Lone Pine , the August Offensive failed to break the deadlock as setbacks elsewhere resulted in continued stalemate and for the rest of the campaign the fighting was relatively static . Finally , in December the decision was made to evacuate the Allied force from the peninsula . During the evacuation , two of the battalion 's soldiers , William Scurry and Alfred ' Buntie ' Lawrence played a significant part through their invention of a self @-@ firing rifle , which assisted in making the Turks believe that there were still men manning the trenches even as they were being evacuated .
= = = = Western Front = = = =
After Gallipoli the 7th Battalion was withdrawn to Egypt , where the AIF underwent a period of reorganisation and expansion prior to being transferred to Europe . The 7th Battalion was split to provide a cadre for the 59th Battalion which was being raised as part of the doubling of the Australian forces . In March 1916 , they sailed to France where for the next two and half years they would take part in the fighting in the trenches along the Western Front . Upon arrival , the battalion was sent to the Somme , where its first major action came in July during the Battle of Pozières . Throughout July and into August , the battalion was committed to the fighting twice , losing 55 men killed in the first battle and another 83 in the second .
In late August , the 7th Battalion , with a frontage equal to just over half its authorised strength , was transferred to Ypres , in Belgium , where they manned trenches near the Ypres – Commines canal . During this time they were not involved in any major attacks , however , each night they sent patrols out into no man 's land and established listening posts to gather intelligence . On 30 September , the 7th Battalion , along with its sister battalion , the 8th Battalion , mounted a raid on the German line at Hollebeke with a force roughly equivalent to two platoons . The raid was a great success , with the Australians overwhelming the defenders and capturing a section of the German line and killing up to 13 Germans , before withdrawing .
In October , the battalion returned to the Somme where they spent the winter months manning trenches and training . In early 1917 , precipitated by the loss of the high ground around Pozières , the Germans withdrew back to the Hindenburg Line in order to shorten their defensive line and to straighten a salient that had developed . In February , the German withdrawal was discovered and the Allies , finding an open battlefield for the first time since 1914 and believing that the German Army was suffering from limited manpower , began an advance to follow them up . On the night of 26 / 27 February , the 7th Battalion launched what was meant to be a trench raid , but turned into an open advance , seeing them extend their lines by 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) . The Allied advance , however , was brief as the Germans had established themselves in strength , and was halted at Bullecourt .
In May the battalion was withdrawn from the front line for re @-@ organisation and training . It did not return until the Third Battle of Ypres in September and October 1917 , when they were committed to the fighting first at Menin Road . The 7th Battalion had 57 men killed in this phase , and then later at Broodseinde another 98 were killed . Following these battles , the 7th Battalion was withdrawn from the front line once more in December . In March 1918 , however , following the start of the German Spring Offensive , the battalion was called back to help stem the tide of the German advance . As the German offensive ran out of momentum , the battalion kept up the pressure on the German line through a series of peaceful penetrations , before subsequently taking part in the Allied Hundred Days Offensive , which was launched near Amiens on 8 August 1918 . As a part of this offensive , the battalion fought major actions at Lihons on 9 – 11 August where they captured a number of German mortars and Herleville Woods on 23 August . They continued operations until late September 1918 when they were withdrawn with a strength of just 410 men and it was out of the line when the armistice came into effect in November . Shortly afterwards the demobilisation process began and as the battalion 's numbers fell as men were repatriated back to Australia , it was amalgamated with 6th Battalion . This battalion was amalgamated with another , formed from the 5th and 8th Battalions , to form the 2nd Brigade Battalion .
Throughout their service during the war , the battalion suffered 1 @,@ 045 killed and 2 @,@ 076 wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : four VCs , one Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George ( CMG ) , two Distinguished Service Orders ( DSOs ) , 20 Military Crosses ( MCs ) with two bars , 31 Distinguished Conduct Medals ( DCMs ) with one bar , 100 Military Medals ( MMs ) with five bars , six Meritorious Service Medals ( MSMs ) , 37 Mention in Despatches ( MIDs ) and six foreign awards . The battalion received a total of 26 battle honours for its service during the war .
= = = Inter war years = = =
In 1921 , the decision was made to perpetuate the battle honours and traditions of the AIF battalions that had served during World War I by reorganising the Citizens Force along AIF lines , with previously existing part @-@ time units adopting the numerical designations of the AIF units that had been drawn from their traditional recruitment territories . In May 1921 , the 7th Battalion was reformed in regional Victoria around a headquarters in Mildura , with depots at Merbein , Wentworth and Red Cliffs . At this time , the battalion drew its personnel from the 2nd Battalion , 7th Infantry Regiment , and the 2nd Battalion , 21st Infantry Regiment . Through its link with these units , the battalion inherited the battle honour of " South Africa 1899 – 102 " . In 1927 , when territorial titles were introduced into the Militia , the battalion adopted the title of the " Mount Alexander Regiment " . It was also granted the motto Cede Nullius at this time .
In 1929 , however , the compulsory training scheme was suspended by the newly elected Scullin Labor government . In its place a voluntary system was established and the Citizens Force renamed the " Militia " . The end of compulsory training , coupled with low levels of defence spending and economic hardships brought about by the Great Depression greatly reduced the manpower available to many Militia units at this time and as a result a number of units were disbanded or amalgamated at this time . The 7th Battalion was also affected and on 1 July 1929 it was amalgamated with the 38th Battalion to form the 7th / 38th Battalion . The two battalions remained linked until 9 November 1936 when , following concerns about growing tensions in Europe , it was decided to delink them in order to double the size of the Milita as the prospect of another war became apparent . In 1937 , the battalion 's designation was changed to the " North Murray Borderers " .
= = = Second World War = = =
Following the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 , the Australian government once again decided to raise an all volunteer force for service overseas as the legal restrictions on employing the Militia outside of Australia still applied . Regardless a number of Militia units attempted to join up en masse as already formed units and the 7th Battalion was one of these units . However , as they were required to remain in Australia to provide home defence in the case of war spreading to the Pacific this did not occur . In October 1939 , the Militia was mobilised in stages to undertake a short period of 30 days continuous training and this was undertaken again in 1940 , but for a period of 90 days instead . The compulsory training scheme was also reintroduced and the 7th Battalion 's ranks were filled out with national servicemen .
Throughout 1940 and 1941 the battalion undertook a number of training camps in Victoria . In December 1941 , with Japan 's entry into the war following the attacks on Malaya and Pearl Harbor , the battalion was mobilised for war service and tasked with defending the Dandenong area . In 1942 , however , it received orders to move north to Darwin , where it carried out garrison duties to defend the town and experienced a number air raids from Japanese aircraft . During this time also , the battalion was transferred to the 23rd Brigade . Originally the 23rd Brigade had been part of the 8th Division and made up of Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) battalions , however , after these units were captured or destroyed on Rabaul , Ambon and Timor , it had been rebuilt using Militia battalions and placed under the command of Brigadier Arnold Potts , and assigned to the 12th Division .
They remained in Darwin for 18 months before being relieved and sent back to Melbourne in April 1943 . After taking leave , the 7th Battalion was sent to the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland for a period of intensive pre @-@ deployment training in November . In 1944 the 23rd Brigade had been attached to the II Corps , which was tasked with taking over from the Americans and launching a renewed offensive on Bougainville . The 23rd Brigade was given the task of relieving the garrisons in the outer islands and the 7th Battalion was primarily responsible for Mono island , although one company was detached to Munda , arriving there in October 1944 . Tasked with defending the airfield from a Japanese attack that was at best remote , some members of the battalion sought to enliven their existence by acting as crews on US Navy PT boats carrying out raids on New Britain and New Ireland .
In April 1945 , after months of lobbying by Potts — who was keen to get back into action himself after having been relieved of his previous command during the Kokoda campaign — the 7th Battalion was transferred to Torokina on Bougainville Island , where the Japanese garrison was still holding out . In June they moved up the Numa Numa Trail to Pearl Ridge in the central sector of the island where they relieved the 27th Battalion . Almost immediately they began aggressive patrols in order to dominate the Japanese in their area of operations and were tasked with the capture of several key positions including Wearne 's Hill , Base Point 3 , Tokua and Sisivie and to establish a forward position in the Wakunai Valley . Over the course of the next three months until the end of the war , the battalion captured 25 positions and killed around 200 Japanese soldiers .
Following the end of hostilities the battalion moved to the island of Fauro to guard Japanese prisoners of war . As the demobilisation process began , members of the battalion were slowly repatriated to Australia , while others were transferred to other units for further service elsewhere . By March 1946 the last of the battalion 's personnel had been returned to Australia and on 10 May 1946 , the 7th Battalion was formally disbanded . During its service throughout the war the battalion lost 25 men killed or died on active service , with a further 50 men wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one DSO , one MC , one MM and 16 MIDs .
= = Legacy = =
Following the completion of the demobilisation process , the Citizens Military Force was reformed in 1948 , albeit on a reduced scale . At this time , the 7th Battalion was not re @-@ raised in its own right , although an amalgamated unit known as the 8th / 7th Battalion ( North Western Victorian Regiment ) was formed in order to perpetuate the two rural Victorian battalions . Today the honours and traditions of the 7th Battalion are maintained by the 8th / 7th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment , an infantry battalion of the Australian Army Reserve , that was formed in 1960 as the 2nd Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment , following the introduction of the Pentropic organisation , but which was later redesignated 8 / 7 RVR . The 7th Battalion 's battle honours include those of the 2nd AIF 's 2 / 7th Battalion , which were entrusted to the 7th in 1961 .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following is a list of officers that served as the 7th Battalion 's commanding officer during the two World Wars :
First World War :
Lieutenant Colonel Harold Edward Elliott ;
Lieutenant Colonel Alfred Jackson ;
Lieutenant Colonel Carl Herman Jess ;
Lieutenant Colonel Ernest Edward Herrod .
Second World War :
Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Marcell Conran ;
Lieutenant Colonel Howard Leslie Ewin Dunkley ;
Lieutenant Colonel Frederick Thomas Henry Goucher ;
Lieutenant Colonel Geoffrey Moore Norris ;
Lieutenant Colonel Rupert Markham Sadler ;
Lieutenant Colonel Peter Glynn Clifton Webster ;
Lieutenant Colonel John Alfred Wilmoth .
= = Battle honours = =
The 7th Battalion received the following battle honours :
South Africa 1899 – 1902 .
First World War : Landing at Anzac , Defence at Anzac , Helles , Krithia , Anzac , Suvla , Sari Bair – Lone Pine , Gallipoli 1915 , Egypt 1915 – 16 , Somme 1916 – 18 , Pozières , Bullecourt , Ypres 1917 , Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle , Passchendaele , Lys , Hazebrouck , Amiens , Albert 1918 ( Chuignes ) , Hindenburg Line , Epehy , France and Flanders 1916 – 18 , Suez Canal .
Second World War : North Africa 1940 – 41 , Bardia 1941 , Capture of Tobruk , Greece 1941 , Middle East 1941 , Crete , Canea , 42nd Street , Withdrawal to Sphakia , South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 45 , Wau , Mubo I , Bobdubi II , Komiatum , Liberation of Australian New Guinea , Maprik , Yamil – Ulupu , Kaboibus – Kiarivu .
= Bernard Fanning =
Bernard Fanning ( born 15 August 1969 ) is an Australian musician and singer @-@ songwriter . He is best known as the lead singer and frontman of Australian alternative rock band Powderfinger from its formation in 1989 to its dissolution in 2010 .
Born and raised in Toowong , Brisbane , Fanning was taught the piano by his mother at an early age . At the age of 12 , while attending St Joseph 's College , Gregory Terrace , he began writing music , and upon graduating from St. Joseph 's , moved on to the University of Queensland , where he studied journalism for a short time . He dropped out to pursue a music career , after meeting Ian Haug in an economics class . Fanning joined Haug , John Collins , and Steven Bishop , who had recently formed Powderfinger , and took the role of lead singer . After Bishop left and guitarist Darren Middleton joined , the band released five studio albums in fifteen years and achieved mainstream success in Australia . During Powderfinger 's hiatus in 2005 , Fanning began his solo music career with the studio album Tea & Sympathy . Powderfinger then reunited in 2007 and released two more albums before disbanding in late 2010 .
While Powderfinger 's style focuses on alternative rock , Fanning 's solo music is generally described as a mixture of blues and acoustic folk . Fanning plays guitar , piano , keyboards and harmonica , both when performing solo and also with Powderfinger . Often speaking out against Australian political figures , Fanning has donated much of his time to philanthropic causes . He is an advocate for Aboriginal justice in Australia .
= = Early life = =
Fanning was born in Brisbane on 15 August 1969 . He was raised , alongside two brothers and a sister , in the inner Brisbane suburb of Toowong . The death of one of Fanning 's brothers to cancer would be the inspiration for Vulture Street 's " Since You 've Been Gone " . Fanning 's mother began teaching him to play piano as a young child , although his siblings were not interested in music .
Fanning attended St. Joseph 's College , Gregory Terrace and began writing his own music at the age of 15 . Fanning has described these early works as " terrible " , but notes that he enjoyed writing and arranging them . After graduating from St Joseph 's , Fanning entered the University of Queensland to study journalism ; however , he was equally interested in pursuing a music career . He left university at the age of 19 to pursue a music career .
= = Music career = =
= = = Powderfinger era ( 1989 – 2004 ) = = =
Fanning first met Powderfinger guitarist Ian Haug in a University of Queensland economics class in 1989 . At the time of the meeting , Haug had recently formed Powderfinger with high school friends John Collins and Steven Bishop , who would become the band 's foundational bass guitarist and drummer , respectively . Haug was the lead guitarist and lead singer . On discovering Fanning '
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, as well . MGM filmed rehearsal and concert footage at the International during August for the documentary Elvis : That 's the Way It Is . Presley was by now performing in a jumpsuit , which would become a trademark of his live act . During this engagement , he was threatened with murder unless $ 50 @,@ 000 was paid . Presley had been the target of many threats since the 1950s , often without his knowledge . The FBI took the threat seriously and security was stepped up for the next two shows . Presley went onstage with a Derringer in his right boot and a .45 pistol in his waistband , but the concerts went off without incident .
The album That 's the Way It Is , produced to accompany the documentary and featuring both studio and live recordings , marked a stylistic shift . As music historian John Robertson notes , " The authority of Presley 's singing helped disguise the fact that the album stepped decisively away from the American @-@ roots inspiration of the Memphis sessions towards a more middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road sound . With country put on the back burner , and soul and R & B left in Memphis , what was left was very classy , very clean white pop — perfect for the Las Vegas crowd , but a definite retrograde step for Elvis . " After the end of his International engagement on September 7 , Presley embarked on a week @-@ long concert tour , largely of the South , his first since 1958 . Another week @-@ long tour , of the West Coast , followed in November .
On December 21 , 1970 , Presley engineered a meeting with President Richard Nixon at the White House , where he expressed his patriotism and his contempt for the hippies , the growing drug culture , and the counterculture in general . He asked Nixon for a Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs badge , to add to similar items he had begun collecting and to signify official sanction of his patriotic efforts . Nixon , who apparently found the encounter awkward , expressed a belief that Presley could send a positive message to young people and that it was therefore important he " retain his credibility " . Presley told Nixon that the Beatles , whose songs he regularly performed in concert during the era , exemplified what he saw as a trend of anti @-@ Americanism and drug abuse in popular culture . ( Presley and his friends had had a four @-@ hour get @-@ together with the Beatles five years earlier . ) On hearing reports of the meeting , Paul McCartney later said he " felt a bit betrayed " and commented : " The great joke was that we were taking [ illegal ] drugs , and look what happened to him " , a reference to Presley 's death , hastened by prescription drug abuse .
The U.S. Junior Chamber of Commerce named Presley one of its annual Ten Most Outstanding Young Men of the Nation on January 16 , 1971 . Not long after , the City of Memphis named the stretch of Highway 51 South on which Graceland is located " Elvis Presley Boulevard " . The same year , Presley became the first rock and roll singer to be awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award ( then known as the Bing Crosby Award ) by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences , the Grammy Award organization . Three new , non @-@ film Presley studio albums were released in 1971 , as many as had come out over the previous eight years . Best received by critics was Elvis Country , a concept record that focused on genre standards . The biggest seller was Elvis Sings the Wonderful World of Christmas , " the truest statement of all " , according to Greil Marcus . " In the midst of ten painfully genteel Christmas songs , every one sung with appalling sincerity and humility , one could find Elvis tom @-@ catting his way through six blazing minutes of ' Merry Christmas Baby , ' a raunchy old Charles Brown blues . " According to Guralnick , " the one real highlight " of one of the 1971 sessions were the recording of " I Will Be True , " " It 's Still Here , " and " I 'll Take You Home Again , Kathleen , " a trio of songs that Presley recorded in a rare solo set , sitting at the piano after everyone else had gone home : " Yearning , wistfulness , loneliness , need — all were communicated with a naked lack of adornment that Elvis was seeming to find increasingly difficult to display in the formal process of recording . "
= = = = Marriage breakdown and Aloha from Hawaii = = = =
MGM again filmed Presley in April 1972 , this time for Elvis on Tour , which went on to win the Golden Globe Award for Best Documentary Film that year . His gospel album He Touched Me , released that month , would earn him his second Grammy Award , for Best Inspirational Performance . A 14 @-@ date tour commenced with an unprecedented four consecutive sold @-@ out shows at New York 's Madison Square Garden . The evening concert on July 10 was recorded and issued in LP form a week later . Elvis : As Recorded at Madison Square Garden became one of Presley 's biggest @-@ selling albums . After the tour , the single " Burning Love " was released — Presley 's last top ten hit on the U.S. pop chart . " The most exciting single Elvis has made since ' All Shook Up ' " , wrote rock critic Robert Christgau . " Who else could make ' It 's coming closer , the flames are now licking my body ' sound like an assignation with James Brown 's backup band ? "
Presley and his wife , meanwhile , had become increasingly distant , barely cohabiting . In 1971 , an affair he had with Joyce Bova resulted — unbeknownst to him — in her pregnancy and an abortion . He often raised the possibility of her moving into Graceland , saying that he was likely to leave Priscilla . The Presleys separated on February 23 , 1972 , after Priscilla disclosed her relationship with Mike Stone , a karate instructor Presley had recommended to her . Priscilla relates that when she told him , Presley " grabbed ... and forcefully made love to " her , declaring , " This is how a real man makes love to his woman . " Five months later , Presley 's new girlfriend , Linda Thompson , a songwriter and one @-@ time Memphis beauty queen , moved in with him . Presley and his wife filed for divorce on August 18 . According to Joe Moscheo of the Imperials , the failure of Presley 's marriage " was a blow from which he never recovered . "
In January 1973 , Presley performed two benefit concerts for the Kui Lee Cancer Fund in connection with a groundbreaking TV special , Aloha from Hawaii . The first show served as a practice run and backup should technical problems affect the live broadcast two days later . Aired as scheduled on January 14 , Aloha from Hawaii was the first global concert satellite broadcast , reaching millions of viewers live and on tape delay . Presley 's costume became the most recognized example of the elaborate concert garb with which his latter @-@ day persona became closely associated . As described by Bobbie Ann Mason , " At the end of the show , when he spreads out his American Eagle cape , with the full stretched wings of the eagle studded on the back , he becomes a god figure . " The accompanying double album , released in February , went to number one and eventually sold over 5 million copies in the United States . It proved to be Presley 's last U.S. number one pop album during his lifetime .
At a midnight show the same month , four men rushed onto the stage in an apparent attack . Security men leapt to Presley 's defense , and the singer 's karate instinct took over as he ejected one invader from the stage himself . Following the show , he became obsessed with the idea that the men had been sent by Mike Stone to kill him . Though they were shown to have been only overexuberant fans , he raged , " There 's too much pain in me ... Stone [ must ] die . " His outbursts continued with such intensity that a physician was unable to calm him , despite administering large doses of medication . After another two full days of raging , Red West , his friend and bodyguard , felt compelled to get a price for a contract killing and was relieved when Presley decided , " Aw hell , let 's just leave it for now . Maybe it 's a bit heavy . "
= = = 1973 – 77 : Health deterioration and death = = =
= = = = Medical crises and last studio sessions = = = =
Presley 's divorce took effect on October 9 , 1973 . He was now becoming increasingly unwell . Twice during the year he overdosed on barbiturates , spending three days in a coma in his hotel suite after the first incident . Toward the end of 1973 , he was hospitalized , semicomatose from the effects of Demerol addiction . According to his main physician , Dr. George C. Nichopoulos , Presley " felt that by getting [ drugs ] from a doctor , he wasn 't the common everyday junkie getting something off the street . " Since his comeback , he had staged more live shows with each passing year , and 1973 saw 168 concerts , his busiest schedule ever . Despite his failing health , in 1974 he undertook another intensive touring schedule .
Presley 's condition declined precipitously in September . Keyboardist Tony Brown remembers the singer 's arrival at a University of Maryland concert : " He fell out of the limousine , to his knees . People jumped to help , and he pushed them away like , ' Don 't help me . ' He walked on stage and held onto the mike for the first thirty minutes like it was a post . Everybody 's looking at each other like , Is the tour gonna happen ? " Guitarist John Wilkinson recalled , " He was all gut . He was slurring . He was so fucked up . ... It was obvious he was drugged . It was obvious there was something terribly wrong with his body . It was so bad the words to the songs were barely intelligible . ... I remember crying . He could barely get through the introductions " . Wilkinson recounted that a few nights later in Detroit , Michigan , " I watched him in his dressing room , just draped over a chair , unable to move . So often I thought , ' Boss , why don 't you just cancel this tour and take a year off ... ? ' I mentioned something once in a guarded moment . He patted me on the back and said , ' It 'll be all right . Don 't you worry about it . ' " Presley continued to play to sellout crowds .
On July 13 , 1976 , Vernon Presley — who had become deeply involved in his son 's financial affairs — fired " Memphis Mafia " bodyguards Red West ( Presley 's friend since the 1950s ) , Sonny West , and David Hebler , citing the need to " cut back on expenses " . Presley was in Palm Springs at the time , and some suggest the singer was too cowardly to face the three himself . Another associate of Presley 's , John O 'Grady , argued that the bodyguards were dropped because their rough treatment of fans had prompted too many lawsuits . However , Presley 's stepbrother David Stanley has claimed that the bodyguards were fired because they were becoming more outspoken about Presley 's drug dependency .
RCA , which had enjoyed a steady stream of product from Presley for over a decade , grew anxious as his interest in spending time in the studio waned . After a December 1973 session that produced 18 songs , enough for almost two albums , he did not enter the studio in 1974 . Parker sold RCA on another concert record , Elvis Recorded Live on Stage in Memphis . Recorded on March 20 , it included a version of " How Great Thou Art " that would win Presley his third and final competitive Grammy Award . ( All three of his competitive Grammy wins — out of 14 total nominations — were for gospel recordings . ) Presley returned to the studio in Hollywood in March 1975 , but Parker 's attempts to arrange another session toward the end of the year were unsuccessful . In 1976 , RCA sent a mobile studio to Graceland that made possible two full @-@ scale recording sessions at Presley 's home . Even in that comfortable context , the recording process was now a struggle for him .
For all the concerns of his label and manager , in studio sessions between July 1973 and October 1976 , Presley recorded virtually the entire contents of six albums . Though he was no longer a major presence on the pop charts , five of those albums entered the top five of the country chart , and three went to number one : Promised Land ( 1975 ) , From Elvis Presley Boulevard , Memphis , Tennessee ( 1976 ) , and Moody Blue ( 1977 ) . The story was similar with his singles — there were no major pop hits , but Presley was a significant force in not just the country market , but on adult contemporary radio as well . Eight studio singles from this period released during his lifetime were top ten hits on one or both charts , four in 1974 alone . " My Boy " was a number one adult contemporary hit in 1975 , and " Moody Blue " topped the country chart and reached the second spot on the adult contemporary chart in 1976 . Perhaps his most critically acclaimed recording of the era came that year , with what Greil Marcus described as his " apocalyptic attack " on the soul classic " Hurt " . " If he felt the way he sounded " , Dave Marsh wrote of Presley 's performance , " the wonder isn 't that he had only a year left to live but that he managed to survive that long . "
= = = = Final year and death = = = =
Presley and Linda Thompson split in November 1976 , and he took up with a new girlfriend , Ginger Alden . He proposed to Alden and gave her an engagement ring two months later , though several of his friends later claimed that he had no serious intention of marrying again . Journalist Tony Scherman writes that by early 1977 , " Presley had become a grotesque caricature of his sleek , energetic former self . Hugely overweight , his mind dulled by the pharmacopoeia he daily ingested , he was barely able to pull himself through his abbreviated concerts . " In Alexandria , Louisiana , the singer was on stage for less than an hour and " was impossible to understand " . Presley failed to appear in Baton Rouge ; he was unable to get out of his hotel bed , and the rest of the tour was cancelled . Despite the accelerating deterioration of his health , he stuck to most touring commitments . In Rapid City , South Dakota , " he was so nervous on stage that he could hardly talk " , according to Presley historian Samuel Roy , and unable to " perform any significant movement . " Guralnick relates that fans " were becoming increasingly voluble about their disappointment , but it all seemed to go right past Elvis , whose world was now confined almost entirely to his room and his spiritualism books . " A cousin , Billy Smith , recalled how Presley would sit in his room and chat for hours , sometimes recounting favorite Monty Python sketches and his own past escapades , but more often gripped by paranoid obsessions that reminded Smith of Howard Hughes . " Way Down " , Presley 's last single issued during his lifetime , came out on June 6 . On the next tour , CBS filmed two concerts for a TV Special , Elvis in Concert , to be aired in October . On the first of these , captured in Omaha on June 19 , Presley 's voice , Guralnick writes , " is almost unrecognizable , a small , childlike instrument in which he talks more than sings most of the songs , casts about uncertainly for the melody in others , and is virtually unable to articulate or project . " He did better on the second night , two days later in Rapid City , Iowa : " He looked healthier , seemed to have lost a little weight , and sounded better , too " , though his appearance was still a " face framed in a helmet of blue @-@ black hair from which sweat sheets down over pale , swollen cheeks . " His final concert was held in Indianapolis , Indiana at Market Square Arena , on June 26 .
The book Elvis : What Happened ? , cowritten by the three bodyguards fired the previous year , was published on August 1 . It was the first exposé to detail Presley 's years of drug misuse . He was devastated by the book and tried unsuccessfully to halt its release by offering money to the publishers . By this point , he suffered from multiple ailments : glaucoma , high blood pressure , liver damage , and an enlarged colon , each aggravated — and possibly caused — by drug abuse . Genetic analysis of a hair sample in 2014 found evidence of genetic variants that could have caused his glaucoma , migraines and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy .
Presley was scheduled to fly out of Memphis on the evening of August 16 , 1977 , to begin another tour . That afternoon , Ginger Alden discovered him unresponsive on his bathroom floor . Attempts to revive him failed , and death was officially pronounced at 3 : 30 pm at Baptist Memorial Hospital .
President Jimmy Carter issued a statement that credited Presley with having " permanently changed the face of American popular culture " . Thousands of people gathered outside Graceland to view the open casket . One of Presley 's cousins , Billy Mann , accepted $ 18 @,@ 000 to secretly photograph the corpse ; the picture appeared on the cover of the National Enquirer 's biggest @-@ selling issue ever . Alden struck a $ 105 @,@ 000 deal with the Enquirer for her story , but settled for less when she broke her exclusivity agreement . Presley left her nothing in his will .
Presley 's funeral was held at Graceland , on Thursday , August 18 . Outside the gates , a car plowed into a group of fans , killing two women and critically injuring a third . Approximately 80 @,@ 000 people lined the processional route to Forest Hill Cemetery , where Presley was buried next to his mother . Within a few days , " Way Down " topped the country and UK pop charts .
Following an attempt to steal the singer 's body in late August , the remains of both Presley and his mother were reburied in Graceland 's Meditation Garden on October 2 .
Since his death , there have been numerous alleged sightings of Presley . A long @-@ standing theory among some fans is that he faked his death . Fans have noted alleged discrepancies in the death certificate , reports of a wax dummy in his original coffin and numerous accounts of Presley planning a diversion so he could retire in peace .
= = = Questions over cause of death = = =
" Drug use was heavily implicated " in Presley 's death , writes Guralnick . " No one ruled out the possibility of anaphylactic shock brought on by the codeine pills ... to which he was known to have had a mild allergy . " A pair of lab reports filed two months later each strongly suggested that polypharmacy was the primary cause of death ; one reported " fourteen drugs in Elvis ' system , ten in significant quantity . " Forensic historian and pathologist Michael Baden views the situation as complicated : " Elvis had had an enlarged heart for a long time . That , together with his drug habit , caused his death . But he was difficult to diagnose ; it was a judgment call . "
The competence and ethics of two of the centrally involved medical professionals were seriously questioned . Before the autopsy was complete and toxicology results known , medical examiner Dr. Jerry Francisco declared the cause of death as cardiac arrhythmia , a condition that can be determined only in someone who is still alive . Allegations of a cover @-@ up were widespread . While Presley 's main physician , Dr. Nichopoulos , was exonerated of criminal liability for the singer 's death , the facts were startling : " In the first eight months of 1977 alone , he had [ prescribed ] more than 10 @,@ 000 doses of sedatives , amphetamines and narcotics : all in Elvis 's name . " His license was suspended for three months . It was permanently revoked in the 1990s after the Tennessee Medical Board brought new charges of over @-@ prescription .
Amidst mounting pressure in 1994 , the Presley autopsy was reopened . Coroner Dr. Joseph Davis declared , " There is nothing in any of the data that supports a death from drugs . In fact , everything points to a sudden , violent heart attack . " Whether or not combined drug intoxication was in fact the cause , there is little doubt that polypharmacy contributed significantly to Presley 's premature death .
= = = Since 1977 = = =
Between 1977 and 1981 , six posthumously released singles by Presley were top ten country hits . Graceland was opened to the public in 1982 . Attracting over half a million visitors annually , it is the second most @-@ visited home in the United States , after the White House . It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2006 .
Presley has been inducted into five music halls of fame : the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ( 1986 ) , the Country Music Hall of Fame ( 1998 ) , the Gospel Music Hall of Fame ( 2001 ) , the Rockabilly Hall of Fame ( 2007 ) , and the Memphis Music Hall of Fame ( 2012 ) . In 1984 , he received the W. C. Handy Award from the Blues Foundation and the Academy of Country Music 's first Golden Hat Award . In 1987 , he received the American Music Awards ' Award of Merit .
A Junkie XL remix of Presley 's " A Little Less Conversation " ( credited as " Elvis Vs JXL " ) was used in a Nike advertising campaign during the 2002 FIFA World Cup . It topped the charts in over 20 countries , and was included in a compilation of Presley 's number one hits , ELV1S , that was also an international success . In 2003 , a remix of " Rubberneckin ' " , a 1969 recording of Presley 's , topped the U.S. sales chart , as did a 50th @-@ anniversary re @-@ release of " That 's All Right " the following year . The latter was an outright hit in the UK , reaching number three on the pop chart .
In 2005 , another three reissued singles , " Jailhouse Rock " , " One Night " / " I Got Stung " , and " It 's Now or Never " , went to number one in the United Kingdom . A total of 17 Presley singles were reissued during the year ; all made the British top five . For the fifth straight year , Forbes named Presley the top @-@ earning deceased celebrity , with a gross income of $ 45 million . He placed second in 2006 , returned to the top spot the next two years , and ranked fourth in 2009 . The following year , he was ranked second , with his highest annual income ever — $ 60 million — spurred by the celebration of his 75th birthday and the launch of Cirque du Soleil 's Viva Elvis show in Las Vegas . In November 2010 , Viva Elvis : The Album was released , setting his voice to newly recorded instrumental tracks . As of mid @-@ 2011 , there were an estimated 15 @,@ 000 licensed Presley products . He was again the second @-@ highest @-@ earning deceased celebrity .
Presley holds the records for most songs charting in Billboard 's top 40 and top 100 : chart statistician Joel Whitburn calculates the respective totals as 104 and 151 ; Presley historian Adam Victor gives 114 and 138 . Presley 's rankings for top @-@ ten and number @-@ one hits vary depending on how the double @-@ sided " Hound Dog / Don 't Be Cruel " and " Don 't / I Beg of You " singles , which precede the inception of Billboard 's unified Hot 100 chart , are analyzed . According to Whitburn 's analysis , Presley and Madonna share the record for most top ten hits with 38 ; per Billboard 's current assessment , he ranks second with 36 . Whitburn and Billboard concur that the Beatles hold the record for most number @-@ one hits with 20 , and that Mariah Carey is second with 18 . Whitburn has Presley also with 18 , and thus tied for second ; Billboard has him third with 17 . Presley retains the record for cumulative weeks at number one : alone at 80 , according to Whitburn and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ; tied with Carey at 79 , according to Billboard . He holds the records for most British number @-@ one hits with 21 , and top @-@ ten hits with 76 .
In 2008 , an 1800 @-@ year @-@ old Roman bust described as bearing a " striking " resemblance to Elvis was displayed ahead of an intended auction . A spokesman for the auctioneers said that fans could " be forgiven for thinking that their idol may well have lived a previous life in Rome . "
On the anniversary date of his death , every year since 1997 , thousands of people gather at his home in Memphis to celebrate his memory , during a candlelight ritual .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Influences = = =
Presley 's earliest musical influence came from gospel . His mother recalled that from the age of two , at the Assembly of God church in Tupelo attended by the family , " he would slide down off my lap , run into the aisle and scramble up to the platform . There he would stand looking at the choir and trying to sing with them . " In Memphis , Presley frequently attended all @-@ night gospel singings at the Ellis Auditorium , where groups such as the Statesmen Quartet led the music in a style that , Guralnick suggests , sowed the seeds of Presley 's future stage act :
The Statesmen were an electric combination ... featuring some of the most thrillingly emotive singing and daringly unconventional showmanship in the entertainment world ... dressed in suits that might have come out of the window of Lansky 's . ... Bass singer Jim Wetherington , known universally as the Big Chief , maintained a steady bottom , ceaselessly jiggling first his left leg , then his right , with the material of the pants leg ballooning out and shimmering . " He went about as far as you could go in gospel music , " said Jake Hess . " The women would jump up , just like they do for the pop shows . " Preachers frequently objected to the lewd movements ... but audiences reacted with screams and swoons .
As a teenager , Presley 's musical interests were wide @-@ ranging , and he was deeply informed about African American musical idioms as well as white ones ( see " Teenage life in Memphis " ) . Though he never had any formal training , he was blessed with a remarkable memory , and his musical knowledge was already considerable by the time he made his first professional recordings in 1954 at the age of 19 . When Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller met him two years later , they were astonished at his encyclopedic understanding of the blues . At a press conference the following year , he proudly declared , " I know practically every religious song that 's ever been written . "
= = = Musical style and genres = = =
Presley was a central figure in the development of rockabilly , according to music historians . Katherine Charlton even calls him " rockabilly 's originator " , though Carl Perkins has explicitly stated that " [ Sam ] Phillips , Elvis , and I didn 't create rockabilly . " and , according to Michael Campbell , " Bill Haley recorded the first big rockabilly hit . " " It had been there for quite a while " , says Scotty Moore . " Carl Perkins was doing basically the same sort of thing up around Jackson , and I know for a fact Jerry Lee Lewis had been playing that kind of music ever since he was ten years old . " However , " Rockabilly crystallized into a recognizable style in 1954 with Elvis Presley 's first release , on the Sun label " , writes Craig Morrison . Paul Friedlander describes the defining elements of rockabilly , which he similarly characterizes as " essentially ... an Elvis Presley construction " : " the raw , emotive , and slurred vocal style and emphasis on rhythmic feeling [ of ] the blues with the string band and strummed rhythm guitar [ of ] country " . In " That 's All Right " , the Presley trio 's first record , Scotty Moore 's guitar solo , " a combination of Merle Travis – style country finger @-@ picking , double @-@ stop slides from acoustic boogie , and blues @-@ based bent @-@ note , single @-@ string work , is a microcosm of this fusion . "
At RCA , Presley 's rock and roll sound grew distinct from rockabilly with group chorus vocals , more heavily amplified electric guitars and a tougher , more intense manner . While he was known for taking songs from various sources and giving them a rockabilly / rock and roll treatment , he also recorded songs in other genres from early in his career , from the pop standard " Blue Moon " at Sun to the country ballad " How 's the World Treating You ? " on his second LP to the blues of " Santa Claus Is Back In Town " . In 1957 , his first gospel record was released , the four @-@ song EP Peace in the Valley . Certified as a million seller , it became the top @-@ selling gospel EP in recording history . Presley would record gospel periodically for the rest of his life .
After his return from military service in 1960 , Presley continued to perform rock and roll , but the characteristic style was substantially toned down . The reason why the music from this period lacks the drama from his Fifties recordings , critic Dave Marsh writes , is " because what we 're hearing is not genius discovering itself but the sound of genius at work . " His first post @-@ Army single , the number one hit " Stuck on You " , is typical of this shift . RCA publicity materials referred to its " mild rock beat " ; discographer Ernst Jorgensen calls it " upbeat pop " . The modern blues / R & B sound captured so successfully on Elvis Is Back ! was essentially abandoned for six years until such 1966 – 67 recordings as " Down in the Alley " and " Hi @-@ Heel Sneakers " , though Marsh holds that while he may have recorded few blues songs in the early to middle Sixties , " blues informs almost everything here . " The singer 's output during most of the 1960s emphasized pop music , often in the form of ballads such as " Are You Lonesome Tonight ? " , a number one in 1960 . While that was a dramatic number , most of what Presley recorded for his film soundtracks was in a much lighter vein . Notable numbers in other genres are the No. 1 hits " It 's Now or Never " of 1960 , based on the Italian aria " O Sole Mio " and concluding with a " full @-@ voiced operatic cadence , " and the 1962 hit " She 's Not You " which " integrates the Jordanaires so completely , it 's practically doo @-@ wop . "
While Presley performed several of his classic ballads for the ' 68 Comeback Special , the sound of the show was dominated by aggressive rock and roll . He would record few new straight @-@ ahead rock and roll songs thereafter ; as he explained , they were " hard to find " . A significant exception was " Burning Love " , his last major hit on the pop charts . Like his work of the 1950s , Presley 's subsequent recordings reworked pop and country songs , but in markedly different permutations . His stylistic range now began to embrace a more contemporary rock sound as well as soul and funk . Much of Elvis In Memphis , as well as " Suspicious Minds " , cut at the same sessions , reflected his new rock and soul fusion . In the mid @-@ 1970s , many of his singles found a home on country radio , the field where he first became a star .
= = = Vocal style and range = = =
The general development of Presley 's voice is described by critic Dave Marsh as " A voice , high and thrilled in the early days , lower and perplexed in the final months . " Marsh credits Presley with the introduction of the " vocal stutter " on 1955 's " Baby Let 's Play House . " When on " Don 't Be Cruel " Presley " slides into a ' mmmmm ' that marks the transition between the first two verses , " he shows " how masterful his relaxed style really is . " Marsh describes the singing on " Can 't Help Falling in Love " to be of " gentle insistence and delicacy of phrasing , " with the line " ' Shall I stay ' " pronounced as if the words are fragile as crystal . " On the operatic " It 's Now or Never " Presley " was reaching for something more than he had ever attempted before , " and , according to discographer Jorgensen , later the same year the melody to " Surrender " , a number also based on an Italian original , " Torna A Sorrento " , " required an even greater demonstration of vocal powers . "
Jorgensen calls the 1966 recording of " How Great Thou Art " " an extraordinary fulfillment of his vocal ambitions , " as Presley had " crafted for himself an ad @-@ hoc arrangement in which he took every part of the four @-@ part vocal , from [ the ] bass intro to the soaring heights of the song 's operatic climax , " in the process becoming " a kind of one @-@ man quartet . " Guralnick finds " Stand By Me " from the same sessions " a beautifully articulated , almost nakedly yearning performance , " but , by contrast , feels that Presley reaches beyond his powers on " Where No One Stands Alone " on which " he was reduced to a kind of inelegant bellowing to push out a sound " that Jake Hess would have no problem with . Hess himself thought that while others may have a voice as great or greater than Presley 's , " he had that certain something that everyone searches for all during their lifetime . " Guralnick attempts to pinpoint that something : " The warmth of his voice , his controlled use of both vibrato technique and natural falsetto range , the subtlety and deeply felt conviction of his singing were all qualities recognizably belonging to his talent but just as recognizably not to be achieved without sustained dedication and effort . "
Presley 's singing to his own " necessarily limited , both rhythmically and melodically , " piano accompaniment , such as can be heard on the 1967 recording of " You 'll Never Walk Alone " , for Guralnick are always special occasions , because " it was always a measure of his engagement when he sat down at the keyboard to play . " Describing his piano technique as " staccato style , " Jorgensen finds that on " Without Love " from the 1969 sessions , " his gospel @-@ flavored treatment took it to a level of spirituality rarely matched in his career . " Presley also played the instrument on the " impassioned version " of the sessions 's next song , " I 'll Hold You in My Heart , " of which Guralnick writes that " there is something magical about the moment that only the most inspired singing can bring about , as Elvis loses himself in the music , words no longer lend themselves to literal translation , and singer and listener both are left emotionally wrung out by the time the song finally limps to an end . "
Marsh praises his 1968 reading of " U.S. Male " , " bearing down on the hard guy lyrics , not sending them up or overplaying them but tossing them around with that astonishingly tough yet gentle assurance that he brought to his Sun records . " The performance on " In the Ghetto " is , according to Jorgensen , " devoid of any of his characteristic vocal tricks or mannerisms , " instead relying on " the astonishing clarity and sensitivity of his voice . " Guralnick describes the tenderness in the singing of the same song of " such unassuming , almost translucent eloquence , it is so quietly confident in its simplicity " that one is reminded of the Sun period , " offering equal parts yearning and social compassion . " On " Suspicious Minds " from the same sessions Guralnick hears essentially the same " remarkable mixture of tenderness and poise , " but supplemented with " an expressive quality somewhere between stoicism ( at suspected infidelity ) and anguish ( over impending loss ) . "
Music critic Henry Pleasants observes that " Presley has been described variously as a baritone and a tenor . An extraordinary compass ... and a very wide range of vocal color have something to do with this divergence of opinion . " He identifies Presley as a high baritone , calculating his range as two octaves and a third , " from the baritone low G to the tenor high B , with an upward extension in falsetto to at least a D @-@ flat . Presley 's best octave is in the middle , D @-@ flat to D @-@ flat , granting an extra full step up or down . " In Pleasants ' view , his voice was " variable and unpredictable " at the bottom , " often brilliant " at the top , with the capacity for " full @-@ voiced high Gs and As that an opera baritone might envy " . Scholar Lindsay Waters , who figures Presley 's range as 2 ¼ octaves , emphasizes that " his voice had an emotional range from tender whispers to sighs down to shouts , grunts , grumbles and sheer gruffness that could move the listener from calmness and surrender , to fear . " Presley was always " able to duplicate the open , hoarse , ecstatic , screaming , shouting , wailing , reckless sound of the black rhythm @-@ and @-@ blues and gospel singers , " writes Pleasants , and also demonstrated a remarkable ability to assimilate many other vocal styles .
= = Public image = =
= = = Racial issues = = =
When Dewey Phillips first aired " That 's All Right " on Memphis radio , many listeners who contacted the station by phone and telegram to ask for it again assumed that its singer was black . From the beginning of his national fame , Presley expressed respect for African American performers and their music , and disregard for the norms of segregation and racial prejudice then prevalent in the South . Interviewed in 1956 , he recalled how in his childhood he would listen to blues musician Arthur Crudup — the originator of " That 's All Right " — " bang his box the way I do now , and I said if I ever got to the place where I could feel all old Arthur felt , I 'd be a music man like nobody ever saw . " The Memphis World , an African American newspaper , reported that Presley , " the rock ' n ' roll phenomenon " , " cracked Memphis 's segregation laws " by attending the local amusement park on what was designated as its " colored night " . Such statements and actions led Presley to be generally hailed in the black community during the early days of his stardom . By contrast , many white adults , according to Billboard 's Arnold Shaw , " did not like him , and condemned him as depraved . Anti @-@ negro prejudice doubtless figured in adult antagonism . Regardless of whether parents were aware of the Negro sexual origins of the phrase ' rock ' n ' roll ' , Presley impressed them as the visual and aural embodiment of sex . "
Despite the largely positive view of Presley held by African Americans , a rumor spread in mid @-@ 1957 that he had at some point announced , " The only thing Negroes can do for me is buy my records and shine my shoes . " A journalist with the national African American weekly Jet , Louie Robinson , pursued the story . On the set of Jailhouse Rock , Presley granted Robinson an interview , though he was no longer dealing with the mainstream press . He denied making such a statement or holding in any way to its racist view : " I never said anything like that , and people who know me know that I wouldn 't have said it … A lot of people seem to think I started this business . But rock ' n ' roll was here a long time before I came along . Nobody can sing that kind of music like colored people . Let 's face it : I can 't sing like Fats Domino can . I know that . " Also , Red Robinson stated , " Take a look at the things that are only publicized now , of how he 'd be driving down the street and see a destitute black woman with a little child . He went and bought her a Cadillac . Now if this guy hated blacks , he wouldn ’ t even have gone near them " . Robinson found no evidence that the remark had ever been made , and on the contrary elicited testimony from many individuals indicating that Presley was anything but racist . Blues singer Ivory Joe Hunter , who had heard the rumor before he visited Graceland one evening , reported of Presley , " He showed me every courtesy , and I think he 's one of the greatest . " Dudley Brooks , an African @-@ American composer and studio musician who worked with Presley during the 1950s and 1960s , also disputed allegations that Presley was a racist . Though the rumored remark was wholly discredited at the time , it was still being used against Presley decades later . The identification of Presley with racism — either personally or symbolically — was expressed most famously in the lyrics of the 1989 rap hit " Fight the Power " , by Public Enemy : " Elvis was a hero to most / But he never meant shit to me / Straight @-@ up racist that sucker was / Simple and plain " .
The persistence of such attitudes was fueled by resentment over the fact that Presley , whose musical and visual performance idiom owed much to African American sources , achieved the cultural acknowledgement and commercial success largely denied his black peers . Into the 21st century , the notion that Presley had " stolen " black music still found adherents . Notable among African American entertainers expressly rejecting this view was Jackie Wilson , who argued , " A lot of people have accused Elvis of stealing the black man 's music , when in fact , almost every black solo entertainer copied his stage mannerisms from Elvis . " And throughout his career , Presley plainly acknowledged his debt . Addressing his ' 68 Comeback Special audience , he said , " Rock ' n ' roll music is basically gospel or rhythm and blues , or it sprang from that . People have been adding to it , adding instruments to it , experimenting with it , but it all boils down to [ that ] . " Nine years earlier , he had said , " Rock ' n ' roll has been around for many years . It used to be called rhythm and blues . "
= = = Sex symbol = = =
Presley 's physical attractiveness and sexual appeal were widely acknowledged . " He was once beautiful , astonishingly beautiful " , in the words of critic Mark Feeney . Television director Steve Binder , no fan of Presley 's music before he oversaw the ' 68 Comeback Special , reported , " I 'm straight as an arrow and I got to tell you , you stop , whether you 're male or female , to look at him . He was that good looking . And if you never knew he was a superstar , it wouldn 't make any difference ; if he 'd walked in the room , you 'd know somebody special was in your presence . " His performance style , as much as his physical beauty , was responsible for Presley 's eroticized image . Writing in 1970 , critic George Melly described him as " the master of the sexual simile , treating his guitar as both phallus and girl . " In his Presley obituary , Lester Bangs credited him as " the man who brought overt blatant vulgar sexual frenzy to the popular arts in America . " Ed Sullivan 's declaration that he perceived a soda bottle in Presley 's trousers was echoed by rumors involving a similarly positioned toilet roll tube or lead bar .
While Presley was marketed as an icon of heterosexuality , some cultural critics have argued that his image was ambiguous . In 1959 , Sight and Sound 's Peter John Dyer described his onscreen persona as " aggressively bisexual in appeal " . Brett Farmer places the " orgasmic gyrations " of the title dance sequence in Jailhouse Rock within a lineage of cinematic musical numbers that offer a " spectacular eroticization , if not homoeroticization , of the male image " . In the analysis of Yvonne Tasker , " Elvis was an ambivalent figure who articulated a peculiar feminised , objectifying version of white working @-@ class masculinity as aggressive sexual display . "
Reinforcing Presley 's image as a sex symbol were the reports of his dalliances with various Hollywood stars and starlets , from Natalie Wood in the 1950s to Connie Stevens and Ann @-@ Margret in the 1960s to Candice Bergen and Cybill Shepherd in the 1970s . June Juanico of Memphis , one of Presley 's early girlfriends , later blamed Parker for encouraging him to choose his dating partners with publicity in mind . Presley never grew comfortable with the Hollywood scene , and most of these relationships were insubstantial .
= = = Lifestyle = = =
Presley was known for a life of luxury and excess , as exemplified by his estate at Graceland . He owned a number of expensive cars , including three pink Cadillacs , immortalized in his version of the song " Baby , Let 's Play House " , in which Presley replaced the line " you may get religion " with " you may have a Pink Cadillac " .
A number of stories , both real and exaggerated , detail Presley 's appetite for rich or heavy food . He was said to enjoy the Southern cuisine of his upbringing , including chicken @-@ fried steak and biscuits and gravy . Presley is commonly associated with rich sandwiches , including the Fool 's Gold Loaf and peanut butter , banana and bacon sandwiches , now commonly called an " Elvis sandwich " .
= = Associates = =
= = = Colonel Parker and the Aberbachs = = =
Once he became Presley 's manager , Colonel Tom Parker insisted on exceptionally tight control over his client 's career . Songwriter Robert B. Sherman ( of the Sherman Brothers ) bore witness to the deal being forged between Hill and Range co @-@ owner Jean Aberbach and The Colonel in 1955 . Early on , " The Colonel " and his Hill and Range allies , the brothers Jean and Julian Aberbach , perceived the close relationship that developed between Presley and songwriters Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller as a serious threat to that control . Parker effectively ended the relationship , deliberately or not , with the new contract he sent Leiber in early 1958 . Leiber thought there was a mistake — the sheet of paper was blank except for Parker 's signature and a line on which to enter his . " There 's no mistake , boy , just sign it and return it , " Parker directed . " Don 't worry , we 'll fill it in later . " Leiber declined , and Presley 's fruitful collaboration with the writing team was over . Other respected songwriters lost interest in or simply avoided writing for Presley because of the requirement that they surrender a third of their usual royalties .
By 1967 , Parker 's contracts with Presley gave him 50 percent of most of the singer 's earnings from recordings , films , and merchandise . Beginning in February 1972 , he took a third of the profit from live appearances ; a January 1976 agreement entitled him to half of that as well . Priscilla Presley noted that , " Elvis detested the business side of his career . He would sign a contract without even reading it . " Presley 's friend Marty Lacker regarded Parker as a " hustler and a con artist . He was only interested in ' now money ' — get the buck and get gone . "
Lacker was instrumental in convincing Presley to record with Memphis producer Chips Moman and his handpicked musicians at American Sound Studio in early 1969 . The American Sound sessions represented a significant departure from the control customarily exerted by Hill and Range . Moman still had to deal with the publisher 's staff on site , whose song suggestions he regarded as unacceptable . He was on the verge of quitting , until Presley ordered the Hill and Range personnel out of the studio . Although RCA executive Joan Deary was later full of praise for the producer 's song choices and the quality of the recordings , Moman , to his fury , received neither credit on the records nor royalties for his work .
Throughout his entire career , Presley performed in only three venues outside the United States — all of them in Canada , during brief tours there in 1957 . Rumors that he would play overseas for the first time were fueled in 1974 by a million @-@ dollar bid for an Australian tour . Parker was uncharacteristically reluctant , prompting those close to Presley to speculate about the manager 's past and the reasons for his apparent unwillingness to apply for a passport . Parker ultimately squelched any notions Presley had of working abroad , claiming that foreign security was poor and the venues unsuitable for a star of his magnitude .
Parker arguably exercised tightest control over Presley 's film career . In 1957 , Robert Mitchum asked Presley to costar with him in Thunder Road , on which Mitchum was writer and producer . According to George Klein , one of his oldest friends , Presley was offered starring roles in West Side Story and Midnight Cowboy . In 1974 , Barbra Streisand approached Presley to star with her in the remake of A Star is Born . In each case , any ambitions the singer may have had to play such parts were thwarted by his manager 's negotiating demands or flat refusals . In Lacker 's description , " The only thing that kept Elvis going after the early years was a new challenge . But Parker kept running everything into the ground . " The prevailing attitude may have been summed up best by the response Leiber and Stoller received when they brought a serious film project for Presley to Parker and the Hill and Range owners for their consideration . In Leiber 's telling , Jean Aberbach warned them to never again " try to interfere with the business or artistic workings of the process known as Elvis Presley . "
= = = Memphis Mafia = = =
In the early 1960s , the circle of friends with whom Presley constantly surrounded himself until his death came to be known as the " Memphis Mafia " . " Surrounded by the [ ir ] parasitic presence " , as journalist John Harris puts it , " it was no wonder that as he slid into addiction and torpor , no @-@ one raised the alarm : to them , Elvis was the bank , and it had to remain open . " Tony Brown , who played piano for Presley regularly in the last two years of the singer 's life , observed his rapidly declining health and the urgent need to address it : " But we all knew it was hopeless because Elvis was surrounded by that little circle of people ... all those so @-@ called friends " . In the Memphis Mafia 's defense , Marty Lacker has said , " [ Presley ] was his own man . ... If we hadn 't been around , he would have been dead a lot earlier . "
Larry Geller became Presley 's hairdresser in 1964 . Unlike others in the Memphis Mafia , he was interested in spiritual questions and recalls how , from their first conversation , Presley revealed his secret thoughts and anxieties : " I mean there has to be a purpose ... there 's got to be a reason ... why I was chosen to be Elvis Presley . ... I swear to God , no one knows how lonely I get . And how empty I really feel . " Thereafter , Geller supplied him with books on religion and mysticism , which the singer read voraciously . Presley would be preoccupied by such matters for much of his life , taking trunkloads of books with him on tour .
= = Legacy = =
Presley 's rise to national attention in 1956 transformed the field of popular music and had a huge effect on the broader scope of popular culture . As the catalyst for the cultural revolution that was rock and roll , he was central not only to defining it as a musical genre but in making it a touchstone of youth culture and rebellious attitude . With its racially mixed origins — repeatedly affirmed by Presley — rock and roll 's occupation of a central position in mainstream American culture facilitated a new acceptance and appreciation of black culture . In this regard , Little Richard said of Presley , " He was an integrator . Elvis was a blessing . They wouldn 't let black music through . He opened the door for black music . " Al Green agreed : " He broke the ice for all of us . " President Jimmy Carter remarked on his legacy in 1977 : " His music and his personality , fusing the styles of white country and black rhythm and blues , permanently changed the face of American popular culture . His following was immense , and he was a symbol to people the world over of the vitality , rebelliousness , and good humor of his country . " Presley also heralded the vastly expanded reach of celebrity in the era of mass communication : at the age of 21 , within a year of his first appearance on American network television , he was one of the most famous people in the world .
Presley 's name , image , and voice are instantly recognizable around the globe . He has inspired a legion of impersonators . In polls and surveys , he is recognized as one of the most important popular music artists and influential Americans . " Elvis Presley is the greatest cultural force in the twentieth century " , said composer and conductor Leonard Bernstein . " He introduced the beat to everything and he changed everything — music , language , clothes . It 's a whole new social revolution — the sixties came from it . " Bob Dylan described the sensation of first hearing Presley as " like busting out of jail " .
On the 25th anniversary of Presley 's death , The New York Times observed , " All the talentless impersonators and appalling black velvet paintings on display can make him seem little more than a perverse and distant memory . But before Elvis was camp , he was its opposite : a genuine cultural force . ... Elvis 's breakthroughs are underappreciated because in this rock @-@ and @-@ roll age , his hard @-@ rocking music and sultry style have triumphed so completely . " Not only Presley 's achievements , but his failings as well , are seen by some cultural observers as adding to the power of his legacy , as in this description by Greil Marcus :
Elvis Presley is a supreme figure in American life , one whose presence , no matter how banal or predictable , brooks no real comparisons . ... The cultural range of his music has expanded to the point where it includes not only the hits of the day , but also patriotic recitals , pure country gospel , and really dirty blues . ... Elvis has emerged as a great artist , a great rocker , a great purveyor of schlock , a great heart throb , a great bore , a great symbol of potency , a great ham , a great nice person , and , yes , a great American .
= = Discography = =
A vast number of recordings have been issued under Presley 's name . The total number of his original master recordings has been variously calculated as 665 and 711 . His career began and he was most successful during an era when singles were the primary commercial medium for pop music . In the case of his albums , the distinction between " official " studio records and other forms is often blurred . For most of the 1960s , his recording career focused on soundtrack albums . In the 1970s , his most heavily promoted and best @-@ selling LP releases tended to be concert albums . This summary discography lists only the albums and singles that reached the top of one or more of the following charts : the main U.S. Billboard pop chart ; the Billboard country chart , the genre chart with which he was most identified ( there was no country album chart before 1964 ) ; and the official British pop chart .
The year given , in the table below , is the year the record first reached number one , rather than its original year of release . For instance : Elvis ' 40 Greatest , released in 1974 , a compilation on the budget Arcade label , was the fourth highest selling album of the year in the United Kingdom ; at the time , the main British chart did not rank such compilations , relegating them to a chart for midpriced and TV @-@ advertised albums , which Elvis ' 40 Greatest topped for 15 weeks . The policy was altered in 1975 , allowing the album to hit number one on the main chart in 1977 , following Presley 's death .
Before late 1958 , rather than unified pop and country singles charts , Billboard had as many as four charts for each , separately ranking records according to sales , jukebox play , jockey spins ( i.e. , airplay ) , and , in the case of pop , a general " Top 100 " . Billboard now regards the sales charts as definitive for the period . Widely cited chart statistician Joel Whitburn accords historical releases the highest ranking they achieved among the separate charts . Presley discographer Ernst Jorgensen refers only to the Top 100 chart for pop hits . All of the 1956 – 58 songs listed here as number one US pop hits reached the top of both the sales and with three exceptions , the Top 100 charts : " I Want You , I Need You , I Love You " ( three ) , " Hound Dog " ( two , behind its flip side , " Don 't Be Cruel " ) , and " Hard Headed Woman " ( two ) .
Several Presley singles reached number one in the United Kingdom as double A @-@ sides ; in the United States , the respective sides of those singles were ranked separately by Billboard . In the United States , Presley also had five or six number @-@ one R & B singles and seven number @-@ one adult contemporary singles ; in 1964 , his " Blue Christmas " topped the Christmas singles chart during a period when Billboard did not rank holiday singles in its primary pop chart . He also had number @-@ one hits in many countries beside the US and UK .
= = = Number one albums = = =
= = = Number one singles = = =
= = Filmography = =
TV concert specials
= Kanye Zone =
Kanye Zone is a browser game developed by Otter Spice Productions . It was released on March 9 , 2012 , and involves the player controlling a bumper in order to prevent an image of American musician Kanye West 's head from entering a circle of increasing size , referred to as his " zone " . The game incorporates sound clips from West 's song " Niggas in Paris " , and its premise is a parody of the song 's lyrics .
Created by roommates Michael Frederickson and Stephen Barlow and inspired by 1980s video games , Kanye Zone reached the front page of Reddit and received considerable media attention — Frederickson was interviewed by MTV , and several other news outlets reported on the game , some praising its simplicity and addictiveness . In May 2013 , a follow @-@ up game , titled Pitbull Party and based on the rapper Pitbull , was released .
= = Gameplay = =
The player 's left and right arrow keys and space bar control a bumper that moves around a purple circle . Kanye West , represented by his head , attempts to enter the circle while repeatedly rapping " Don 't let me into my zone " , and the player must hit him with the bumper — this causes him to disappear in a burst of dollar signs , and the player is rewarded with cash , added to a total displayed on the webpage . A silhouette of Kanye 's head shows where he will next spawn , and an arrow inside it indicates what direction he will travel in . Play continues this way , with Kanye getting faster and the zone getting bigger , until the player fails to prevent Kanye from entering the zone , when they are presented with a message declaring they have lost ; an image of rapper Jay @-@ Z 's head joins that of West , and the lyric " I 'm definitely in my zone " is heard . If the player 's cash score is high enough , it is added to a leaderboard on the right of the page .
= = Development = =
The game was created by roommates Michael Frederickson — a technical director at Pixar — and Stephen Barlow using HTML5 . The two heard Kanye West 's song " Niggas in Paris " and became " obsessed " with the lyric " Don 't let me into my zone " ( which is probably a reference to West 's " artistic zone " ) , and what it would mean to do so . It was inspired by 1980s games such as Pac @-@ Man , as well as the 1972 game Pong . They noted that although they tried to make the rest of the game " flashy " , the zone had to be " this unremarkable geometric form " so as not to be distracting .
Frederickson mused that the nature of Kanye 's zone is " the whole question of the game " , and agreed that it was " almost a philosophical question " . Frederickson called West , the inspiration for the game , an " arrogant man who purports to know everything " , and said that in the game he " [ admits ] some ignorance " as he " doesn 't know exactly what 'll happen if he gets in the zone . " The fact that the player begins the game with $
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50 @,@ 000 is a reference to the " Niggas in Paris " lyric " What 's 50 grand to a mothafucka like me , can you please remind me " — the amount represents nothing .
= = Release = =
Kanye Zone was released on March 9 , 2012 by Otter Spice Productions , and Michael Frederickson promoted it at the Game Developers Conference . Following its release , Kanye Zone reached the front page of the social news website Reddit , causing its creators to lose approximately US $ 700 after lots of traffic was driven to the website , and necessitating the compression of its contents ; the next day , advertisements were added to the page . Although two million games had been played in under a month , the game was not very profitable , as the creators made only eight dollars off the game . The developers have since created a store selling various items adorned with a picture of the " zone " , which Frederickson describes as " purple circles on everything " .
Although Kanye West has not contacted him , Frederickson was interviewed about the game by MTV 's Hive , which said it is " the best video game ever created based on a pop song and / or artist " and compared it to other games based on the song " Margaritaville " and the band Grateful Dead — he described the interview " unthinkably disproportionate to the interest of Kanye Zone " ; it even verged into the discussion of a film adaptation . He was also a guest on the British video gaming radio show One Life Left . Luke Plunkett of Kotaku called the game a " perversely addictive thing " , and Complex 's Jacob Moore said it is " as basic as it can get , but that won 't stop you from wasting hours of your day . " Metro dubbed Kanye Zone " the dumbest game you will spend 20 minutes playing " and " a hilarious low impact game in the tradition of early Atari " .
In March 2012 , Frederickson stated that he was not yet working on a sequel to the game ; however , on May 31 , 2013 , Pitbull Party , a follow @-@ up to Kanye Zone , was released . Based on Pitbull 's song " Don 't Stop the Party " and released by Otter Spice Productions , it involves maneuvering Pitbull 's head between scratches on turntable records .
= 1909 Monterrey hurricane =
The 1909 Monterrey hurricane was one of the deadliest Atlantic tropical cyclones on record , killing an estimated 4 @,@ 000 people throughout Mexico . Originating from a tropical storm east of the Leeward Islands on August 20 , the storm tracked west @-@ northwest , entering the Caribbean Sea as a minimal hurricane the next day . After striking Hispaniola on August 23 , the hurricane made another landfall in eastern Cuba before reentering the Caribbean . Once back over open water , the storm intensified into a Category 3 hurricane and moved across the northern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula . By August 26 , the storm had emerged into the Gulf of Mexico as a weakened , but regrouping system . It attained its peak winds of 120 mph ( 185 km / h ) that evening . Maintaining this intensity , the system made landfall in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas late on August 27 and rapidly dissipated the following afternoon .
Throughout its existence , the hurricane remained relatively close to land , so consequently its effects were felt in many areas . Much of the northern Caribbean received moderate to heavy rainfall along with gusty winds during its passage ; although only Haiti reported damage from it . Its effects were far more severe in Mexico where an estimated 4 @,@ 000 people were killed by record @-@ breaking floods triggered by the hurricane . The city of Monterrey received the worst damage : more than half of the structures in the city were flooded , hundreds were destroyed , and 20 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Damage from the storm in the country was estimated to have exceeded $ 50 million ( 1909 USD ; $ 1 @.@ 32 billion 2016 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the hurricane are uncertain due to a lack of ship reports in the western Atlantic Ocean . According to the Atlantic hurricane database , it was first identifiable as a tropical storm on August 20 to the east of the Leeward Islands . Tracking to the west @-@ northwest , the storm quickly attained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , equivalent to Category 1 status on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . By the evening of August 21 , the storm entered the Caribbean Sea as it brushed the northern coast of Guadeloupe ; intensification of the hurricane over the northeastern Caribbean was slow . Early on August 23 , it made its first landfall with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) in San Cristóbal Province , Dominican Republic , just southwest of the country 's capital city of Santo Domingo .
The hurricane weakened slightly over the mountainous terrain of Hispaniola , although it is believed to have maintained winds of at least 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) based on damage reports in Haiti . Later on August 23 , the storm " jumped " northward before making another landfall in the Cuban province of Guantánamo . Continuing towards the west @-@ northwest , the hurricane regained strength as it moved over the northern Caribbean . During the afternoon of August 24 , the system attained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , corresponding to a Category 2 hurricane . Early the following morning , it further intensified to a Category 3 major hurricane , defined as having winds in excess of 111 mph ( 178 km / h ) , before making landfall in the Yucatán Peninsula near the city of Cancún . The hurricane emerged into the Gulf of Mexico within 12 hours and quickly re @-@ intensified to attain its peak winds of 120 mph ( 185 km / h ) on August 26 . It soon slowed and turned due west , maintaining its intensity . Late on August 27 , the storm made its final landfall in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas . Rapid weakening took place as it drifted onshore , and it dissipated the following afternoon .
= = Impact = =
Prior to the hurricane 's devastating impacts in Mexico , it brought heavy rains and high winds to several of the northern Caribbean Islands . The first to be affected by the storm were the Leeward Islands ; however , no known damage resulted from its passage . Moderate rain and gusty winds were reported in Puerto Rico as well as the Dominican Republic and Jamaica . Despite being slightly weaker once over Haiti , severe damage was reported in many towns , with homes destroyed and many homeless . Much of Cuba was also impacted by the storm , with winds up to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) being recorded as far north as Havana . During the hurricane 's second landfall in Mexico , it brought increased swells and gusty winds , recorded up to 68 mph ( 109 km / h ) to parts of southern Texas . Low @-@ lying areas north of Corpus Christi were inundated by 1 to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water and several piers were damaged . Overall damage in the state was minimal from the storm and no lives were lost .
Although a borderline Category 2 – 3 hurricane when it made landfall in the Yucatán Peninsula , little is known about the storm 's impact in the region . One ship situated about 25 mi ( 40 km ) offshore recorded winds up to 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) during its passage . However , following the hurricane 's second landfall , the resulting damage was catastrophic . During the overnight hours between August 27 and 28 , cities along the coastline of Tamaulipas likely sustained severe damage from the hurricane 's storm surge and high winds . Two villages along the coast were completely destroyed by the storm and communication with much of the region was crippled and not expected to be restored for more than a week . Nine bridges and roughly 50 mi ( 80 km ) of railroad tracks were destroyed in the state .
The worst of the damage took place further inland , within the state of Nuevo León . There , torrential rainfall triggered a flood even exceeding 100 @-@ year flood values . According to meteorologists in Mexico , the storm dropped 17 @.@ 5 in ( 440 mm ) of rain over a 40 ‑ hour span . Further rains fell for the following 32 hours , worsening the situation . According to Mexican officials , overnight on August 27 , the reservoir dam near Nuevo León 's capital city , Monterrey , burst , flooding more than half of the buildings in the city , as well as all of the nearby town of San Luisto . Steel works and smelters situated along the Santa Catarina River were destroyed after the river rose well over its banks . Hundreds of homes were destroyed throughout the city , leaving an estimated 20 @,@ 000 people homeless . According to the American Society of Civil Engineers , an enormous 235 @,@ 000 ft3 ( 6 @,@ 650 m3 ) of water was being moved per second during the height of the flood .
At the height of the floods , residents were forced to seek refuge on the roofs of two @-@ story buildings ; however , the Santa Catarina River was flowing at a very fast pace of 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) . The force of the current led to most homes being taken off their foundations and sent downstream , resulting in the deaths of anyone inside . In one incident , 90 people died after seeking refuge in a school after their homes collapsed . However , not long after entering the building , flood waters inundated the structure and caused it to collapse . By the morning , survivors reported that the state of the city was " indescribable " . Damage from the hurricane was estimated to have been at least $ 50 million ( 1909 USD ; $ 1 @.@ 32 billion 2016 USD ) . Of this , roughly $ 20 million was attributed to railroad losses . Throughout Mexico , reports indicated that about 4 @,@ 000 people were killed as a result of the storm , making it one of the deadliest Atlantic hurricanes on record . Some estimates place the death toll as high as 5 @,@ 000 and others as low as 3 @,@ 000 . Of these fatalities , 800 are believed to have been in the south side of Monterrey where four blocks of the city were completely destroyed .
= = Aftermath = =
Immediately following the catastrophic flooding in Monterrey , an appeal was made to the United States and other nations for aid . Many residents and visitors in the city did all they could to help rescue those trapped in the flood waters and take care of the homeless . According to the New York Times , one person rescued 30 people stranded in flood waters . Numerous rescue operations were undertaken during the flood , saving many lives . However , survivors faced another issue after losing their homes : lack of food . Food was unavailable to most residents in the wake of the storm until August 31 when the first relief supplies arrived . Even then , most only received a small amount of bread and beans . Once the flood along the Santa Catarina River receded , searches were conducted to attempt to locate the bodies of victims . However , reports indicated that the river bed was similar to quicksand and most bodies on it were likely underground .
Days after the storm , fears of food shortages began to arise as railways , in which food would normally be able to be delivered , were washed out . To deal with the large amount of bodies in the wake of the disaster , Mexican officials decided to cremate and mass bury victims . By mid @-@ September , between 1 @,@ 600 and 1 @,@ 800 people were hired to repair and rebuild the devastated railways in Nuevo León . In 2009 , the third edition of the book El Río Fiera Bramaba : 1909 by Oswaldo Sánchez , re @-@ accounting reports form people who experienced the flood , was planned . According to the director of publications at the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León , the book was considered one of historical quality . In memory of those who perished during the flood , the book was released to the public on August 27 , 2009 , the 100 year anniversary of the disaster .
= SMS Berlin =
SMS Berlin ( " His Majesty 's Ship Berlin " ) was the third member of the seven @-@ vessel Bremen class , built by the Imperial German Navy . Throughout her over 40 @-@ year @-@ long career , she served with the Imperial Navy , the Reichsmarine , and the Kriegsmarine . She was built by the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig , laid down in 1902 , launched in September 1903 , and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in April 1905 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Berlin was capable of a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) .
Berlin served in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet from her commissioning to 1911 , when she was sent abroad for overseas duties . She returned to the scouting forces the following year , where she remained through the first two years of World War I. She spent 1916 as a minelayer , and was disarmed in 1917 . She was one of six cruisers permitted to Germany by the Treaty of Versailles , and she remained in service with the new Reichsmarine through the 1920s as a training ship . She was withdrawn from active duty in 1929 , and later used as a barracks ship by the Kriegsmarine , a role she filled through World War II . After the end of the war , she was loaded with chemical weapons and scuttled in the Skagerrak .
= = Construction = =
Berlin was ordered under the contract name Ersatz Zieten and was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig in 1902 and launched on 22 September 1903 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 4 April 1905 . The ship was 111 @.@ 1 meters ( 365 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 3 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 51 m ( 18 @.@ 1 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 792 t ( 3 @,@ 732 long tons ; 4 @,@ 180 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines , designed to give 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) for a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . The engines were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Berlin carried up to 860 tonnes ( 850 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 270 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 910 km ; 4 @,@ 910 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 274 – 287 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . In 1915 , Berlin was modified to carry 80 naval mines . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Berlin was assigned to the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . In 1911 , she was deployed abroad for service on foreign stations . She returned to Germany the following year , and rejoined the fleet cruiser squadron . In October 1913 , the ship left Germany again bound for Veracruz , to relieve Hertha in the Caribbean . In 1915 , the ship was retrofitted to carry 80 mines . She was in drydock in May 1916 , and so she was unavailable for the Battle of Jutland on the last day of the month . In October 1916 , the British submarine HMS E38 attacked Berlin , but its torpedoes missed . After the end of the year , Berlin was disarmed . She was thereafter used as a coastal defense ship , a role she performed through to the end of the war in 1918 .
Berlin was among the six light cruisers Germany was permitted to retain by the Treaty of Versailles . In the service of the newly reorganized Reichsmarine , Berlin served as a training cruiser , starting in 1922 . That year , Wilhelm Canaris was assigned to the ship , which went to Norway in November 1923 . In January 1924 , Berlin departed German waters for an extended overseas cruise , which was the first time a German warship had done so since the end of World War I. While on the cruise , Canaris met a naval cadet by the name of Reinhard Heydrich , who went on to become a close friend and eventual architect of The Holocaust . In 1928 , Berlin conducted a training cruise around the world , which included a stop in Fremantle . Training duties lasted until 1929 , when she was withdrawn from service . Starting in 1935 , the Kriegsmarine used Berlin as a barracks ship in Kiel . There , she survived World War II ; in the aftermath of the war , she was loaded with chemical weapons and scuttled in the Skaggerak to dispose of them , on 31 May 1947 .
= Ernest Albert Corey =
Ernest Albert Corey MM & Three Bars ( 20 December 1891 – 25 August 1972 ) was a distinguished Australian soldier who served as a stretcher bearer during the First World War . He enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force on 13 January 1916 , and was allocated to the 55th Battalion , where he was initially posted to a grenade section before volunteering for stretcher bearing duties . In 1917 he was twice awarded the Military Medal for his devotion to duty in aiding wounded soldiers , and twice again in 1918 ; becoming the only person to be awarded the Military Medal four times .
Born in New South Wales , Corey was employed as a blacksmith 's striker upon leaving school . In January 1916 , he became a member of the " Men from Snowy River " recruiting march , enlisting in Goulburn . Returning to Australia after the Armistice , he was discharged on medical grounds in 1919 and was employed in a number of jobs before re @-@ enlisting in a militia battalion for service in the Second World War . He died in 1972 and was buried with full military honours in the Ex @-@ Servicemen 's section of Woden Cemetery , Australian Capital Territory .
= = Early life = =
Corey was born on 20 December 1891 in Numeralla , New South Wales , the eighth child of Thomas Corey and his wife Ellen , née Burke . He was educated at Thubergal Lake Public School , before leaving to become a blacksmith 's striker at Martin 's Smithy in Cooma . In January 1916 , Corey marched from Cooma to Goulburn as a member of the " Men from Snowy River " recruiting march , and enlisted on 13 January . Along with the majority of other members of the march , he was allotted to the 55th Battalion .
= = First World War = =
Following training at Goulburn camp , he embarked for overseas on 4 September aboard HMAT Port Sydney with the 4th Reinforcements for the 55th Battalion . Arriving in England , he spent three months with the 14th Training Battalion at Hurdcott Camp near Fovant in Wiltshire , before joining the 55th Battalion on 8 February 1917 at Montauban , France . Posted to the grenade section of " C " Company , he took part in the capture of Doignies in April .
On 15 May , Corey 's brigade was in action near Quéant . Suffering heavy losses , the Commanding Officer of the 55th called for volunteers to assist the stretcher bearers ; Corey was one of thirty men who volunteered . For seventeen hours , he assisted in carrying the wounded approximately 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) back to the dressing station ; he was awarded the Military Medal for this action .
Following engagements at Bullecourt , the 5th Division — of which the 55th Battalion was part — spent four months in reserve , before moving into the Ypres sector in Belgium . Made a regular stretcher bearer , Corey was decorated with a bar to his Military Medal for his actions on 26 September during the Battle of Polygon Wood . While subject to heavy artillery and machine gun fire , he frequently ventured out into no @-@ man 's @-@ land to tend to the wounded .
During the winter of 1917 – 1918 , the 55th Battalion was posted to the Messines sector , where Corey was granted leave to the United Kingdom in February 1918 . While on leave , he became ill and spent ninety days in hospital before rejoining his battalion in July . Shortly after , the Allies launched an offensive against the Germans in August along the Somme , where the 55th Battalion became involved in the capture of Péronne in September . It was here where Corey received the second bar to his Military Medal ; between 1 – 2 September , while subject to heavy machine gun and artillery fire , he continually assisted the wounded with first aid .
Promoted to corporal on 21 September , he was placed in charge of the battalion 's stretcher bearers , whom he led during the battle north of Bullecourt on 30 September . Corey attended to the wounded while exposed to fire , and continued to direct other bearer parties throughout the action until wounded himself , receiving wounds in the right groin and thigh . It was during this engagement that he was awarded a third bar to his Military Medal . Evacuated to a casualty station , Corey was operated on before receiving a transfer to a general hospital at Le Havre . Operated on again , he was sent to a hospital in Bristol , England . Repatriated to Australia on 30 April 1919 , he was medically discharged in June .
= = Later life = =
Returning to Cooma , Corey was employed as a contract rabbiter before moving to Canberra in 1922 , where he was employed as a camp caretaker . On 23 September 1924 , at St Gregory 's Catholic Church , Queanbeyan , he married Sarah Jane Fisher ; the pair later had a daughter , Patricia , before the marriage was dissolved in 1935 . Between 1927 and 1940 , Corey worked for the Department of the Interior as an office cleaner . He re @-@ enlisted for service in the Second World War with the Australian Military Forces on 23 September 1941 , and was posted to the 2nd Garrison Battalion for two years before he was medically discharged as a private on 11 October 1943 .
He then went through a series of jobs , including employment as a caretaker , a cook for a departmental survey party and as a leading hand at the Canberra incinerator . By 1951 he was almost crippled with osteoarthritis , and soon after was admitted to the Queanbeyan Private Nursing Home , where he died on 25 August 1972 ; he was buried with full military honours in the Ex @-@ Servicemen 's section of Woden Cemetery .
His medals are displayed in the Hall of Valour at the Australian War Memorial , and replicas of his medals and copies of the citations for the Military Medal and three bars can be viewed in the Canberra Services Club , of which he was a member for many years .
= = Memorial = =
Following several donations by the people of Cooma and the Monaro District , a Memorial Plaque to Corey was erected in Centennial Park , Cooma in 1979 . In 1995 , the plaque was moved to the Cooma Memorial and the committee involved with the relocation decided to erect a diorama based on a painting in the Australian War Memorial depicting stretcher bearers bringing in wounded soldiers under heavy shell fire at Mont St Quentin during the First World War . A local artist and sculptor , Chris Graham , was commissioned to undertake the project which was constructed from steel and concrete . It was erected in the Cooma War Memorial area on 23 April 1996 .
The inscription on the memorial reads :
= Burnham Park ( Chicago ) =
Burnham Park is a public park in Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . The park , which lies along 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of Lake Michigan shoreline , connects Grant Park at 14th Street to Jackson Park at 56th Street . The 598 acres ( 242 ha ) of parkland is owned and managed by Chicago Park District . It was named for urban planner and architect Daniel Burnham in 1927 . Burnham was one of the designers of the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition .
The park is an outgrowth of the 1909 Plan for Chicago developed by the park 's namesake Daniel Burnham and often called simply " The Burnham Plan " . Land for the park has been acquired by the city 's park district by a variety of means such as bequest , landfill , and barter . Now , the park hosts some of the city 's most important municipal structures , such as Soldier Field and McCormick Place . The park has surrendered the land for the Museum Campus to Grant Park . Recently , the park has become known as the landing site for Marine One when U.S. President Barack Obama visits his Kenwood home on Chicago 's south side .
In the early 20th century , Chicago businessman A. Montgomery Ward advocated that the lakefront must be publicly accessible , and remain " forever open , clear and free " , lest the city descend into the squalor typical of American cities of the time , with buildings and heavy industry destroying any chance for beauty . Ward 's influence lead to the protection of the lake shore parks system and to this day , the city 's lakefront is open from the former city limits at Hollywood Ave ( 5700N ) down to the former steel mills near Rainbow Beach ( 7700S ) .
= = Location = =
McFetridge Drive is the boundary between Grant Park and Burnham Park . Beginning with Northerly Island and the 14th Street Beach , and enclosing Burnham Harbor and its public marina , the park runs in a narrow strip past Soldier Field and McCormick Place , both of which disrupt Burnham 's original plan , south to 56th street . The park , from North to South , runs through the communities of Near South , Douglas , Oakland , Kenwood and Hyde Park .
The park lies mostly between Lake Shore Drive and Lake Michigan , but crosses the drive and abuts the Illinois Central Railroad tracks in places . There is a beach at 31st Street , a skatepark at 34th Street , a stone beach at 49th Street , and a model boat pond at 51st Street in Hyde Park . The park ends with a flourish at Promontory Point at 55th Street . Footbridges and underpasses provide access to the park over the barriers of the train tracks and Lake Shore Drive . A 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) section of the Chicago Lakefront Trail bicycle and jogging path runs the length of the park .
= = History = =
Ward fought for the poor people 's access to Chicago 's lakefront . In 1906 , he campaigned to preserve neighboring Grant Park as a public park . Grant Park has been protected since 1836 by " forever open , clear and free " legislation that has been affirmed by four previous Illinois Supreme Court rulings . In the mid @-@ 1890s , architect Daniel Burnham began planning a park and boulevard that would link Jackson Park with Grant Park and downtown . As Chief of Construction for the World 's Columbian Exposition of 1893 , Burnham was known for developing the White City . After the fair , Burnham began designing a more functional Chicago . Burnham 's plan , including a lakefront park with a series of islands , boating harbor , beaches , and playfields was published in his 1909 Plan of Chicago . Burnham 's famous 1909 plan eventually preserved Grant Park and the entire Chicago lakefront .
= = = 1860 @-@ 1890 = = =
Paul Cornell , a lawyer and real estate developer , donated and built East End Park between 51st and 53rd Streets in 1856 . After much of the land eroded , the property was incorporated into Burnham Park and was eventually renamed Harold Washington Park in 1992 . In the years following his donation , expansions were built at the northeast corner of the future Jackson Park , located at the south end of Burnham . The most notable expansions included a seawall and granite paved strolling beach , constructed from 1884 to 1888 , and a building used as the Iowa Pavilion during the Columbian Exposition .
Cornell lobbied for the establishment of the South Parks and Boulevard System . The first bond vote was rejected in 1867 , as just a method to provide remote driving grounds for rich citizens and to lure people to move away for the benefit of real estate speculators and developers . In 1869 , the bills were passed by the legislature , and the South Park Commission was formed with support from Cornell . The future site was primarily under Lake Michigan or abutting the Illinois Central Railroad right of way . In 1892 , the formerly trestled railroad was raised on an embankment , along the present west edge of the park . South Park ( the present Jackson Park ) was slowly developed , and along with the Midway Plaisance and Washington Park , the designs by Frederick Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were focused on lagoons and navigation from the Lake to South Park Way ( now King Dr. ) and 55th Street , in addition to the development of a country driving park , horse and buggy paths along the lake , and a water system running north to downtown . By the 1880s , the development included the Kenwood and Bowen communities , and by the 1890s , immigrant neighborhoods were developing . The city limits were expanded from 39th to 130th in 1889 , absorbing virtually all of Hyde Park Township ( 35th to 138th ) .
= = = 1890 @-@ 1910 = = =
The Columbian Exposition was held in Jackson Park , leaving housing in Hyde Park built for the Fair . The area around the new University of Chicago allowed real estate developers an opportunity to profit during the depression of the mid @-@ 1890s . As part of Jackson Park 's transformation , South Park Commission President James E. Ellsworth asked Burnham to design a boulevard linking Jackson and Grant Parks . Ruling out residential expansion , Burnham developed plans for green areas , harbors and lagoons , water scenery , a canal to downtown , and a scenic drive . With a theme of a " playground for the people " , the area was planned to include bridges , beaches with pavilions , and bathing houses . In 1896 , Burnham began marketing the plan to Marshall Field , George Pullman , Philip Armour , and business organizations . In 1901 , the Chicago Commercial Club began promoting the ideas and in 1909 , published the Plan of Chicago by Burnham and Edward H. Bennett and illustrated by Jules Guerin . From 1907 until 1920 , legal battles to acquire parkland continued despite the 1907 Legislature passing a bill with language favoring railroads until courts rejected the legislation .
= = = 1910 @-@ 1920 = = =
The South Park Commission received rights to the future site of the Field Museum in exchange for 160 acres ( 65 ha ) transferred to the Illinois Central Railroad . Government agencies had to agree to plans , including the Cook County Circuit Court , General Assembly , Chicago Plan Commission , and U.S. Secretary of War . In 1912 , Burnham died and a new Chicago Plan Commission was created . In 1919 , landfill efforts began at the north end of the park . In February 1920 , voters approved a $ 20 million bond issue as part of the Burnham Plan initiative for new lands to complete Grant Park , so as to create the South Shore Development . In 1920 , the Field Museum was opened , with the exhibits moved from Jackson Park into the basement . By 1925 , new landforms , including Northerly Island , the only offshore landform in the Burnham Plan actually built , were completed to 23rd Street .
= = = 1920 @-@ 1930 = = =
A $ 2 @.@ 5 million bond issue passed in 1922 for a stadium conceived by Burnham . Designed by architects Holabird & Roche and named Soldier Field for the veterans of World War I , cost overruns required another bond issue in 1926 . By 1924 , the breakwater wall stretched from 14th to 55th Streets . In 1926 , Soldier Field and a portion of Lake Shore Drive were opened . Landfilling extended from 23rd Street to 56th Street ; however , Promontory Point was not complete , prompting complaints regarding garbage , blowing sand and odors . Throughout the 1920s and 1930s , landfill efforts continued to fill in Burnham Park and the adjacent Northerly Island . The South Development was named for Daniel Burnham on January 14 , 1927 , and support increased for a world 's fair in the park . Construction was completed on Lake Shore Drive , with northbound lanes named for Leif Erikson , and southbound lanes for Christopher Columbus . In 1929 , construction of the park at Promontory Point began . The Great Depression delayed work and prevented construction of nearshore islands . Burnham Park was chosen for the site of the Century of Progress world 's fair and a yacht basin was built south of 51st Street .
= = = 1930s @-@ 1940s = = =
In 1933 and 1934 , the Century of Progress International Exposition was held in Burnham Park . In the mid @-@ 1930s , the Chicago Park District used funds from the federal Works Progress Administration to complete landfill operations and install landscaping at Promontory Point by renowned designer Alfred Caldwell , a professor at the Illinois Institute of Technology . In 1935 , Mayor Edward Joseph Kelly explored the idea of a permanent fair in the park . The state passed a bill creating the Metropolitan Fair and Exposition Authority and allowed construction of Meigs Field , after Northerly Island lost out as the site for the United Nations . In 1948 , Burnham Park hosted the Chicago Railroad Fair , proving the location 's viability for conventions , which eventually led to the construction of the first McCormick Place in 1960 .
= = = = Balbo Monument = = = =
One highlight of the 1933 Century of Progress World 's Fair was popular Italian aviator and prominent fascist Italo Balbo , leading 24 flying boats in landing on Lake Michigan after a transatlantic flight from Rome . Balbo 's squadron left Italy on June 30 , 1933 , and arrived on July 15 , after making several short stops . To honor his journey , 7th Street was renamed Balbo Drive . As a return gift , Benito Mussolini sent an ancient 2nd @-@ century Roman column , which was erected in front of the Italian pavilion during the Century of Progress Exposition . Located near the lakefront bike trail east of Soldier Field , the Balbo Monument is one of the few relics remaining from the fair . The column is from a portico near the Porta Marina of Ostia Antica and stands on a marble base with inscriptions in both Italian and English reading :
" This column , twenty centuries old , was erected on the beach of Ostia , the port of Imperial Rome , to watch over the fortunes and victories of the Roman triremes . Fascist Italy , with the sponsorship of Benito Mussolini , presents to Chicago a symbol and memorial in honor of the Atlantic Squadron led by Balbo , which with Roman daring , flew across the ocean in the 11th year of the Fascist era . "
= = = 1950s @-@ 1970s = = =
During the 1950s , the park was the host of a Project Nike air defense system missile site . The United States Department of Defense and the United States Army kept similar sites in 40 United States cities during the Cold War and dismantled them in 1971 . The original McCormick Place burned down in 1967 , and despite opposition , a new facility opened in Burnham Park in 1971 .
= = Burnham Park today = =
= = = Facilities = = =
The Museum Campus , which includes the Adler Planetarium , Shedd Aquarium and Field Museum , was annexed to Grant Park from Burnham Park in the late 1990s . Burnham 's 598 acres ( 242 ha ) still contain Soldier Field and Chicago 's premier convention center , McCormick Place @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake , which hosts more than four million people per year . The Chicago Park District maintains several beaches and also operates a 20 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 900 m2 ) all @-@ concrete skatepark , just south of the 31st Street Beachhouse . It has been widely reported that when U.S. President Barack Obama returns to visit his Chicago home in the Kenwood community area , he is transported by helicopter from O 'Hare International Airport to Burnham Park , where he is transferred to his motorcade .
= = = = Harbors and marinas = = = =
The park includes two harbors for the docking of fishing and leisure craft . Burnham Harbor , located adjacent to the Museum Campus and Soldier Field , is created by Northerly Island . It contains 1120 docking facilities , a harbor store , boat ramp , and the Burnham Park Yacht Club . The 31st Street Harbor , adjacent to the 31st Street Beach , opened in 2012 . It contains 1000 floating slips , a harbor store , boat ramp and provides new park amenities .
= = = Morgan Shoal = = =
In 1999 , the Park District initiated a long @-@ range planning program for a number of lakefront and historic parks . On January 5 , 2000 , the Park District made its first move toward adding acreage to the park by adopting the Burnham Park Framework Plan . The project , which as of 2009 was still continuing , is a joint commission of the Park District , the United States Army Corps of Engineers and the City of Chicago Department of Environment . The project has been delayed in part because the Corps of Engineers has been diverted to design projects for the Iraq War . In conjunction with Harza Engineering , BauerLatoza Studio designed a nature area within a portion of the park between 45th and 51st Streets , featuring the shallow bedrock in an area known as Morgan Shoal . The $ 42 million expansion will increase parkland by 30 acres ( 12 ha ) , filling Lake Michigan .
= = = Chicago Lakefront Trail = = =
The Chicago Lakefront Trail ( LFT ) is an 18 @-@ mile ( 29 km ) multi @-@ use path along the shoreline of Lake Michigan . It is popular with cyclists and joggers . From north to south , it runs through Lincoln Park , Grant Park , Burnham Park and Jackson Park .
= Day of the Jackanapes =
" Day of the Jackanapes " is the thirteenth episode of The Simpsons ' twelfth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 18 , 2001 . In the episode , Krusty announces his retirement due to interference from network executives and the growing popularity of the game show Me Wantee . But when Krusty reveals to Sideshow Bob that all of the episodes featuring him have been erased , Sideshow Bob uses Bart to try and murder Krusty during his farewell show .
" Day of the Jackanapes " was written by Al Jean and directed by Michael Marcantel and features recurring guest star Kelsey Grammer as Sideshow Bob , as well as Gary Coleman as himself . It features references to Johnny Carson , Bookends and Terminator 2 : Judgment Day , among other things .
It would also feature a parody of the song " Zip @-@ a @-@ Dee @-@ Doo @-@ Dah " , but because the series ' staff were not able to clear the rights for the song in time for the episode 's broadcast , the song remained unreleased until 2007 . The episode is the first appearance of Sideshow Bob since " Brother from Another Series " ( 1997 ) .
In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 9 million viewers , finishing in 34th place in the ratings the week it aired . Following its broadcast , the episode received positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
When the popular game show Me Wantee ! steals ratings from The Krusty the Clown Show , Krusty , annoyed with his interfering network executives , announces that he will quit showbusiness for good . During an interview with Kent Brockman , he says he is tired of doing his show , and admits to taping Judge Judy over all his old shows featuring Sideshow Bob .
Upon hearing this on TV , Bob vows revenge and plots to kill Krusty . Bob is released from prison and applies for a job at Springfield Elementary as an assistant janitor . However , Principal Skinner decides to make him the morning announcer . Over the announcements , he asks Bart to meet him in the abandoned tool shed . Sideshow Bob binds Bart , then hypnotizes and programs him to smash a statue of Krusty at a local Krusty Burger .
The next night on Krusty 's farewell special , Krusty describes the history of his career . Bob straps Bart with explosives and tells him to hug Krusty at the end of his performance , thus killing both of them . However , as Krusty reaches the end of his performance , he talks to the audience about how he regrets mistreating Sideshow Bob , holding himself responsible for turning Bob into a ruthless criminal ( from Season 1 's " Krusty Gets Busted " ) .
Krusty even goes as far as singing a song on behalf of Bob , stating how very remorseful he is of mistreating him . Upon witnessing this , Bob is touched and develops a change of heart , but does not have time to stop his original plan from being carried out . Luckily , Krusty 's trained chimp Mr. Teeny sees the life @-@ threatening explosives and throws them into the network executives ' office , killing them all , though they later reanimate themselves like the T @-@ 1000 from Terminator 2 .
Bart comes out of his hypnotic state and he and his family serve dinner with Krusty , Bob and Sideshow Mel in a restaurant . Although Krusty and Bob reconcile , the police decide to execute Bob by guillotine for his plot of attempted murder , which is immediately revoked when he argues with Chief Wiggum that he should have a trial for it at least .
= = Production = =
The first draft of " Day of the Jackanapes " was written by current showrunner Al Jean . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Jean said that he had always wanted to write an episode about Sideshow Bob , and that " Day of the Jackanapes " would be a good way to have the character return . He also said that the writers wanted to work with Kelsey Grammer , who portrays Sideshow Bob , again . " Of all the guest stars we 've had who 've been great , he 's right up there as the very best " , he said .
Still , the writers had trouble with coming up with a story for Sideshow Bob since they had already explored several aspects of the character before . " It 's just that we 've done so many angles of whether he 's , he 's good , he 's reformed and then his brother came to town ... " executive producer and former showrunner Mike Scully said about the difficulty of writing episodes about Sideshow Bob .
At the beginning of the episode , Krusty is shown being pestered by network executives who comment on every choice he makes . He announces his departure from the Krusty the Klown Show after the executives give him notes during filming of a sketch . At the end of the episode , Mr Teeny is uncertain of where he should throw the plastic explosives that Bart wore . When he sees the two executives discussing in a room , he throws it onto them . Instead of dying of the explosion however , the pieces of the executives reconstitute into what Jean describes as a " super @-@ executive " .
These sequences were inspired by Jean 's dissatisfaction with some network executives , who he felt took control over a television series he was working on before he returned to The Simpsons in 1999 . " I had just worked on a show on another network [ ... ] we had a show where there were a lot of notes from executives " , Jean said of the inspiration for the scenes . The episode would originally have a different ending , but it was changed to its current iteration after the writers did not find the original ending humorous enough . When recording the DVD commentary however , Jean said that he was a bit dissatisfied with the new ending . " I think we did leave it a little hanging " , he said .
During one of the recording sessions for the episode , The Simpsons ' staff recorded " Hullaba Lula " , a version of the 1946 song " Zip @-@ a @-@ Dee @-@ Doo @-@ Dah " with Grammer as Sideshow Bob on vocals . The song would originally be used in the episode , but the staff were not able to clear the rights for the song in time . It was therefore removed from the episode altogether , and remained unreleased until September 17 , 2007 , when it was included as a bonus track on the soundtrack album The Simpsons : Testify . Aside from Grammer , the episode also features American actor Gary Coleman as himself .
= = Cultural references = =
This episode 's title , " Day of the Jackanapes , " is derived from the thriller novel " The Day of the Jackal " and the movie by the same name .
The plot of " Day of the Jackanapes " is based on the 1959 political thriller novel The Manchurian Candidate . Before filming an episode of his show , Krusty is stopped by the two network executives , who attempt to explain to him why the sitcom Seinfeld worked as a series . After Krusty has announced the cancellation of his show , a group of crying children are seen at the Krustylu Studios , where the show is filmed .
The name of the studio is based on Desilu Studios , a television company based in Los Angeles . In an interview with Kent Brockman , Krusty says that he taped over all episodes of his show that Sideshow Bob was in with episodes of the reality court show Judge Judy . This is a reference to how NBC reused tapes of early episodes of The Tonight Show to film new programs .
At one point in his last show , Krusty performs while sitting on a stool , a reference to television host Johnny Carson 's last appearance on The Tonight Show . While watching Krusty 's final show , Sideshow Bob holds a bag of Kettle Chips and says " Kettle Chips , the perfect side dish for revenge . " Because of this scene , the writing staff received several bags of Kettle Chips from Kettle Foods , according to Jean . When asking for Sideshow Bob 's forgiveness , Krusty sings a song to the tune of " Mandy " by Barry Manilow . The picture behind him is based on the cover of Bookends by Simon & Garfunkel . After having exploded , the two network executives reform into a " super @-@ executive " . The scene is a reference to the 1991 science fiction action film Terminator 2 : Judgment Day . At the end of the episode , Krusty and Sideshow Bob reconcile in a restaurant . On the wall behind them are several pictures of guest stars that had previously appeared on The Simpsons , including Mark McGwire , Ringo Starr , Sting , Tom Jones , Brooke Shields and Elizabeth Taylor .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast on February 18 , 2001 , " Day of the Jackanapes " received an 8 @.@ 8 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 9 million viewers . The episode finished in 34th place in the ratings for the week of February 12 – 18 , 2001 , tying with an episode of Malcolm in the Middle . On August 18 , 2009 , the episode was released as part of a DVD set called The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season . Mike Scully , Al Jean , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Yeardley Smith , Tim Long , Matt Selman and Michael Marcantel participated in the audio commentary for the episode .
Following its home video release , " Day of the Jackanapes " received positive reviews from critics . In his review of The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season , Mac McEntire of DVD Verdict described the episode as a " winner " . He especially enjoyed the scene in which Bart hits a statue of Krusty in the groin with a baseball bat . DVD Talk 's Jason Bailey wrote that this episode and " Insane Clown Poppy " both " really shine " , and Will Harris of Bull @-@ Eye.com wrote that the episode was " a crowd @-@ pleaser across the board . "
Colin Jacobson , of DVD Movie Guide wrote that , although it does not compare with the best Sideshow Bob episodes , it still " looks good " compared to the rest of the season . He enjoyed the lampooning of network executives , and though he did not consider the episode to be a " classic " , he maintained that it " fares pretty well . " IGN 's Robert Canning also wrote that , although the episode is overall " solid " , it is " lacking that extra something " that the best Sideshow Bob episodes have . Nevertheless , it reached number eight on the website 's list of ten best Sideshow Bob episodes of the series .
= Red Dutton =
Norman Alexander " Mervyn , Red " Dutton CM ( July 23 , 1897 – March 15 , 1987 ) was a Canadian ice hockey player , coach and executive . He played for the Calgary Tigers of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) and the Montreal Maroons and New York Americans of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . A rugged and physical defenceman , Dutton often led his team in penalty minutes , won the WCHL championship in 1924 as a member of the Tigers and was twice named a WCHL All @-@ Star .
Dutton coached and managed the Americans and later purchased the team before suspending operations in 1942 due to World War II . He served as the second president of the NHL between 1943 and 1946 before resigning the position after the NHL 's owners reneged on a promise to allow the Americans to resume operations following the war . He served as a Stanley Cup trustee for 37 years but otherwise limited his involvement with the NHL following the Americans ' demise . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1958 .
A successful businessman , Dutton operated a construction company that built Calgary 's McMahon Stadium in 1960 and he served for a time as the president of the Calgary Stampeders football club and later the Calgary Exhibition and Stampede . He was invested as a member of the Order of Canada in 1981 and is honoured by both the Manitoba Hockey and Alberta Sports Halls of Fame . He was posthumously awarded the Lester Patrick Trophy in 1993 in recognition of his contributions to the game of hockey in the United States .
= = Early life = =
Dutton was born in Russell , Manitoba on July 23 , 1897 . His father , Bill , was a successful contractor who helped build Canada 's transcontinental railway system , and the younger Dutton often helped his father at his work when he was a boy . He had at least two elder brothers , and a sister .
His given name was Norman Alexander Dutton , but his birth names were quickly ignored . A family friend of the Duttons refused to call him Norman as the name had a negative connotation for her , so she instead called him " Mervyn " , a name that stuck . His friends called him " Red " after the colour of his hair , and to most , he was known as Mervyn " Red " Dutton .
Dutton attended school at St. John 's College in Winnipeg . He left school in 1915 to volunteer with the Canadian Expeditionary Force ( CEF ) in World War I and served with the Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry . He lied about his birth date on his CEF enlistment papers as he was not yet 18 , and served for four years . Dutton fought in the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917 where he suffered a shrapnel wound to his leg serious enough that doctors pressed for amputation . Dutton refused and spent the following 18 months working to recover full use of his leg . He played hockey almost constantly to regain strength , at one point playing in seven different Winnipeg leagues at the same time .
Following the war , Dutton sought to build his own contracting business . However , an economic depression in 1920 forced its closure . He then worked in a packing plant in Winnipeg that also ceased operations . Penniless , with only his pride preventing him from asking his father for help , he was met by the owner of a hockey team in Calgary who had sought him out . Dutton was offered $ 2 @,@ 500 to play in the Alberta city .
= = Playing career = =
Dutton joined the Calgary Canadians of Alberta 's Big @-@ 4 League for the 1920 – 21 season , then moved onto the Calgary Tigers of the Western Canada Hockey League ( WCHL ) in 1921 – 22 where he scored 16 goals and 21 points in 22 games . Two seasons later , in 1923 – 24 , Dutton and the Tigers won the WCHL championship . He assisted on the championship winning goal in a 2 – 0 victory over the Regina Capitals by carrying
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Academy , the same day the cornerstone was laid for the nearby Sacred Heart Convent . A girls ' dormitory building was built in 1923 . It was later converted into classrooms and renamed Benet Hall ) . A power plant , a larger chapel , and additional classrooms were dedicated in 1926 . A gym was built in 1936 ; at that time the facility housed approximately 400 orphans . Twenty @-@ three headstones from that period can be found in a small cemetery on the northwest side of the school , where orphans as young as three , one of the workmen , and several former orphans who had been raised at St. Joseph are buried . According to school lore , ghosts of orphans still haunt the fourth floor of St. Joseph Hall and the basement of Benet Hall , where the nursery of the orphanage once was .
Elementary schooling at the orphanage featured better equipped classrooms than the original building . A few years after operations moved in 1911 , the school offered a two @-@ year business program . By 1948 the orphanage comprised the Lisle Manual Training School for Boys and the Lisle Industrial School for Girls , both of which were managed by the Sisters of St. Benedict and run by the Archdiocese of Chicago . In the 1950s Petru Hall was built as an annex on the east side of the dormitory building .
The archdiocese assumed control of the orphanage in 1920 , and began accepting orphans from the Juvenile Court of Cook County , most of whom came from broken homes whose parents did not pay the fines imposed by the court . This discouraged donations and strained the orphanage financially . Archbishop Samuel Cardinal Stritch , discovering that only 12 of the 255 children were actually orphans and only five of them were Slavs , closed the orphanage in 1956 . The 12 true orphans were moved to Holy Angels Orphanage in Des Plaines . Bishop of Joliet Martin Dewey McNamara gave the former orphanage buildings to St. Procopius Academy , which was at that time still combined with the college .
= = = College in Lisle = = =
As enrollment increased to 46 in 1891 , it became obvious that St. Procopius College 's enrollment would soon outstrip its facilities in Pilsen . Neuzil was replaced as rector by Rev. Ildephonse Wittman , also a Benedictine , in 1894 . In 1896 , the Abbey bought a 104 @-@ acre ( 42 ha ) farm in Lisle from Morris Neff to provide more space and a " better atmosphere " . On March 12 , 1900 , a new building was approved , to be built at the southwest corner of Maple and College Avenues . The groundbreaking was held on April 19 , 1900 , the school moved in May , and the new facility was dedicated on July 1 , 1901 , by Peter Muldoon , Bishop of the Diocese of Chicago . Classes began in September with six faculty and 11 students . Atheists in Chicago vehemently objected to the Catholic church @-@ run school , but the Czech community came to the school 's defense . Limited financial aid for the generally poor Czech immigrants led to meager enrollment . Attendance grew from 13 in 1901 to 100 in 1908 .
The academy offered its first four @-@ year high school program in 1904 , with both " classical " , or college @-@ preparatory , and " commercial " , or vocational , programs . Students enrolled in the commercial track studied for three years , the first two being identical to the classical track and the third consisting of specialized coursework . The commercial program was dropped in 1915 . Tuition for a semester cost $ 80 ; it was increased to $ 100 in 1909 . As of 1921 , the school enrolled only men of Bohemian or Slovak ancestry .
Income and enrollment fell during the Great Depression . Between 1917 and 1930 , enrollment fell from 205 students to 140 . The school sought accreditation from the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools , but the application was denied because the college and academy could not be accredited as a single institution , and financial constraints prevented their separation . In 1932 the abbey and the school lost most of their money when the Kaspar American Bank in Chicago failed . Academic programs and student activities were not greatly affected , in part because the faculty was mainly clergymen , who were not highly paid . Still unaccredited , the school was certified by the state of Illinois in September 1934 .
Students , faculty , and clergymen sustained themselves with food produced on the 365 @-@ acre ( 148 ha ) Abbey Farm , which they maintained until the 1970s . Approximately 1 @,@ 500 chickens provided eggs , while Brown Swiss cattle provided milk . Meat came from the farm 's supply of bulls , hogs , and heifers . Bee hives produced honey and wax , while a cannery produced more than 12 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 45 @,@ 000 L ) of food products .
World War II caused enrollment to decline and the student body consisted mainly of high school students and seminarians . Following the war , new students enrolled , and the school built a temporary facility in 1947 to accommodate them . Students from Illinois began to replace out @-@ of @-@ state students , the percentage of day , or commuting , students rose , and the school employed more lay teachers . After the war , the previously ethnic Czech college acquired a more diverse student body , due to rising enrollment caused by the G.I. Bill . By 1947 the high school enrolled 30 students . Better times and higher birth rates led to growing enrollment at St. Procopius in the 1950s and 1960s .
With the gift of the former orphanage facility , the academy began to operate independently from the college in 1957 . It was accredited on March 28 , 1958 . St. Procopius College was renamed Illinois Benedictine College in 1971 , and Benedictine University in 1996 . Under the leadership of its first principal , Rev. Thomas J. Havlik , the academy added new classrooms and St. Martin Hall to its facilities .
= = = Convent in Lisle = = =
By 1912 , the community of nuns had outgrown their convent in Chicago , and relocated to the new Convent of the Sacred Heart in Lisle . They had prospered there as a teaching order educating Slovak @-@ speaking nuns and organized two Slovak schools . In 1926 , under the leadership of Mother Mary Genevieve , the convent founded a day and boarding high school for girls — the Sacred Heart Academy . The academy outgrew its space and in 1929 the convent was expanded to accommodate rising enrollment . The annexed facilities reserved for the school included a Renaissance @-@ style chapel , an auditorium , and a gymnasium . The Academy was later expanded to include the Jaeger Junior College .
The academy was primarily a boarding school . Students came from Illinois , the surrounding states , Texas , and Mexico . A few day students came from the Lisle area . In 1947 enrollment averaged 75 students . Enrollment grew from 120 in 1953 to 300 in 1958 , and remained at that level until 1966 . Day student enrollment also grew and in 1962 the academy stopped accepting boarding school students . By 1964 , the last year in which boarding school students were enrolled , alumni had hailed from all US states , South America , France , Mexico , and Guam . Day students from 1964 to 1968 came from Lisle and the neighboring communities . Unlike St. Procopius Academy , Sacred Heart Academy offered a business curriculum from 1953 to 1966 . Courses included shorthand , typewriting , and bookkeeping .
The students and nuns were supplied with food by the convent 's 476 @-@ acre ( 193 ha ) Benedale Farm . Cattle provided both dairy products and meat , while poultry provided eggs and their feathers were used to stuff pillows as another source of income . The nuns also raised rabbits and bees , and grew grain , hay , vegetables , grapes , and apples . The farm was closed in the late 1950s for financial reasons and the convent sold most of the land so a school could be built for the growing village of Lisle .
= = = Merger and expansion = = =
In the 1960s , St. Procopius Academy faced dwindling enrollment and funding . The Benedictines threatened to close the boys ' school , but were dissuaded by Abbot Daniel W. Kucera , who had graduated from St. Procopius in 1941 . Under Abbot Kucera 's leadership , St. Procopius Academy and Sacred Heart Academy merged to form Benet ( an anglicized form of " Benedict " ) Academy in 1967 , on the former St. Procopius campus . Enrollment in 1968 was at 875 students , including 575 boys and 300 girls . The business education program from Sacred Heart was continued at the new school ; three teachers taught courses in consumer economics , typewriting , shorthand , and bookkeeping .
St. Thomas Hall , funded by a private donor , was erected to house a library and physical sciences facilities in 1975 . A major construction project was launched in 1993 , in response to increasing enrollment and a growing athletic program . The $ 5 million building plan included a new 1 @,@ 800 @-@ seat gymnasium , a new boiler system and a new roof for the cafeteria and the existing gymnasium . New parking areas were planned and St. Mary 's Hall was to be demolished .
Neighborhood residents , concerned about the impact on property values , traffic , and aesthetics , opposed the project . The Lisle Village Board blocked construction , charging that Benet had not notified the local community of the pending construction , to which Benet replied that " the school was there prior to the homes being constructed " . The plan was approved in April , but the Board designated the entire 42 @-@ acre ( 17 ha ) campus a " planned @-@ unit development " , requiring Board approval for all future modifications . The new facilities included zoned lighting areas , which allowed for multipurpose use for assemblies , performances , sporting events , and graduation ceremonies . Construction was completed in May 1994 , and applications increased in the years that followed . The gym was later named as the St. Ronald Gymnasium to honor former principal Rev. Ronald Rigovsky .
In June 2000 , a need for more performance space became apparent ; the school 's music groups used small , crowded rehearsal rooms and drama students performed in the old chapel or across the street at Sacred Heart Monastery . Benet began construction of a new 22 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 000 m2 ) performing arts center at the east end of the campus to replace the 190 @-@ seat Assembly Hall on the third floor of St. Joseph Hall , originally a chapel for the St. Joseph Bohemian Orphanage . As part of the project , the room was converted back into a chapel , named the Chapel of St. Therese .
Petru Hall , which was used for the annual school auction after the orphans left , was demolished to make way for the new performing arts center , named St. Daniel Hall , after Abbot Daniel Kucera and Saint Daniel . Constructed of brick and pre @-@ cast concrete , the design includes arched entrances to match the other buildings on campus . The facility features a 369 @-@ seat auditorium , an outdoor theater complex , a rehearsal room for bands and choirs , a set @-@ construction area , and storage areas . In addition to plays and concerts , St. Daniel Hall is also used for assemblies , lectures , and masses , which had previously been held in the gymnasium .
In May 2007 , the school broke ground on a new $ 16 million science and student activity center . The 50 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 600 m2 ) building includes extra corridors to ease hall traffic , a larger cafeteria , and additional storage space , along with four combination classrooms and laboratories for biology and earth science , three chemistry classrooms , and two chemistry labs .
= = Admissions = =
Admission is competitive and primarily based on the High School Placement Test , a standardized test by Scholastic Testing Service , taken in January of applicants ' eighth grade year ( around age 13 ) . According to the Daily Herald , schools like Benet hope to accept the top 40 percent of students taking the exam . Seventh grade ( around age 12 ) transcripts and a student essay are also factors in admission . In 2003 – 04 , 600 students applied for admission , 387 were accepted , and 338 enrolled . As of the 2010 admissions cycle , 70 percent of applicants were accepted .
Preference is given to siblings of current or former Benet students . In 1993 the average admitted eighth grader scored in the 87th percentile on the placement test . Applicants without siblings at the school were admitted only with scores above the 75th percentile ; applicants with siblings at Benet were admitted with scores as low as the 50th percentile on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis .
= = Academics = =
As of the 2009 – 10 school year , students are required to complete 23 Carnegie units of a college @-@ preparatory curriculum to graduate , including 4 units of English , 2 units of foreign language , 3 units of math , 1 unit of world history , 1 unit of US history , 3 units of lab science , 4 units of religion , 1 @.@ 5 units of physical education , and 5 five units of electives . Spanish , French , German , and Latin are offered as foreign languages . Every summer since 1997 , an English teacher has offered a one @-@ week summer course in writing and photography . The school offers neither vocational nor remedial courses .
College credit is available through participation in 11 Advanced Placement courses ; the Program for Advanced College Credit ( PACC ) offered through St. Mary 's University of Minnesota , which offers advanced courses in English , math , government , and history ; and the Benedictine University Future Scholars Program , which offers college @-@ level work in multivariable calculus and finite mathematics .
The Chicago Sun @-@ Times ranked Benet one of the top ten high schools in the Chicago area in 2003 , based on graduate enrollment rates at four @-@ year colleges and test scores over a four @-@ year period . In 1999 Benet was also one of two high schools in DuPage County , and 100 high schools nationwide , featured as an " Outstanding American High School " by US News and World Report . The study , conducted in conjunction with the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago , identified schools " where students progress steadily toward high academic standards and where every student matters . " Benet has credited the school 's academic success to Rev. Ronald Rigovsky , who served as principal for 23 years and as president from 1987 to 1992 . During his tenure , said the Chicago Tribune , Rigovsky developed the school into " one of the highest scoring and most scholastically respected high schools in the Chicago area . "
Benet Academy is accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools , the Illinois State Board of Education , and the National Catholic Educational Association .
= = Students and faculty = =
Benet enrolled 1 @,@ 333 students in 2009 – 10 . Most students come from Catholic families with professional and college @-@ educated parents . In 2003 – 04 , 97 percent of students were Roman Catholic ; two percent received financial aid , which totaled $ 3 @,@ 000 . Tuition was $ 6 @,@ 000 . The average class size was 27 students . Most students come from Lisle , Downers Grove , and Naperville , but students in the class of 2013 came from 65 different schools and 34 different municipalities in DuPage and surrounding counties .
The Benet graduating class of 2010 achieved an average composite score of 28 @.@ 4 ( above the 92nd percentile ) on the ACT , a standardized college admission test , which was the seventh straight year average score topped 28 , compared to a statewide average of 20 @.@ 7 and national average of 21 @.@ 0 . Over 42 percent of the class had a score of 30 ( above the 96th percentile ) or higher . In 2000 , Benet outscored all DuPage County high schools , which then @-@ Principal Ernest Stark attributed to its closed campus policy , silent study halls , and " more focused " and " not very fancy " curriculum . In 1993 , Benet 's average ACT score exceeded those of 195 public high schools in northern Illinois , second only to the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy , a selective residential school for gifted students . In 2008 , Benet had nine National Merit Semi @-@ Finalists , 34 National Merit Commended Scholars , and 5 National Merit Hispanic Scholars in the National Merit Scholarship Program and 137 students were named Illinois State Scholars , an honor awarded to top ten percent of seniors in the state and based on test scores , class rank , or both . In 2010 , 332 students took Advanced Placement exams and 86 percent of them scored at least a three out of five . Two National AP Scholar awards were granted to students who averaged a 4 on all exams taken and received at least a 4 on eight or more exams , 28 AP Scholar with Distinction awards were granted to students who averaged at least 3 @.@ 5 on all exams taken and scored at least a 3 on five or more exams , 51 AP Scholar awards were granted to students who scored at least a 3 on three or more exams . 76 students received other AP Scholar awards . Benet does not report class rankings .
More than 99 percent of Benet graduates go to college ; roughly 1 percent serve in the military . Benet students were implicated in the University of Illinois clout scandal , in which some applicants were given preferential admission to the University of Illinois at Urbana @-@ Champaign ( UIUC ) despite having sub @-@ par qualifications . The Chicago Tribune , investigating the scandal , reported that a majority of students who were admitted to UIUC through political favors came from elite , affluent high schools such as Benet , where families were politically connected with elected officials and university trustees . An email between admissions officers revealed that a female Benet student was admitted to the university 's College of Liberal Arts and Sciences , despite the fact that she had ranked lower than 27 of her classmates who were put on a waiting list or denied admission . Between 2005 and 2009 , thirteen applicants from Benet were alleged to have had political connections ; eight of them were admitted to UIUC .
In 2010 Benet employed 76 faculty , 26 of whom were alumni of the school . The average tenure was 17 @.@ 6 years ; 25 current or former faculty members served for 25 years or more . Tim White , an English teacher , completed his 50th consecutive year of teaching at Benet in the 2008 – 09 school year and was featured in an ABC 7 News segment entitled " Someone You Should Know " .
= = Activities = =
= = = Sports = = =
The St. Procopius Academy football team played its first game against Downers Grove High School on Thanksgiving Day , 1917 . At first some faculty members did not approve of American football , but it became respected on campus in the 1920s under the direction of Rev. Benedict Bauer . Bauer served as Athletic Director until 1927 while also coaching basketball , baseball , and football , and planned the construction of a new gymnasium in 1925 . The college 's varsity baseball team won conference championships in 1924 and 1925 , and the football team defeated the University of Notre Dame freshman team in 1925 .
Benet competes in the East Suburban Catholic Conference ( ESCC ) , part of the Illinois High School Association ( IHSA ) . The school sponsors teams , named the Benet Academy Redwings , for men and women in basketball , cross country , golf , lacrosse , soccer , swimming and diving , tennis , track and field , volleyball , and bass fishing . Only men compete in baseball , football , and ice hockey . Only women compete in cheerleading and softball . Since 1978 , Benet has placed in the top four at least once in state tournaments in basketball , cross country , football , soccer , and tennis . In 2000 @-@ 01 and 2001 @-@ 02 seasons the boys ' soccer team were state champions , and in 2000 they were ranked 11th in the nation . In 2008 – 09 , the girls ' volleyball team finished second in the state . In November 2010 six student @-@ athletes signed letters of intent to play at NCAA Division I universities . The school 's boys ' basketball team was also ranked sixth in the nation in February 2011 by USA Today . In 2014 the basketball team finished second in state .
Benet 's boys ' basketball team has set several state records , including a 102 home @-@ game winning streak between November 26 , 1975 and January 24 , 1987 . The streak ended when Benet lost to Naperville North High School 46 – 47 . The team compiled a 96 game in @-@ conference winning streak from January 21 , 1977 , to February 24 , 1984 . The team recorded twelve consecutive seasons with at least 20 wins from 1975 to 1987 , tied for the ninth longest streak in state history . The basketball team honors these school records by playing one home game each year in the Alumni Gym , where the streaks were recorded .
Benet 's chess team , founded in 2012 , has won every Far Side Suburban Chess Conference champion ship since the team 's inception . In 2014 the chess team took 2nd place at the IHSA state tournament .
= = = Performing arts = = =
The theater department has staged annual musicals since 1997 . Shows have included 42nd Street , Bye Bye Birdie , Guys and Dolls , and Hello , Dolly ! In 2000 , the department began depicting works that were " not quite so fluffy and light " , including Children of Eden , West Side Story , Fiddler on the Roof , The Pirates of Penzance , and Into the Woods . In 2006 , the department celebrated its tenth anniversary of musical performances with a production of The Music Man .
Benet 's band program , practically nonexistent in the late 1950s , was revitalized by director Andy Marchese in the mid @-@ 1960s , who introduced new uniforms , regularly scheduled concerts , and marching band trophies . Participation in the marching band also increased after the school became coeducational , since there were more musicians willing to play instruments male students saw as feminine . Out of 1 @,@ 275 students at Benet in 1999 – 00 , 130 were choir students and 115 were band students . Instrumental groups include two concert bands , three jazz bands , a marching band , and a pep band . In 1998 the pep band was one of eight schools chosen from a pool of 58 to perform at the state basketball tournament . In 2002 , the school 's symphonic band was one of three high school bands invited to play at the Illinois Music Educators Association All @-@ State Conference in Peoria . Vocal music groups include five choirs , one of which is a student @-@ led mass choir that participates in school liturgies .
= = = Clubs and organizations = = =
Student clubs and organizations include the National Honor Society and Model United Nations , and a Campus Ministry geared towards fostering the students ' Catholic faith . Campus Ministry assists in coordinating several three @-@ day retreats held throughout the year , through which students are encouraged to reexamine their faith . Club activities include the Outreach Society service organization , Medical Club , and foreign language clubs . Student Government , in addition to coordinating the Christmas Drive , organizes student activities like prom , film festivals , and male beauty contests .
Benet 's Math Team won third place in its division in 2004 , first place in 2005 , and fourth place in 2006 in the state math competition sponsored by the Illinois Council of Teachers of Mathematics . Benet 's Science Olympiad team won second place in its division at the state tournaments in 2008 and 2010 . In February 2010 , the Law Club participated in its first mock trial , sponsored by the Illinois State Bar Association , which is expected to become an annual event .
= = = Christmas Drive = = =
The annual Christmas Drive takes place in December , during the two weeks prior to Christmas vacation . The fundraiser is a school @-@ wide effort , jointly coordinated by Student Government , National Honor Society , and the Outreach Society . The fundraising efforts are varied and creative ; boys donate money to remain unshaven ( a violation of school policy ) , the National Honor Society sells baked goods , the Mother 's Club serves breakfast , and each class competes to gather the most pennies in the school @-@ wide " penny wars " . The Christmas Drive was featured in the cover story of the December 2010 issue of Christ is our Hope , the official magazine of the Diocese of Joliet . In the previous year the school had raised $ 54 @,@ 500 . The money was used to support a mission trip in Appalachia , and also to provide food , school supplies , blankets , and gifts to local families in the Chicago area . In 2010 , the student body raised $ 66 @,@ 200 . In 2014 , they set the school record by raising over $ 86 @,@ 000 .
= = Notable alumni = =
Benet alumni include Olympic air rifle gold medalist Nancy Johnson ; National Football League players Steve Baumgartner , Dan LeFevour , and Justin McCareins ; professional boxer Mike Lee ; Charlotte Hornets basketball player Frank Kaminsky ; investment banker Dan " Fuego " Donofrio ; and professional poker player and Positively Fifth Street author James McManus . Grammy @-@ winning rock singer Dave Bickler , former lead singer of the group Survivor , and Diablo Cody , Oscar @-@ winning screenwriter of Juno , graduated from Benet , as did former Illinois Attorney General and gubernatorial candidate Jim Ryan .
= The Boat Race 1955 =
The 101st Boat Race took place on 26 March 1955 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race , in which the Cambridge crew was substantially heavier than their opponents and where there were more non @-@ British participants than ever before , was umpired by former Oxford rower Gerald Ellison . Cambridge won by sixteen lengths , the second largest margin of victory in the history of the Boat Race , in a time of 19 minutes 10 seconds . It was their second win in three years and took the overall record in the event to 55 – 45 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1954 race by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , while Cambridge led overall with 54 victories to Oxford 's 45 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by J. R. F. Best , G. Bogland @-@ Wood , Thom Langton ( who had rowed in the 1937 and 1938 races ) , Derek Mays @-@ Smith and James Owen . Oxford 's coaches were Christopher Davidge ( who rowed in the 1949 , 1951 and 1952 races and was non @-@ rowing president for the 1951 race ) , Hugh Edwards ( a Blue in 1926 and 1930 ) , W. J. Llewellyn @-@ Jones and A. D. Rowe ( who had represented Oxford in the 1948 and 1949 races ) . The race was umpired by former Oxford rower Gerald Ellison , the Bishop of Willesden , who had rowed for Oxford in the 1932 and 1933 races .
Prior to the race , the rowing correspondent for The Times suggested " it must be rare for two Boat Race crews to be as dissimilar as are the Oxford and Cambridge crews " who were to race against one another . Oxford were the lighter crew yet demonstrated uniformity and excellent watermanship . Cambridge 's style was diverse but demonstrated a " tremendous zest for hard work and hard rowing . "
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 2 @.@ 5 lb ( 83 @.@ 5 kg ) , 11 pounds ( 5 @.@ 0 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Six of the Oxford crew had previous Boat Race experience including their bow James A. Gobbo . Cambridge saw two rowers return , in bow D. K. Hill and number four K. A. Masser . The race saw more non @-@ British participants than ever before : Oxford 's crew included four Australians in Gobbo , E. V. Vine , J. G. McLeod and Edward Pain , while Cambridge 's had two Harvard University rowers in P. du Bois and Robert Monks . Oxford 's Pain was an Olympic bronze medallist in the men 's eights at the 1952 Summer Olympics .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . The umpire Ellison started the race at 2 : 20 p.m. whereupon Oxford made the better start , rating 40 strokes per minute , and taking a slight lead . Maintaining the higher stroke rate , the Dark Blues passed Craven Steps with a canvas @-@ length lead in a record time . Taking advantage of the bend in the river , Cambridge first drew level before holding a quarter @-@ length lead by the time the crews passed the Mile Post . By Harrods Furniture Depository the lead was just back to a canvas before a mistake in the steering from Oxford 's cox Watson on the approach to Hammersmith Bridge saw Cambridge leading by a few feet . A spurt from Oxford 's stroke G. Sorrell went unanswered by his crew , and in response , the Light Blue stroke pushed on , taking the Cambridge boat away . By Chiswick Eyot the Light Blues held a three @-@ length lead which they extended to over five lengths by Chiswick Steps .
Rough water in Corney Reach meant both crews had reduced to 28 strokes per minute but Oxford were tiring : their number six McLeod " stopped rowing ... he kept some sort of time , but barely dipping his blade into the water " . The rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian suggested that he had " got his oar buried , was pounded in the stomach by its handle and virtually stopped rowing " . Cambridge passed below Barnes Bridge thirty seconds ahead and had reduced their rating to 26 strokes per minute , 6 fewer than Oxford who continued to struggle . Cambridge won by sixteen lengths , the second largest margin of victory in the history of the Boat Race , bettered only by their twenty @-@ length victory in the 1900 race . The winning time was 19 minutes 10 seconds . It was their second win in three years and took the overall record in the event to 55 – 45 in their favour .
= The Twisted World of Marge Simpson =
" The Twisted World of Marge Simpson " is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 19 , 1997 . It was written by Jennifer Crittenden and directed by Chuck Sheetz . The episode guest stars Jack Lemmon as Frank Ormand and Joe Mantegna as Fat Tony . Over the course of the episode , Marge sets up her own business , selling pretzels .
= = Plot = =
At a meeting of the Springfield Investorettes , Marge admits that she is reluctant to invest money in high @-@ risk ventures and is ejected from the group . After some consideration , Lisa convinces Marge to buy her own franchise . During a Franchise Expo , the Investorettes become members of the glamorous " Fleet @-@ A @-@ Pita " franchise , in return prompting Marge to join a much smaller one called " Pretzel Wagon " , owned by a man named Frank Ormand . After watching a promotional video , Marge sets up a makeshift office in her garage , distributes flyers , and with Homer , Bart and Lisa 's help , proceeds to make pretzels .
To begin with , Marge sets up shop outside the Springfield Power Plant , with Homer convincing his colleagues to each try the new snack . However , the Investorettes ' Fleet @-@ A @-@ Pita van rolls up , and within a few seconds , converts Marge 's customers . Lisa suggests that Marge " think big " , and so the family offer " Free Pretzel Day " at the Springfield Isotopes baseball stadium . Before the crowd has a chance to consume their complimentary pretzel , it is announced that Mr. Burns has won a 1997 Pontiac Astrowagon in the day 's give @-@ away competition . The supporters react angrily to the news and bombard the field with the pretzels , knocking out Whitey Ford in the process . No one tries the food , and Marge 's efforts end in vain once again , with her about to give up .
Homer , seeing Marge depressed , decides to take matters into his own hands and searches for someone who can help Marge . After discovering that Frank Ormand has died in a car accident , as has the executor of his estate , Homer establishes a " business agreement " with Fat Tony . The following day , Marge surprisingly receives a large order for pretzels and the business is reinvigorated . Many snack @-@ food vendors , such as Luigi Risotto 's restaurant and the Girl Scouts are intimidated by the mob , culminating with the Investorettes ' Fleet @-@ A @-@ Pita van being detonated . Shortly after , Fat Tony greets Homer and demands he pay for his " favors " , but he promptly refuses . As a result , Marge is given an order to be delivered to a remote location on the outskirts of the town , where she is approached by Fat Tony and his gang . He informs her of the deal he made with Homer and claims that he is entitled to a 100 percent stake of Marge 's profits as a result . Marge confronts Homer about this and he comes clean , explaining that he was only trying to help her . Marge decides to refuse to pay any money to the mafia and to go on making pretzels .
The following morning the mob arrives and Marge makes her decision clear to them . As the mob advances on her , the Investorettes arrive with the Japanese Yakuza . The rival gangs begin to fight and the Simpsons retreat to the house .
= = Production = =
The main plot of the episode concerning the two rival snack food franchises was selected because at the time of production , pita bread and pretzels were " becoming popular . " Josh Weinstein expressed his wish that the ideas had been changed to something more " fun " , as both snacks have since " gone out of fashion . " The Fleet @-@ A @-@ Pita chef was an early version of the " Khlav @-@ Kalash " man from " The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson . " At the Expo , many of the franchises were based on real franchises and get @-@ rich @-@ quick schemes . In the scene where Homer is inspecting pretzels , there was originally a shot where he gave a thumbs down to Maggie 's pretzel .
The episode was written by Jennifer Crittenden who wrote four other episodes . Homer 's line " Yeah , Homer 's right " during the scene where the pretzel wagon arrives was ad @-@ libbed by Dan Castellaneta . In another scene , Cletus calls for his many children to come out of the house ; the names of which were all " trendy names from the nineties " . The 1997 Pontiac Astrowagon that Mr. Burns wins was designed to accurately resemble one . The episode 's final scene , the mob war , was conceived by Matt Groening as no one else could come up with an ending .
= = Cultural references = =
The scene in which the Springfield Mafia destroy all of the competition to " Pretzel Wagon " is based on a scene from Goodfellas . Frank Ormand 's " You 'll be there " speech mirrors that of Tom Joad from John Steinbeck 's The Grapes of Wrath . Lemmon 's portrayal of Frank Ormand is based on the character Shelley Levene from the film Glengarry Glen Ross , also played by Lemmon . The character Gil Gunderson , who would not be introduced until the episode " Realty Bites " , was also based on Levene . Rumer and Scout , two of Cletus 's children , are named after Bruce Willis and Demi Moore 's children . The song used during the montage of Fat Tony destroying Marge 's competitors in the snack market is The Lineman composed by Ralph Dollimore and produced by Sam Spence for NFL Films .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Twisted World of Marge Simpson " finished 55th in ratings for the week of January 13 – 19 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 2 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 0 million viewing households . It was the fifth @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , King of the Hill , Melrose Place and Beverly Hills , 90210 .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " A clever , and rather unusual , idea for an episode that shows a frightening bitchiness beneath the middle @-@ class veneer of smalltown businesswomen . " The scene with Cletus 's children is one of two scenes from this episode that Josh Weinstein considers to be " classic " , with the second being the sequence when the crowd throw their free pretzels onto the baseball field , knocking Whitey Ford unconscious . The Ford scene was placed 24th on ESPN.com 's list of the " Top 100 Simpsons sport moments " , released in 2004 . Greg Collins , the author of the list , added that " Every time it looks like a fight is about to start at a baseball game , I start quoting this scene . " The A.V. Club named the baseball commentator 's line " Aaaannnd heeerrre come the pretzels " one of the quotes from The Simpsons that can be used in everyday situations .
= Ontario Highway 417 =
King 's Highway 417 , commonly referred to as Highway 417 and the Queensway through Ottawa , is a 400 @-@ series highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . It connects Montreal ( via A40 ) with Ottawa , and is the backbone of the transportation system in the National Capital Region . Within Ottawa , it forms part of the Queensway ( along with Ottawa Regional Road 174 east to Trim Road ) west to Highway 7 . Highway 417 extends from the Quebec border ( near Hawkesbury ) to Arnprior , where it continues westward as Highway 17 . Aside from the urban section through Ottawa , Highway 417 passes through farmland that dominates much of the fertile Ottawa Valley .
Within Ottawa , the Queensway was built as part of a grand plan for the city between 1957 and 1966 , and later reconstructed to its present form throughout the 1980s . The eastern section , from Gloucester to the Quebec border , opened in 1975 in preparation for the 1976 Montreal Olympics . Sections west of Ottawa have been under construction since the mid @-@ 1970s , with the latest section bypassing Arnprior opening on November 29 , 2012 .
= = Route description = =
Highway 417 is a 181 @.@ 4 km ( 112 @.@ 7 mi ) controlled @-@ access highway that traverses the lower Ottawa Valley and upper St. Lawrence Valley , bypassing the generally two @-@ lane Highway 17 and providing a high @-@ speed connection between Montreal and Ottawa via A @-@ 40 . The freeway has also gradually been extended northwest from Ottawa alongside the old highway to its current terminus in Arnprior . Highway 417 currently has 42 interchanges from the Quebec border to Arnprior , with more planned as the highway is extended westward . Unlike other highways in Ontario and most of North America , exits are numbered from east to west .
While a significant portion of Highway 417 is a rural four lane freeway divided by a grass median , the section within urban Ottawa is a busy commuter route as wide as eight lanes . The portion of the route from the Highway 7 interchange east to the Split – a large four @-@ way interchange between Highway 417 , Ottawa Regional Road 174 and the Aviation Parkway – is known formally as the Queensway , although no indication of this name appears on any signage .
= = = Quebec to Ottawa = = =
Highway 417 begins at the border between the provinces of Ontario and Quebec , east of which the four lane freeway continues as Autoroute 40 . The route proceeds west along the former alignment of Highway 17 , which it has served to replace . It passes through a forested and agricultural landscape en route to Ottawa , serving the communities of Hawkesbury , Vankleek Hill , Casselman , Limoges and Vars . After approximately 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) the route curves southwest while ramps provide access from the westbound lanes to Prescott and Russell County Road 17 and from County Road 17 to the eastbound lanes of Highway 417 . The route later meets the southern terminus of Highway 34 at Exit 27 . Continuing southwest , the route meanders along the boundary between The Nation and North Glengarry , eventually encountering the northern terminus of Highway 138 — a highway built to connect Highway 417 with Highway 401 and Cornwall — east of Casselman . At this point , the freeway enters The Nation and diverges from the boundary .
After crossing a Via Rail line , the route dips south of Casselman and curves to the west at Exit 66 ( County Road 7 ) . It roughly parallels the Via Rail line several kilometres north of the freeway , though significant deviations bypass the communities of Benoit and Limoges ; the latter is served by Exit 79 ( County Road 5 ) . Near Limoges is the Larose Forest , a man @-@ made forest planted between 1928 and 1980 over the Bourget Desert , itself created as the result of clear cutting in the 19th century . At Exit 88 , Highway 417 enters the city of Ottawa , though the surroundings remain unchanged until Exit 110 ( Walkley Road ) , near Ramsayville .
North of Ramsayville , the route jogs abruptly to the west as it crosses Greens Creek and enters the suburbs of Ottawa ; an interchange with Innes Road divides the countryside to the south and east from the city to the north and west . The freeway merges with the Queensway at a large multi @-@ level interchange known locally as the Split , curving to the west and into downtown Ottawa . The interchange also provides access to Aviation Parkway from westbound Highway 417 and from the parkway to eastbound Highway 417 .
= = = Queensway = = =
Within Ottawa , the Queensway extends from Orleans in the east and passes just south of downtown through central Ottawa to Kanata in the west . Two major interchanges anchor either end of this section : in the east , Highway 417 diverges south towards Montreal at The Split , while the Queensway continues east as Ottawa Regional Road 174 and Aviation Parkway branches north ; in the west , Highway 416 travels south to Highway 401 . The core section of the Queensway is eight lanes wide , four per carriageway .
The freeway is elevated on a berm along some central portions of the route , providing views of downtown and the Gatineau Hills to the north . This section was constructed along a former Canadian National Railway railbed . The route bisects central Ottawa with downtown and the Parliament Buildings lay to the north of the highway and residential neighbourhoods including the Glebe to the south . Towards the Richmond Road interchange , the original western terminus of the Queensway , both sides of the freeway are lined by residential subdivisions .
Between Eagleson / March Road and Moodie Drive in the west and between Blair Road and Place d 'Orléans Drive in the east , a bus @-@ only shoulder is used by OCTranspo 's Transitway rapid @-@ transit network . Several closely spaced exits serve the downtown core of Ottawa , including Nicholas Street , Bronson Avenue and Metcalfe Street ; the former was once designated as various provincial highways , most recently Highway 31 .
= = = West of Highway 416 = = =
West of the interchange with Highway 416 , the freeway enters the suburb of Kanata — an independent city until the formation of the new City of Ottawa in 2001 — and travels through it in an east – west direction . At Exit 145 , the route encounters the eastern terminus of Highway 7 , which travels southwest to Peterborough , Ontario and the GTA and provides an alternative route to Highway 401 via Highway 416 . Highway 417 makes a broad 90 @-@ degree curve to the north to meet with the midpoint of the Carp Bypass at the former Highway 44 ( now Ottawa Regional Road 49 ) .
The Carp Bypass was built in the mid @-@ 1960s as a bypass of the existing Highway 17 , which meandered through the communities of Carp , Kinburn and Antrim ; the former highway is now Donald B. Munro Drive , and lies to the east of Highway 417 . The bypass was built as a two lane road with full control of access , avoiding existing properties and easily facilitating the upgrade to a freeway . North of Antrim , Highway 417 travels in a straight line parallel to old Highway 17 as far as Arnprior , where it curves to cross the Madawaska River . The divided freeway ends east of Campbell Drive , northwest of the town .
= = History = =
= = = Queensway = = =
Highway 417 was initially constructed as a connection between the existing Queensway and Autoroute 40 in Quebec , the latter being constructed in advance of Expo 1967 and opening December 17 , 1966 . However , the designation has since been applied to the Queensway west of the interchange between the two freeways .
Construction of the Queensway was driven by the Greber Plan , which was produced by Jacques Gréber under the direction of Prime Minister Mackenzie King in the late 1940s . Although Gréber had been corresponding with King as early as 1936 , World War II halted any plans from reaching fruition at that time . Following the war , Gréber was again contacted and his expertise requested . He arrived on October 2 , 1945 and began working almost immediately . The Greber Plan , as it came to be known , was released in 1950 and presented to the House of Commons on May 22 , 1951 . The plan called for the complete reorganization of Ottawa 's road and rail network , and included amongst the numerous parkways was an east to west expressway along what was then a Canadian National Railway line .
With the rail lines removed , construction of the new expressway got underway in 1957 when Queen Elizabeth visited Ottawa to open the first session of the 23rd Parliament . On October 15 , the Queen detonated dynamite charges from the Hurdman Bridge , which now overlooks the highway as it crosses the Rideau River , and formally dedicated the new project as the Queensway . At the ceremony , premier Leslie Frost indicated that the entire project would cost C $ 31 million and emphasized the importance of the link to the Trans @-@ Canada Highway .
The Queensway was constructed in four phases , each opening independently : phase one , from Alta Vista Drive ( now Riverside Drive ) east to Highway 17 ( Montreal Road ) ; phase two , from Highway 7 and Highway 15 ( Richmond Road ) to Carling Avenue ; phase three , from Carling Avenue to O 'Connor Street ; and , phase four , from O 'Connor Street to Alta Vista Drive , crossing the Rideau Canal and Rideau River . Phase one opened to traffic on November 25 , 1960 , extending up to the Rideau River . On the western side of Ottawa , phase two opened a year later in October , 1961 . The central section presented the greatest challenge , as an embankment was built to create grade @-@ separations . In addition , the structures over the Rideau Canal and river required several years of construction . On May 15 , 1964 , the majority of the third phase was ceremonially opened , completing the Carling Avenue interchange and extending the freeway as far as Bronson Avenue . Several months later , on September 17 the short but complicated section east to O 'Connor Street was opened . This left only phase four , the central section of the Queensway , which was opened in three segments . On November 26 , 1965 , the structures over the Rideau Canal were opened to traffic . At the same time , the westbound lanes of the Queensway were extended to Concord Street , located west of the Nicholas Street interchange . The interchange opened on January 1 , 1966 , allowing travel in both directions over the canal . The final segment , linking the two section of the Queensway , was placed into service on October 28 , 1966 . Following this , the Highway 17 designation was applied along the Queensway and the old routing renumbered as Highway 17B .
= = = New freeway = = =
Planning was underway on a new freeway , Highway 417 , that would run east of Ottawa from the Queensway , connecting with A @-@ 40 to provide a high @-@ speed route to Montreal . Highway 17 , closely following the shore of the Ottawa River as it meanders towards Pointe @-@ Fortune , was dangerous , narrow , and accident prone , earning it the nickname of " the killer strip " . The awarding of the 1976 Summer Olympics to Montreal on May 12 , 1970 resulted in an accelerated construction schedule due to the anticipated high volume of traffic that would be travelling the corridor between Ottawa and Montreal during the games . Contracts to construct the new route were opened to bidding on November 15 , 1968 ; construction began in May 1969 starting at Base Line Road ( now Ramsayville Road ) and proceeding easterly .
The new freeway was built under a continuous construction program over the following 6 years , opening progressively as each segment of roadway was completed . The first 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) segment , from Ramsayville Road to Rockdale Road , near Vars , opened on September 21 , 1972 . By the end of that month , the easternmost 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) of Highway 17 had been converted into a divided freeway , and construction was progressing on the remainder of the route . On October 1 , 1973 , a 14 km ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) section of freeway opened between Vars and Limoges . On July 15 , 1974 , Minister of Transportation and Communications John Rhodes ceremonially opened the next section of Highway 417 , between Limoges Road and Highland Road . The section between Highland Road and Highway 17 opened on November 8 , 1974 , connecting with the existing section leading from the Quebec border . The final segment of the new route , connecting the section east of Ramsayville with the Queensway , was opened to traffic on December 2 , 1975 . The cost of the entire eastern segment was $ 77 million ( $ 314 million in 2016 dollars ) .
= = = Extensions and expansions = = =
Meanwhile , to the west of Ottawa , planning got underway on a continuation of the Queensway . This extension was designed to connect with the Carp Bypass – a portion of Highway 17 designed to bypass the old meandering route ( now known as Donald B. Munro Drive ) through Carp , Marathon and Antrim that opened November 9 , 1965 – with an interchange and connection to Highway 7 . Prior to the completion of this section of freeway , Highway 17 followed Carling Avenue and March Road from Ottawa to west of Carp . Construction began in the west end of Ottawa in 1967 . On October 31 , 1969 , a short extension to Moodie Drive was completed , including the realignment of that road for continuity north and south of Highway 417 . The following year , the freeway was extended to March Road . Construction halted at the eastern edge of Kanata for several years while a study was conducted into the merits of building the highway in a trench through the established city . During this time , construction began in 1974 on the future Queensway and Highway 7 interchange . Work also began on the two lane connections to Highway 7 as well as to the Highway 17 and Highway 44 junction west of Carp at the same time .
Upon the completion of the Ottawa – Quebec section of freeway , the Queensway was designated as Highway 417 west of The Split . With the completion of the Kanata study during early 1976 , work began to build the route through the city @-@ centre in a depressed @-@ grade ; as a result all the crossings though that section pass over the freeway . By early 1978 , the western extension was opened to traffic , providing four lanes between Richmond Road and Highway 7 / 417 . The two legs beyond the interchange were initially constructed as two @-@ lane undivided roads , and remained as such for over a decade .
Throughout the 1980s , work on Highway 417 shifted from extensions to expansions . Within Ottawa , the initially four lane route , separated by a wide grass median , was expanded to eight lanes with paved shoulders and centre @-@ mounted lighting beginning in 1982 . To reduce weaving , the exit at Kent Street was removed during this work . Expansion of the two lane Highway 17 west of the interchange with Highway 7 got underway in 1991 ; this section was renumbered as Highway 417 as construction progressed westward . The construction saw a second two lane roadway built parallel to the existing route to create a divided freeway , a process known as twinning .
When the twinning of Highway 17 reached March Road , new contracts were tendered to continue the process northward . Bot Construction was awarded the contract for the section north to Panmure Road on December 9 , 1998 . On February 16 , 2000 , the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) officially announced that Highway 417 would be extended to Arnprior over the next several years . A contract to build the freeway from north of Panmure Road to south of Arnprior was tendered in early 2002 . This work was completed and the extension opened to traffic on September 24 , 2004 .
Concurrent with the twinning of Highway 7 between Carleton Place and Ottawa , the interchange with Highway 417 was upgraded to support the divided traffic flows ; a new flyover ramp was built connecting westbound Highway 417 with westbound Highway 7 . Construction began on August 22 , 2006 , and was opened in June 2008 along with the Highway 7 expansion .
Construction to twin the Arnprior Bypass portion of Highway 17 , which included a new interchange at White Lake Road , began during the spring of 2009 . The bypass was originally built in 1981 as one of a number of upgrades to Highway 17 between Ottawa and North Bay . It was intended for directing through traffic around downtown Arnprior and was designed for an eventual upgrade to a divided freeway . The major structure in this project was a second crossing of the Madawaska River . Work was completed in late 2012 ; the new 5 @.@ 6 km ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) section was opened ceremonially on November 29 and cost $ 63 million , $ 7 million less than projected .
Highway 417 was widened from 4 lanes to 8 lanes between Eagleson Road / March Road in Kanata and Palladium Drive ( including HOV lanes ) , and from 4 lanes to 6 lanes between Carp Road and Highway 7 . The work on the westbound lanes was completed in late @-@ October 2014 , with the eastbound lanes completed in mid @-@ November 2014 . Highway 417 was recently expanded to 8 lanes between Moodie Drive and Eagleson Road / March Road to relieve congestion , especially when events occur at Canadian Tire Centre .
= = Future = =
The MTO plans to further extend Highway 417 westerly through the Ottawa Valley by twinning and realigning the existing route to a four @-@ lane freeway beyond Arnprior , where it currently merges into a two @-@ laned Highway 17 . Route planning has been completed to Pembroke , with a bypass to the east of the Cobden area . The second phase of the extension to be built ( phase 1 was the section around Arnprior ) is a 5 @.@ 3 km ( 3 @.@ 3 mi ) extension past Campbell Drive to Scheel Drive northwest of Arnprior , under construction as of June 26 , 2014 and scheduled to be completed in 2016 . Phases 3 and 4 total 22 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) and will take the 417 from Scheel Drive to a point 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) west of Renfrew .
Planning and construction efforts to upgrade Highway 17 through Sudbury and east of North Bay have prompted speculation that Highway 417 will continue to be extended west through Northern Ontario ; although no comprehensive conversion plan has been announced to date , Sault Ste . Marie MPP David Orazietti has spearheaded a petition to have the entire highway four @-@ laned from Arnprior to Sault Ste . Marie , similar to the campaign previously undertaken by his caucus colleague Rick Bartolucci regarding the extension of Highway 400 . Cheryl Gallant , the federal Member of Parliament for Renfrew — Nipissing — Pembroke , has also advocated the four @-@ laning of the highway through the Ottawa Valley toward North Bay , and ultimately the entire length of the highway throughout Northern Ontario .
A widening project was recently completed between Nicholas Street and Ottawa Road 174 . The segment was widened from 6 lanes to 8 lanes . Construction began in 2013 and was completed on @-@ time in 2015 . The additional pair of lanes will be used as bus lanes temporarily , until 2018 , at which point they will become general traffic lanes .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 417 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . Unlike other highways in Ontario , Highway 417 is measured from east to west , and as such this table is presented in that order .
= Eliab Harvey =
Admiral Sir Eliab Harvey GCB ( 5 December 1758 – 20 February 1830 ) was an eccentric and hot @-@ tempered officer of the Royal Navy during the French Revolutionary and the Napoleonic Wars who was as distinguished for his gambling and dueling as for his military record . Although Harvey was a significant naval figure for over twenty years , his martial reputation was largely based on his experiences at the Battle of Trafalgar , when he took his ship HMS Temeraire into the thick of the action . Harvey used Temeraire to force the surrender of two French ships of the line and later created his family motto from the names of his opponents in the engagement ; " Redoutable et Fougueux " .
In his civilian life , Harvey pursued political interests and spent three spells as a Member of Parliament for Maldon and later Essex . During this period he was also knighted . However , Harvey was not a peaceable man and his life both in and out of the Navy was frequently punctuated by disputes with fellow officers and politicians . One such dispute , a consequence of the Battle of Basque Roads , eventually cost Harvey his career ; a bitter exchange with Lord Gambier forcing Harvey into early retirement in 1809 . Although reinstated a year later , Harvey was never again employed in an official capacity and further promotions were only bestowed as a matter of seniority .
Harvey was also notable in his time for his extravagant lifestyle . The deaths of his father and elder brother while he was still a young man provided Harvey with a considerable fortune , much of which he squandered gambling in London . Harvey 's exploits at the gaming tables became legendary , one story claiming that he once bet £ 100 @,@ 000 on a single game of chance and lost , only to win most of it back on the following throw . Despite his dissolute lifestyle , Harvey was married and had numerous children ; he was survived by six daughters and had three sons who predeceased him .
= = Early life = =
Eliab Harvey was born in Chigwell , Essex to William and Emma Harvey . His father William Harvey was a Member of Parliament for Essex , but died when Harvey was only five years old , in 1763 . Until 1768 , Harvey was raised at the family estate of Rolls Park in Chigwell , which had passed to his elder brother William on the death of their father . Harvey then attended Westminster School for two years before moving to Harrow School in 1770 . At the age of thirteen in 1771 , Harvey was entered onto the books of the naval schooner HMS Mary , although he did not actually serve aboard the ship . Utilising a standard legal fiction of the time , Harvey 's name was entered on the ship 's books without his actual presence , a ruse that would provide him with sufficient seniority to gain rapid promotion when he did enter the Navy . In his summer holidays from school , Harvey served at sea , joining HMS Orpheus in 1773 .
Entering the Navy fully in May 1774 , Harvey became a midshipman aboard the sloop HMS Lynx and spent the next two years in the West Indies . Briefly returning to Britain at the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , Harvey returned to the eastern seaboard of North America late in 1776 aboard HMS Mermaid , before transferring to the flagship of the North America Station HMS Eagle . From there Harvey joined HMS Liverpool on temporary assignment , only to be wrecked on Long Island aboard the frigate in 1778 . Harvey rejoined Eagle after the wreck and returned to Britain in her . He was promoted to lieutenant on 25 February 1779 .
Following his promotion , Harvey took a leave of absence from the Navy which would last three years . He stood for parliament in the seat of Maldon in Essex , which he won in 1780 and represented for the next four years . In 1781 Harvey briefly commanded HMS Dolphin , but took leave once again four months later . In 1782 Harvey again returned to the Navy just as peace was agreed and was promoted to commander on 21 March 1782 , briefly taking over the sloop HMS Otter before rapidly making the jump to Post Captain less than a year later , on 20 January 1783 .
= = Civilian life = =
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the peace of 1783 , Harvey again took leave from the Navy , seeing out his parliamentary term and continuing his notorious lifestyle of gambling and debauchery . The young death of Harvey 's elder brother William Harvey , MP in April 1779 had provided Harvey with a substantial fortune , which he immediately began squandering in epic nights at London 's fashionable drinking and gambling establishments . Harvey gained a reputation among this crowd for playing exceptionally high stakes ; one often repeated story concerns his loss , on his 21st birthday in 1779 , of over £ 100 @,@ 000 in a single game of hazard to a Mr O 'Byrne . O 'Byrne , recognising that such a sum would bankrupt his opponent , refused to take more than £ 10 @,@ 000 , insisting that they roll the dice again to determine the fate of the remaining £ 90 @,@ 000 . Harvey won and kept his fortune , but reportedly still failed to pay the £ 10 @,@ 000 .
Despite this riotous lifestyle , Harvey married Lady Louisa Nugent in 1784 . Louisa was a daughter of Robert Nugent , 1st Earl Nugent and co @-@ heir to his substantial wealth . The couple had nine children , eight of whom survived infancy and six of whom , all daughters , outlived their father . Harvey 's eldest son was killed in action serving in the British Army under the Marquess of Wellington at the Siege of Burgos in 1812 . Harvey remained in semi @-@ retirement until 1790 , dividing his time between London and Rolls Park .
= = Return to service = =
In 1790 , Harvey was recalled up to the Navy during the Spanish armament and commanded the frigate HMS Hussar for six months , until the Navy returned to its peacetime complement . Three years later , Harvey was once again recalled to the Navy with the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars . Harvey would remain in service for the next 16 years , only briefly taking leave in 1802 during the Peace of Amiens . In 1793 , Harvey became captain of the frigate HMS Santa Margarita in the West Indies . There he participated in the successful campaigns against the French colonies of Guadeloupe and Martinique under Admiral John Jervis . In May 1794 Harvey returned to Britain and served in the squadron under Sir John Borlase Warren which raided the French coast with great success in 1794 and 1795 .
In August 1795 , Harvey took command of the ship of the line HMS Valiant , initially in the Channel Fleet and later in the West Indies under Sir Hyde Parker . In 1797 Harvey returned to Britain due to ill @-@ health , and was given command of the Essex sea fencibles during the next year . In 1800 Harvey returned to sea in command of HMS Triumph , which he retained until the Peace of Amiens . During the peace he again dabbled in politics , becoming MP for Essex in 1802 . Even after returning to the Navy in 1803 as captain of the second rate HMS Temeraire , Harvey remained in parliament , serving until 1812 .
= = Trafalgar = =
With the resumption of the war against France , Temeraire was attached to the Channel Fleet and blockaded ports in eastern France until 1805 , when Harvey was sent to join Horatio Nelson 's blockade off Cadiz . When the Battle of Trafalgar was joined on 21 October , Harvey 's Temeraire was the second ship in Nelson 's division and was a faster and more agile ship than HMS Victory , Nelson 's flagship . As a result , Temeraire began to pull ahead of Victory as the division closed on the Franco @-@ Spanish fleet and Harvey was consequently reprimanded by Nelson , who hailed Temeraire : " I will thank you Captain Harvey , to keep your proper station which is astern of the Victory " .
During the combat that followed , Harvey was heavily engaged with the enemy , passing behind Bucentaure and astern of Redoutable . The broadside fired into Redoutable reduced the French ship to a wreck and forced its surrender soon afterwards when it became tangled with Victory and Temeraire . The three ships then drifted into the following French Fougueux , British fire disabling her and giving cover to a boarding party led by Temeraire 's first @-@ lieutenant , Thomas Fortescue Kennedy , which forced the surrender of Fougueux 's crew . In later years Harvey would use this incident for his personal motto " Redoutable et Fougueux " .
Once the fleet had returned to port , controversy erupted concerning Harvey 's role in the battle . Although his bravery and skill were not questioned , his prominence in the dispatch sent home by Cuthbert Collingwood was . In the dispatch , Harvey was singled out over the other captains for his bravery , Collingwood writing : " I have not words in which I can sufficiently express my admiration of it " . As a result of this special mention , Harvey was promoted to rear @-@ admiral on 9 November 1805 , and given the honour of being one of Nelson 's pallbearers at the admiral 's funeral despite their short acquaintance . Harvey 's new motto and his penchant for " bragging " further alienated him from his fellow officers .
= = Retirement = =
Returning to naval service some months after the action , Harvey was given the 80 @-@ gun HMS Tonnant as his first flagship , in which he remained until 1809 . Serving under Lord Gambier in the Channel Fleet , Harvey was outraged not to be given command of the British ships in action at the Battle of Basque Roads . Harvey expressed his disgust that command had been given to the more junior Lord Cochrane in no uncertain terms to Gambier , and was dismissed from the admiral 's council as a result . When the operation was initially successful , Gambier refused to support Cochrane and as a result an opportunity to annihilate the French Atlantic Fleet was lost . The ensuing dispute lasted years and involved a court martial that eventually acquitted Gambier , and only ended with Cochrane 's dismissal from the service five years later .
Harvey was not embroiled in the political arguments surrounding the action , as he had resigned his commission on 23 May 1809 , before the attack went ahead , in protest at Cochrane 's preferment . Returning to the Navy a year later on 21 March 1810 , Harvey was never again called to active service , Gambier blocking his efforts to obtain gainful employment . Despite his failure to return to the sea , Harvey 's seniority brought more promotions ; he made vice @-@ admiral in 1810 and finally became a full admiral in 1819 . He was also made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in 1815 when the order was reformed , becoming a Knight Grand Cross in 1825 . Harvey 's retirement included a further period in politics , returning to his seat as MP for Essex between 1820 and 1830 .
Harvey died in 1830 at his family estate of Rolls Park and was buried in the Harvey family crypt at St Andrews Church at Hempstead in Essex , which contains the remains of over 50 family members , including his ancestor 's brother , Dr. William Harvey . His coffin is still in the crypt , and can be viewed on request . On the wall of church is a hatchment in his honour originally placed shortly after his death and restored in 1958 after it was destroyed in the partial collapse of the church in 1884 . A large wall memorial to him is also visible in the church , which also commemorates his youngest son William , who died in 1823 aged 22 .
The crest of the Harvey Grammar School of Folkestone bears Harvey 's motto as well as his ship 's name ' Temeraire ' . The crest was designed by Eliab Harvey .
= = Ancestry = =
= SMS Emden =
SMS Emden ( " His Majesty 's Ship Emden " ) was the second and final member of the Dresden class of light cruisers built for the Imperial German Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) . Named for the town of Emden , she was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Dockyard ) in Danzig in 1906 . Her hull was launched in May 1908 , and completed in July 1909 . She had one sister ship , Dresden . Like the preceding Königsberg @-@ class cruisers , Emden was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two torpedo tubes .
Emden spent the majority of her career overseas in the German East Asia Squadron , based in Tsingtao , in the Kiautschou Bay concession in China . In 1913 , she came under the command of Karl von Müller , who would captain the ship during World War I. At the outbreak of hostilities , Emden captured a Russian steamer and converted her into the commerce raider Cormoran . Emden rejoined the East Asia Squadron , after which she was detached for independent raiding in the Indian Ocean . The cruiser spent nearly two months operating in the region , and captured nearly two dozen ships . In late October 1914 , Emden launched a surprise attack on Penang ; in the resulting Battle of Penang , she sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug and the French destroyer Mousquet .
Müller then took Emden to raid the Cocos Islands , where he landed a contingent of sailors to destroy British facilities . There , Emden was attacked by the Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney . The more powerful Australian ship quickly inflicted serious damage and forced Müller to run his ship aground to prevent her from sinking . Out of a crew of 376 , 133 were killed in the battle . Most of the survivors were taken prisoner ; the landing party , led by Hellmuth von Mücke , commandeered an old schooner and eventually returned to Germany . Emden 's wreck was quickly destroyed by wave action , and was broken up for scrap in the 1950s .
= = Design = =
Emden was 118 @.@ 3 meters ( 388 ft 1 in ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft 3 in ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 53 m ( 18 ft 2 in ) forward . She displaced 4 @,@ 268 t ( 4 @,@ 201 long tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion steam engines , designed to give 13 @,@ 315 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 929 kW ) for a top speed of 23 @.@ 5 knots ( 43 @.@ 5 km / h ; 27 @.@ 0 mph ) . The engines were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and drove a pair of screw propellers . Emden carried up to 860 tonnes ( 850 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 3 @,@ 760 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 960 km ; 4 @,@ 330 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 18 officers and 343 enlisted men . Emden was the last German cruiser to be equipped with triple @-@ expansion engines ; all subsequent cruisers used the more powerful steam turbines .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She carried a secondary battery of eight 5 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 55 guns , also in single mounts . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with four torpedoes , mounted in the hull below the waterline . She was also fitted to carry fifty naval mines . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
The contract for Emden , ordered as ersatz ( replacement ) SMS Pfeil , was placed on 6 April 1906 at the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Dockyard ) in Danzig ( now Gdańsk , Poland ) . Her keel was laid down on 1 November 1906 . She was launched on 26 May 1908 and christened by the Oberbürgermeister ( Lord Mayor ) of her namesake city , Dr. Leo Fürbringer . After fitting @-@ out work was completed by 10 July 1909 , she was commissioned into the fleet . The new cruiser began her sea trials that day ; they were interrupted from 11 August to 5 September when she participated in the annual autumn maneuvers of the main fleet . During this period , she also served as the escort for Kaiser Wilhelm II aboard his yacht Hohenzollern . Emden was decommissioned in September after she completed her trials .
On 1 April 1910 Emden was reactivated and assigned to the Ostasiengeschwader ( East Asia Squadron ) , based at Tsingtao in Germany 's Kiautschou concession in China . The concession had been seized in 1897 in retaliation for the murder of German nationals in the area . Emden left Kiel on 12 April 1910 , bound for Asia by way of a goodwill tour of South America . A month later , on 12 May , she stopped in Montevideo and met with the cruiser Bremen , which was assigned to the Ostamerikanischen ( East American ) Station . Emden and Bremen stayed in Buenos Aires from 17 to 30 May to represent Germany at the celebrations of the hundredth anniversary of Argentinian independence . The two ships then rounded Cape Horn ; Emden stopped in Valparaíso , Chile , while Bremen continued on to Peru .
The cruise across the Pacific was delayed because of a lack of good quality coal . Emden eventually took on around 1 @,@ 400 t ( 1 @,@ 400 long tons ; 1 @,@ 500 short tons ) of coal at the Chilean naval base at Talcahuano and departed on 24 June . The cruise was used to evaluate the ship on long @-@ distance voyages for use in future light cruiser designs . Emden encountered unusually severe weather on the trip , which included a stop at Easter Island . She anchored at Papeete , Tahiti to coal on 12 July , her bunkers nearly empty after crossing 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ; 4 @,@ 800 mi ) . The ship then proceeded to Apia in German Samoa , arriving on 22 July . There , she met the rest of the East Asia Squadron , commanded by Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Erich Gühler . The squadron remained in Samoa until October , when the ships returned to their base at Tsingtao . Emden was thereafter sent to the Yangtze River from 27 October to 19 November , which included a visit to Hankou . The ship visited Nagasaki , Japan , before returning to Tsingtao on 22 December for her annual refit . The repair work was not carried out , since the Sokehs Rebellion erupted on Ponape in the Carolines , which required Emden 's presence ; she departed Tsingtao on 28 December , and Nürnberg left Hong Kong to join her .
The two cruisers reinforced German forces at Ponape , which included the old unprotected cruiser Cormoran . The ships bombarded rebel positions and sent a landing force , which included men from the ships along with colonial police troops , ashore in mid @-@ January 1911 . By the end of February the revolt had been suppressed , and on 26 February the unprotected cruiser Condor arrived to take over the German presence in the Carolines . Emden and the other ships held a funeral the following day for those killed in the operation , before departing on 1 March for Tsingtao via Guam . After arriving on 19 March , she finally began her yearly overhaul . In mid @-@ 1911 , the ship went on a cruise to Japan ; while there she accidentally rammed a Japanese steamer during a typhoon . The collision caused significant damage and necessitated another trip to the drydock in Tsingtao . She thereafter returned to the Yangtze to protect Europeans during the Chinese Revolution that broke out on 10 October . In November , Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Maximilian von Spee replaced Gühler as the commander of the East Asia Squadron .
At the end of the year , Emden won the Kaiser 's Schießpreis ( Shooting Prize ) for excellent gunnery in the East Asia Squadron . In early December , Emden steamed to Incheon to assist the grounded German steamer Deike Rickmers . In May 1913 , Korvettenkapitän ( Lieutenant Commander ) Karl von Müller became the ship 's commanding officer ; he was shortly thereafter promoted to Fregattenkapitän ( Commander ) . In mid @-@ June , Emden went on a cruise to the German colonies in the Central Pacific , after which she was stationed off Nanjing , as fighting between Qing and revolutionary forces raged there . During this period , on 26 August , rebels attacked the ship , and Emden 's gunners immediately returned fire , silencing her attackers . Emden moved to Shanghai on 14 August .
= = = World War I = = =
Emden spent the first half of 1914 on the normal routine of cruises in Chinese and Japanese waters without incident . During the July Crisis that followed the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , Emden was the only German cruiser in Tsingtao ; Spee 's two armored cruisers , Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , were cruising in the South Pacific and Leipzig was en route to replace Nürnberg off the coast of Mexico . On 31 July , with war days away , Müller decided to put to sea to begin commerce raiding once war had been formally declared . Two days later , on 2 August , Germany declared war on Russia , and the following day , Emden captured the Russian steamer Ryazan . The Russian vessel was sent back to Tsingtao , where she was converted into the auxiliary cruiser Cormoran .
On 5 August , Spee ordered Müller to join him at Pagan Island in the Mariana Islands ; Emden left Tsingtao the following day along with the auxiliary cruiser Prinz Eitel Friedrich and the collier Markomannia . The ships arrived in Pagan on 12 August . The next day , Spee learned that Japan would enter the war on the side of the Triple Entente and had dispatched a fleet to track his squadron down . Spee therefore decided to take the East Asia Squadron to South America , where it could attempt to break through to Germany , harassing British merchant traffic along the way . Müller suggested that one cruiser be detached for independent operations in the Indian Ocean , since the squadron would be unable to attack British shipping while it was crossing the Pacific . Spee agreed , and allowed Müller to operate independently , since Emden was the fastest cruiser in the squadron .
= = = = Independent raider = = = =
On 14 August , Emden and Markomannia left the company of the East Asia Squadron , bound for the Indian Ocean . Since the cruiser Königsberg was already operating in the western Indian Ocean around the Gulf of Aden , Müller decided he should cruise in the shipping lanes between Singapore , Colombo and Aden . Emden steamed toward the Indian Ocean by way of the Molucca and Banda Seas . While seeking to coal off Jampea Island , the Dutch coastal defense ship Tromp stopped Emden and made clear that she would enforce Dutch neutrality . Müller therefore decided to steam into the Lombok Strait . There , Emden 's radio @-@ intercept officers picked up messages from the British armored cruiser HMS Hampshire . To maintain secrecy , Emden 's crew rigged up a dummy funnel to give her the appearance of a British light cruiser . She then steamed up the coast of Sumatra toward the Indian Ocean .
On 5 September , Emden entered the Bay of Bengal , achieving complete surprise , since the British assumed she was still with Spee 's squadron . She operated on shipping routes there without success , until 10 September , when she moved to the Colombo – Calcutta route . There , she captured the Greek collier Pontoporros , which was carrying equipment for the British . Müller took the ship into his service and agreed to pay the crew . Emden captured five more ships ; four were sunk , and the fifth , a steamer named Kabinga , was used to carry the crews from the other vessels . On 13 September , Müller released Kabinga and sank two more British prizes . Off the Ganges estuary , Emden caught a Norwegian merchantman ; upon searching her , the Germans determined she was not carrying contraband and therefore released her . The Norwegians informed Müller that Entente warships were operating in the area , and so he decided to return to the eastern coast of India .
Emden thereafter stopped and released an Italian freighter , whose crew relayed news of the incident to a British vessel , which in turn informed British naval authorities in the region . The result was an immediate cessation of shipping and the institution of a blackout . Vice Admiral Martyn Jerram ordered Hampshire , Yarmouth , and the Japanese protected cruiser Chikuma to search for Emden . The British armored cruiser Minotaur and the Japanese armored cruiser Ibuki were sent to patrol likely coaling stations .
In late September , Müller decided to bombard Madras . Müller believed the attack would demonstrate his freedom of maneuver and decrease British prestige with the local population . At around 20 : 00 on 22 September , Emden entered the port , which was completely illuminated , despite the blackout order . Emden closed to within 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) from the piers before she opened fire . She set fire to two oil tanks and damaged three others , and damaged a merchant ship in the harbor . In the course of the bombardment , Emden had fired 130 rounds . The following day , the British again mandated that shipping stop in the Bay of Bengal ; during the first month of Emden 's raiding career in the Indian Ocean , the value of exports there had fallen by 61 @.@ 2 percent .
From Madras , Müller had originally intended to rendezvous with his colliers off Simalur Island in Indonesia , but instead decided to make a foray to the western side of Ceylon . On 25 September , Emden sank a pair of British merchantmen and two days later , captured the collier Buresk , which was carrying a cargo of high @-@ grade coal . A German prize crew went aboard Buresk and she was thereafter used to support Emden 's operations . Later that day , the German raider sank two more British vessels . Low on fuel , Emden proceeded to the Maldives to coal . She arrived there on 29 September and remained for a day while her crew replenished her coal stocks . The raider then cruised the routes between Aden and Australia and between Calcutta and Mauritius for two days without success . Emden thereafter steamed to Diego Garcia for engine maintenance and to rest her crew .
The British garrison at Diego Garcia had not yet learned of the state of war between Britain and Germany , and so treated Emden to a warm reception . She remained there until 10 October , during which time her bottom was cleaned of fouling . She then resumed searching for merchant ships in the area west of Colombo . While operating there , Emden picked up Hampshire 's wireless signals again , and so departed for the Chagos Archipelago on 13 October . Meanwhile , the British had captured Markomannia on 12 October , depriving Emden of one of her colliers . On 15 October , Emden captured a British steamer off Minikoi and sank her the next day . Over the next five days , she captured five more vessels ; one was used as a collier , three were sunk , and the fifth was sent to port with the crews of the other vessels . On 20 October , Müller decided it was time to move to a new area of operations .
= = = = Attack on Penang = = = =
Müller decided his next course of action would be a surprise attack on Penang in British Malaya . Emden coaled in the Nicobar Islands and departed for Penang on the night of 27 October , with the departure timed to allow her to arrive off the harbor at dawn . She approached the harbor entrance at 03 : 00 on 28 October , steaming at a speed of 18 kn ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) , with her fourth dummy funnel erected to disguise her identity . Emden 's lookouts quickly spotted a warship in the port with her lights on ; it turned out to be the Russian protected cruiser Zhemchug , a veteran of the Battle of Tsushima . Zhemchug had put into Penang for repairs to her boilers ; only one was in service , which meant that she could not get under way , nor were her ammunition hoists powered . Only five rounds of ready ammunition were permitted for each gun , with a sixth chambered . Emden pulled alongside Zhemchug at a distance of 300 yards ( 270 m ) ; Müller ordered a torpedo to be fired at the Russian cruiser . Immediately thereafter , he gave the order for the 10 @.@ 5 cm guns to open fire .
Emden quickly inflicted grievous damage on her adversary ; she turned around to make another pass at Zhemchug . One of the Russian gun crews managed to get their weapon into action , but scored no hits . Müller ordered a second torpedo to be fired into the burning Zhemchug while his guns continued to batter her . The second torpedo caused a tremendous explosion that tore the ship apart . By the time the smoke cleared , Zhemchug had already slipped beneath the waves , her masts the only parts of the ship still above water . The destruction of Zhemchug killed 81 Russian sailors and wounded 129 , of whom seven later died of their injuries . The elderly French cruiser D 'Iberville and the destroyer Fronde opened wildly inaccurate fire on Emden .
Müller then decided to depart , owing to the risk of encountering superior warships . Upon leaving the harbor , he encountered a British freighter , SS Glen Turret , loaded with ammunition , that had already stopped to pick up a harbor pilot . While preparing to take possession of the ship , Emden had to recall her boats when she spotted an approaching ship . This proved to be the French destroyer Mousquet , and the unprepared ship was quickly destroyed . Emden stopped to pick up survivors from Mousquet and departed at around 08 : 00 as the other French ships were raising steam in preparation to get underway . One officer and thirty @-@ five sailors were plucked from the water . Another French destroyer tried to follow , but lost sight of the German raider in a rainstorm . On 30 October , Emden stopped the British steamer Newburn and put the French sailors aboard her after they signed statements promising not to return to the war . The attack on Penang was a significant shock to the Entente powers , and caused them to delay the large convoys from Australia , since they would need more powerful escorts .
= = = = Battle of Cocos = = = =
After releasing the British steamer , Emden turned south to Simalur , where she met the captured collier Buresk . Müller then decided to attack the British coaling station in the Cocos Islands ; he intended to destroy the wireless station there and draw away British forces searching for him in the Indian Ocean . While en route to the Cocos , Emden spent two days combing the Sunda Strait for merchant shipping without success . She thereafter proceeded to the Cocos , arriving off Direction Island at 06 : 00 on the morning of 9 November . Since there were no British vessels in the area , Müller sent ashore a landing party led by Kapitänleutnant ( First Lieutenant ) Hellmuth von Mücke , Emden 's executive officer . The party consisted of another two officers , six non @-@ commissioned officers , and thirty @-@ eight sailors .
Emden was using jamming , but the British wireless station was able to transmit the message " Unidentified ship off entrance . " The message was received by the Australian light cruiser HMAS Sydney , which was 52 nautical miles ( 96 km ; 60 mi ) away , escorting a convoy . Sydney immediately headed for the Cocos Islands at top speed . Emden picked up wireless messages from the then unidentified vessel approaching , but believed her to be 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ; 290 mi ) away , giving them much more time than they actually had . At 09 : 00 , lookouts aboard Emden spotted a smoke cloud on the horizon , and thirty minutes later identified it as a warship approaching at high speed . Mücke 's landing party was still ashore , and there was no time left to recover them .
Sydney closed to a distance of 9 @,@ 500 yards ( 8 @,@ 700 m ) before turning to a parallel course with Emden . The German cruiser opened fire first , and straddled the Australian vessel with her third salvo . Emden 's gunners were firing rapidly , with a salvo every ten seconds ; Müller hoped to overwhelm Sydney with a barrage of shells before her heavier armament could take effect . Two shells hit Sydney , one of which disabled the aft fire control station ; the other failed to explode . It took slightly longer for Sydney to find the range , and in the meantime , Emden turned toward her opponent in an attempt to close to torpedo range . Sydney 's more powerful 6 in ( 152 mm ) guns soon found the range and inflicted serious damage . The wireless compartment was destroyed and the crew for one of the forward guns was killed early in the engagement . At 09 : 45 , Müller turned his ship toward Sydney in another attempt to reach a torpedo firing position . Five minutes later , a shell hit disabled the steering gear , and other fragments jammed the hand steering equipment . Emden could only be steered with her propellers . Sydney 's gunfire also destroyed the rangefinders and caused heavy casualties amongst Emden 's gun crews .
Müller made a third attempt to close to torpedo range , but Sydney quickly turned away . Shortly after 10 : 00 , a shell from Sydney detonated ready ammunition near the starboard No. 4 gun and started a serious fire . A fourth and final attempt to launch a torpedo attack was made shortly thereafter , but Sydney was able to keep the range open . By 10 : 45 , Emden 's guns had largely gone silent ; her superstructure had been shredded and the two rear @-@ most funnels had been shot away , along with the foremast . Müller realized that his ship was no longer able to fight , and so he decided to beach Emden on North Keeling Island to save the lives of his crew . At 11 : 15 , Emden was run onto the reef , and her engines and boilers were flooded . Her breech blocks and torpedo aiming gear were thrown overboard to render the weapons unusable , and all signal books and secret papers were burned . Sydney turned to capture the collier Buresk , whose crew scuttled her when the Australian cruiser approached . Sydney then returned to the wrecked Emden and inquired if she surrendered . The signal books had been destroyed by fire and so the Germans could not reply , and since her flag was still flying , Sydney resumed fire . The Germans quickly raised white flags and the Australians ceased fire .
In the course of the action , Emden scored sixteen hits on Sydney , killing three of her crew and wounding another thirteen . A fourth crewman died later from his injuries . Sydney had meanwhile fired some 670 rounds of ammunition , with around 100 hits claimed . Emden had suffered much higher casualties : 133 officers and enlisted men died , out of a crew of 376 . Most of her surviving crew , including Müller , were taken into captivity the following day . The wounded men were sent to Australia , while the uninjured were interned at a camp in Malta ; the men were returned to Germany in 1920 . Mücke 's landing party evaded capture . They had observed the battle , and realized that Emden would be destroyed . Mücke therefore ordered the old 97 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 95 @-@ long @-@ ton ) schooner Ayesha to be prepared for sailing . The Germans departed before Sydney reached Direction Island , and sailed to Padang in the Dutch East Indies . From there , they traveled to Yemen , which was then part of the Ottoman Empire , an ally of Germany . They then traveled overland to Constantinople , arriving in June 1915 . There , they reported to Vizeadmiral Wilhelm Souchon , the commander of the ex @-@ German battlecruiser Goeben . In the meantime , the British sloop Cadmus arrived at the Cocos Islands about a week after the battle to bury the sailors killed in the battle .
= = = Legacy = = =
Over a raiding career spanning three months and 30 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 56 @,@ 000 km ; 35 @,@ 000 mi ) , Emden had destroyed two Entente warships and sank or captured sixteen British steamers and one Russian merchant ship , totaling 70 @,@ 825 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Another four British ships were captured and released , and one British and one Greek ship were used as colliers . In 1915 , a Japanese company proposed that Emden be repaired and refloated , but an inspection by the elderly flat @-@ iron gunboat HMAS Protector concluded that wave damage to Emden made such an operation unfeasible . By 1919 , there were reports that the wreck had almost completely broken up and disappeared beneath the waves . The wreck was eventually broken up in situ in the early 1950s by a Japanese salvage company ; parts of the ship remain scattered around the area .
Following the destruction of Emden , Kaiser Wilhelm II awarded the Iron Cross to the ship and announced that a new Emden would be built to honor the original cruiser . Wilhelm II ordered that the new cruiser wear a large Iron Cross on her bow to commemorate her namesake ship . The third cruiser to bear the name Emden , built in the 1920s for the Reichsmarine , also carried the Iron Cross , along with battle honors for the Indian Ocean , Penang , Cocos Islands , and Ösel , where the second Emden had engaged several Russian destroyers and torpedo boats . Two further vessels have been named for the cruiser in the West German Bundesmarine : the Köln @-@ class frigate Emden laid down in 1959 , and the Bremen @-@ class frigate Emden laid down in 1979 .
Three of the ship 's 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were removed from the wreck three years after the battle . One is preserved in Hyde Park in Sydney , a second is located at the Royal Australian Navy Heritage Centre in HMAS Kuttabul , the main naval base in Sydney , and the third is on display at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra . In addition , Emden 's bell and stern ornament were recovered from the wreck and both are currently in the collection of the Australian War Memorial . A number of other artifacts , including a damaged 10 @.@ 5 cm shell case , an iron rivet from the hull , and uniforms were also recovered and are held in the Australian War Memorial .
A number of films have been made about Emden 's wartime exploits , including the 1915 movies How We Beat the Emden and How We Fought the Emden and the 1928 The Exploits of the Emden , all produced in Australia . German films include the 1926 silent film Unsere Emden , footage from which was incorporated in Kreuzer Emden of 1932 , and Heldentum und Todeskampf unserer Emden , produced in 1934 . All three films were directed by Louis Ralph . More recently , in 2012 , Die Männer der Emden ( The men of the Emden ) was released , which was made about how the crew of Emden made their way back to Germany after the Battle of Cocos .
After the bombardment of Madras , Emden 's name , as " Amdan " , entered the Sinhala and Tamil languages meaning " someone who is tough , manipulative and crafty . " In the Malayalam language the word " Emadan " means " a big and powerful thing " or " as big as Emden " .
= Miniopterus tao =
Miniopterus tao is a fossil bat in the genus Miniopterus from the Pleistocene of Zhoukoudian in China . It is known from a number of mandibles ( lower jaws ) , which were initially identified as the living species Miniopterus schreibersii in 1963 before being recognized as a separate species , M. tao , in 1986 . Miniopterus tao is larger than living M. schreibersii and has more closely spaced lower premolars and more robust talonids ( back groups of cusps ) on the lower molars . The back part of the mandible is relatively low and on it , the coronoid and condyloid processes are about equally high . The average length of the mandible is 12 @.@ 0 mm .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1934 , Chinese paleontologist C.C. Young was the first to describe fossil bats from the fossil site of Zhoukoudian Locality 1 , which is famous for Peking Man . However , he did not mention Miniopterus , which was first recorded by Kazimierz Kowalski and Chuan @-@ kuei Li in 1963 in a description of new material from layer 8 of the cave site . They identified the Miniopterus as the widespread living species Miniopterus schreibersii on the basis of 48 mandibles ( lower jaws ) from layer 8 and reassigned another mandible that had previously been identified as Myotis to Miniopterus . In a 1986 paper , however , Bronisław Wołoszyn described the population as a new species , Miniopterus tao , after examining two mandibles in the collections of the Polish Academy of Sciences . He did place the species in the " schreibersii group " of Miniopterus , but considered it unlikely to be ancestral to living M. schreibersii . The specific name , tao , refers to the Chinese philosophical concept , the Tao .
= = Description = =
Wołoszyn described the species on the basis of two mandibles , one damaged and with the third premolar ( p3 ) through third molar ( m3 ) , and the other intact and with the fourth premolar ( p4 ) through second molar ( m2 ) . Miniopterus tao is a large member of the " schreibersii group " and about as large as Miniopterus rummeli from the Miocene of Germany . The mandible is robust and generally resembles M. schreibersii . The mental foramen ( an opening at the outer side of the jaw ) is located between the lower canine and second lower premolar ( p2 ) . The coronoid process ( a projection at the back of the mandible ) is low and rounded and is connected to the condyloid process behind it by a nearly horizontal ridge , which contains a slight raising at its back . Compared to M. schreibersii , the condyloid process is more slender , but the base of the angular process ( at the lower back corner of the jaw ) is more robust . In M. rummeli , the back part of the mandible is higher and the coronoid process is distinctly higher than the condyloid process .
The preserved alveoli show that p2 is about as large as p3 , not smaller as in the " tristis group " of Miniopterus . The premolars in M. tao are placed closely together , which distinguishes the species from M. schreibersii and fossil European species , including M. rummeli . The p3 is robust and surrounded by a well @-@ developed cingulum ( shelf ) . The crown is trapezoid in shape . In p4 , there is a clear cingulum at the front and labial ( outer ) margins . The crown is triangular and the back edge is straight , not saddle @-@ shaped as in M. schreibersii . The molars resemble those of M. schreibersii , but are more robust , particularly the talonids ( the cusp groups at the back of the teeth ) . The total length of the mandible ranges from 11 @.@ 6 to 12 @.@ 4 mm and averages 12 @.@ 0 mm in ten specimens , the coronoid process is 3 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 3 mm high , averaging 3 @.@ 2 mm , and the length of the molar row is 4 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 4 mm , averaging 4 @.@ 2 mm .
= = Range = =
Miniopterus tao has only been recorded from Locality 1 at Zhoukoudian ; Locality 3 contains a smaller Miniopterus identified as M. schreibersii . Locality 1 is Pleistocene in age ( between about 2 million and 10 @,@ 000 years old ) and also contains Ia io and species of Rhinolophus and Myotis among bats , in addition to Homo erectus .
= Down and Dirty Duck =
Down and Dirty Duck , promoted under the abbreviated title Dirty Duck , is a 1974 American adult animated comedy film directed by Charles Swenson and starring Mark Volman and Howard Kaylan ( Flo & Eddie ) as the voices of a strait @-@ laced , low @-@ level white collar worker named Willard and an unnamed duck , among other characters . The plot consists of a series of often abstract sequences , including plot material created by stars Kaylan , Volman , Robert Ridgely , and , according to the film 's ending credits , various people Swenson encountered during the making of the film . Dirty Duck received mostly negative reviews , with many criticizing it for its crude humor and others seeing the film as an attempt to cash in on the success of Ralph Bakshi 's Fritz the Cat . Dirty Duck fared better on home video and is now considered a cult film .
= = Plot = =
Willard Isenbaum , a lonely insurance man with wild sexual fantasies , decides to propose to the new secretary , Susie , whom he has only known for a day and to whom he has never spoken . He spends the entire morning before work fantasizing about having sex with her , but his attempts to approach her fails . His female boss sends him to investigate a claim filed by Painless Martha , an aging tattoo artist , who works in a prison . Martha believes in a Ouija board message saying that she will be killed by a wizard on a Tuesday .
When Willard tells her that the insurance company won 't pay until her death , she dies of a heart attack . Her will stipulates that her killer must take care of her duck . After the duo spend a night in jail , the duck takes Willard to a brothel . After a wild night of partying , they wind up in the desert , where the duck dresses Willard in women 's clothing in an attempt to get a ride . After several encounters with an old prospector dying of thirst , a racist police officer , two lesbians , and a short Mexican man , they are finally picked up by a trucker .
Back at his apartment , Willard creates a makeshift sex object , which the duck eats . Shortly after , Willard discovers that the duck is a girl , and has sex with her . The following morning , Willard and the duck go to Willard 's job , where Willard has sex with his female boss , and quits his job shortly after . Willard and the duck leave , and the movie ends with Willard saying that the duck was a good duck after all .
= = Cast = =
Howard Kaylan - Willard Isenbaum / Negro Lady / Side Hack Rider
Mark Volman - Duck / Side Hack Rider
Robert Ridgely - Car Salesman / Man at Bus Stop / Negro Gentleman / Big Fag / Police Officer / Tank
Walker Edmiston - Bus Driver / Jail Orator / Small Fag / Prospector / Mexican Official / President / Man in Elevator
Lurene Tuttle - Duck 's Mother
Aynsley Dunbar - Additional Voices
Cynthia Adler - Lady In Car / Boss Lady / Small Dyke / Lady In Elevator
Joëlle Le Quément - Land Lady / Lady at Bus Stop / Madam / Big Dyke
Jerry D. Good - Transvestite Fag
= = Production = =
After the release and success of Fritz the Cat , several animated films meant for adults rather than children enjoyed success . Fritz , a film based on a character created by artist and illustrator Robert Crumb , was the first animated movie to receive an X rating in the United States . Charles Swenson developed Down and Dirty Duck as a project for former The Mothers of Invention band members Kaylan and Volman under the title Cheap ! Had the film been released under this title , as director Mick Garris notes , the title would have been Roger Corman 's Cheap ! However , Roger Corman observed the title as a shot at his production techniques , and asked that the title be changed . The film 's production budget was $ 110 @,@ 000 . According to Swenson , he created almost all of the animation himself , although publicity attributed the animation work to the Murakami @-@ Wolf Production Company . Although the film was promoted as an X @-@ rated animated film , New World Pictures had not actually submitted it to the Motion Picture Association of America ( MPAA ) . The film was also promoted as Dirty Duck , although the title on the film itself reads Down and Dirty Duck .
Despite the use of the title Dirty Duck , the film has nothing to do with the Dirty Duck character created by Bobby London and published in National Lampoon and Playboy magazines .
= = Reception = =
When the film was released , the distributor did not promote it heavily , and most reviewers disliked it . Because the film was X @-@ rated , The New York Times refused to run the film 's advertisement . This was a somewhat awkward situation , as the ad included a positive review from The New York Times . According to Swenson , " it didn 't have a big following , ... but it is still in video stores . " The film played for about two weeks in New York City . Jerry Beck wrote a review in which he called the film " raunchier than Ralph Bakshi 's films . " He went on to say that the humor of the film " is good , but the design and drawing is downright awful . It seems to be sort of a cross between Jules Feiffer and Gahan Wilson , if that can be imagined . " Beck also stated that the film was " very similar to R. Crumb 's Mr. Natural and Flakey Foont . There is no reason that the duck should be a duck . Every character in the film is human , and he just seems to be a duck just to give the film a catchy title . There are some highly imaginative animated ideas here , but the film 's entertainment value is at a minimum . " Beck later called the film " one of the most overlooked animated features of the 1970s , a glorious experimental mess of a film , which , from today ’ s vantage point , looks incredibly creative and daring , and something current Hollywood studios would never attempt . "
Playboy noted that the advertisements for the film said , " this film has no socially redeeming value " and continued " well , that 's dead right , yet this movie has some value as a promising X @-@ rated cartoon in the tradition of Ralph Bakshi 's Fritz the Cat . The New York Times called it a " zany , lively , uninhibited , sexual odyssey that manages to mix a bit of Walter Mitty and a touch of Woody Allen with some of the innocence of Walt Disney [ and the ] urban smarts of Ralph Bakshi " . Charles Solomon of The Los Angeles Times gave the film an extremely negative review , calling " a sprawling undisciplined piece of sniggering vulgarity that resembles nothing so much as animated bathroom graffiti . [ The film is ] degrading to women , blacks , Chicanos , gays , cops , lesbians , and anyone with an IQ of more than 45 " . Variety commented that the film " has little to recommend . "
= Marty Hogan =
Martin Francis Hogan ( October 25 , 1869 – August 15 , 1923 ) , nicknamed " The Indianapolis Ringer " , was an Anglo @-@ American right fielder in Major League Baseball who played for the Cincinnati Reds ( 1894 ) and St. Louis Browns ( 1894 – 1895 ) . After leaving the National League , Hogan moved on to the minor league Indianapolis Hoosiers . Some sources suggest he set a national baserunning record in the 1890s .
When his playing career ended , he worked as a minor league baseball manager in Ohio , Pennsylvania , and Wisconsin . As a manager , Hogan groomed several pitchers who excelled in the major leagues . He signed future stars Stan Coveleski and Sam Jones to their first professional contracts and helped launch the career of Roy Castleton , the first native of Utah to play in the major leagues .
In 1912 , Hogan was among a select group of veteran managers invited to participate in the United States Baseball League , which was treated by the baseball establishment as an " outlaw league " . For reasons that are unclear , he did not actually manage a franchise in the short @-@ lived alternative league and resumed his career as a minor league manager . Hogan eventually settled in his adopted hometown of Youngstown , Ohio , where he died in 1923 .
= = Early years = =
Hogan was born to Patrick J. Hogan , Sr. , and his wife , the former Margaret Gillen , in the West Midlands industrial town of Wednesbury , Staffordshire , England . When he was still a child , his parents , both natives of Ireland , relocated the family from England to Youngstown , Ohio , a steel @-@ production center near the Pennsylvania border . Although Hogan is routinely identified as Anglo @-@ American ( given his English birth ) , baseball historians Joel Zoss and John Bowman wrote that he probably regarded himself as an Irish American .
The Hogan family settled on Youngstown 's near west side , in a working @-@ class district known as Westlake 's Crossing . In Youngstown , Hogan 's father , Patrick J. Hogan , Sr. , secured employment as a steelworker , while his older brother , Patrick J. Hogan , Jr . , worked his way up to the position of " roller " at the Union Steel Company ( later consolidated with U.S. Steel ) . Martin Hogan moved in the direction of an athletic career , gaining early recognition as a " foot racer " . His interest in sports was evidently encouraged by his father , who closely followed his son 's baseball career even in later life . Patrick J. Hogan , Sr. ' s obituary described him as " a great baseball fan " , who " was as quick to appreciate a clever ' steal ' or a ' heady ' play as any one of the younger generation " .
While little is known about Martin Hogan 's early years in Youngstown , there is evidence he was popular among local residents . His obituary referred to him as an individual " of pleasing personality " who " made many friends during his long residence in Youngstown " . Another newspaper article described him as " a good fellow " , and a third indicated he was well liked among players with whom he worked . At the same time , Hogan was reportedly quick to comment when he felt he was treated unfairly .
= = Playing career = =
Before joining the major leagues , Hogan played for minor league baseball teams in the northeastern United States , including the Akron ( Ohio ) Summits and Scranton ( Pennsylvania ) Miners . He began his career as a major league player with the Cincinnati Reds , on August 4 , 1894 , but played only six games before switching to the St. Louis Browns ( later known as the Cardinals ) . By this time , St. Louis had been eliminated from league championship contention , after being tied with Cleveland and Boston for first place in April . Hogan participated in 29 games with St. Louis in the 1894 season . According to the 1895 edition of Spalding 's Official Baseball Guide , he ranked tenth among league outfielders with a percentage of .941 for put @-@ outs , assists , and errors . Among his teammates , Hogan held the second highest percentage of stolen bases for games played . In March 1895 , a reporter for Sporting Life praised the Browns ' decision to retain Hogan in center field and emphasized the young outfielder 's potential . " On the bases and in the field the lad is a wonder " , the paper stated . " His only fault is weakness at the bat , but increasing confidence and familiarity with [ National ] League players will undoubtedly improve him in this respect " . Despite Hogan 's physical speed , however , his overall performance with the Browns proved uneven , and his two @-@ season batting average was just .241 . On May 17 , 1895 , the Youngstown Daily Vindicator reported that Hogan had been " farmed out " as a center fielder to the Indianapolis Hoosiers , a club connected to the well @-@ organized Western League , the predecessor of the American League . The Vindicator added , " At any time by giving a proper notification the St. Louis team , of which club Hogan is a member , can again secure his services " . Yet , for reasons that are unclear , Hogan never returned to the St. Louis Browns . He played his last game with the team on April 24 , 1895 , concluding a major @-@ league career that comprised 40 games over two seasons .
At Indianapolis , Hogan led at the bat , and contemporary sources indicate his performance improved . " Marty Hogan , who is playing temporarily in middle field for the Indianapolis team of the western league ... is covering himself in glory with his superb playing " , the Vindicator reported on June 4 , 1895 . " The Indianapolis Sentinel of May 31st says : Hogan made a great record at the bat yesterday morning " , the newspaper added . " One of the drives was for a home run and three of the hits were bunts " . In addition , the article credited Hogan with four runs , five base hits , and two put outs in a late morning game against a rival team from St. Paul , Minnesota . The Vindicator went on to quote the Indianapolis Journal as follows : " Among the features of the forenoon game was Hogan 's batting . He got five hits , one a home run , and his bunting was even cleverer than usual , and that is saying a great deal " . The article concluded , " If he keeps up this gait , it will not be long before [ St. Louis Browns owner Chris ] Von der Ahe reclaims his pet " .
Hogan 's obituary stated that , at some point in his playing career , he set a record for baserunning . Several sources trace this record to a field day event held in Indianapolis in 1895 , when he reportedly rounded the bases in 13 @.@ 2 seconds . The World Almanac and Encyclopedia 1906 , for instance , reported that Hogan " lowered the base @-@ running record " in 1895 , noting that " [ t ] he distance around the bases is 120 yards " . In January 1906 , Sporting Life reported that Hogan had " taken steps to have the base running record awarded to him " . The report added , " Under proper conditions [ Hogan ] turned the route in 13 1 – 5 seconds at Indianapolis in 1895 " . Some observers questioned the veracity of the record , however . In 1907 , for instance , Washington Post sports columnist J. Ed Grillo conceded that " Hogan was a great sprinter " but described his unofficial record as " out of reason " . Grillo , who argued that " the fastest runners in baseball failed to come anywhere near the mark " , lent his support to an official record of 14 @.@ 1 that had been set more recently by Eastern League player Wally Clement . An article published in the Washington Herald days earlier also raised questions about Hogan 's baserunning record . In this case , however , the writer claimed that the most " authentic " record had been set by Harry Berthrong in the 1860s . The article stated that , while Hogan was " said to have beaten Berthrong 's base @-@ circling record of 13 2 – 5 seconds by a fifth of a second " , this alleged feat was not " performed under official sanction " . One year earlier , in 1906 , Berthrong , himself , weighed in on the debate . According to an article that appeared in Sporting Life in March of that year , Berthrong disputed Hogan 's claim . " My time ... around the bases was made in Washington , D.C. , in July 1868 , after the old Nationals of Washington , D.C. , had played a game with the Pastimes of Baltimore , Md . " , Berthrong was quoted as saying in an interview . " Three stop watches were held over me , the slowest giving me 14 1 / 4 " . The retired player added : " I am skeptical about this man Hogan doing the bases in 13 1 @-@ 5 : nobody but an Arthur Duffey could possibly do it , and I doubt if he could " . For reasons that are unclear , the article indicated that Hogan claimed to round the bases in 1889 , six earlier than other reports . ( A similar description of Hogan 's claim appeared elsewhere in the same edition of Sporting Life ; a brief news item suggested he claimed to set the record " in Indianapolis in the 80 's " . ) Baseball historian Jon Daly traced Hogan 's contested record to 1898 ; he speculated that Ben Morgan , an official of the National Association , " disputed that claim when doing a study of field day records " . The most widely accepted national baserunning record was set by Evar Swanson , who rounded the bases in 13 @.@ 4 seconds in 1929 . Despite questions surrounding Hogan 's baserunning record , he became popularly known as the " Indianapolis Ringer " . Newspaper reports suggest he defended his position as baserunning champion of the Western League in various pre @-@ game competitions . On August 2 , 1895 , the Vindicator noted that the outfielder had " a rival for the base running honors in the western league in George Nichol of the Milwaukees who , it is claimed , can get down to first quicker than Hogan " . The article added , " A race between the two is talked of " . Then , on August 17 , 1895 , the Vindicator reported that Hogan had defeated Detroit outfielder Frank Tower in a baserunning contest . " The Hoosiers have in Mart Hogan a pretty good extra card " , the article added . " Indianapolis goes around the land , and their sprinting outfielder meets all comers in foot races before the game . He has not yet been defeated " . Several days earlier , the same newspaper quoted a journalist from Sporting Life , who reportedly commented : " Mart Hogan , the Indianapolis outfielder , is showing such astonishing speed that he will probably be taken to England next year for the Sheffield Handicap " .
In February 1896 , Hogan received an offer to manage the Youngstown ( Ohio ) Puddlers , a minor league team associated with the Interstate League . The Vindicator reported that the outfielder refused the offer . " Hogan expects to play again with the St. Louis team in the National League " , the Vindicator stated . The paper went on to quote an article that supposedly appeared in the Cincinnati @-@ based Commercial Gazette : " St. Louis fans are opposed to the idea of selling Marty Hogan , the fast out @-@ fielder , who played with the Indianapolis team last season , having been loaned by the Browns " . In the spring of 1896 , however , Hogan attempted to extricate himself from remaining contractual obligations to the St. Louis Browns . Sporting Life reported , in May 1896 , that Hogan was unsuccessful in his efforts to obtain a final release from the Browns , who retained him as an " extra " right fielder . " Marty has not been given any kind of trial by the manager of the Browns , although he stood high in batting and base running in the Western League last year " , the article stated . " He is in fine condition , and is anxious to play , but does not prepare to be shifted about at the will of alleged managers " . The paper added that Hogan had returned to St. Louis in March 1896 , prepared to " purchase " his release , " but he has been held onto until now , when he could have secured $ 1550 for his services in the Western League " . Hogan appeared especially confident of his baserunning abilities . The article noted that the outfielder had " offered to match himself to run 100 yards for $ 500 a side against any player in the National League " . Meanwhile , his batting evidently continued to improve . On May 24 , 1896 , an article in the St. Paul ( Minnesota ) Globe indicated Hogan performed exceptionally well at the bat during a contest between the Hoosiers and the St. Paul Saints . " Marty Hogan ... through an inadvertent mix @-@ up of pugilism and baseball ... tried to hammer the face off the ball , which had tantalized the other Hoosiers " , the article stated , " and when Marty 's work was done , the ball was out of the lot and he was on second base " .
At some point in the 1896 season , Hogan apparently secured his release from the Browns . Once again , however , his physical speed offered no guarantee of consistency on the playing field . On July 21 , 1896 , the St. Paul ( Minneapolis ) Globe reported that Hogan had performed poorly in a contest between the Hoosiers and the local ball club . " Marty Hogan ... made a bad fumble , and then looked up at the sky to see if it had moved while he was locating the ball " , the paper reported . " It was a good bluff , but the crowd discovered Marty 's weakness before the end of the game " . In January 1897 , the Vindicator reported that the Hoosiers had sold Hogan to a club in Grand Rapids , Michigan . The article called Hogan " one of the fastest outfielders and baserunners in the Western League " and predicted he would " greatly strengthen the Grand Rapids outfield " . The following month , however , the paper described the previous report as a " mistake " , indicating instead that Hogan had signed a contract with baseball executive John T. Brush to play with the Hoosiers for another year . The paper also reported that the contract granted Hogan " the largest salary he has ever drawn " . Despite this lucrative contract , Hogan established and maintained his own advertising distribution agency in Indianapolis . " He goes about the streets dressed much like an English costermonger " , Sporting Life reported in January 1897 . " Marty can be seen with a little red wagon full of signs and advertising matter chasing up and down streets nailing the signs to buildings and convenient places and distributing advertising literature in the reel @-@ dance portion of Indianapolis " . Less than four months later , in May 1897 , he was released by the Indianapolis ball club . In June 1897 , the Kansas City Journal indicated Hogan had moved on to the Dayton ( Ohio ) Old Soldiers , a team affiliated with the Class B Interstate League , where he was " playing a sensational center field " . In October of the same year , Sporting Life speculated Hogan would remain with Dayton during the upcoming 1898 season . " Marty Hogan 's contract with Dayton is such that he cannot be reserved , as are the rest of the players " , the article stated . " Unless Marty has a better offer to play with some other team it is safe to say that he will be with Dayton next year " . Further research is required to determine how long Hogan continued to play as an outfielder in the minor leagues . ( His obituary indicated that he also worked as a major league trainer . ) During his playing career , he apparently received at least one serious injury . In February 1903 , Sporting Life reported that the former baseball player 's friends were " anxious to get him appointed on the staff of American League umpires " . The article added , " Hogan has suffered from operations to remove portions of his breast bone , which was injured in a collision during a baseball game " .
= = Managing career = =
= = = Youngstown
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Ohio Works = = =
After retiring as a baseball player , Hogan settled in Youngstown and went into business . At some point , Sam Wright , then sports editor of The Youngstown Daily Vindicator , encouraged him to manage the city 's baseball team . In 1902 , Hogan was hired as manager of the Youngstown Ohio Works , an independent ball club sponsored by Joseph A. McDonald , superintendent of the Ohio Works of the Carnegie Steel Company . The club did not immediately become associated with an independent league , however . On April 5 , 1902 , Sporting Life noted that Hogan represented the Youngstown club at a poorly attended meeting of the Western Association , a short @-@ lived independent league based in Cleveland . " Marty Hogan arrived at noon and wanted a franchise for Youngstown " , the paper reported , " but Zanesville , Springfield and South Bend , who had asked to be admitted to membership , had no representatives present " . Then , in January 1904 , Sporting Life reported that Hogan had " declined the proposition to put a Central League into Youngstown " . In May 1905 , however , the Youngstown club was one of eleven teams to join the Protective Association of Independent Clubs , which formed the basis of the Class C Division Ohio – Pennsylvania League . Ultimately , the league trimmed down to eight teams from the following cities : Akron , Ohio ; Homestead , Pennsylvania ; Lancaster , Pennsylvania ; Newark , Ohio ; Niles , Ohio ; Sharon , Pennsylvania ; Youngstown , and Zanesville , Ohio . That September , the Youngstown Ohio Works won the league championship , although sources disagree on the team 's final record . As baseball researcher John Zajc writes : " The Reach Guide ( 1906 ) credits Youngstown with an 84 – 32 won @-@ lost record where the Spalding Guide of the same year lists a 90 – 35 record . The Encyclopedia of Minor League Baseball ( 1993 ) tells a third story , giving Youngstown an 88 – 35 mark " .
On the heels of this achievement , Hogan reportedly " lost his entire infield " , when several players moved on to more established minor league and major league teams . " [ Billy ] Phyle will go to the [ outlaw leagues ] , Starr will be traded by [ American League manager James ] McAleer , Whitney goes to Buffalo and Burton will likely return to Central League ball " , Sporting Life reported . The manager had no difficulty compensating for these losses , however . The sports paper reported , in October 1905 , that future major @-@ leaguer Louis " Lew " Schettler , " the star twirler of the Sharon team " , was anxious to join the Ohio Works team . The paper added that Schettler " would like a year under Marty Hogan " . In December 1905 , the paper confirmed that Hogan had secured catcher Lee Fohl and pitcher Schettler , " the star battery of this league for last season " . The paper added that the manager had " signed two young Cleveland players in outfielder Hugh Donovan and first baseman Harry [ Schwartz ] " . In addition , Hogan attempted to sign on as pitcher Walter Purdue , " second rush of the Youngstown polo team " . Meanwhile , Hogan reportedly " sold out his cafe at Youngstown " in order to " devote his entire time to base ball " . According to Sporting Life , the manager even planned to challenge former major @-@ leaguer Charlie Morton for the presidency of the Ohio @-@ Pennsylvanie League , a bid that evidently proved unsuccessful .
In January 1906 , Morton , as league president , called a meeting of the Ohio – Pennsylvania League . According to Sporting Life , representatives of the clubs were scheduled to meet at Zanesville 's Hotel Rogge on January 16 . " Assurances have been received that representatives from Akron , Youngstown , Zanesville , Newark , Lancaster , Mansfield , New Castle , East Liverpool , Steubenville and Erie , Pa . , will be present " , the paper reported , " and from there an eight or ten club circuit will probably be formed , with McKeesport , Butler and Ashtabula as applicants also " . ( The league eventually formed an eight @-@ team circuit that included teams from Akron , Lancaster , Mansfield , Newark , New Castle , Sharon , Youngstown and Zanesville . ) The paper also noted that William J. Maloney , the center fielder for the Ohio Works club during the previous season , would sign a contract and serve as team captain . Among others , Hogan announced the " engagement " of Utah @-@ born pitcher Roy Castleton . The Ohio Works team opened the 1906 season with 16 players , three of whom had been part of the club during the 1905 season . According to Sporting Life , Hogan predicted the club would win the pennant at the close of the upcoming season . He expressed confidence in a lineup that included Maloney of Bradford , Kentucky ; Will M. Thomas of Morristown , Pennsylvania ; Tommy Thomas of Piqua , Ohio ; Fohl of Allegheny , Pennsylvania ; Schettler of Pittsburgh ; " Dotty " Freck of Columbus , Ohio ; A. C. McClintock of Columbus ; Castleton of Salt Lake City ; Lewis Groh of Rochester , New York ; John Kennedy of Youngstown , Charles Crouse of Detroit ; Roy Chase of Andover , Ohio ; Forrester J. Dressner of Garrettsville , Pennsylvania ; Schwartz of Cleveland ; and Roy Gould of Middlesex , Pennsylvania . Indeed , in 1906 , the Ohio Works team took the league championship once again , with an 84 – 53 record , while new player Roy Castleton gained national recognition by pitching a perfect game against a rival club in Akron . On October 1 , 1906 , Hogan and members of the Ohio Works team were honored at a banquet held at the Elks ' Club in downtown Youngstown . Sporting Life reported that the keynote address was delivered by Father M. T. Kinkead , " who declared himself a fan of Sunday baseball playing " . The article added that Hogan " was presented with a ring and each player was given a pair of gold cuff link inscribed ' O. & P. Champs 1906 ' " . On October 6 , 1906 , Sporting Life summarized the league 's most recent season , reporting that the Ohio Works team had " held the lead continually after the first months of the season and at one time threatened a walkover " .
The following month , in November 1906 , Hogan responded to rumors that Walter East , manager of the Akron Rubbernecks , had agreed to " lay down " to the Youngstown club , enabling them to win the pennant . " Instead of laying down to us , Akron loaded up with catcher [ Red ] Munson and pitcher Bob Spade " , Hogan said in an interview with the Pittsburgh Press . " They worked their heads off to down us , but could not do so " . Hogan went on to assert that the Akron club , and its manager , received generous incentives to defeat Youngstown . " The Akron owner offered the players a bonus of $ 500 if they would beat us out in addition to a $ 300 wad for East " , Hogan said . Then , he accused East himself of attempting to " fix " a game during the 1906 season , claiming that the Akron manager had " tried to get another club to take things easy against Akron so that Akron could beat us for the pennant " .
In the wake of the Ohio Works ' second league championship , steps were taken to incorporate the club . In December 1906 , Sporting Life reported that the team 's backers , Joseph and Thomas McDonald , who served as superintendent and assistant superintendent , respectively , of the Ohio Works of the Carnegie Steel Company , were compelled to invite additional investors because of planned ( and costly ) improvements at the steel plant . " The incorporators of the club will be Thomas McDonald , Joseph McDonald , Thomas Carr , Thomas Carter and Marty Hogan " , the paper stated . " Manager Hogan will be given even more control of the team next season than he has had . Heretofore he has had the entire control of the team and transacted most of the business " . Sporting Life predicted that , in the wake of the team 's incorporation , " everything will fall absolutely on [ Hogan 's ] shoulders " . The paper added that the Ohio Works team intended to build a new ballpark on the south side of Youngstown , near the corner of Glenwood and Parkview avenues . " One of the largest grand stands in the minor leagues will be put up and the grounds will be in every way modern " , the article stated .
Differences between Hogan and the McDonald brothers , however , had already surfaced in the autumn of 1906 . Although a sports writer for The Youngstown Daily Vindicator predicted in October 1906 that the " popular " Hogan would serve a fourth season as manager of the club , the Ohio Works manager appeared unwilling to negotiate the terms of a new contract without leverage . According to the Vindicator , Hogan publicly mulled an offer presented by a team in Nashville , whose representatives followed him to the train station . The same newspaper article indicated that Hogan later reached a verbal agreement with Ohio Works co @-@ owners Joseph and Thomas McDonald , announcing soon afterwards that he would remain with the local ball club . Yet , by January 1907 , the Newark Advocate reported that Hogan wanted to sell the Youngstown franchise . The paper observed that " a move in offering the Youngstown franchise for sale had created a furor in the league " . On January 8 , 1907 , Hogan and Joseph McDonald attended the annual meeting of the National Association of Professional Baseball Clubs in New York City , while the fate of the club remained uncertain . Then , on January 13 , The New York Times reported that the Youngstown team would participate in an eight @-@ team " outlaw league " comprising clubs from Elmira , New York ; Lancaster , Pennsylvania ; Pittsburgh , Reading , Pennsylvania ; Scranton , Pennsylvania ; Wilkes @-@ Barre , Pennsylvania ; and Williamsport , Ohio . The Times described the envisioned league as " the most powerful ' outlaw ' league the National Association of Professional Baseball Clubs was ever called upon to oppose " , and stated that Hogan would " be at the head of " the Youngstown team . These rather confusing reports were followed by the abrupt sale and relocation of the Ohio Works team in February 1907 .
= = = Zanesville = = =
On February 18 , 1907 , the Zanesville Signal reported that Hogan had received permission from the McDonald brothers to negotiate a $ 3 @,@ 000 deal for the sale of the Youngstown club , including its players , to a group of investors in Zanesville , Ohio . In an interview with the Signal , the manager expressed frustration with the team 's former backers , when he said , " Youngstown couldn 't or didn 't raise enough money to cover a sparrow 's blanket " . The Zanesville investors reportedly raised an additional $ 15 @,@ 000 to enter the team into the Ohio – Pennsylvania League , although they were forced to settle for the less prestigious Pennsylvania – Ohio – Maryland League . The eight @-@ team P @-@ O @-@ M league included clubs from Braddock , Pennsylvania ; Charleroi , Pennsylvania ; East Liverpool , Ohio ; McKeesport , Pennsylvania ; Steubenville , Ohio ; Uniontown , Pennsylvania ; and Washington , Pennsylvania . Meanwhile , Hogan reportedly had some difficulty securing new players for the team . In June 1907 , the Marion Daily Mirror described Zanesville 's efforts to sign Bill Dithridge , a player in the Baltimore Eastern League , as " merely another of the pipe dreams of one Marty Hogan " . The article added , " Dithridge is not to be sold to Zanesville , and he has informed Hogan that he will play with his team under no conditions whatever " . The paper did observe , however , that Hogan had signed a Cleveland player named Tate and planned to secure another outfielder , " when three members of the present team will be canned " . After settling in Zanesville , Hogan apparently received offers from other teams . Sporting Life reported in June 1907 that Hogan was invited to manage a team in Rochester , New York , but had turned down the offer . Then , in October , Hogan was offered management of yet another league franchise in South Bend , Indiana , but , once again , he declined . He managed the Zanesville ball club for two seasons . During its first season , the team placed first in the eight @-@ team P @-@ O @-@ M League , with a record of 15 wins and seven losses .
In 1908 , his final season , the team was christened as the Zanesville Infants and joined the Central League . According to Sporting Life , the " schedule meeting " for the Central League that year was to be held in Zanesville on March 17 ( St. Patrick 's Day ) . " According to the plans of the magnates the season this year will consist of 140 games , not any of the club owners being willing to return to the 154 @-@ game schedule " , the paper reported . The paper added that Hogan was " making light of his task " of signing up players for his team . " His acquaintance with players , especially in the independent ranks , gives him an advantage which few managers have " . Sporting Life also reported that by March , Hogan had " signed his outfield , the players accepting terms being [ Curt ] Elson , Blount , and Miller " . Further research is needed to determine the Zanesville Infants ' league ranking at the close of the 1908 season , but available information shows that the team neither won the championship nor placed as a runner @-@ up . More information is available on Hogan 's dissatisfaction with his situation in Zanesville , which evidently stemmed from increasing limits on his control over the club . An article that appeared in The ( Pittsburgh ) Gazette Times in December 1908 described Hogan 's reasons for leaving the organization . " There were too many directors connected with the Zanesville club to suit Hogan , as each one had his own idea of how a club should be run " , the paper reported . " As Hogan has his own , which did not exactly coincide with the numerous directors , he resigned " . The Gazette Times praised Hogan 's performance in Zanesville , stating that his club " was a pennant contender at all stages of the championship race " . The paper added : " He did not have a very good team , but kept the men playing the game at all times and was really the wonder of the [ P.O.M. ] league " .
= = = Lancaster Red Roses = = =
The following year , in 1909 , Hogan relocated to Lancaster , Pennsylvania , where he replaced local ball club manager Clarence " Pop " Foster , who had managed the Red Roses since 1907 . Once Hogan signed a contract , Foster moved on to lead another club in Trenton , New Jersey . The Lancaster team 's momentum escalated during the 1909 season , and in July of that year , Sporting Life reported that the Red Roses club was drawing positive attention . " The fast pace at which the Lancaster bunch has been going lately has been the talk of the league " , the paper stated . " Marty Hogan was not given much consideration as a pennant aspirant when the season opened , but the plucky Red Roses manager has been ' sawing wood ' and not talking " . Indeed , by the close of the 1909 season , the Lancaster Red Roses had worked up a 75 – 39 record , seizing the championship of the Tri @-@ State League . As Spalding 's Baseball Guide ( 1910 ) reported : " Lancaster , under manager Marty Hogan , won its first pennant in the league , and the top rung of the ladder was only gained by the hardest kind of fighting " . Sporting Life indicated that Hogan was confident of the outcome early in the season . " After his return from the first trip around the circuit " , wrote reporter G. H. Hartley , " Marty said to your correspondent that he saw nothing in the league that was better than his team " . Hartley noted that , on the closing day of the season , Hogan accepted the Farnsworth Cup , " the Tri @-@ State trophy " , on behalf of his team . " Between the first and second innings the [ Lancaster ] players presented Manager Marty Hogan with a beautiful silver set and a silver loving cup " , he added . The inscribed silver cup reportedly left Hogan " so surprised that he was unable to respond " . On September 7 , 1909 , one day after the contest , the Reading Eagle stated , " A great crowd witnessed the final game , in which Hogan 's gallant band trimmed the Trenton wanderers " . The newspaper added , " The real enthusiasm was awakened , however , by the floating of the championship pennant , awarded by a Phila . [ sic ] paper " . A key participant in the team 's successful performance was a young pitcher named Stan Coveleski , who went on to post a record of 53 wins and 38 losses during his three seasons with Lancaster . He made his professional debut with the Philadelphia Athletics three seasons later . Indeed , the Ogden Standard had praised Hogan as a " live wire " back in February 1909 , when he " grabbed up the three brothers of Harry Coveleski of the Phillies , and had them all sign contracts " . Highlights of the season may have included an exhibition game with the Philadelphia Phillies , which was scheduled to be held in Lancaster on April 2 , 1909 .
The following year , however , the Red Roses ' performance fell short of the previous season when it placed second , with 63 wins and 47 losses . According to Spalding 's Baseball Guide ( 1911 ) , the Lancaster organization was one of several teams in the league caught off guard by a surprisingly strong new club from Altoona , Pennsylvania , which was " sent along at a clip that practically clinched the season " . While the Red Roses pulled out of a mid @-@ season slump , the " Altoonas " prevailed with a 72 – 38 record . In an article regarding this outcome , Sporting Life stated that " nothing can be found to cast discredit upon the Lancaster team or its popular manager , Marty Hogan " . The paper added , " With a team that never stood high in club hitting or fielding , Marty pulled them through and anchored them in second place , which position they attained more by dint of their cleverness in inside work than with their prowess with the stick or in the field " . In December 1910 , a little more than two months after the article appeared , Hogan reportedly set down roots in Lancaster , opening a cigar shop and billiard hall in the city . His relationship with the Red Roses would not last more than another season , however . In 1911 , Hogan 's final year as manager of the Lancaster team , the club placed fourth in the eight @-@ team league , with 54 wins and losses , respectively .
Sporting Life reported that Hogan began the 1911 season with relatively modest expectations . The paper stated , " Hogan is not promising a pennant @-@ winning team ... but he does promise a good team and means to fight hard for the pennant again " . The team 's challenges included salary limits that sharply limited its capacity to attract more experienced players . Earlier that year , the Tri @-@ State League 's imposition of $ 1 @,@ 900 limits for individual salaries had created a stir throughout Lancaster , where fans resented the fact that outgoing clubs had been permitted to vote on an issue that would not affect them . Club president John H. Myers ' efforts to persuade the league to " advance the individual salary limit " proved unsuccessful , and Hogan " was directed to secure the best team that can be secured " under the circumstances . In January 1911 , Hogan had announced he would " cut out exhibition games and devote the entire preparatory season to hard practice " . Hogan added that " the exhibitions do not pay the club , and do harm to the unseasoned players " . Ultimately , the 1911 league championship went to a franchise from Reading , Pennsylvania , which " took the lead at the beginning of the season and never was headed until the finish " , closing with a record of 74 – 35 .
= = = United States Baseball League = = =
In March 1912 , organizers of a proposed United States Baseball League – described by members of the sports establishment as an " outlaw league " – met in New York City 's Hotel Imperial . The league is widely viewed as " a major precursor to the Federal League of 1914 – 1915 " . Hogan , who attended the New York meeting , was named as manager of a Cincinnati @-@ based franchise scheduled to compete in the league . ( The U.S. Baseball League also established teams in Chicago , Cleveland , Pittsburgh , New York City , Reading , Pennsylvania ; Richmond , Virginia ; and Washington , D.C. ) The following month , however , Hogan was evidently replaced by Hugh McKinnon , who was described in an April New York Times article as manager of the league 's Cincinnati franchise . An article that appeared in The New York Times several weeks earlier suggested that McKinnon was originally tapped as manager of the league 's Washington franchise . The same article also pointed out that ex @-@ major leaguer George Browne " had been approached by the Washington Club " . In the end , Browne was named as head of the Washington team when McKinnon was appointed manager of the Cincinnati club . While these developments shed some light on the outcome , the reasons for Hogan 's replacement as manager of the Cincinnati franchise remain uncertain .
In any event , the league did not survive for long . Sports historian Rudolf K. Haerle observed that the U.S. Baseball League " stressed the inherent ' good ' of baseball for all individuals and communities , and indicated that it wished to conduct its business in the accepted capitalist style – free competition in the marketplace " . The new league , however , quickly incurred the scorn and hostility of the baseball establishment . Burdened with weak leadership , limited financing , poor attendance , and a lack of skillful players , the U.S. Baseball League " folded after about one month of action " . In June 1912 , when the league ceased operation , the Cincinnati team that Hogan was supposed to manage ranked fourth in the eight @-@ team roster , earning 12 wins and 10 losses . The following year , former players of the Cincinnati club successfully sued the team 's owner , John J. Ryan , for unpaid wages . Sporting Life reported that the club 's members " received their money in Cincinnati on February 12 " .
= = = Zanesville Flood Sufferers = = =
In November 1912 , The Youngstown Daily Vindicator reported that Hogan would once again manage a local minor league ball club . The paper added , however , that the former Ohio Works manager was also considering an offer in Zanesville . Hogan evidently led the Zanesville team the previous season . In November 1912 , Sporting Life reported that the manager was still mulling his next move when he attended the annual meeting of the National Association in New York . " Marty Hogan , the veteran minor league manager , who is known from end to end of the land as a developer of minor league talent and winner of pennants , could not bear to miss meeting his old friends " , the paper stated . " Marty wound up the season with Zanesville and has not definitely decided upon his plans for the coming season " . Ultimately , Hogan went to Zanesville , where he managed the Zanesville Flood Sufferers in 1913 . The team 's nickname was evidently inspired by a massive flood that had devastated cities and towns throughout central and southern Ohio – including Zanesville – in the spring of 1913 . In April 1913 , Sporting Life noted that the Zanesville club would " stick to the circuit " , despite the fact that the city was " hit hard by the recent floods " . According to the paper , Zanesville 's ballpark was " completely destroyed , but the games will be played at the Fair Grounds " .
Earlier , in January 1913 , the Flood Sufferers pulled out from the 12 @-@ team Central League and joined the newly formed Interstate League , which included eight clubs . According to Sporting Life , the new league was expected to include teams from Akron , Youngstown , Canton , Steubenville , Wheeling , and either Johnstown or McKeesport . In February , the paper confirmed that the Interstate League ( which included Johnstown , not McKeesport ) had achieved Class B status on the basis of the eight cities ' combined populations . Sporting Life , which estimated the total population of the league 's participating cities at 412 @,@ 415 , noted that Youngstown ( with a population of 79 @,@ 066 ) was the largest city in the Interstate League . Later that month , the paper reported that the new league 's " salary limit of $ 2000 makes it imperative for each club to hold down expenses in every way ; consequently Marty Hogan , of the Zanesville Club , will be the only bench manager in the league , and he knows how to save his salary in various ways " .
During Hogan 's tenure as manager of the Zanesville Flood Sufferers , the club took advantage of at least one opportunity to test their skills against a major league club . Sports writer Walter LeConte observed that , on June 15 , 1913 , the Zanesville team participated in an in @-@ season exhibition game with the New York Giants . When the umpire declared the game forfeited after a disagreement with Giants player Fred Merkle , Hogan " ordered the game continued so the fans could see a 9 @-@ inning baseball game " . LeConte added that " Hogan even assumed umpiring duties and the game was then concluded " . The Giants won the game , with a score of 5 – 4 . Reliable information on the Zanesville club 's overall performance is currently unavailable , but an Associated Press report indicated the team had disbanded by late July 1913 .
At Zanesville , Hogan signed future Cleveland Indians pitcher Samuel Pond ( " Sad Sam " ) Jones to his first professional contract . Baseball historian Alexander Edelman noted that Jones gained valuable experience as a member of the Zanesville club ( including a chance to play against the Giants in an exhibition game ) , but he added that the player " was only 20 years old and very homesick " . When Jones was faced with the prospect of a pay cut , he approached Hogan on the street and demanded that he be released from his contract immediately . Edelman wrote : " In what Sam 's son , Paul , would later call ' probably the craziest release in baseball history , ' Hogan obliged , writing Jones ' release in pencil on the inside of a chewing tobacco packet " .
= = = Fond du Lac Molls = = =
On July 20 , 1913 , The New York Times reported that Hogan left Zanesville to manage a Fond du Lac franchise in the Illinois @-@ Wisconsin League . According to the article , he planned to bring with him five players from the defunct Zanesville club . Reliable information on the Fond du Lac Molls ' overall performance is currently unavailable .
In February 1914 , Sporting Life reported that Hogan was considering a return to the Tri @-@ State League . " In a letter to a friend in Lancaster [ Pennsylvania ] the former Lancaster manager stated that the Trenton [ New Jersey ] Club was after him and that there was [ sic ] good prospects of both sides coming to terms " , the paper stated . " Marty is anxious to get back in the Tri @-@ State , where he won fame as a manager " . The paper added that Hogan , at that point , was working as a " successful businessman " in Youngstown , Ohio . The same edition of Sporting Life , however , carried a wire report noting that the Trenton club 's new owner , W. J. Morris , had signed Zeke Wrigley as team manager . The report observed , " Manager Wrigley was strongly recommended to the club by Connie Mack " . ( Wrigley , a former major league infielder , had earlier pursued a position on the Tri @-@ State League 's umpire staff , and he was not initially in the running for the position of Trenton club manager . ) Further research will be required to determine whether Hogan 's career as a minor league manager continued after this point .
= = Personal life = =
Hogan was married to the former Agnes Daugherty on October 28 , 1896 , in St. Columba Church , in Youngstown , Ohio . After a wedding trip , the couple initially settled in Indianapolis . Although Hogan 's obituary makes no reference to children , he and his wife evidently raised an adopted child , Amy M. Hogan ( born Amy Deagon ) , who died at the age of 16 in a 1921 automobile accident . A front @-@ page article in the Vindicator reported that Amy Hogan was one of three passengers in an automobile whose driver had failed to slow down at a curve in the road and skidded into a telephone pole near Hubbard , Ohio . The article noted that Amy Hogan had recently graduated from Ursuline Academy and described her as " a girl of exceptional talents , being especially prominent in local amateur theatricals and entertainments " . Records at Youngstown 's Calvary Cemetery show that Amy Hogan was buried in the same plot as her adoptive parents . Published cemetery records also suggest that Martin Hogan 's wife , Agnes Hogan , gave birth to an unnamed infant , who died on September 6 , 1898 . The infant was buried in a section of the cemetery usually reserved for unbaptized children and the indigent . Agnes ( Hogan ) Moreland died on February 7 , 1950 , in Salem , Ohio .
Throughout his sports career , Hogan 's pastimes included trap shooting . In July 1911 , when he was manager of the Lancaster Red Roses , Sporting Life reported , " Marty shoots targets very well and can be looked to for high scores once he gets a little shooting " . Hogan 's obituary noted that , at some point , he helped to organize the Youngstown Gun Club .
Upon returning to Youngstown , Hogan supervised the athletic training of his youngest nephews , Edward and Raymond Hogan , who became sports stars at Rayen High School . In the early 1920s , Edward Hogan emerged as a track and field standout at the University of Notre Dame , where he trained under coach Knute Rockne .
= = Final years = =
In the mid @-@ 1910s , Hogan permanently resettled in Youngstown , where he became athletic director of Thomas Field , a ballpark owned by the local Brier Hill Industrial Works . Prior to the enforcement of the Volstead Act , he was also employed as a clerk at Buckley & Hogan , a downtown saloon operated by his older brother , Patrick J. Hogan , Jr . , and his business partner , John J. Buckley , Sr. Further research will be required to determine Martin Hogan 's level of involvement , if any , in local baseball during the last decade of his life .
Martin F. Hogan was only 54 years old when he died at his north side home from injuries sustained months earlier in an auto accident . Several blood transfusions failed to revive him , and a bout with pneumonia proved fatal . Funeral services for Hogan were held at St. Columba Church , and he was buried at Youngstown 's Calvary Cemetery . His wife , Agnes , survived him along with his brother , Patrick . A sister , Mrs. John Dillon , had died several years earlier . Hogan 's obituary in The Youngstown Daily Vindicator highlighted his contributions to organized sports , observing that many young athletes he trained and managed went on to careers in major league baseball . Major league players who worked with Hogan during his years as a minor league manager included Roy Castleton , Stan Coveleski , Lee Fohl , Sam Jones , Billy Phyle , and Louis Schettler . His disputed baserunning record remains a curious footnote in American baseball history .
= Teddy Air =
Teddy Air AS was a regional airline , based at Skien Airport , Geiteryggen , in Norway . Operating between 1989 and 2004 , the company operated Britten @-@ Norman Islander , Embraer 110 and Saab 340 aircraft . The company started by providing a scheduled service between Skien and Oslo in 1990 , followed by services to Stavanger in 1993 and Bergen in 1994 . In 1996 , it won a contract with the Ministry of Transport from Oslo to Fagernes . It was involved in intense competition with other regional airlines , notably Coast Air and Guard Air , following the deregulation of the aviation market . It also had a single international service to Gothenburg , and from 1999 it served Stord Airport , Sørstokken . From 1999 , the company was transformed to a virtual airline , which wet leased aircraft from Golden Air . The company ceased operations in 2004 .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
In April 1988 , Norwegian regional airline Norving terminated all scheduled services in Southern Norway . As a consequence , airports such as Skien Airport , Geiteryggen , were left without an airline and services to the capital , Oslo . Teddy Air was subsequently established as a Skien @-@ based company to provide an air route between Skien and Oslo Airport , Fornebu . Founded by Harald Sørensen in 1989 , the largest owners were Skien Business Development Fund and Telemark Business Development Fund . It would provide four round trips with a Britten @-@ Norman Islander . The company stated that it needed 8 @,@ 000 passengers annually to cover costs , with the ticket price set at about 500 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . The fiercest competition would come from the Vestfold Line of the Norwegian State Railways , where a train from Skien to Oslo ran each hour . The three @-@ hour train trip cost NOK 167 , compared to the 25 @-@ minute flight . Concession was granted by the Ministry of Transport and Communications in August 1989 , but the airline did not commence operations until 18 July 1990 .
In Grenland , the metropolitan area surrounding Skien , there was a lot of opposition to the airline , and several local businesspeople claimed that it would be better if Norsk Air was awarded the contract , or Skien Airport was closed and locals instead used the nearby Sandefjord Airport , Torp . Norsk Air stated that it would not be possible for them to make money on the Skien – Oslo route ; despite that , it operated from Skien to Bergen Airport , Flesland and Stavanger Airport , Sola . In 1993 , Norsk Air announced that it would no longer fly from Skien , and would focus all their operations at Sandefjord . Teddy Air subsequently took over the Stavanger route , while the Bergen route was granted to Air Stord , despite Teddy Air having applied for the concession . In 1994 , the company had a revenue of NOK 7 @.@ 5 million , and a NOK 1 million profit .
= = = Expansion = = =
Following the deregulation of the airline market in 1994 , which allowed any European Economic Area @-@ airline to operate any route they wished , Teddy Air tried to start services at Moss Airport , Rygge . Since it at the time was the military @-@ only Rygge Air Station , with no passenger facilities , the airline was not successful in receiving permission . However , it did choose to start competing with Air Stord on the Skien – Bergen route , starting 8 May 1995 . Using its Embraer 110 aircraft , it launched tickets for under NOK 1000 , compared with the NOK 1290 price offered by Air Stord . The latter had aircraft half the size , but offered 31 flights per week , compared to the 16 offered by Teddy Air . In addition , Coast Air launched two weekly round trips . The routes were mainly used by commuters working on offshore oil platforms in the North Sea . By 1995 , 60 percent of the airline had been bought by Hermann Løvenskiold .
In 1996 , the company won the first public service obligation tender that was issued by the Ministry of Transport and Communications . Starting 1 August , Teddy Air started serving Fagernes Airport , Leirin , with routes to Oslo and Bergen . The contract gave a subsidy of NOK 23 @.@ 7 million for three years , and was 15 percent lower than what Coast Air had been receiving . On 20 May 1997 , Teddy Air started its first international route , from Stavanger to Gothenburg in Sweden .
After the 1998 opening of Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , which is located 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) north of Oslo , both Teddy Air and Guard Air announced they would start routes to the new airport . Both established six daily round trips — Teddy Air using an Embraer 110 and Guard Air using a Dornier 228 . The new airport would make driving to the Oslo Airport about an hour longer from Grenland , and both airlines hoped to create a feeder service . Teddy Air withdrew from the route after one month , after having lost more than NOK 1 million .
In February 1999 , Air Stord filed for bankruptcy . On 21 February , Teddy Air launched a route between Stord Airport , Sørstokken , and Oslo , using Saab 340 aircraft . This allowed four daily round trips during the week , and two on Sundays . Other airlines saw the route as attractive , and Coast Air launched eight daily round trips between the two airports . Teddy Air was soon forced to withdraw from the route , after it was unable to make any profits from it . The Fagernes routes were lost from 1 August 1999 , when the contract was won by Widerøe .
= = = Virtual airline = = =
Following the steep decline in routes , the company was reorganized into a virtual airline in 1999 . All operations were taken over by the Swedish airline Golden Air , who would operate the Saab 340 aircraft . At the same time , Golden Air bought half of Teddy Air . In October , Coast Air announced that they had too few aircraft to continue flying from Stord , and would terminate operations . Teddy Air became the only airline to serve Stord . 1999 returned a loss of NOK 6 @.@ 9 million . In 2004 , Teddy Air terminated all services . The contract with Golden Air was discontinued , and the hangar at Geiteryggen was sold . The company remained on paper until 2005 , when the equity was gone and the entity was dissolved .
= = Destinations = =
The following is a list of destinations served by Teddy Air :
= New York State Route 186 =
New York State Route 186 ( NY 186 ) is a short east – west state highway in northern New York in the United States . The highway is located entirely within the town of Harrietstown in the southwest part of Franklin County . The western terminus is at NY 30 and the eastern terminus is at NY 86 . NY 186 lies south of , and serves , the Adirondack Regional Airport . The current alignment of NY 186 was designated in 1989 to follow a former routing of NY 86 .
= = Route description = =
In the west , NY 186 begins at NY 30 in Harrietstown , near the eastern bank of Lake Clear . Known as Lake Clear Road , NY 186 heads east @-@ northeastward , crossing a pair of train tracks and later a creek . Situated within the forested terrain of the Adirondack State Park , the highway passes to the south of , and serves , the Adirondack Regional Airport . South of the airport NY 186 intersects several local roads . The highway turns more towards the northeast upon passing the airport , and proceeds uneventfully . Subsequent to turning towards the east , NY 186 terminates at NY 86 , still within Harrietstown .
= = History = =
The modern routing of NY 186 was originally designated as part of NY 10 when the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 . In the 1930 renumbering , NY 10 was rerouted east of Lake Clear to follow modern NY 30 north to the Canadian border . The former routing of NY 10 between Lake Clear and Harrietstown was incorporated into NY 86 , a new route extending from Lake Clear to Jay . NY 86 remained on this alignment until March 28 , 1989 , when the NY 192 designation was deleted . NY 86 was then rerouted to follow the former routing of NY 192 northwestward to Paul Smiths . The Lake Clear – Harrietstown roadway , vacated by NY 86 , was redesignated as NY 186 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Harrietstown , Franklin County .
= Die Himmel erzählen die Ehre Gottes , BWV 76 =
Die Himmel erzählen die Ehre Gottes ( English : The heavens are telling the glory of God ) , BWV 76 , is a cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the church cantata in Leipzig for the second Sunday after Trinity within the liturgical year and first performed it on 6 June 1723 .
Bach composed the cantata at a decisive turning point in his career . Moving from posts in the service of churches and courts to the town of Leipzig on the first Sunday after Trinity , 30 May 1723 , he began the project of composing a new cantata for every occasion of the liturgical year . He began his first annual cycle of cantatas ambitiously with Die Elenden sollen essen , BWV 75 , in an unusual layout of 14 movements in two symmetrical parts , to be performed before and after the sermon . Die Himmel erzählen die Ehre Gottes has the same structure .
The unknown poet begins his text with a quotation from Psalm 19 and refers to both prescribed readings from the New Testament , the parable of the great banquet as the Gospel , and the First Epistle of John . Bach scored Part I with a trumpet as a symbol of God 's Glory . In Part II , performed after the sermon and during communion , he wrote chamber music with oboe d 'amore and viola da gamba , dealing with " brotherly devotion " . Both parts are closed with a stanza of Martin Luther 's hymn Es woll uns Gott genädig sein ( 1524 ) .
= = Background = =
Johann Sebastian Bach had served in several churches as Kantor and organist , and at the courts of Weimar and Köthen , when he applied for the post of Thomaskantor in Leipzig . He was 38 years old and had a reputation as an organist and organ expert . He had composed church cantatas , notably the funeral cantata Actus tragicus around 1708 . In Weimar , he had begun a project to cover all occasions of the liturgical year by providing one cantata a month for four years , including works such as Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen , BWV 12 , and Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland , BWV 61 .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed the cantata for the Second Sunday after Trinity and first performed it in a service in the Thomaskirche , Leipzig , on 6 June 1723 , a week after he took up position as cantor in Leipzig with Die Elenden sollen essen . The cantata is similar in many respects to the earlier work . While BWV 75 was probably begun in Köthen , this cantata may have been composed in Leipzig , according to a manuscript with many corrections . The two cantatas mark the beginning of Bach 's first " annual cycle " : he started to compose one cantata for each Sunday and holiday of the liturgical year , a project described by Christoph Wolff as " an artistic undertaking on the largest scale " .
The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the First Epistle of John , " Whoever doesn 't love , remains in Death " ( 1 John 3 : 13 – 18 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the parable of the great banquet ( Luke 14 : 16 – 24 ) . The unknown poet was likely the same as for the first cantata for Leipzig , also in 14 movements , also arranged in two symmetrical parts to be performed before and after the sermon . Again the cantata begins with words from a Psalm , Psalms 19 : 1 @,@ 3 ( verses 2 and 4 in the Luther Bible ) , " The heavens declare the glory of God , and the firmament shows His handiwork . There is no speech or language , where their voice is not heard " , connecting the Gospel to the Old Testament . The poet first expands in movements 2 and 3 the thought of the Universe praising God 's creation . In the following two movements he deplores , following the Gospel , that nonetheless people did not follow the invitation of God , therefore he had to invite " von allen Straßen " ( from all streets ) and bless those , as movement 6 says . Part I closes with the first stanza of Martin Luther 's chorale Es woll uns Gott genädig sein ( 1524 ) , a paraphrase of Psalm 67 . Part I was to be performed before the sermon , Part II after the sermon and during communion . Part II talks about the duties of those who follow God 's invitation , to pass the love of Christ in order to achieve heaven on earth , a thought also expressed in the Epistle reading . The third stanza of Luther 's chorale closes the work .
John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage with the Monteverdi Choir in 2000 , evaluated the work , connected to Bach 's first cantata for Leipzig :
this cantata is clearly more than just a sequel to the previous Sunday 's Die Elenden sollen essen ... together they form a diptych revealing a thematic continuity extended over two weeks , with plentiful cross @-@ referencing between the two set Gospels and Epistles beyond the obvious parallels between the injunction to give charitably to the hungry ( BWV 75 ) and of brotherly love manifested in action ( BWV 76 ) .
He described the works as featuring " a characteristically Lutheran interpretation " of the First Epistle of John . He also noted the depth of metaphorical uses of " eating and drinking " , highlighting " the rich man 's table , from which Lazarus tried to gather fallen crumbs ( BWV 75 ) , standing in opposition to the " great supper " and God 's invitation through Christ to the banquet of eternal life ( BWV 76 ) " . Summarising both pieces , Gardiner wrote :
evidently a lot of thought and pre @-@ planning had gone on while Bach was still in Köthen , as well as discussions with his unknown librettist and possibly with representatives of the Leipzig clergy , before he could set the style , tone and narrative shaping of these two impressive works .
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata is structured in two parts of seven movements each , to be performed before and after the sermon . It is scored for four vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir SATB , trumpet ( Tr ) , two oboes ( Ob ) , oboe d 'amore ( Oa ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , viola da gamba ( Vg ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) . The two parts of seven movements each are composed as the same arrangement of alternating recitatives and arias with a concluding chorale , only Part II is opened by a sinfonia instead of a chorus . The duration is given as 35 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings , while the continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
Similar to the opening chorus of BWV 75 , Bach sets the psalm in two sections , comparable to a prelude and fugue on a large scale . An instrumental concerto unites the complete " prelude " , the trumpet " calls " to tell the glory of God . The fugue in C major is a permutation fugue , which develops the subject twice , starting with the voices , up to a triumphal entrance of the trumpet , similar in development to the first chorus of Wir danken dir , Gott , wir danken dir , BWV 29 , composed much later and used twice in the Mass in B minor . Joseph Haydn later set the same words , also in C major , in his oratorio The Creation .
In the first recitative the strings accompany the voice , most keenly in motifs in the arioso middle section , in Gardiner 's words " to evoke the spirit of God moving upon the face of the waters " . Trumpet and bass voice are used to convey the call " to banish the tribe of idolaters " , while the strings possibly illustrate " the hordes of infidels " . The last recitative leads in an arioso to the chorale . In the chorale , Bach has the violin play an obbligato part to the four @-@ part setting of the voices and separates the lines by interludes , with the trumpet anticipating the line to follow . The continuo plays ostinato a motif which is derived from the first line of the chorale .
Whereas Part I begins with a trumpet announcing ( " erzählen " ) God 's glory , Part II starts on an intimate chamber music scale with oboe d 'amore and viola da gamba , concentrating on " brotherly devotion " ( brüderliche Treue ) . A sinfonia in E minor for these two instruments is reminiscent both of Bach 's compositions for the court in Köthen and of a French overture , marked " adagio " , then " vivace " . Bach used the music of this movement later in his organ trio , BWV 528 . Gardiner calls the movement " in effect a sonata da chiesa " . The tenor aria illustrates the " masochistic " " Hate me , then , hate me with all your might , o hostile race ! " by a first dissonant entry on an ostinato bass line full of chromatic , leaps and interrupting rests . Oboe d 'amore and viola da gamba return to accompany the last aria , and " the sombre qualities of both voice and instruments create a feeling of peace and introspection " . The music of the closing chorale is identical to that of Part I.
= = Selected recordings = =
The sortable listing is taken from the selection provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . The type of choir and orchestra is roughly shown as a large group by red background , and as an ensemble with period instruments in historically informed performance by green background .
= Oslo Metro =
The Oslo Metro ( Norwegian : Oslo T @-@ bane or Oslo Tunnelbane or simply T @-@ banen ) is the rapid transit system of Oslo , Norway , operated by Sporveien T @-@ banen on contract from the transit authority Ruter . The network consists of five lines that all run through the city centre , with a total length of 85 kilometres ( 53 mi ) , serving 101 stations of which 17 are underground or indoors . In addition to serving 14 out of the 15 boroughs of Oslo ( all except St. Hanshaugen ) , two lines run to Bærum . In 2015 , the system had an annual ridership of 94 @.@ 4 million .
The first rapid transit line , the Holmenkoll Line , opened in 1898 , with the branch Røa Line opening in 1912 . It became the first Nordic underground railway in 1928 when the underground line to Nationaltheatret was opened . The Sognsvann Line opened in 1934 and the Kolsås Line in 1942 . The opening of the upgraded T @-@ bane system on the east side of town occurred in 1966 , after the conversion of the 1957 Østensjø Line , followed by the new Lambertseter Line , the Grorud Line and the Furuset Line ; in 1993 trains ran under the city between the two networks in the Common Tunnel , followed by the 2006 opening of the Ring Line . All the trains are operated with MX3000 stock . These replaced the older T1000 stock between 2006 and 2010 .
= = History = =
= = = Suburban lines in the west = = =
Rail transport in Oslo started in 1854 , with the opening of Hoved Line to Eidsvoll , through Groruddalen . In 1872 , Drammen Line , going through Oslo West , and in 1879 , Østfold Line going through Nordstrand opened , offering a limited rail service to those parts of the city . By 1875 , Kristiania Sporveisselskab ( KSS ) opened the first horsecar trams . In 1894 electric trams were in service by Kristiania Elektriske Sporvei ( KES ) .
The first suburban tram line was the Holmenkoll Line that was opened by Holmenkolbanen in 1898 ; like all the later suburban tram line these were electric trams with a grade @-@ separated right @-@ of @-@ way and proper stations instead of tram stops , making it the first rapid transit in Oslo . Unlike the other suburban tram lines that were built later , the Holmenkollen Line was not extended into the city as a streetcar — instead passengers had to change at Majorstuen to the streetcars , though the system did not take into use wider suburban stock ( 3 @.@ 1 metres ( 10 ft ) ) until 1909 . A branch line was opened in 1912 , to Smestad , and in 1916 the Holmenkollen Line was extended to Tryvann , with the last part from Frognerseteren single track and used for freight , and removed in 1939 .
In 1912 , the construction of the first underground railway in the Nordic Countries started , when A / S Holmenkolbanen started construction of an extension of their line from Majorstuen to Nationaltheatret ; the 2 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) line was opened in 1928 ( and was then only the second underground railway to be opened in the Nordic countries after Boulevardtunnlen in Copenhagen which opened in July 1918 ) , with one intermediate station at Valkyrie Plass , giving the two suburban lines access to the central business district of Oslo .
The success of the suburban lines tempted KES to extend their streetcar service west from Skøyen as a suburban line ; the Lilleaker Line opened to Lilleaker in 1919 , to Avløs in 1924 and to Kolsås in 1930 . A new section from Jar to Sørbyhaugen opened in 1942 , connecting the line from Jar to Kolsås to Nationaltheatret , and making it a rapid transit and the replacement of stock with wide suburban standard . This service remained part of the municipal Oslo Sporveier , that had bough all the streetcar companies in 1924 .
Compensation for large amounts of damage to houses along the route during construction , along with higher construction costs than calculated was a heavy burden on the company , and in 1934 , the municipality of Aker took over the common stock , though the preferred stock remained listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange until 1975 , as Oslo Sporveier gradually took over the operation of the western suburban lines . Akersbanerne opened the connecting Sognsvann Line in 1934 .
= = = Metro = = =
The first idea to launch a city @-@ wide rapid transit was launched in 1912 with the construction of the Ekeberg Line ; constructed with the same width profile as the Holmenkollen Line , the plan was to build a tunnel under the city center and run through trains , but large cost expenditures on the first section of the Common Tunnel ceased the plans . As part of the rebuilding after World War II a planning office for a T @-@ bane was established in 1949 , with the first plans launched in 1951 ; in 1954 , the city council decided to build the T @-@ bane network in Eastern Oslo with four branches . The system would feature improvements over the suburban lines in having a third rail power supply , cab signaling with Automatic Train Protection , stations long enough for six @-@ car trains and level crossings replaced by bridges and underpasses — specifications christened metro standard .
At the time there were two suburban tramways on the east side , the Ekeberg Line ( opened in 1919 ) and the Østensjø Line ( 1923 ) . Only the latter would be connected to the T @-@ bane ; the Ekeberg Line would remain a tramway , but three new lines were to be built — the Grorud Line on the north side and the Furuset Line on the south side of Groruddalen and the Lambertseter Line on the east of Nordstrand . These areas were all chosen as new suburbs for Oslo , and would quickly need a good public transport system ; suburban lines would first be built out extending from the existing tramway , and later a final section with tunnel to the central station would be built . The Lambertseter Line was opened in 1957 , from Brynseng to Bergkrystallen while the Østensjø Line was extended to Bøler in 1958 .
The metro opened on 22 May 1966 , when the Common Tunnel opened from Brynseng to the new downtown station of Jernbanetorget , located beside the Oslo East Railway Station . In October the Grorud Line opened to Grorud while the Østensjø Line was connected to the system in 1967 when the line also was extended to Skullerud . In 1970 , the Furuset Line opened to Haugerud and extended to Trosterud in 1974 , at the same time as the Grorud Line was extended to Vestli . By 1981 , the Furuset Line had reached Ellingsrudåsen . The metro took delivery of T1000 rolling stock from Strømmens Værksted ; from 1964 to 1978 , 162 cars in three @-@ car configurations were delivered for the eastern network .
= = = One tunnel = = =
The eastern network was extended from Jernbanetorget to Sentrum in 1977 . This station was forced to close in 1983 , due to water leakage , and when it opened again in 1987 , renamed Stortinget , the west network tunnel had also been extended there . Through services were not possible at the time because of incompatibility of signaling and power equipment . Not until 1993 did the first trains run through the station , after the Sognsvann Line had been rebuilt to " metro standard " ; the Røa Line followed in 1995 . The Holmenkoll and Kolsås Lines remained non @-@ metro , using dual mode trains that switch to overhead lines at Frøen and Montebello . The western network took delivery of 33 T1300 cars in 1978 – 81 , with an additional 16 converted from T1000 . In 1994 twelve T2000 cars were delivered for the Holmenkollen Line .
In 2003 the Ring Line opened , connecting Ullevål stadion to Storo . The following year , construction work caused a tunnel to collapse on the Grorud Line — the system 's busiest — forcing a shutdown of the line until December , and creating a havoc of overcrowded replacement buses . In 2006 the ring was completed , to Carl Berners plass . At the same time the Kolsås Line was closed for upgrade to metro standard . In 2003 the section of the Kolsås Line in Bærum closed due to budget disagreements between the two counties ; after a year of unpopular replacement buses , the line was reopened , only to close again in 2006 for upgrade to metro standard . Disagreements between the two counties means the upgrade will be done separately on the two sides of the municipal boundary , with the Oslo side opening first . In 2006 the replacement of existing rolling stock with new MX3000 units commenced . The history of the metro and public transport in Oslo is celebrated at the Oslo Tramway Museum in Majorstuen .
= = Network = =
The current route network was introduced on 3 April 2016 , with the opening of the connection tunnel from Økern to Sinsen and the new Løren station .
The Oslo Metro operates in all fifteen boroughs of Oslo , as well as reaching a bit inside the neighbouring municipality of Bærum . There are five lines , numbered 1 through 5 , each color @-@ coded . They all pass through the Common Tunnel , serving eight branch lines . In addition two lines operate to the Ring Line . Two branches are served by two lines each : the Grorud branch is served by both lines 4 and 5 , while the Lambertseter branch has full @-@ time service by line 4 and limited service by line 1 .
The Grorud and Furuset Line head northeast into Groruddalen , while the other two eastern branches head south into Nordstrand . On the west side , the Holmenkoll and Sognsvann Line cover the northern boroughs of Oslo , along with the Ring Line that connects the northeastern and northwestern parts of town . The Kolsås and Røa Line reach deep into the neighbouring municipality of Bærum . All the lines run through the Common Tunnel before reaching out to different lines , or into the Ring . All lines have a base service of four trains per hour while line 2 and the eastern section of line 3 have eight trains per hour weekdays 7 @-@ 19 . The eastern section of line 2 also has eight trains per hour Saturdays 10 @-@ 19 . A reduced half @-@ hourly service operates on all lines during early weekend mornings . Trains run from about 05 : 00 ( 06 : 00 at weekends ) to 01 : 00 the next morning .
= = = Lines = = =
= = = = Line 1 = = = =
= = = = Line 2 = = = =
= = = = Line 3 = = = =
= = = = Line 4 = = = =
= = = = Line 5 = = = =
= = = Stations = = =
The system consists of 101 stations , of which 17 are underground or indoors . The only underground station on the pre @-@ metro western network was Nationaltheatret , and most of the underground station are in the common tunnel under the city center , or in shorter tunnel sections on the eastern network ; in particular the Furuset Line runs mainly underground , with all but Haugerud built in or at the opening of a tunnel .
Stations in the city center are located close to large employment centers as well as connection possibilities to other modes of transport , such as tram , rail and bus . All stations can be identified at ground level by signs with a blue T in a circle . Stations outside the center are unmanned since the 1995 , with ticket machines for fare purchase ; some stations feature kiosks . A system of turnstiles have been installed , but will never be activated due to security issues . All stations have step @-@ free accessibility through at least one entrance ( except the inbound platform at Frøen ) , and the platform height is aligned with the train cars .
= = = Intermodality = = =
The metro is integrated into the public transport system of Oslo and Akershus through the agency Ruter , allowing tickets to also be valid on the Oslo Tramway , city buses , ferries , and the Oslo Commuter Rail operated by Norwegian State Railways . A new , wireless ticketing system , Reisekort , has in the recent years been implemented . From 31 January 2016 a single ticket for one zone ( the entire metro system is in zone 1 ) cost NOK 32 for adults ( NOK 50 if purchased onboard ) , for 30 @-@ day ticket , it costs NOK 690 for adults . This includes all means of public transport within the zone where the ticket is first activated ( again , for the metro , zone 1 ) . There is a fine of NOK 950 , or NOK 1150 , for not having a valid ticket , depending on if the fine is paid on location or not .
Oslo maintains a street tram system with six lines , of which two are suburban lines . The street trams operate mostly within the borders of the Ring Line , providing a frequent service in the city centre , with lower average speeds but with more stops . There are major transfer points to the tramway at Majorstuen , Jernbanetorget , Jar , Storo and Forskningsparken .
The commuter train serves suburbs further away from Oslo , though some of the commuter rail services remind of a rapid transit service , in particular line 400 and line 500 , to Lillestrøm , Asker and Ski , with higher service frequency through the continual populated area of Oslo . Transfer to railway services is available at Jernbanetorget ( to Oslo S ) and Nationaltheatret , the latter with a considerably shorter walk .
Bus services are provided to numerous stations . Most bus services provide feeding to the metro system where possible , and then do not continue into town . However , since the metro operates solely into town , instead of across it , many buses operate between stations on different lines , or provide alternative routes across town .
= = Future expansion = =
Between 2006 and 2014 the Kolsås Line was upgraded to metro standard .
As part of the political compromise Oslo Package 3 a number of changes have been proposed for the Oslo Metro.Expansion of the Furuset Line to Lørenskog with stations at Skårer , Lørenskog Centre and a new terminus at Akershus University Hospital , with travel time to Jernbanetorget of 27 minutes .
The frequency on the eastern lines will be increased . Grorudbanen , Lambertseterbanen , Østensjøbanen and Furusetbanen will get eight departures per hour , with half ( B @-@ routes ) terminating at Majorstuen for Lambertseterbanen and Furusetbanen . This will reduce the capacity in the Common Tunnel .
The construction of the Løren Line will connect the Ring Line with the Grorud Line , allowing trains to run from Grorudbanen directly to the Ring . In addition a new station at Løren would be built . This will not increase the load on the Common Tunnel since it is an extension of the current line that terminates at Storo , and will also make way for eight departures per hour on the Østens
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incentive for newcomers to settle in what was otherwise a desolate wilderness . Gore instructed deputy surveyor Mahlon Burwell to " Build a road one chain wide , laid out on the principle of Yonge Street with lots on each side . " Burwell began this work in 1809 westward from Delhi . In 1811 , he was tasked with surveying the West Talbot Road from Talbotville Royale to Amherstburg . By then , a road was already opened between Port Talbot and Talbotville Royale .
Construction of the new road proved far more difficult than first imagined . Workers followed an old Native American trail , wholly consumed by nature , between Delhi and Port Talbot . To get across the numerous swamps , felled trees were laid across the path to create a corduroy road , much to the chagrin of settlers . The outbreak of the War of 1812 would temporarily halt further construction . When it resumed in 1816 , Talbot himself began directing the surveyor , ordering that the road remain on the highest ground possible . This led to an irregular and winding route between Aylmer and Delhi . By 1830 , the corduroy logs had been removed and the road improved and extended from Amherstburg to Canborough .
= = = Niagara trails = = =
East of Canborough , Highway 3 follows several early settlement trails : Forks Road between Dunnville and Chambers Corners , Sherk 's Road through Port Colborne to Gasline , and the military Garrison Road through Fort Erie . These roads predate the land survey grid of concession roads and sidelines , which would be used by the provincial government to make Highway 3 a continuous route through the Niagara Peninsula where none previously existed .
Forks Road , a river road following Forks Creek , served to connect the Grand River at Dunnville with the Welland River west of Welland . Like many early roads in Upper Canada , it was built along a river bank . It can therefore be assumed that this trail was built prior to the completion of the Feeder Canal in 1832 . Sherk 's Road was built at the request of Elias Sherk ( d . 1893 ) in 1858 to connect his house ( the historic Danner House ) with his and Michael Gondor 's properties . The irregular road connected the Welland Canal at Humberstone ( now Port Colborne ) to the community of Ridgeway , where it met the west end of the Garrison Road . That road was built due to the threat of American attack to provide quick access from Fort Erie , and , like other military roads in Upper Canada ( e.g. Dundas Street or Yonge Street ) , it travelled in a straight line , in this case parallel to the Lake Erie shoreline .
= = = Provincial Highway Network = = =
Until 1918 , the majority of the primary roads through southern Ontario formed part of the County Road System . The Department of Public Works and Highways paid up to 60 % of the construction and maintenance costs for these roads , while the counties were responsible for the remaining 40 % . In 1919 , the federal government passed the Canada Highways Act , which provided $ 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to provinces under the condition that they establish an official highway network ; up to 40 % of construction costs would be subsidized . The first network plan was approved on February 26 , 1920 , and included the Talbot Road . The majority of what would soon become Highway 3 was designated several months later in August . However , it would not receive a route number until the summer of 1925 .
Four significant changes to Highway 3 have taken place since the designation of the route in 1920 . The first was an adjustment to the eastern terminus . The second was the Essex Bypass , built through the 1970s between Windsor and Leamington . The third was the St. Thomas Expressway , a super two highway built in the late 1970s . The final change was the provincial highway transfers conducted in 1997 and 1998 that resulted in three segments of Highway 3 being decommissioned : between Leamington and Talbotville Royale , through Port Colborne and within Fort Erie .
Highway 3 originally ended at the Honeymoon Bridge in Niagara Falls ; it continued east of Chambers Corners along Forks Road ( Regional Road 23 ) rather than south through Wainfleet as it does today . It then travelled north through Welland and east along Lundys Lane . Highway 58 and Highway 20 would later follow portions of this route . As part of the " spirit of cooperation " that inundated Canada and the US following World War I , as well as to celebrate a century of peace , a new bridge was planned between Fort Erie and Buffalo alongside the international railway crossing . Construction began in 1925 ; the completed bridge opened to traffic on June 1 , 1927 . Two months later , on August 7 , the bridge was formally dedicated as the Peace Bridge by US Vice President Charles Dawes , and Edward , Prince of Wales .
Traffic patterns quickly shifted to take advantage of the new crossing and the bypass of Niagara Falls that it provided . In foresight of this , the Department of Public Highways took control of a Welland County road between Chambers Corners and Fort Erie on May 11 , 1927 . This roadway , which followed a significant portion of Sherk 's Road and the Garrison Road , in addition to a concession road built west from Port Colborne and north through Wainfleet village , was designated as Highway 3A . The following year it was surfaced with concrete and a new bridge built over the Welland Canal in Port Colborne . The new route became so popular that in 1929 the Highway 3 and Highway 3A designations were swapped .
In the early 1970s , as part of a review to determine the future route of Highway 406 south of Welland , proposals arose for a bypass of Highway 3 from east of Dunnville to Port Colborne near Highway 58 .
= = = Essex Bypass and St. Thomas Expressway = = =
The Essex Bypass was opened in stages in the 1970s and early 1980s . Plans were completed in 1968 as part of a province @-@ wide program to bypass small towns on busy provincial highways . The first stage , opened by 1972 , began west of Maidstone and passed south of Essex , where it then routed along Malden Road to its former alignment ( now Essex County Road 34 ) . Construction of an eastward extension to Ruthven was underway by 1982 , and completed in 1983 , with the road following Union Road to the old alignment . Construction of a final extension , from Union Road north of Ruthven to past Highway 77 on the northern fringe of Leamington , was underway in late 1998 ; it opened in early December 1999 . Although the Leamington Bypass was constructed by the Ministry of Transportation ( MTO ) , the 1 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 68 mi ) segment east of Highway 77 to County Road 34 ( Talbot Road ) was never a part of Highway 3 or the provincial highway network . It is signed as Essex County Road 33 , as Leamington is planning to link the discontinuous segments of County Road 33 with the East Side Arterial Road .
The St. Thomas expressway was built along the northern edge of that city beginning in 1974 . It features six overpasses and a single interchange , at First Avenue . A ribbon cutting ceremony was held on September 7 , 1981 to officially open the new route , which bypassed the former Highway 3 alignment along Talbot Street and the short concurrency with Highway 4 ( Sunset Drive ) . The bypass cost C $ 16 @.@ 5 million to construct , and features a two @-@ lane roadway with allotted space on the north side for a second two @-@ lane roadway . Plans originally called for the expressway to extend further east to New Sarum and later even as far as Aylmer , but these have never materialized .
= = = Downloads and changes since = = =
Aside from the Essex Bypass and St. Thomas Expressway , Highway 3 remained generally unchanged between the 1930s and late 1990s . However , budget constraints brought on by a recession in the 1990s resulted in the Mike Harris provincial government forming the Who Does What ? committee to determine cost @-@ cutting measures in order to balance the budget after a deficit incurred by former premier Bob Rae . It was determined that many Ontario highways no longer served long @-@ distance traffic movement and should therefore be maintained by local or regional levels of government . The MTO consequently transferred many highways to lower levels of government in 1997 and 1998 , removing a significant percentage of the provincial highway network .
Despite once serving as one of the principal highways through southwestern Ontario , Highway 3 had been largely supplanted by Highway 401 , the QEW and later Highway 403 as a through @-@ route . As a result , portions of the route through the Regional Municipality of Niagara were transferred to the region on April 1 , 1997 , including a 3 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) segment through Port Colborne ( most of which had existed as a Connecting Link ) and a 5 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) segment in Fort Erie . To the west , a segment of the route paralleling Highway 401 between Leamington and Talbotville Royal was decommissioned on January 1 , 1998 and transferred to Essex County , Chatham – Kent and Elgin County . It has since been designated as Essex County Road 34 , Chatham – Kent Road 3 and Elgin County Road 3 .
In 2001 , the MTO considered renumbering the western segment of Highway 3 as Highway 103 to avoid confusion . However , this never came to pass .
= = Future = =
At the western end of Highway 3 , two major traffic concerns have been the focus of controversy since the mid @-@ 1990s and early 2000s : the Essex Bypass and the approach to the Ambassador Bridge . Numerous attempts by local and provincial politicians since then have led the MTO to begin remedying the situation by upgrading the bypass to a divided four lane road and constructing the Windsor – Essex Parkway to a new international crossing .
The Essex Bypass , completed around the village of Essex in 1972 , was designed to accommodate future widening to a divided four lane road when traffic volumes warranted . By the mid @-@ 1990s , a regular pattern of fatalities were occurring , prompting local politicians and Essex Member of Provincial Parliament ( MPP ) Bruce Crozier to lobby the MTO widen the route . It was announced in June 2006 that the entire 33 kilometres ( 21 mi ) bypass would be widened to four lanes with a grassy median separating the opposing flows of traffic . The three phase project began in September 2007 with a 6 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) stretch between Maidstone and County Road 8 west of Essex . The four @-@ laned highway opened in June 2009 at a cost of C $ 20 @.@ 7 million . The C $ 22 @.@ 1 million second phase involved widening the highway between Walker Road and Maidstone to a five lane cross @-@ section , and began in mid @-@ November 2009 . It was completed in early 2012 . Despite concerns raised by Crozier in 2006 that the project would be halted after the first phase , which were dismissed at the time , no further work has actually been completed on the Essex Bypass since 2012 , and the section between Essex and Ruthven remains a two lane highway . It is still considered as a future project by the MTO , with no time line set . Three months after Crozier 's unexpected death on June 3 , 2011 , the entire Essex Bypass was renamed the Bruce Crozier Way in honour of his commitment to the widening of the highway .
In 2004 , a joint announcement by the federal government of the United States and Government of Canada confirmed that a new border crossing would be constructed between Detroit and Windsor . The Detroit River International Crossing ( DRIC ) was formed as a bi @-@ national committee to manage the project . The MTO took advantage of this opportunity to extend Highway 401 to the international border and began an environmental assessment on the entire project in late 2005 . The new parkway will be below @-@ grade and have six through @-@ lanes . It will follow ( but not replace ) Talbot Road and Huron Church Road from a new interchange at the current end of Highway 401 to the E. C. Row Expressway , where it will run concurrently westward for 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) . From there , it will turn northwest and follow a new alignment to the border . Initial construction of a noise barrier from North Talbot Road to Howard Avenue began in March 2010 . Full construction began on August 19 , 2011 , with an expected completion date of mid @-@ 2015 for the first phase and 2015 @-@ 16 for the remainder of the parkway . In early 2015 , it was announced that the parkway would open to traffic between Highway 3 and Labelle Street ( near the E.C. Row Expressway ) in the spring .
Work is ongoing in Cayuga to install a new crossing over the Grand River , replacing the five @-@ span steel structure that previously served traffic since 1924 . The new concrete structure was opened to traffic on June 20 , 2014 , and the former structure was demolished after that . On November 4 and December 4 of that year , construction on the bridge was halted by the Haudenosaunee Confederacy Chiefs Council on the claim that the structure impeded on land reserved for a towpath along the Grand River by the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation . The remaining work includes a scheduled three @-@ day closure during which the new bridge will be jacked 5 metres ( 16 ft ) north to align with the former structure , as well as decorative work . Work is scheduled for completion in the autumn of 2015 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 3 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= Background of the Winter War =
The background of the Winter War covers the period before the outbreak of the Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union in 1939 – 1940 , stretching from Finland 's Declaration of Independence in 1917 to the Soviet @-@ Finnish negotiations in 1938 – 1939 . Before its independence , Finland was an autonomous grand duchy inside Imperial Russia . During the ensuing Finnish Civil War , the Red Guards , supported by the Russian Bolsheviks , were defeated . Fearful of Soviet designs , during the 1920s and 1930s , the Finns were constantly attempting to align themselves with Scandinavian neutrality , particularly with regard to Sweden . Furthermore , the Finns engaged in secret military co @-@ operation with Estonia in the 1930s .
While during the late 1920s and early 1930s relations with the Soviet Union became normalized to a degree , from 1938 on , the Soviets , anxious that Finland could be used as a springboard for an invasion , started negotiations to conclude a military agreement . At the same time , Soviet leader Joseph Stalin 's desire to recover the territories of Tsarist Russia lost during the chaos of the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War made Finland an obvious target . Due to the nature of Soviet demands , which included the installation of Soviet military facilities on Finnish soil , these negotiations went nowhere .
In August 1939 , the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , in which Eastern European countries were divided into spheres of interest ; Finland belonged to the Soviet sphere of interest . In October 1939 , Stalin gained control of the Baltic states and turned his sights on Finland , confident that control could be gained without great effort . The Soviet Union demanded territories on the Karelian Isthmus , the islands of the Gulf of Finland and a military base near the Finnish capital Helsinki , similar to the demands presented in the previous years . The Finns again refused , and the Red Army attacked on 30 November 1939 . Simultaneously , Stalin set up a puppet government for the Finnish Democratic Republic , headed by the Finnish communist Otto Wille Kuusinen .
= = Finnish politics before the war = =
= = = First steps of the Republic = = =
Finland had been the eastern part of the Swedish kingdom for centuries until 1809 , during the Napoleonic Wars , when Imperial Russia conquered and converted it into an autonomous buffer state within the Russian Empire to protect Saint Petersburg , the imperial capital . Finland enjoyed wide autonomy and its own Senate until the turn of the century , when Russia began attempts to assimilate Finland as part of a general policy to strengthen central government and unify the Empire by Russification . These attempts ruined relations and increased the support of Finnish movements vying for self @-@ government .
The outbreak of the First World War gave Finland a window of opportunity to achieve this . The Finns sought aid from both the German Empire and the Bolsheviks to that end , and on 6 December 1917 , the Senate of Finland declared the country 's independence . The new Bolshevik Russian government was weak , and soon the Russian Civil War would break out . Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin could spare no troops or attention for Finland , and consequently , Soviet Russia recognized the new Finnish government just three weeks after the declaration of independence . In 1918 , the Finns fought a short civil war , where the pro @-@ Bolshevik Red Guards were armed by 7 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 Russian troops stationed in Finland .
After the First World War , an inter @-@ governmental organization , the League of Nations was founded . The League 's goals included preventing war through collective security and settling disputes between countries through negotiation and diplomacy . Finland joined the League in 1920 .
In 1920s and 1930s Finland was politically diverse . The Communist Party of Finland was declared illegal in 1931 , and the far @-@ right Patriotic People 's Movement ( IKL ) had a minor presentation of fourteen seats in the 200 @-@ seat parliament . The middle ground , occupied by Conservatives , Liberals , Agrarians and Swedish People 's Party , tended to cluster with the Social Democratic Party , whose leader , Väinö Tanner , was a strong proponent of the parliamentary system . By the late 1930s the Finnish export @-@ oriented economy was growing , the country had almost solved its " right @-@ wing problem " and Finland was preparing for the 1940 Summer Olympics .
= = = Finnish – German relations = = =
During the closing stages of World War I , German @-@ trained Finnish Jäger troops played a key role in the Finnish Civil War , while the German Baltic Sea Division also intervened late in the civil war . Jäger troops were volunteers from German @-@ influenced circles , such as university students . This participation in the Finnish struggle for independence created close ties with Germany , but after the German defeat in the World War , Scandinavian relations became more important and the main goal of the Finnish foreign policy .
Finnish @-@ German relations cooled after the National Socialists rose to power in 1933 — Finns admired Imperial Germany , not the radical and anti @-@ democratic Nazi regime . Finnish conservatives did not accept the state violence and anti @-@ church policies of the Nazis . Still , there was sympathy for German aims to revise the Treaty of Versailles , although the official Finnish policy was reserved , especially after the German occupation of Czechoslovakia . Finland even recalled its ambassador for a short period . Finnish Nazis and ultranationalist parties such as the IKL achieved only minor support in several elections , especially in the aftermath of the failed Mäntsälä rebellion in 1932 .
= = = Finnish – Swedish co @-@ operation = = =
After the 1917 Finnish independence and the Civil War , the other Scandinavian countries would have been the best candidates for a political alliance . Swedo @-@ Finnish cooperation represented a rich vein of shared history in the culture of both nations , and the Swedish @-@ speaking Finns had a common language with Swedes . During the Civil War , however , Sweden briefly occupied the Åland Islands and later supported the local movement that wanted to secede from Finland and join the islands to Sweden . The dispute was resolved by the League of Nations in 1921 and the Åland remained Finnish , but were granted autonomy . Other obstacles to closer relations were the ongoing language strife on the status of the Swedish language in Finland . Sweden had also opposed the upper @-@ class resistance movement against Russification . As a result , young Finnish men received their military training in Germany , generating the Jäger Movement . Nevertheless , Finnish – Swedish relations improved considerably before the Winter War .
Finland sought security guarantees from the League of Nations , but did not have high expectations . Sweden was one of the founding members of the League , and consequently framed its military policies based on the League 's principles of disarmament and sanctions . In the mid @-@ 1920s the Finns established a special planning committee , called the Committee of Erich after its chairman Rafael Erich , which consisted of top politicians and officers , with the aim of exploring a possible military collaboration of Finland with other nations . The prime goal was co @-@ operation with the Scandinavian countries , amongst which Sweden was the most important prospective partner .
The Finnish and Swedish militaries engaged in wide @-@ ranging co @-@ operation , but it was more focused on the exchange of information and defence planning for the Åland islands than on military exercises or materiel . The Finnish objective was to commit the Swedes by establishing a military @-@ political joint venture in the Åland : if the Swedes would undertake to assist Finland in fortifying the islands , then an important and useful precedent might be set . The Government of Sweden was aware of the military co @-@ operation , but carefully avoided committing itself to Finnish foreign policy .
= = = Secret military co @-@ operation with Estonia = = =
Finnish – Estonian relations were closest diplomatically after the Estonian Freedom War in the 1920s , but cooled afterwards . Military relations however remained close . From the Finnish point of view , the close relations with Estonia did not exclude the Scandinavian neutrality policy . Nevertheless , the military relations were top secret , and the countries held joint military exercises . The central aim was to prevent the Soviet Baltic Fleet from freely using its strength in the Gulf of Finland against either country . Estonia also sought public security guarantees and signed the Baltic Entente in 1934 with Latvia and Lithuania .
= = = Relations with the United Kingdom and France = = =
After the collapse of Imperial Germany in November 1918 , the Finns sought new political partners . The United Kingdom had been a significant trading partner since the 18th century , and the Finns worked to improve the relations for the next two decades . In the 1930s Finland purchased Thornycroft torpedo boats from the United Kingdom , and also refrained from buying bomber aircraft from Germany because of British protests , purchasing instead modern Bristol Blenheims , which later served successfully during the Winter War .
Relations with France were important after World War I and in the 1920s , as France played a leading role in the new European security arrangements . In the 1930s France started to fear the rise of Nazi Germany and initiated a rapprochement with the Soviet Union , which strained Franco @-@ Finnish relations . However , during the Winter War France was one of the most important suppliers of military materiel .
= = = Finnish defence plans = = =
The Finnish Defence Forces ' military operation plan against the Soviet Union was named Venäjän keskitys ( " Russian Concentration " ; VK ) in the 1920s . In the latest 1934 plan , the Finns saw two possible scenarios . In the VK1 scenario , the Soviets would mobilize all along their western border , and would deploy only limited forces against Finland . In this case the Finns would make counterattacks across the border . The VK2 scenario envisaged a much more unfavourable situation for the Finns . The main defense line would be on the Karelian Isthmus , the Finnish forces would repel Soviet attacks in favourable positions , and destroy the enemy by counterattacks . In the Winter War , the VK2 scenario was flexible and its basis proved correct , but the Finnish General staff badly underestimated the numerical superiority of the Red Army .
Finland had a limited defence budget after its independence and especially in the 1930s . Consequently , the Finnish Defence Forces were lacking military materiel in almost all branches . Much of the military 's materiel was outdated , and even proved unsuitable for the field during the Winter War . During the Winter War the material situation improved , but it still lagged behind the more modern and well @-@ equipped Red Army .
= = Soviet – Finnish relations = =
= = = Diplomatic relations = = =
The relationship between the Soviet Union and Finland had been tense — a legacy of the two periods of forced Russification at the turn of the century and the failed Soviet @-@ backed socialist rebellion in Finland , as well as incursions by groups of Finnish nationalists — the Viena expedition in 1918 and the Aunus expedition of 1919 — into Russian East Karelia .
On 14 October 1920 , Finland and Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Tartu , confirming the new Finnish @-@ Soviet border as the old border between the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland and Imperial Russia proper . In addition , Finland received Petsamo , with its ice @-@ free harbour on the Arctic Ocean . The treaty did not prevent the Finnish government from allowing volunteers to cross the border to support the East @-@ Karelian Uprising in 1921 however , nor expatriate Finnish communists from causing disturbances in Finland . In 1923 both countries signed the Border Peace Agreement , which normalized the border .
In 1928 , the Soviet Union began collectivization in Ingria . During the collectivization and ethnic cleansing , the Soviets captured , killed and deported Ingrian peasants , provoking widespread criticism by the Finnish media in 1930 . Two years later , the nationalist Lapua Movement unsuccessfully attempted to overthrow the Finnish government in the Mäntsälä rebellion .
Nevertheless , during the 1930s , the diplomatic climate between Finland and the Soviet Union gradually improved . From the 1920s , the Soviet Union had offered different non @-@ aggression pacts with Finland but they were all rejected . Now the offer was renewed as part of a series of agreements with the countries on the Soviet Union 's western border . In 1932 , the Soviet Union signed a non @-@ aggression pact with Finland , re @-@ affirmed in 1934 for ten years .
Relations between the two countries remained largely de minimis however . While foreign trade in Finland was booming , less than one percent of it was with the Soviet Union . In 1934 , the Soviet Union joined the League of Nations , and later accepted other " progressive forces " beside Communist parties . This change in Soviet attitudes , as well as internal politics in Finland , enabled a short thaw in relations in 1937 .
= = = Stalin and the protection of Leningrad = = =
After the Russian civil war , Joseph Stalin was disappointed at the Soviet Union 's inability to foment a successful revolution in Finland , and furthermore , the Bolsheviks struggle with national sentiments inside the Soviet Union . In 1923 , Stalin proclaimed that the main danger in national relations was Great @-@ Russian chauvinism . He started the policy of Korenizatsiya , indigenisation , to promote national communist cadres for every nationality . However , from 1937 Stalin encouraged Russian chauvinism , implying the Russians were politically and culturally superior . The Soviet diplomacy turned towards the recovery of the territories of the Tsarist state . The Soviet Union used the Comintern to announce a doctrine where bourgeoisie equaled Fascism , and that Communism was the natural agency of the proletariat . In practice , this meant that anything other than Communism would be considered anti @-@ Soviet and fascist . The Soviet foreign policy was a mixture of the ideology of world revolution and the traditional concerns of Russian national security .
During the Stalin era , the Soviet agriculture production collapsed causing famines in 1932 – 1933 . Official output numbers of industrial production were used as propaganda to portray the Soviet Union as an economic miracle . Soviet propaganda also used cross @-@ border comparisons with Finland , to represent the country as a " vicious and reactionary Fascist clique " . The Finnish Marshal C.G.E. Mannerheim and the leader of the Finnish Social Democrat Party Väinö Tanner were particular hate figures . Stalin gained near @-@ absolute power in 1935 – 1936 , leaving only army as self @-@ governing , but its officers also became the target of purges during the Great terror in 1937 – 1938 .
In the late 1930s , Stalin 's Soviet Union was no longer satisfied with the status quo in its relations with Finland . This came as a result of a change in Soviet foreign policy , which now pursued the aim of recovering the provinces of Tsarist Russia lost during the chaos of the October Revolution and the Russian Civil War . The Soviets considered the old Empire to have had an optimal balance of security and territory , and their thoughts were shaped by a historical precedent : as the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 was intended to protect Tsarist Saint Petersburg from the Swedes , the re @-@ acquisition of Finland would protect the now Bolshevik Leningrad from the rising power of Nazi Germany . While in 1938 Sweden was no longer a major threat against Russia , the Soviets had not forgotten the role that the Finnish @-@ controlled Åland islands had played as a base of operations for the German Expeditionary Force in the Finnish Civil War .
= = Finnish – Soviet negotiations = =
= = = Negotiations from 1938 to early 1939 = = =
In April 1938 , a junior diplomatic official named Boris Yartsev contacted the Finnish foreign minister Rudolf Holsti and prime minister Aimo Cajander , stating that the Soviets did not trust Germany and war was considered possible between the two countries . In such a war Germany might use Finland as a base for operations against the Soviet Union . The Red Army would not wait passively behind the border , but would rather " advance to meet the enemy " . If Finland were to fight against Germany , then the Soviet Union would offer all possible economic and military assistance . The Soviets would also accept the fortification of Åland islands , but demanded " positive guarantees " on Finland 's position .
The Finns assured Yartsev that Finland was committed to a policy of neutrality , and the country would resist any armed incursion . Yartsev was not satisfied with the reply , given Finland 's military weakness . He suggested that Finland could cede , or lease , some islands in the Gulf of Finland along the seaward approaches to Leningrad , a suggestion the Finns rejected . Earlier in the mid @-@ 1930s , the Soviet ambassador in Helsinki , Eric Assmus , and the Leningrad Bolshevik party leader Andrei Zhdanov , had presented a similar proposal .
Negotiations continued during autumn 1938 . The Soviets reduced their demands : a Red Army operation was not an option anymore and the focus was shifted on securing the Gulf of Finland . The Soviets wanted to be informed of key elements of the Finnish – Estonian Gulf blockade , the secret military plan against the Baltic Fleet . Furthermore , Yartsev suggested that the Finns fortify the Suursaari island , but that the Soviets would take care of its defence . During the negotiations , Rudolf Holsti resigned as foreign minister , although not for reasons associated with the negotiations , and his place was taken by Eljas Erkko . Holsti was rather anti @-@ German , so the resignation set off rumours , quickly quelled by the Finnish government , that he had been forced to resign by a Finnish government sympathetic to the Germans . The Finns attempted to appear even @-@ handed , and the interior ministry issued an order banning the extreme @-@ right IKL . The ban was reversed by the Finnish courts as being unconstitutional . Many years later , the minister in charge at that time , Urho Kekkonen , admitted that this was a simple gesture , to suggest to Moscow that Finland did not harbour a German fifth column .
By the winter of 1939 , the Soviets further reduced their demands and sent Boris Stein to negotiate . Stein and Erkko met five times . Erkko rejected the Soviet proposals , saying that the Soviet demands would mean the end of the Finnish neutrality policy and displease the Germans . When the chairman of the Finnish Defense Council C.G.E. Mannerheim was informed of the negotiations , he opined that Finland should give up the Suursaari islands because their defence would anyway be impossible during a war , but his arguments did not persuade the majority of the Finnish government . Stein departed Helsinki empty @-@ handed on 6 April .
The Finns had many reasons to turn down the Soviet proposals . Finland had started negotiations for a military co @-@ operation with Sweden , and the Finns had great hopes for the joint Finnish – Swedish defense for the Ålands islands and did not want to jeopardize these negotiations . In addition , the violent collectivization , purges , show trials and executions in Stalin 's Soviet Union had given the country a bad reputation . Furthermore , most of the Finnish Communist leadership in the Soviet Union was executed during the Great Purge . The Soviet Union did not therefore seem to be a reliable contracting party . The Soviet envoys sent to negotiate with Finns were officially of relatively low rank , but as Väinö Tanner put it later , the Finns assumed rightly that they represented of some higher organ of State , probably the Soviet secret police NKVD .
= = = Soviet – German pact = = =
On 23 August 1939 , the Soviet Union and Germany signed the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact . Nominally , the pact was a non @-@ aggression treaty , but it included a secret protocol in which the independent countries of Finland , Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania , Poland and Romania were divided into spheres of interest , with Finland falling to the Soviet sphere of interest .
In the immediate aftermath of the Pact , the Scandinavian countries and Finland were relieved . The Germans and Soviets were now allies , and there was no German threat against the Soviet Union . But shortly afterwards , Germany invaded Poland and Great Britain and France declared war against Germany . Next , the Soviets invaded eastern Poland , and later Moscow requested that the Baltic states allow the establishment of Soviet military bases and the stationing of troops on their soil . The government of Estonia accepted the ultimatum , signing the corresponding agreement in September , while Latvia and Lithuania followed suit in October .
= = = Soviet demands in late 1939 = = =
On 5 October the Soviet Union invited Finland to negotiations in Moscow . The Finnish government did not hasten to comply , like the Estonian government had earlier . Unlike the Baltic countries , the Finns started a gradual mobilization under the guise of " additional refresher training " . The Finnish government did not send the foreign minister , but its ambassador in Stockholm , J.K. Paasikivi . This was done on purpose , to limit his powers as a negotiator . In Moscow , Paasikivi met both Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov and Stalin .
The Soviets demanded that the frontier between the USSR and Finland on the Karelian Isthmus be moved westward to a point only 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) east of Viipuri , Finland 's second @-@ largest city , to the line between Koivisto and Lipola . In addition , the Finns would have to destroy all existing fortifications on the Karelian Isthmus . Finland should also cede to the Soviet Union the islands of Suursaari , Tytärsaari , and Koivisto in the Gulf of Finland . In the north , the Soviets demanded the Kalastajansaarento peninsula . Furthermore , the Finns should lease the Hanko Peninsula to the Soviets for thirty years , and permit the Soviets to establish a military base there . In exchange the Soviet Union would cede Repola and Porajärvi from Eastern Karelia , an area twice as large as the territories demanded from the Finns .
The Soviet offer divided the Finnish government . The foreign minister Eljas Erkko and the defence minister Juho Niukkanen rejected the offer , backed by the president Kyösti Kallio . J.K. Paasikivi and C.G.E. Mannerheim , together with Väinö Tanner — who was later appointed one of the Finnish negotiators — wanted to accept the Soviet offer .
The Finns relied on military assistance from Sweden , and Eljas Erkko took part in the Stockholm assembly of Scandinavian leaders between 18 October and 19 October . There , Erkko met the Swedish foreign minister Rickard Sandler in private , and Sandler assured him that he would persuade the Swedish government to assist Finland during a possible war . During the actual war , however , Sandler failed in this task and resigned . Finland was totally isolated by a German and Soviet blockade , and attempted in October to obtain arms and ammunition in absolute secrecy by enlisting the German arms dealer Josef Veltjens .
On 31 October , Molotov announced the Soviet demands in public , during a session of the Supreme Soviet . The Finns made two counteroffers — the first on 23 October and the second on 3 November . In both offers Finland would cede the Terijoki area to the Soviet Union , which was far less than the Soviets had demanded . The Finnish delegation returned home on November 13 , taking for granted that the negotiations would continue in the future .
= = Beginning of war = =
= = = Military preparations = = =
The Soviet Union had started an intensive rearmament near the Finnish border in 1938 – 1939 . Finnish students and volunteers had spent the late summer 1939 improving the defensive structures across the Karelian Isthmus . On the Soviet side of the border , penal labour worked hard in order to add some density to sparse road and rail networks . In summer 1939 was an important phase of Soviet planning , told by Aleksandr Vasilevsky and Kirill Meretskov in their memoirs . The Supreme Council of War ordered the Commander of Leningrad Military District Merestkov to draft an invasion plan , instead of Chief of Staff Boris Shaposhnikov . The plan was adopted in July . Necessary assault troop deployments and commands were not initiated until October 1939 , though operational plans made in September called for the invasion to start in November . Stalin however was certain that the Finns would change their opinion under Soviet pressure and cede the demanded territories .
The invasion plans were laid down by the Soviet General Staff under Boris Shaposhnikov and Alexander Vasilevsky . The Soviet timetable was clearly and rigidly defined , with little or no margin for error . The key date was 21 December , Stalin 's sixtieth birthday . By then , the Finnish capital Helsinki would have been " freed of the Fascist oppression " . Andrei Zhdanov had already commissioned a celebratory piece from Dmitri Shostakovich , entitled " Suite on Finnish Themes " to be performed as the marching bands of the Red Army would be parading through Helsinki .
On 26 November , the Soviets staged the shelling of Mainila , an incident in which Soviet artillery shelled area near the Russian village of Mainila and then announced that a Finnish artillery attack had killed Soviet soldiers . The Soviet Union demanded that the Finns apologize for the incident and move their forces 20 – 25 kilometres from the border . The Finns denied any responsibility for the attack and rejected the demands , calling for a joint Finnish @-@ Soviet commission to examine the incident . The Soviet Union claimed that the Finnish response was hostile , and used it as an excuse to withdraw from the non @-@ aggression pact .
= = = The Red Army assaults = = =
On 30 November , Soviet forces invaded Finland with 27 divisions , totalling 630 @,@ 000 men , bombed civilian boroughs of Helsinki and quickly reached the Mannerheim Line . The shelling of Mainila was a casus belli of the Soviet Union as it had withdrawn from non @-@ aggression pacts on 28 November . Earlier , Nazi Germany had staged a similar incident to have an excuse to withdraw from the nonaggression pact with Poland . Later , the Soviet Union would used the Orzeł incident to challenge the neutrality of Estonia .
Later , the Finnish statesman J.K. Paasikivi commented that the Soviet attack , without a declaration of war , violated three different non @-@ aggression pacts : the Treaty of Tartu of 1920 , the Non @-@ aggression Pact between Finland and the Soviet Union signed 1932 and again in 1934 , and further the Charter of the League of Nations . The invasion was judged as illegal by the League of Nations , which expelled the Soviet Union on December 14 . Following the Soviet attack , C.G.E. Mannerheim was appointed Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Finnish Defense Forces . Furthermore , the Finnish government changed as Risto Ryti was appointed the new prime minister and Väinö Tanner as foreign minister .
On 1 December , the Soviet Union created a new government for Finland , henceforth to be called the Finnish Democratic Republic . It was a puppet regime headed by O. W. Kuusinen , and became known as the " Terijoki Government " , since the village of Terijoki was the first place " liberated " by the Red Army . The puppet regime was unsuccessful , and it was quietly discarded during the winter of 1940 . Contrary to Soviet expectations , from the beginning of the conflict , the working @-@ class Finns stood behind the legal government . This national unity against the Soviet invasion was later called the " spirit of the Winter War " .
= Watchmen ( film ) =
Watchmen is a 2009 American epic neo @-@ noir superhero film directed by Zack Snyder , based on the 1986 – 87 DC Comics limited series of the same name by Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons . It stars an ensemble cast of Malin Åkerman , Billy Crudup , Matthew Goode , Carla Gugino , Jackie Earle Haley , Jeffrey Dean Morgan , and Patrick Wilson . A dark satirical take on the superhero genre , the film is set in an alternate history in the year 1985 at the height of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union , as a group of mostly retired American superheroes investigates the murder of one of their own before uncovering an elaborate and deadly conspiracy , while their moral limitations are challenged by the complex nature of the circumstances .
From October 1987 until October 2005 , a live @-@ action film adaptation became stranded in development hell : Producer Lawrence Gordon began developing the project at 20th Century Fox and Warner Bros. , parent company of Watchmen publisher DC Comics , with producer Joel Silver and director Terry Gilliam , the latter eventually deeming the complex comic " un @-@ filmable " ; During the 2000s , Gordon and Lloyd Levin collaborated with Universal Studios and Paramount Pictures to produce a script by David Hayter ; Darren Aronofsky and Paul Greengrass were also attached to the project before it was canceled over budget disputes ; and , in October 2005 , the project returned to Warner Bros. , where Snyder was hired to direct — Paramount remained as international distributor . Fox sued Warner Bros for copyright violation arising from Gordon 's failure to pay a buy @-@ out in 1991 , which enabled him to develop the film at the other studios . Fox and Warner Bros settled this before the film 's release with Fox receiving a portion of the gross . Principal photography began in Vancouver , September 2007 . As with his previous film 300 , Snyder closely modelled his storyboards on the comic , but chose not to shoot all of Watchmen using green screens and opted for real sets instead .
Following its world premiere at Odeon Leicester Square on February 23 , 2009 , the film was released in both conventional and IMAX theaters on March 6 , 2009 , grossing $ 55 million on the opening weekend , and over $ 185 million at the worldwide box office . The film 's reception has been polarized between positive and negative reactions .
A DVD based on elements of the Watchmen universe was released , including an animated adaptation of the comic Tales of the Black Freighter within the story , starring Gerard Butler , and the fictional biography Under the Hood , detailing the older generation of superheroes from the film 's back @-@ story . A director 's cut with 24 minutes of additional footage was released in July 2009 . The " Ultimate Cut " edition incorporated the Tales of the Black Freighter content into the narrative as it was in the original graphic novel , lengthening the runtime to 215 minutes , and was released on November 3 , 2009 .
= = Plot = =
The " Minutemen , " a team of costumed crime fighters , was formed in 1939 in response to a rise in costumed gangs and criminals ; the " Watchmen " was similarly formed decades later . Their existence has dramatically affected world events : Doctor Manhattan 's powers have helped the United States win the Vietnam War , and given the West a strategic advantage over the Soviet Union , which by 1985 threatens to escalate the Cold War into a nuclear war . Growing anti @-@ vigilante sentiment leads to masked crime @-@ fighters being outlawed . While many of the heroes retire , Dr Manhattan and The Comedian operate as government @-@ sanctioned agents , and Rorschach continues to operate outside the law .
While investigating the murder of government agent Edward Blake , Rorschach discovers that Blake was the Comedian , and theorizes that someone may be attempting to eliminate former costumed heroes . He warns his retired comrades — Daniel Dreiberg ( Nite Owl II ) , Dr Manhattan , and the latter 's lover Laurie Jupiter ( Silk Spectre II ) . Dr Manhattan ignores Rorschach , and Dreiberg is skeptical , but relays this information to vigilante @-@ turned @-@ billionaire Adrian Veidt ( Ozymandias ) , who also dismisses it .
Following a backlash , Dr Manhattan exiles himself to Mars , giving the Soviet Union the confidence to invade Afghanistan . Rorschach 's theory appears to be justified when Veidt narrowly avoids an assassination attempt , and Rorschach finds himself framed for the murder of a former villain named Moloch . When Rorschach is arrested , his identity is revealed to be Walter Kovacs , and he is sent to jail . Jupiter goes to stay with Dreiberg after breaking up with Manhattan . The two become lovers and decide to come out of retirement . After helping Rorschach break out of prison , Jupiter is confronted by Manhattan , who transports her to Mars . As he probes her memories , he discovers that she is Blake 's daughter , and realizes the miracle of her life , created in spite of her parents ' turbulent relationship . He then returns to Earth with her .
Investigating the conspiracy , Rorschach and Dreiberg discover that Veidt is behind everything . Rorschach records his suspicions in his journal , which he drops off at the publication office of the New Frontiersman , a right @-@ wing tabloid . Rorschach and Dreiberg confront Veidt at his Antarctic retreat . Veidt admits to being responsible for Blake 's murder , Manhattan 's exile , Rorschach 's framing , and his own assassination attempt , which he staged to divert suspicion . He explains that his plan is to unify the United States and the Soviet Union by destroying the world 's main cities with exploding energy reactors infused with energy from Manhattan . Rorschach and Dreiberg attempt to stop him , but Veidt subdues them both and reveals that his plan has already been set into motion : the reactors have been detonated , and the energy signatures are recognized as Manhattan 's .
Jupiter and Manhattan arrive in a destroyed New York City and determine that Veidt is responsible . They teleport to his base , causing him to retreat and attempt to kill Manhattan . Unsuccessful , he shows them a televised news report in which Nixon states that the United States and Soviet Union have allied against their new " common enemy " : Dr Manhattan . Although his allies realize that revealing the truth would only disrupt this new peace , Rorschach , refuses to compromise , and attempts to return to America to expose Veidt . Manhattan intervenes , and Rorschach demands that Manhattan kill him to keep him from revealing the truth . Manhattan complies .
Manhattan shares a final kiss with Jupiter before departing permanently to another galaxy , while an enraged Dreiberg attacks Veidt , who makes no effort to defend himself . Nevertheless , he defends his actions , claiming that for world peace to be possible , there had to be sacrifice . Dreiberg rejects his logic declaring that Veidt has deformed and mutilated humanity . Dreiberg and Jupiter return to New York with plans to continue fighting crime . Later , an editor of the New Frontiersman tells a young employee that , as the world is at peace , there is nothing to report on . The editor gives the employee permission to print the contents of a collection of crank mailings , among which is Rorschach 's journal .
= = Cast and characters = =
Production for Watchmen began casting in July 2007 for look @-@ alikes of the era 's famous names for the film — something Snyder declared would give the film a " satirical quality " and " create this ’ 80s vibe " — including Richard Nixon , Leonid Brezhnev , Henry Kissinger , H. R. Haldeman , Ted Koppel , John McLaughlin , Annie Leibovitz , John Lennon and Yoko Ono , Fidel Castro , Albert Einstein , Norman Rockwell , John F. Kennedy and Jackie Kennedy , Andy Warhol , Truman Capote , Elvis Presley , Mao Zedong , Larry King , David Bowie , Mick Jagger , Lee Iacocca , and the Village People . Snyder said he wanted younger actors because of the many flashback scenes , and it was easier to age actors with make @-@ up rather than cast two actors in the same role . Snyder 's son cameos as a young Rorschach , while the director himself appears as an American soldier in Vietnam . Actor Thomas Jane was invited by Snyder , but declined to work in the film due to being too busy .
Jackie Earle Haley as Walter Kovacs / Rorschach : A masked vigilante who continues his extralegal activities after they are outlawed . He takes his name from the Rorschach test , as the shifting black @-@ and @-@ white patterns on his mask resemble its inkblots . Unlike the principal actors , Haley had read the comic as a young adult and was keen to pursue the role when he heard he had become a favorite candidate among fans . Rorschach wears a mask with ink blots : motion capture markers were put on the contours of Haley 's blank mask , for animators to create his ever @-@ changing expressions . Haley has a black belt in Kenpō , but described Rorschach 's attack patterns as sloppier and more aggressive due to the character 's boxing background . Rorschach appears several times in the movie without his mask before he is apprehended , carrying a placard sign proclaiming , " The End is Nigh , " but not until he is unmasked by the police is it made apparent that the sign bearer is Rorschach .
Eli Snyder as young Walter Kovacs
Patrick Wilson as Daniel Dreiberg / Nite Owl II : A retired superhero with technological expertise . Snyder cast Wilson after watching 2006 's Little Children , which also co @-@ starred Haley . Wilson put on 25 lbs. to play the overweight Dreiberg . He compared Dreiberg to a soldier who returns from war unable to fit into society . Both Joaquin Phoenix and John Cusack ( another fan of the novel ) were involved in previous attempts at making the film .
Billy Crudup as Jon Osterman / Dr. Manhattan : A superhero with genuine superpowers who works for the U.S. government . Crudup plays Osterman in flashbacks as a human and is replaced for his post @-@ accident scenes with a motion @-@ capture CG version of himself . During filming , Crudup acted opposite his co @-@ stars , wearing a white suit covered in blue LEDs , so he would give off an otherworldly glow in real life , just as the computer @-@ generated Manhattan does in the movie . His body was modeled on that of fitness model and actor Greg Plitt . The crew then 3D @-@ digitized Crudup 's head and " frankensteined it onto Greg Plitt 's body . " Snyder chose not to electronically alter Crudup 's voice for Manhattan , explaining the character " would try and put everyone as much at ease as he could , instead of having a robotic voice that I think would feel off @-@ putting . "
Jaryd Heidrick as young Jon Osterman
Malin Åkerman as Laurie Jupiter / Silk Spectre II : Åkerman described her character as the psychology and the emotion of the film due to being the only woman among the men . The actress worked out and trained to fight for her portrayal of the crime fighter .
Haley Guiel as young Laurie Jupiter
Jeffrey Dean Morgan as Edward Morgan Blake / The Comedian : A superhero who is commissioned by the U.S. government as a black @-@ ops specialist . When reading the comic for the part , Morgan stopped when he saw his character was killed off three pages in . When telling his agent he did not want the part , he was told to continue reading it and find out how important his character was . Morgan found the role a challenge , explaining , " For some reason , in reading the novel , you don 't hate this guy even though he does things that are unmentionable . [ ... ] My job is to kind of make that translate , so as a viewer you end up not making excuses to like him , but you don 't hate him like you should for doing the things that he does . " Of his casting , Snyder said , " It 's hard to find a man 's man in Hollywood . It just is . And Jeffrey came in and was grumpy and cool and grizzled , and I was , like , ' OK , Jeffrey is perfect ! ' "
Matthew Goode as Adrian Veidt / Ozymandias : A retired superhero who has since made his identity public . At first Snyder wanted Jude Law ( a big fan of the character ) for the part , but said that Goode was " big and tall and lean , " which aided in bringing " this beautiful ageless , German superman " feel to the character . Goode interpreted Veidt 's back @-@ story to portray him with a German accent in private and an American one in public ; Goode explained Veidt gave up his family 's wealth and traveled the world , becoming a self @-@ made man because he was ashamed of his parents ' Nazi past , which in turn highlighted the themes of the American Dream and the character 's duality . Snyder said Goode " fit the bill .... We were having a hard time casting [ the role ] , because we needed someone handsome , beautiful and sophisticated , and that 's a tough combo . "
Carla Gugino as Sally Jupiter / Silk Spectre : A retired superheroine , mother of Laurie Juspeczyk , former member of the now @-@ defunct superhero team , The Minutemen , and the first Silk Spectre . Gugino 's character ages from 25 years old in the 1940s to 67 years old in the 1980s , and the 37 @-@ year @-@ old actress wore prosthetics to reflect the aging process . Gugino described her character 's superhero outfit as " Bettie Page meets Alberto Vargas . "
Dan Payne as William Brady / Dollar Bill : A deceased member of the now @-@ defunct superhero team , The Minutemen . Brady was a bank @-@ sponsored member of The Minutemen who was created for publicity purposes . He dies during a bank robbery in 1947 when his cape is caught in the bank 's revolving doors , allowing the robbers to shoot him at point @-@ blank range .
Niall Matter as Byron Lewis / Mothman : A former member of the now @-@ defunct superhero team , The Minutemen . Lewis had a privileged upbringing and sought to help the less fortunate and fight oppression and corruption as a crime @-@ fighter . To this end Lewis created a costume with special wings that helped him glide . His mental stability ultimately deteriorated after he was called before HUAC , leading to him being forcibly brought to a mental asylum .
Apollonia Vanova as Ursula Zandt / The Silhouette : A deceased member of the now @-@ defunct superhero team , The Minutemen . A gun @-@ toting vigilante , motivated by the deaths of her parents and sister at the hands of the Nazis in their native Austria . Zandt is killed along with her lesbian lover in what is implied to be a hate @-@ crime .
Glenn Ennis as Jacob Müller / Hooded Justice : A deceased former member of the now @-@ defunct superhero team , The Minutemen . H.J. was a violent vigilante , who was trained in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat .
Darryl Scheelar as Nelson Gardner / Captain Metropolis : A retired former member and leader of the now @-@ defunct superhero team , The Minutemen . A former Marine Lieutenant . He was one of the more active members of the Minutemen , having organized its formation . He died in a car accident in 1974 that left him decapitated , and is believed by some to be a form of suicide .
Stephen McHattie as Hollis Mason / Nite Owl : A retired former member of the now @-@ defunct superhero team The Minutemen . Mason now works in an auto shop .
Clint Carleton as young Hollis Mason / Nite Owl : Carleton appears in The Minutemen flashback scenes only .
Matt Frewer as Edgar Jacobi / Moloch : A former supervillain . Moloch was jailed for a time during the 1970s . He is dying of cancer which he received from Adrian Veidt . Moloch was later murdered by Adrian who frames Rorschach .
Mike Carpenter as young Edgar Jacobi / Moloch
Danny Woodburn as Big Figure : A jailed dwarfish crime boss and former adversary of Nite Owl and Rorschach . He tries to get revenge when Rorschach is imprisoned in the same jail as he is .
Robert Wisden as President Richard Nixon
= = Production = =
In 1986 , producers Lawrence Gordon and Joel Silver acquired film rights to Watchmen for 20th Century Fox . After author Alan Moore declined to write a screenplay based on his story , Fox enlisted screenwriter Sam Hamm . Hamm took the liberty of re @-@ writing Watchmen 's complicated ending into a " more manageable " conclusion involving an assassination and a time paradox . Fox put the project into turnaround in 1991 , and the project was moved to Warner Bros. , where Terry Gilliam was attached to direct and Charles McKeown to rewrite it . Due to lack of funding — Gilliam and Silver were only able to raise $ 25 million for the film ( a quarter of the necessary budget ) because their previous films had gone overbudget — and Gilliam 's belief that the comic would have been unfilmable , Gilliam eventually left Watchmen and Warner Bros. dropped the project .
In October 2001 , Gordon partnered with Lloyd Levin and Universal Studios , hiring David Hayter to write and direct . Hayter and the producers left Universal due to creative differences , and Gordon and Levin expressed interest in setting up Watchmen at Revolution Studios . The project did not hold together at Revolution Studios and subsequently fell apart . In July 2004 , it was announced Paramount Pictures would produce Watchmen , and Michael Bay was considered to direct . Eventually , they attached Darren Aronofsky to direct Hayter 's script . Producers Gordon and Levin remained attached , collaborating with Aronofsky 's producing partner , Eric Watson . Paul Greengrass replaced Aronofsky when he left to focus on The Fountain . Ultimately , Paramount placed Watchmen in turnaround .
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ographically isolated by the Paleocene and lemur diversification dating to the same time , an explanation was needed for how lemurs had made it to the island . In the 19th century , prior to the theory of continental drift , scientists including Philip Sclater , Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire , and Ernst Haeckel suggested that Madagascar and India were once part of a southern continent — named Lemuria by Sclater — that has since disappeared under the Indian Ocean . By the early 20th century , oceanic dispersal emerged as the most popular explanation for how lemurs reached the island . The idea first took shape under the anti @-@ plate tectonics movement of the early 1900s , when renowned paleontologist William Diller Matthew proposed the idea in his influential article " Climate and Evolution " in 1915 . In the article , Matthew could only account for the presence of lemurs in Madagascar by " rafting " . In the 1940s , American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson coined the term " sweepstakes dispersal " for such unlikely events .
As plate tectonics theory took hold , oceanic dispersal fell out of favor and was even considered by many researchers to be " miraculous " if it occurred . Despite the low likelihood of its occurrence , oceanic dispersal remains the most accepted explanation for numerous vertebrate colonizations of Madagascar , including that of the lemurs . Although unlikely , over long periods of time terrestrial animals can occasionally raft to remote islands on floating mats of tangled vegetation , which get flushed out to sea from major rivers by floodwaters .
Any extended ocean voyage without fresh water or food would prove difficult for a large , warm @-@ blooded ( homeothermic ) mammal , but today many small , nocturnal species of lemur exhibit heterothermy , which allows them to lower their metabolism and become dormant while living off fat reserves . Such a trait in a small , nocturnal lemur ancestor would have facilitated the ocean voyage and could have been passed on to its descendants . However , this trait has not been observed in the closely related lorisoids studied to date , and could have evolved on Madagascar in response to the island 's harsh environmental conditions .
Because only five terrestrial orders of mammals have made it to the island , each likely to have derived from a single colonization , and since these colonizations date to either the early Cenozoic or the early Miocene , the conditions for oceanic dispersal to Madagascar seem to have been better during two separate periods in the past . A report published in January 2010 supported this assumption by demonstrating that both Madagascar and Africa were 1 @,@ 650 km ( 1 @,@ 030 mi ) south of their present @-@ day positions around 60 mya , placing them in a different ocean gyre and reversing the strong current that presently flows away from Madagascar . The currents were even shown to be stronger than they are today , shortening the rafting time to approximately 30 days or less , making the crossing much easier for a small mammal . Over time , as the continental plates drifted northward , the currents gradually changed , and by 20 mya the window for oceanic dispersal had closed .
Since the 1970s , the rafting hypothesis has been called into question by claims that lemur family Cheirogaleidae might be more closely related to the other Afro @-@ Asian strepsirrhines than to the rest of the lemurs . This idea was initially based on similarities in behavior and molar morphology , although it gained support with the 2001 discovery of 30 ‑ million @-@ year @-@ old Bugtilemur in Pakistan and the 2003 discovery of 40 ‑ million @-@ year @-@ old Karanisia in Egypt . Karanisia is the oldest fossil found that bears a toothcomb , whereas Bugtilemur was thought to have a toothcomb , but also had even more similar molar morphology to Cheirogaleus ( dwarf lemurs ) . If these relationships had been correct , the dates of these fossils would have had implications on the colonization of Madagascar , requiring two separate events . The most parsimonious explanation , given the genetic evidence and the absence of toothcombed primates in European fossil sites , is that stem strepsirrhines evolved on the Afro @-@ Arabian landmass , dispersing to Madagascar and more recently from Africa to Asia . More recently , the structure and general presence of the toothcomb in Bugtilemur has been questioned , as well as many other dental features , suggesting it is most likely an adapiform .
An alternative form of oceanic dispersal that had been considered was island hopping , where the lemur ancestors might have made it to Madagascar in small steps by colonizing exposed seamounts during times of low sea level . However , this is unlikely since the only seamounts found along the Davie Ridge would have been too small in such a wide channel . Even though the Comoro Islands between Africa and Madagascar are significantly larger , they are too young , having been formed by volcanic activity only around 8 mya . A land bridge between Madagascar and Africa has also been proposed , but a land bridge would have facilitated the migration of a much greater sampling of Africa 's mammalian fauna than is endemic to the island . Furthermore , deep trenches separate Madagascar from the mainland , and prior to the Oligocene , sea level was significantly higher than today .
A variant of the land bridge hypothesis has been proposed in an attempt to explain both how a land bridge could have formed , and why other mammalian orders failed to cross it . Geological studies have shown that following the collision of India and Asia , the Davie Fracture Zone had been pushed up by tectonic forces , possibly high enough to create a land bridge . Indeed , core samples along the Davie Fracture Zone suggest that at least parts of the Mozambique Channel were above sea level between 45 and 26 mya , or possibly as early as 55 mya . Following the Indian @-@ Asian collision , the fault type changed from a strike @-@ slip fault to a normal fault , and seafloor spreading created compression along the Davie Fracture Zone , causing it to rise . By the early Miocene , the East African Rift created tension along the fault , causing it to subside beneath the ocean . The divergence dates of many Malagasy mammalian orders formerly fell within this window . Old World monkeys , dogs , and cats did not diverge or arrive in Africa until later in the Miocene . However , more recent dating of divergence of the Malagasy mammalian clades falls outside of this land bridge window , and a much greater diversity of mammal groups would be expected on Madagascar had the land bridge been present during that stretch of time .
The dating of the lemur colonization is controversial for the same reasons as strepsirrhine evolution . Using both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences , a single colonization has been estimated at 62 to 65 mya based on the split between the aye @-@ aye and the rest of the lemurs . On the other hand , the sparse fossil record and some estimates based on other nuclear genes support a more recent estimate of 40 to 52 mya . Furthermore , a fossil strepsirrhine primate from Africa , Plesiopithecus , may suggest that the aye @-@ aye and the rest of the lemurs diverged in Africa , which would require at least two colonization events .
Once safely established on Madagascar , with its limited mammalian population , the lemurs were protected from the increasing competition from evolving arboreal mammalian groups . Monkeys had evolved by the Oligocene , and their intelligence , aggression , and deceptiveness may have given them the advantage in exploiting the environment over the diurnal adapiform primates in Africa and Asia , ultimately driving them to extinction and leaving only the nocturnal lorisoids .
= = = Diversification = = =
The ancestral lemur that colonized Madagascar is thought to have been small and nocturnal . More specifically , it is thought to have had adapiform @-@ like cranial anatomy — particularly the cranial foramina and the middle ear — comparable to that of lemurids , while being similar to cheirogaleids in dentition and postcranial anatomy .
Nothing definitive is known about the island 's biogeography at the time of the colonization , however , the paleoclimate ( ancient weather patterns ) may have been affected by Madagascar 's location below the subtropical ridge at 30 ° S latitude and disruption of the weather patterns by India as it drifted northward . Both would have created a drying effect on Madagascar , and as a result , the arid spiny bush that is currently found in the south and southwest of Madagascar would have dominated the island . This would have placed strong selection pressure for drought tolerance on the inhabitants of the island between the Cretaceous and the Eocene . As Madagascar edged above the subtropical ridge and India moved closer to Asia , the climate became less dry and the arid spiny bush retreated to the south and southwest .
Lemurs have diversified greatly since first reaching Madagascar . The aye @-@ aye and its extinct relations are thought to have diverged first , shortly after colonization . According to molecular studies , there have since been two major episodes of diversification , from which all other known extant and extinct family lineages emerged . The remaining families diverged in the first diversification episode , during a 10 to 12 million @-@ year window between the Late Eocene ( 42 mya ) and into the Oligocene ( 30 mya ) . The dates for this divergence window span the Eocene – Oligocene extinction event , during which time climate cooling took place and changes in ocean currents altered weather patterns . Outside of Madagascar , these dates also coincide with the divergence of the lorisoid primates and five major clades of squirrels , all occupying niches similar to those of lemurs . The dates do not suggest that increased predation drove family @-@ level divergence since the first carnivores arrived on the island between 24 and 18 mya . The precise relationship between the four of the five families of lemurs is disputed since they diverged during this narrow and distant window . Although all studies place Cheirogaleidae and Lepilemuridae as a sister clade to Indriidae and Lemuridae , some suggest that Cheirogaleidae and Lepilemuridae diverged first , while others suggest that Indriidae and Lemuridae were the first to branch off .
The second major episode of diversification occurred during the Late Miocene , approximately 8 to 12 mya , and included the true lemurs ( Eulemur ) and the mouse lemurs ( Microcebus ) . This event coincided with the beginning of the Indian monsoons , the last major change in climate to affect Madagascar . The populations of both the true lemurs and mouse lemurs were thought to have diverged due to habitat fragmentation when humans arrived on the island roughly 2 @,@ 000 years ago . Only recently has molecular research shown a more distant split in these genera . Most surprising were the mouse lemurs , a group which is now thought to contain cryptic species , meaning they are indistinguishable from each other based solely on appearance . In contrast , true lemurs are easier to distinguish and exhibit sexual dichromatism . Studies in karyology , molecular genetics , and biogeographic patterns have also assisted in understanding their phylogeny and diversification . Although the divergence estimates for these two genera are imprecise , they overlap with a change to a wetter climate in Madagascar , as new weather patterns generated monsoons and likely influenced the plant life .
This difference in evolutionary divergence between the two genera may be due to differences in their activity patterns . True lemurs are often diurnal , allowing potential mates to distinguish each other as well as other related species visually . Mouse lemurs , on the other hand , are nocturnal , reducing their ability to use visual signals for mate selection . Instead , they use olfactory and auditory signaling . For these reasons , true lemurs may have evolved sexual dichromatism while mouse lemurs evolved to be cryptic species .
= = Distribution and diversity = =
Since their arrival on Madagascar , lemurs have diversified both in behavior and morphology . Their diversity rivals that of the monkeys and apes found throughout the rest of the world , especially when the recently extinct subfossil lemurs are considered . Ranging in size from the 30 g ( 1 @.@ 1 oz ) Madame Berthe 's mouse lemur , the world 's smallest primate , to the extinct 160 – 200 kg ( 350 – 440 lb ) Archaeoindris fontoynonti , lemurs evolved diverse forms of locomotion , varying levels of social complexity , and unique adaptations to the local climate . They went on to fill many niches normally occupied by monkeys , squirrels , woodpeckers , and large grazing ungulates . In addition to the incredible diversity between lemur families , there has also been great diversification among closely related lemurs . Yet despite separation by geographical barriers or by niche differentiation in sympatry , occasionally hybridization can occur . Lemur diversification has also created generalist species , such as the true lemurs of northern Madagascar , which are very adaptable , mostly nondescript , and found throughout most of the island 's forests .
Most of the 99 living lemur taxa are found only on Madagascar . Two species , the common brown lemur ( Eulemur fulvus ) and the mongoose lemur ( Eulemur mongoz ) , can also be found on the Comoro Islands , although it is assumed that both species were introduced to the islands from northwestern Madagascar by humans within the last few hundred years . Molecular studies on Eulemur fulvus fulvus ( from the mainland ) and E. f. mayottensis ( from the Comoro Islands ) and on Comoro and mainland mongoose lemurs have supported this assumption by showing no genetic differences between the two populations . Because all lemurs , including these two brown lemur species , are only native to the island of Madagascar , they are considered to be endemic .
Historically , lemurs ranged across the entire island inhabiting a wide variety of habitats , including dry deciduous forests , lowland forests , spiny thickets , subhumid forests , montane forest , and mangrove . Today , their collective range is restricted to 10 % of the island , or approximately 60 @,@ 000 km2 ( 23 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Most of the remaining forests and lemurs are found along the periphery of the island . The center of the island , the Hauts @-@ Plateaux , was converted by early settlers to rice paddies and grassland through slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture , known locally as tavy . As erosion depleted the soil , the cyclical forest regrowth and burning ended as the forest gradually failed to return . Today , the level of floral diversity increases with precipitation , from the dry southern forests to the wetter northern forests to the rainforests along the east coast . Increased foliage corresponds to increased faunal diversity , including the diversity and complexity of lemur communities .
Having evolved in Madagascar 's challenging environment , replete with poor soils , extreme shifts in poor , seasonal plant productivity , and devastating climatic events such as extended droughts and annual cyclones , lemurs have adopted unique combinations of unusual traits to survive , distinguishing them significantly from other primates . In response to limited , seasonal resources , lemurs may exhibit seasonal fat storage , hypometabolism ( including torpor and hibernation in some cheirogaleids ) , small group sizes , low encephalization ( relative brain size ) , cathemerality ( activity both day and night ) , and / or strict breeding seasons . Secondarily , extreme resource limitations and seasonal breeding are thought to have resulted in three other relatively common lemur traits : female dominance , sexual monomorphism ( lack of size differences between the sexes ) , and male – male competition for mates involving low levels of agonism ( conflict ) , such as sperm competition .
The arrival of humans on the island 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 years ago has taken a significant toll , not only on the size of lemur populations , but also on their diversity . Due to habitat destruction and hunting , at least 17 species and 8 genera have gone extinct and the populations of all species have decreased . A couple of species once thought to have gone extinct have since been rediscovered . The hairy @-@ eared dwarf lemur ( Allocebus trichotis ) was only known from five museum specimens , most collected in the late 19th century and one in 1965 . It was rediscovered in 1989 and has since been identified in five national parks , although it is very rare within its range . Likewise , the greater bamboo lemur ( Prolemur simus ) was thought to be extinct as recently as the late 1970s , but a population was located near Ranomafana National Park in the late 1980s . Historically , it had a much wider geographic distribution , shown by subfossil remains , but today it remains one of the world 's 25 most endangered primates . One distinctive morph ( possibly a species or subspecies ) of sifaka , has not been so fortunate , having been extirpated from all known localities . Unless trends change , extinctions are likely to continue .
Until recently , giant species of lemur existed on Madagascar . Now represented only by recent or subfossil remains , they were modern forms and are counted as part of the rich lemur diversity that evolved in isolation . Some of their adaptations were unlike those seen in lemurs today . All 17 extinct lemurs were larger than the extant forms , some weighing as much as 200 kg ( 440 lb ) , and are thought to have been active during the day . Not only were they unlike the living lemurs in both size and appearance , they also filled ecological niches that no longer exist or are now left unoccupied . Large parts of Madagascar , which are now devoid of forests and lemurs , once hosted diverse primate communities that included more than 20 species covering the full range of lemur sizes .
= The One with the Cast of Night Court =
" The One with the Cast of Night Court " is the third episode of the third season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt , and directed by Gail Mancuso . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on November 13 , 2008 .
The episode received mixed reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it was watched by 7 @.@ 5 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 4 @.@ 6 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . For her performance in this episode , Aniston received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) await the arrival of their old Chicago roommate , Claire Harper ( Jennifer Aniston ) . The two are not thrilled with her visit as they find her exhausting to be around . Immediately , their boss Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) is attracted to Claire , but Liz tells him not to get involved with her . Jack , however , reveals to Liz that the two have already slept together . At a General Electric formal function , Claire surprises Jack by singing " Happy Birthday " to him . He tells her that she needs to leave , so Claire loudly threatens to kill herself . To help Jack , Liz gets Claire to abandon her plans with Jack and instead go out nightclubbing with her and Jenna . At the club , Claire does not show up , which prompts Liz to call Jack to warn him about potential danger . He finds Claire inside his apartment and ends up sleeping with her again . When asked to choose between Liz and Claire , Jack chooses Claire , but Claire , thinking that the relationship has gotten boring , turns on Jack .
Meanwhile , NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) is not happy with the new page uniforms . Wanting to see Kenneth happy again , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) gets actors Harry Anderson , Markie Post , and Charlie Robinson from the television show , Night Court . Kenneth is excited when he finds out that he can watch the Night Court wedding between the Anderson and Post 's characters , Judge Harry Stone and Christine Sullivan , before the show is canceled by the network . When a conflict between Anderson and Post ensues , it seems that the wedding will not take place . However , Anderson and Post make up and rehearse . As Tracy and Kenneth finish taping the final scenes of Harry and Christine 's wedding , Harry declares it illegal to wear the new page uniforms and demands the old ones be brought back . Tracy tells Kenneth that he added that part in the script as he complained to Kenneth 's superiors to bring back the old uniforms , which makes Kenneth happy .
= = Production = =
" The One with the Cast of Night Court " was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt , and directed by Gail Mancuso . This was Burditt 's eighth writing credit , and was Mancuso 's fourth directed episode . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 13 , 2008 , as the third episode of the show 's third season . Its title , " The One ... " , is the convention used to name episodes of guest star Jennifer Aniston 's prior sitcom Friends .
In August 2008 , it was announced that actress Jennifer Aniston would guest star on 30 Rock . The following month it was confirmed by NBC that she would play a woman obsessed with Alec Baldwin 's character , Jack Donaghy . She filmed her scenes on August 29 and September 4 , 2008 . In November 2008 , it was announced that actors Markie Post , Harry Anderson and Charles Robinson , the cast of the situation comedy show Night Court , would make a cameo on the show .
Two filmed scenes from " The One with the Cast of Night Court " were cut out from the airing . Instead , the scenes were featured on 30 Rock 's season 3 DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the Bonus feature . In the first scene , Liz and Jenna recall their wild nights with Claire , including when Jenna and Claire danced around an opened fire hydrant , while Liz tells them that she does not feel safe . They also remember when they crashed a Polish wedding , in which Claire is seeing dancing around a group of men . In the second scene , Harry Anderson is in Tracy 's dressing room , after leaving rehearsal . Tracy enters to convince him to make up with Markie Post . In another room , Kenneth is seen with Markie Post . Anderson complains to Tracy about Post , as does Post about Anderson to Kenneth . Tracy tells him to forget about the past and fulfill Kenneth 's dreams of a Night Court wedding to make Kenneth happy , as he is displeased with the new page uniforms he is forced to wear .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The One with the Cast of Night Court " was watched by 7 @.@ 5 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It received a 4 @.@ 6 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that 4 @.@ 6 % of all people in that group , and 7 % of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " Believe in the Stars " , which was watched by 8 @.@ 0 million American viewers . This episode was the tenth highest @-@ rated show on the NBC network during the week of November 10 – 16 , 2008 . Jennifer Aniston received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards for her work in this episode , but lost to Tina Fey for her satirical portrayal of Sarah Palin on Saturday Night Live .
Since airing , " The One with the Cast of Night Court " has received mixed reception from television critics . Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club wrote that the episode was " kooky , ooky and over @-@ the @-@ top " and enjoyed every minute of it . " For the more esoteric viewer , it 's a milestone episode " , said The Age 's Farah Farouque . Cameron Adams for the Herald Sun called the episode hilarious , while The Boston Globe 's Matthew Gilbert felt that it was flaccid and cliched . IGN contributor Robert Canning said that the episode " did have its moments " and that the storylines " had their potential , and their share of laughs , but I can 't help but feel they both could have been so much more . " He opined that the Kenneth and Tracy story was " more up 30 Rock 's style " but that it was a shame that the story could not " quite knock the concept out of the park . " Overall , Canning rated " The One with the Cast of Night Court " a 7 @.@ 9 out of 10 . Jeff Labrecque for Entertainment Weekly reported that the episode fell flat .
Critical opinion was divided on Aniston 's performance as Claire . TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich wrote that Aniston " looked sweet , but the role was juuuuust [ sic ] a bit much ... [ and ] over @-@ the @-@ top . " Jeremy Medina of Paste said that the show did not really seem to know what to do with Aniston in this episode . Tom Stempel for Slant Magazine said 30 Rock was " smart enough " not to make Claire resemble Aniston 's former television character , Rachel , from Friends . Further in his review , Stempel said that Claire was a " great choice of character " for Aniston to play , and praised her for knocking the role " out of the park . " Kerrie Murphy for The Australian was equally positive noting that Aniston fits in smoothly as Liz 's former roommate . Murphy added , " Not only is it a reminder that Aniston is a gifted comic actor [ ... ] With her , the show 's regular cast easily hold their own . "
Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad enjoyed the cameos of Harry Anderson , Markie Post , and Charles Robinson in the episode . Robert Philpot for the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram wrote that the Night Court cast stole the show from Aniston . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that he " got a much bigger kick out " of the Night Court story . Medina , who wrote that the episode was " mostly a success " , disliked the Night Court subplot , claiming it was not funny .
= 2015 Monaco Grand Prix =
The 2015 Monaco Grand Prix , formally known as the Grand Prix de Monaco 2015 , was a Formula One motor race that was held on 24 May 2015 at the Circuit de Monaco , a street circuit that runs through the principality of Monaco . It was the sixty @-@ second running of the race as a World Championship event , and seventy @-@ third running overall .
Mercedes driver Lewis Hamilton entered the race with a twenty @-@ point lead over teammate and defending race winner Nico Rosberg in the Drivers ' Championship , with Mercedes having a seventy @-@ point lead over Ferrari in the Constructors ' Championship .
World Champion Lewis Hamilton secured his first ever Monaco pole position during Saturday 's qualifying . In the race , Nico Rosberg took his third consecutive win at Monaco , second win of the season , and the tenth of his career , while Sebastian Vettel finished second . Championship leader Hamilton , who had led for most of the race , moved from first into third place following a " pit stop misjudgement " during a late safety car period , for which his team , Mercedes , later apologised . The renewed McLaren @-@ Honda partnership scored its first points since Honda 's return to the sport . With Rosberg 's victory , he was able to reduce his deficit in the World Drivers ' Championship to ten points .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Ahead of the race weekend , Mercedes announced they had extended their contract with world champion Lewis Hamilton for three additional years , keeping him at the team until the end of the 2018 season .
Revisions to the Tabac corner at the harbour section of the race track meant that the drivers now entered the turn slightly earlier , shortening the track by 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) compared to previous years , and making the corner slightly tighter and slower . The corner had seen a race @-@ stopping accident involving Pastor Maldonado and Max Chilton in 2013 , leading to the changes being made . This resulted in the circuit being officially classified as a new layout . The barrier on the right of the swimming pool chicane was moved back , with new kerbs , to allow for a better view of the corner . Much of the track was resurfaced before the event . As in Australia and Singapore , the pit lane speed limit for the duration of the event was reduced to 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) , instead of the standard 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , due to the confined nature of the circuit . The race schedule for the weekend was different in Monaco compared to the other races on the calendar . The first two free practice sessions were held on Thursday instead of Friday .
Tyre supplier Pirelli brought its yellow @-@ marked soft compound tyre as the harder " prime " tyre and the red @-@ marked super @-@ soft compound tyre as the more elastic " option " tyre , just as they did the previous three seasons . It was the first time in the 2015 season that the super @-@ soft compound would be used at a race weekend .
= = = Free practice = = =
As per the regulations for 2015 , three practice sessions were held , two one and a half @-@ hour sessions on Thursday and another one @-@ hour session on Saturday morning . After a thunderstorm on Wednesday night , the first of the two free practice sessions held on Thursday morning , started with every driver setting their installation laps on intermediate tyres . The track soon dried up , and the cars changed to slick tyres . Nico Rosberg had an early shunt when he clipped his front wing exiting the Tabac corner though he did not sustain considerable damage to his car . The two Mercedes drivers swapped places at the top of the time sheets for most of the session , until late improvements pushed Rosberg down the order to finish ninth , more than a second off his team @-@ mate Lewis Hamilton . Rookie Max Verstappen surprised the paddock by finishing second , two @-@ tenths of a second down on Hamilton . The Renault @-@ powered cars all finished within the top seven , while the Williams team ended the session in tenth and seventeenth , owing to the car not being well suited for wet and low @-@ temperature conditions .
The second session on Thursday afternoon saw considerably less running than the first . A red flag was shown ten minutes into practice after Roberto Merhi crashed on the exit of the tunnel . During the stoppage , rain began to fall , keeping most drivers in the garage when practice was restarted . It was not until ten minutes from the end of the session that the drivers took to the track again , but under damp conditions they managed times that were slower than the pace set at the beginning . Lewis Hamilton finished the session fastest , more than seven @-@ tenths of a second in front of his team mate . Toro Rosso confirmed their high pace with Carlos Sainz , Jr. and Max Verstappen in sixth and seventh respectively , while McLaren proved they might challenge for points as predicted , with Fernando Alonso in eighth place .
The third practice on Saturday morning was interrupted midway through the session when Kimi Räikkönen crashed his Ferrari at Sainte Dévote . His team mate Sebastian Vettel set the fastest lap during the session , ahead of the Mercedes ' of Rosberg and Hamilton . Hamilton reported problems with his car , believed by his race engineer to be caused by over @-@ pressured tyres . The two Renault @-@ powered teams , Red Bull and Toro Rosso , confirmed their strong pace by placing all four cars in the top ten .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . The first part ( Q1 ) saw a " a surprise casualty " when Valtteri Bottas failed to cross the line for his final lap in time , leaving him seventeenth on the grid . The two Manor Marussias finished last , as they had in every qualifying session they participated in up to that point during the 2015 season . Joining them on the sidelines were the two Saubers of Felipe Nasr and Marcus Ericsson , split by Bottas .
While McLaren once again succeeded in advancing both cars into Q2 , Fernando Alonso 's car stopped in the first corner due to an electrical fault at the start of the second session , and he took no further part in qualifying . Team mate Jenson Button was more successful , missing out on Q3 when his second fast lap was interrupted by Nico Rosberg going off at Sainte Dévote . The second Williams of Felipe Massa completed a problematic Saturday for the team , claiming only 14th on the grid , while Nico Hülkenberg and Romain Grosjean also did not make it into Q3 .
The third part of qualifying , contested by the top ten drivers , started with drops of rain falling , meaning all drivers took to the track quickly . Sergio Pérez , who made his first Q3 appearance of the 2015 season , had only one set of super @-@ soft tyres left and finished seventh . Lewis Hamilton took an early lead with his first run and team mate Nico Rosberg was denied a chance to challenge him for pole position when he made a mistake in turn one during his second fast lap . The two Red Bulls separated the two Ferraris , leaving Kimi Räikkönen with another disappointing qualifying performance down in sixth . It was the first pole position for Hamilton in Monaco , who called it " incredibly special " .
Carlos Sainz , Jr . , who had qualified in eighth position , was adjudged to have missed a call to go to the weigh bridge during the first part of qualifying . Following the session , he was given a penalty which required him to start the race from the pit lane .
= = = Race = = =
At the start of the race Hamilton , Rosberg and Vettel maintained their grid positions into the first corner , while Daniil Kvyat managed to overtake team @-@ mate Daniel Ricciardo for fourth . Trying to get past Nico Hülkenberg on the inside of turn five , Fernando Alonso made contact with Hülkenberg , who hit the wall but was able to continue , though at the back of the field . Alonso was reprimanded with a five @-@ second penalty to serve at his first pit stop . Meanwhile , Felipe Massa made contact with Pastor Maldonado , damaging his front wing . Massa came into the pits for a new wing and equipped the harder tyre compound . Maldonado suffered from brake problems in the early laps , eventually retiring on lap seven .
By lap ten , Hamilton had built a three @-@ second lead over his teammate Rosberg , who was an additional 1 @.@ 7 seconds ahead of Vettel . While some drivers came into the pits for their first regular stop as early as lap 13 , the top runners stayed out until lap 37 , when Vettel was the first to come in , followed by Rosberg and Hamilton one lap later respectively . Following the stops , Hamilton led Rosberg by seven seconds . Max Verstappen dropped down the order when a problem at the rear of the car caused him to be stationary for 31 seconds during his stop on lap 30 . Fernando Alonso , who had been running in ninth place , retired from the race with a gearbox failure on lap 43 . By lap 45 , Hamilton had extended his lead to ten seconds , while Rosberg remained two seconds ahead of Sebastian Vettel .
By lap 59 , Verstappen on the fast super @-@ soft tyres was chasing Lotus ' Romain Grosjean for tenth position , with Verstappen making several attempts to pass over the following laps . At the beginning of lap 64 , coming into turn one , Verstappen crashed into the back of the Lotus , sending him flying into the barriers . While he was able to walk away from the accident without injuries , a " Virtual Safety Car " condition was called by the race director to allow marshals to safely recover the damaged car . This was the first time a Virtual Safety Car had been used in Formula One . Shortly thereafter , the regular safety car was sent out on track . Lewis Hamilton , who had been leading the race by almost twenty seconds , was pitted apparently with the intention of returning him to the track ahead of his pursuers . The Mercedes pitwall crew , however , miscalculated the gap allowing Rosberg to take the lead while Hamilton emerged from the pit exit lane marginally behind Vettel who had stayed out under the safety car behind Rosberg . With the safety car coming into the pits on lap 70 of 78 , Rosberg retained the lead unchallenged going on to win the Monaco Grand Prix for a third consecutive time whereas Hamilton finished third , unable to overtake Vettel for second position . Daniel Ricciardo had also pitted under the safety car , and on fresh tyres he was able to pass Kimi Räikkönen in controversial circumstances . His teammate Kvyat then let him past in order to give him the chance to try and pass third @-@ placed Hamilton . When Ricciardo was unable to overtake , he handed fourth place back to Kvyat . Ricciardo set the fastest lap of the race in the process . Jenson Button finished eighth , scoring four championship points for himself and the McLaren team , the first points for the renewed McLaren @-@ Honda partnership since their return at the start of the 2015 season .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Following the race , Mercedes apologised to Hamilton for the pit call , which commentators such as F1Fanatic 's Keith Collantine , Formula One correspondent for The Guardian Paul Weaver , and former Formula One driver David Coulthard felt cost him the victory . Team boss Toto Wolff told the press : " We got our numbers wrong . We thought we had the gap for Lewis to take fresh tyres and come back out in the lead behind the safety car , ahead of Nico and covering off any risk of another competitor taking fresh tyres . But the calculation was incorrect and he came out in third place . " Indeed , more than half of the teams pitted at least one car when the safety car was deployed , just as Hamilton did . However , he as race leader caught up with the safety car quicker and lost a considerably larger amount of time on his way into the pits , leading to him coming out behind Rosberg and Vettel .
During the post @-@ race press conference , Hamilton revealed the decision to pit him was made after he had voiced concern over the heat in his tyres , being under the false impression that his rivals behind had already pitted for the softer compound . When asked whether he would have full confidence in the team 's strategy decisions in the future , he answered " yes " . At the podium interviews , conducted by Martin Brundle , Rosberg admitted his victory " was just a lot of luck " and added that " Lewis drove brilliantly and he would have also deserved the win for sure " . Rosberg became the fourth driver overall , and the first since Ayrton Senna , to win the Monaco Grand Prix three times in a row .
Following the accident with Romain Grosjean , the race stewards handed Max Verstappen a five @-@ place grid penalty for the next race , the Canadian Grand Prix . For the first time in his Formula One career , Verstappen also had two penalty points added to his FIA Super Licence . Verstappen was criticised for his actions by fellow driver Felipe Massa , who said that he deserved the penalty . Verstappen reacted by insisting that he had done nothing wrong , instead pointing to Massa 's own accident at the 2014 Canadian Grand Prix , where Massa had crashed into the back of Sergio Pérez in similar fashion . Immediately following the race , Verstappen had accused Grosjean of " brake @-@ testing " him , a claim denied by Grosjean , who insisted that he had braked even later than the lap before .
The race results meant that Nico Rosberg moved closer towards his teammate 's championship lead , now ten points behind Hamilton . Sebastian Vettel followed another 18 points behind . Meanwhile , in the Constructors ' Championship , Mercedes extended their lead over Ferrari to 84 points .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes
^ 1 — Romain Grosjean received a five place grid penalty for an unscheduled gearbox change .
^ 2 — Carlos Sainz , Jr. was penalised with a pit lane start for bypassing a weight request following Q1 .
= = = Race = = =
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Randy Pausch =
Randolph Frederick " Randy " Pausch ( October 23 , 1960 – July 25 , 2008 ) was an American professor of computer science , human – computer interaction , and design at Carnegie Mellon University ( CMU ) in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania .
Pausch learned that he had pancreatic cancer in September 2006 , and in August 2007 he was given a terminal diagnosis : " 3 to 6 months of good health left " . He gave an upbeat lecture titled " The Last Lecture : Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams " on September 18 , 2007 , at Carnegie Mellon , which became a popular YouTube video and led to other media appearances . He then co @-@ authored a book called The Last Lecture on the same theme , which became a New York Times best @-@ seller .
Pausch died of complications from pancreatic cancer on July 25 , 2008 .
= = Early life = =
Pausch was born in Baltimore , Maryland , and grew up in Columbia , Maryland . After graduating from Oakland Mills High School in Columbia , Pausch received his bachelor 's degree in computer science from Brown University in May 1982 and his Ph.D. in computer science from Carnegie Mellon University in August 1988 . While completing his doctoral studies , Pausch was briefly employed at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center and Adobe Systems .
= = Computer science career = =
Pausch was an assistant and associate professor in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Virginia 's School of Engineering and Applied Science from 1988 until 1997 . While there , he completed sabbaticals at Walt Disney Imagineering and Electronic Arts ( EA ) . In 1997 , Pausch became Associate Professor of Computer Science , Human @-@ Computer Interaction , and Design at Carnegie Mellon University . In 1998 , he was a co @-@ founder , along with Don Marinelli , of CMU 's Entertainment Technology Center ( ETC ) , and he started the Building Virtual Worlds course at CMU , which he taught for 10 years . He consulted with Google on user interface design and also consulted with PARC , Imagineering , and Media Metrix . Pausch is also the founder of the Alice software project . He received the National Science Foundation Presidential Young Investigator Award and was a Lilly Foundation Teaching Fellow . Pausch was the author or co @-@ author of five books and over 70 articles .
Pausch received two awards from ACM in 2007 for his achievements in computing education : the Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award and the ACM Special Interest Group on Computer Science Education Award for Outstanding Contributions to Computer Science Education . He was also inducted as a Fellow of the ACM in 2007 .
= = Cancer and death = =
Pausch was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer and underwent a Whipple procedure ( pancreaticoduodenectomy ) on September 19 , 2006 , in an unsuccessful attempt to halt the disease . He was told in August 2007 to expect a remaining three to six months of good health . He soon moved his family to Chesapeake , Virginia , a suburb near Norfolk , to be close to his wife 's family . On March 13 , 2008 , Pausch advocated for greater federal funding for pancreatic cancer before the United States Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Labor , Health and Human Services , Education , and Related Agencies . In the week prior to this , he had been hospitalized in order to have needle aspiration of pleural effusion in his right lung .
On May 2 , 2008 , a positron emission tomography ( PET ) scan showed that he had very tiny ( 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) or less ) metastases in his lungs and in some of the lymph nodes in his chest . He also had metastases in his peritoneal and retroperitoneal cavities . On June 26 , 2008 , Pausch indicated that he was considering stopping further chemotherapy because of the potential adverse side effects . He was , however , considering some immuno @-@ therapy @-@ based approaches . On July 24 , on behalf of Pausch , a friend anonymously posted a message on Pausch 's webpage stating that a biopsy had indicated that the cancer had progressed farther than had been indicated by recent PET scans and that Pausch had " taken a step down " and was " much sicker than he had been " . The friend also stated that Pausch had then enrolled in a hospice program designed to provide palliative care to those at the end of life .
Pausch died from pancreatic cancer at his family 's home in Chesapeake , Virginia on July 25 , 2008 , at the age of 47 . He is survived by his wife , Jai , and their three children , Dylan , Logan , and Chloe .
= = " Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams " = =
Pausch delivered his " Last Lecture " , titled " Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams " , at CMU on September 18 , 2007 . He gave an abridged version of his speech on The Oprah Winfrey Show in October 2007 . The talk was modeled after an ongoing series of lectures where top academics are asked to think deeply about what matters to them , and then give a hypothetical " final talk " , with a topic such as " what wisdom would you try to impart to the world if you knew it was your last chance ? " Before speaking , Pausch received a long standing ovation from a large crowd of over 400 colleagues and students . When he motioned them to sit down , saying , " Make me earn it " , someone in the audience shouted back , " You did ! "
During the lecture , Pausch offered inspirational life lessons , and performed push @-@ ups on stage . He also commented on the irony that the " Last Lecture " series had recently been renamed as " Journeys " , saying , " I thought , damn , I finally nailed the venue and they renamed it . " After Pausch finished his lecture , Steve Seabolt , on behalf of Electronic Arts — which is now collaborating with CMU in the development of Alice 3 @.@ 0 — pledged to honor Pausch by creating a memorial scholarship for women in computer science , in recognition of Pausch 's support and mentoring of women in CS and engineering .
CMU president Jared Cohon spoke emotionally of Pausch 's humanity and called his contributions to the university and to education " remarkable and stunning " . He then announced that CMU will celebrate Pausch 's impact on the world by building and naming after Pausch a raised pedestrian bridge to connect CMU 's new Computer Science building and the Center for the Arts , symbolizing the way Pausch linked those two disciplines . Brown University professor Andries van Dam followed Pausch 's last lecture with a tearful and impassioned speech praising him for his courage and leadership , calling him a role model .
The Randy Pausch Memorial Footbridge was dedicated on October 30 , 2009 , with Jai , Dylan , Logan , and Chloe Pausch cutting the ribbon .
= = = The Last Lecture = = =
The Disney @-@ owned publisher Hyperion paid $ 6 @.@ 7 million for the rights to publish a book about Pausch called The Last Lecture , co @-@ authored by Pausch and Wall Street Journal reporter Jeffrey Zaslow . The book became a New York Times best @-@ seller on April 28 , 2008 . The Last Lecture expands on Pausch 's speech . The book 's first printing had 400 @,@ 000 copies , and it has been translated into 46 languages . It has spent more than 85 weeks on the New York Times bestseller list , and there are now more than 4 @.@ 5 million copies in print in the U.S. alone . Despite speculation that the book would be made into a movie , Pausch had denied these rumors , stating that " there 's a reason to do the book , but if it 's telling the story of the lecture in the medium of film , we already have that . "
= = = Media coverage = = =
Pausch was named " Person of the Week " on ABC 's World News with Charles Gibson on September 21 , 2007 . His " Last Lecture " attracted wide attention from the international media , became an Internet hit , and was viewed over a million times in the first month after its delivery . On October 22 , 2007 , Pausch appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show where he discussed his situation and summarized his " Last Lecture " . On October 6 , 2007 , Pausch joined the Pittsburgh Steelers for the day during their regular practice , after the organization learned that one of his childhood dreams mentioned in his " Last Lecture " was to play in the NFL . On April 9 , 2008 , the ABC network aired an hour @-@ long Diane Sawyer feature on Pausch titled " The Last Lecture : A Love Story For Your Life " . On July 29 , 2008 , ABC aired a follow @-@ up to the Last Lecture special , remembering Pausch and his famous lecture .
= = = Other lectures and appearances = = =
Pausch gave a lecture about time management on November 27 , 2007 at the University of Virginia , to an audience of over 850 people . In March 2008 , Pausch appeared in a public service announcement video and testified before Congress in support of cancer research . On May 18 , 2008 , Pausch made a surprise return appearance at Carnegie Mellon , giving a speech at the commencement ceremony , as well as attending the School of Computer Science 's diploma ceremony , and on May 19 Pausch appeared on the show Good Morning America . His lecture , " Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams " , was nominated at the 2007 YouTube Video Awards .
A devoted Star Trek fan , Pausch was invited by film director J. J. Abrams to film a role in Star Trek . Abrams heard of Pausch 's condition and sent a personal e @-@ mail inviting Pausch to the set . Pausch accepted and traveled to Los Angeles , California to shoot his scene . In addition to appearing in the film , he also has a line of dialogue at the beginning of the film ( " Captain , we have visual . " ) and donated the $ 217 @.@ 06 paycheck to charity .
= = Honors = =
The Pittsburgh City Council declared November 19 , 2007 to be " Dr. Randy Pausch Day " .
In May 2008 , Pausch was listed by Time as one of the World 's Top @-@ 100 Most Influential People .
Randy was named Pittsburgher of the Year 2008 .
On May 30 , 2008 , Randy received a letter from then President George W. Bush thanking him for his commitment to the Nation 's youth .
On February 4 , 2009 , The Walt Disney Company dedicated a tribute plaque at Walt Disney World near the " Mad Tea Party " attraction with a quote by Randy that reads " Be good at something ; It makes you valuable ... Have something to bring to the table , because that will make you more welcome . "
The Walt Disney Company also created the Disney Memorial Pausch Fellowship at Carnegie Mellon University , which will support two graduate students .
Per Jared Cohon 's announcement on the day of the Last Lecture , a raised pedestrian bridge at CMU that connects the Gates Computer Science building and the Purnell Center for the Arts is named after Pausch , symbolizing the way he linked the two disciplines .
= = Other publications = =
Adding input and output to the transactional model ( Research paper , CMU ) , 1988
Dann , Wanda P. ; Cooper , Stephen ; Pausch , Randy ( 2005 @-@ 07 @-@ 25 ) . Learning to Program with Alice . Prentice Hall . ISBN 0 @-@ 13 @-@ 187289 @-@ 3 .
= Public Relations Society of America =
The Public Relations Society of America ( PRSA ) is a nonprofit trade association for public relations professionals headquartered in New York City . It was founded in 1947 by combining the American Council on Public Relations and the National Association of Public Relations Councils . That year it had its first annual conference and award ceremony . In the 1950s and 1960s , the society created its code of conduct , accreditation program and a student society called the Public Relations Student Society of America . In the 1970s and 1980s , its membership attained a stronger female demographic and the society had its first female Presidents . PRSA created a definition of public relations in 1982 , which was updated with a crowd @-@ sourced version in 2011 .
PRSA is governed by a Leadership Assembly that consists of delegates representing its membership , a board of directors and various committees and task forces . Positions are elected and served on a volunteer basis . PRSA hosts an accreditation program , industry awards , networking events and a code of conduct . PRSA also advocates on behalf of the public relations industry for changes in education and for the credibility of the profession .
= = History = =
The Public Relations Society of America was formed in 1947 by combining the American Council on Public Relations and
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the National Association of Public Relations Councils . The society had its first annual conference in Philadelphia , where Richard Falk was given PRSA 's first " annual citation " for advancing the field of public relations . Several ethical violations in the field led to discussions about ethics within the society . At the 1952 annual conference , a speaker used Adolf Hitler as an example of the potential abuse of communications . The society published its first code of conduct and its first Anvil awards two years later . The code of conduct was later ratified in 1959 and again in 1963 . PRSA merged with the American Public Relations Association in 1961 and started its accreditation program for public relations professionals the next year . The Public Relations Student Society of America ( PRSSA ) was created in 1967 based on suggestions by Professor Walter Seifer of Ohio State University .
In the 1970s to early 1980s , PRSA 's female membership base increased , coinciding with more women pursuing a career in the field . PRSA had its first female President in 1972 and a second female President in 1983 . In 1981 , 78 percent of PRSA 's student society were women , up from 38 percent in 1968 . The society grew to 9 @,@ 000 members by 1981 , up from 4 @,@ 500 members in 1960 . In 1977 , the Federal Trade Commission ( FTC ) said PRSA 's code of conduct inhibited fair competition by requiring members not to solicit clients from other members . It issued a consent order that required PRSA to remove content from its code of conduct that contained sexist language , discouraged soliciting clients from other members or encouraged price @-@ fixing activities . PRSA 's first definition of public relations was created in 1982 as " Public relations helps an organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other . ” In 1986 , PRSA 's then President Anthony Franco resigned from his post after it was revealed he was accused of insider trading by the Securities Exchange Commission . The PRSA 's philanthropy arm , the PRSA Foundation , was founded in 1990 .
In 1994 O 'Dwyer from the O 'Dwyer 's PR trade journal alleged that PRSA was violating copyright laws by lending articles from USA Today , The New York Times , O 'Dwyer 's and others to members . Although O 'Dwyer has been a critic of PRSA since the 1970s , this is often considered the beginning of a long @-@ term dispute between PRSA and O 'Dwyer that PR News described as a " never @-@ ending back @-@ and @-@ forth . " In 1996 and 2011 O 'Dwyer criticized PRSA on issues such as financial transparency , auditing and spending in the context of proposed increases in membership dues . PRSA said the increases were caused by an increase in services to members .
In 2000 , PRSA and the Institute of Public Relations signed a mutual declaration saying the two would work together in areas like ethics , education , accreditation , professional development and new media . The society started two efforts to revise its definition of public relations in 2003 and 2007 , but neither moved forward . In November 2011 , PRSA led an initiative called Public Relations Defined , in order to create a crowd @-@ sourced definition of public relations . 927 submissions were made on PRSA 's website filling in the blanks to the statement : " Public relations ( does what ) with or for ( whom ) to ( do what ) for ( what purpose ) . ” The winning definition was : " a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships between organisations and their bodies . " According to the Chartered Institute of Public Relations ( CIPR ) " reactions to the new PRSA definition were mixed and views vigorously debated . "
In 2011 PRSA publicized accusations that O 'Dwyer had been eavesdropping on PRSA 's conference calls . Later that year PRSA started refusing O 'Dwyer entrance to their events and sent a 23 @-@ page letter to O 'Dwyer describing his behavior as disruptive and unethical . The National Press Club tried to negotiate his entrance unsuccessfully .
= = Organization = =
PRSA is organized as a 501 ( c ) ( 6 ) not @-@ for @-@ profit organization and governed by a set of bylaws . A Chair is nominated each year and elected based on a vote of the Leadership Assembly . The Leadership Assembly consists of one delegate for every 100 members , as well as anyone that holds an elected office . Elected positions within PRSA are held on a volunteer @-@ basis . A Board of Directors can propose membership fee changes that must be approved by the assembly . The board has the authority to create or dissolve task forces and committees as well as revoke or reward membership status . PRSA 's Board of Ethics and Professional Standards and the Universal Accreditation Board make recommendations on the code of conduct and accreditation programs respectively . PRSA has more than 100 chapters in ten districts , 300 student chapters and 14 interest groups .
Since the 1970s , the PRSA had restricted the right to sit in the group 's national assembly or to seek election to the national board to those possessing an APR certification . The requirement for the assembly was dropped in 2004 , but was maintained for those seeking board membership . In 2010 a revolt led by Richard Edelman and a group calling itself " the Committee for a Democratic PRSA " called for the restriction to be scrapped . The attempt to overturn the rule was defeated in a vote during that year 's session of the assembly . In 2003 a proposal to amend the society 's bylaws to allow non @-@ accredited professionals to run for PRSA 's offices was defeated , but the motion passed the following year .
= = Services = =
PRSA hosts an accreditation program called APR ( accreditation in public relations ) that evaluates a PR professional in four categories : research , planning , implementation and evaluation . Accreditation is usually granted to candidates with five to seven years of experience upon completion of written and oral examinations . About 20 percent of PRSA 's members are accredited . PRSA hosts the Anvil awards , which are issued based on four components : research , planning , execution and evaluation . The Gold Anvil is awarded to individuals . The Silver Anvil is awarded for strategy and the Bronze for tactics . It also issues awards such as Grand Gold Pick , Rookie of the Year , Lifetime Achievement and PR person of the year .
PRSA 's Public Relations Journal was published from October 1945 to 1995 . Its original mission statement was " to carry articles that deal with fundamental public relations problems , as they currently press for solution . " The journal was comparable to a text @-@ heavy academic periodical . PRSA still publishes The Strategist and Tactics . The Strategist is a quarterly glossy magazine intended for executives , while Tactics is a monthly news tabloid .
The Public Relations Society of America publishes a code of ethics . Members that violate the code may have their membership revoked , usually under its mandate that members " not engage in any practice which tends to corrupt the integrity of channels of public communication " and that members act " in accord with public welfare . " The code also expects PRSA members to identify the source of their communications , avoid derogatory methods and avoid abusing insider information . According to the code of conduct , members should " protect and advance the free flow of accurate and truthful information ; foster informed decision @-@ making through open communication ... and work to strengthen the public 's trust in the profession . " The code states that members " adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth . " A story in CBS criticized the code : " Show me a PR person who is ' accurate ' and ' truthful , ' and I 'll show you a PR person who is unemployed . " The code of ethics has been revised in 1954 , 1959 , 1963 , 1977 , 1983 , 1988 and 2000 .
= = Research and advocacy = =
The Public Relations Society of America and the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication commissioned studies in 1975 and 1987 on the state of public relations in education . They found that too many classes were taught by educators with little or no experience in the field and that most didn 't have a post @-@ graduate degree . Several standards in education were established by the studies , including that 75 percent of coursework for PR professionals be outside the major . In 1991 , PRSA hosted a Task Force on the Structure and Role on Public Relations , which found that public relations teachers still lacked practical experience . In 1993 PRSA published a Professional Career Guide , which classified skills and knowledge that were needed at five different levels of someone 's career . PRSA also advocates that MBA programs include communications programs , so business executives will be more prepared for a crisis .
PRSA advocates for the trust , credibility and respect of public relations as a profession , believing that PR can facilitate open communication that allows for an informed public and supports the democratic process . In 1999 , a National Credibility Index from PRSA found that PR professionals were among the least credible of professions as a spokesperson . The PRSA objected to the actions of the Redner Group in 2011 , when the PR firm threatened to blacklist media that gave Duke Nukem negative reviews . In 2012 a Senate subcommittee investigated the communications and advertising spend of eleven government agencies . PRSA opposed the investigation , presenting that the effort dismissed the value of public relations in government .
= Thumbelina =
" Thumbelina " ( Danish : Tommelise ) is a literary fairy tale by Hans Christian Andersen first published by C. A. Reitzel on 16 December 1835 in Copenhagen , Denmark with " The Naughty Boy " and " The Traveling Companion " in the second installment of Fairy Tales Told for Children . " Thumbelina " is about a tiny girl and her adventures with appearance- and marriage @-@ minded toads , moles , and cockchafers . She successfully avoids their intentions before falling in love with a flower @-@ fairy prince just her size .
" Thumbelina " is chiefly Andersen 's invention , though he did take inspiration from tales of miniature people such as " Tom Thumb " . " Thumbelina " was published as one of a series of seven fairy tales in 1835 which were not well received by the Danish critics who disliked their informal style and their lack of morals . One critic , however , applauded " Thumbelina " . The earliest English translation of " Thumbelina " is dated 1846 . The tale has been adapted to various media including television drama and animated film .
= = Plot = =
In the first English translation of 1847 by Mary Howitt , the tale opens with a beggar woman giving a peasant 's wife a barleycorn in exchange for food . Once planted , a tiny girl , Thumbelina ( Tommelise ) , emerges from its flower . One night , Thumbelina , asleep in her walnut @-@ shell cradle , is carried off by a toad who wants the miniature maiden as a bride for her son . With the help of friendly fish and a butterfly , Thumbelina escapes the toad and her son , and drifts on a lily pad until captured by a stag beetle who later discards her when his friends reject her company .
Thumbelina tries to protect herself from the elements , but when winter comes , she is in desperate straits . She is finally given shelter by an old field mouse and tends her dwelling in gratitude . The mouse suggests Thumbelina marry her neighbor , a mole , but Thumbelina finds repulsive the prospect of being married to such a creature because he spent all his days underground and never saw the sun or sky . The field mouse keeps pushing Thumbelina into the marriage , saying the mole is a good match for her , and does not listen to her protests .
At the last minute , Thumbelina escapes the situation by fleeing to a far land with a swallow she nursed back to health during the winter . In a sunny field of flowers , Thumbelina meets a tiny flower @-@ fairy prince just her size and to her liking , and they wed . She receives a pair of wings to accompany her husband on his travels from flower to flower , and a new name , Maia .
In Hans Christian Andersen 's version of the story , a bluebird had been viewing Thumbelina 's story since the beginning and had been in love with her since . In the end , the bird is heartbroken once Thumbelina marries the flower @-@ fairy prince , and flies off eventually arriving at a small house . There , he tells Thumbelina 's story to a man who is implied to be Andersen himself and chronicles the story in a book .
= = Background = =
Hans Christian Andersen was born in Odense , Denmark on 2 April 1805 to Hans Andersen , a shoemaker , and Anne Marie Andersdatter . An only and a spoiled child , Andersen shared a love of literature with his father who read him The Arabian Nights and the fables of Jean de la Fontaine . Together , they constructed panoramas , pop @-@ up pictures , and toy theatres , and took long jaunts into the countryside .
Andersen 's father died in 1816 , and from then on , Andersen was left to his own devices . In order to escape his poor , illiterate mother , he promoted his artistic inclinations and courted the cultured middle class of Odense , singing and reciting in their drawing @-@ rooms . On 4 September 1819 , the fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Andersen left Odense for Copenhagen with the few savings he had acquired from his performances , a letter of reference to the ballerina Madame Schall , and youthful dreams and intentions of becoming a poet or an actor .
After three years of rejections and disappointments , he finally found a patron in Jonas Collin , the director of the Royal Theatre , who , believing in the boy 's potential , secured funds from the king to send Andersen to a grammar school in Slagelse , a provincial town in west Zealand , with the expectation that the boy would continue his education at Copenhagen University at the appropriate time .
At Slagelse , Andersen fell under the tutelage of Simon Meisling , a short , stout , balding thirty @-@ five @-@ year @-@ old classicist and translator of Virgil 's Aeneid . Andersen was not the quickest student in the class and was given generous doses of Meisling 's contempt . " You 're a stupid boy who will never make it , " Meisling told him . Meisling is believed to be the model for the learned mole in " Thumbelina " .
Fairy tale and folklorists Iona and Peter Opie have proposed the tale as a " distant tribute " to Andersen 's confidante , Henriette Wulff , the small , frail , hunchbacked daughter of the Danish translator of Shakespeare who loved Andersen as Thumbelina loves the swallow ; however , no written evidence exists to support the theory .
= = Publication and critical reception = =
Andersen published two installments of his first collection of Fairy Tales Told for Children in 1835 , the first in May and the second in December . " Thumbelina " was first published in the December installment by C. A. Reitzel on 16 December 1835 in Copenhagen . " Thumbelina " was the first tale in the booklet which included two other tales : " The Naughty Boy " and " The Traveling Companion " . The story was republished in collected editions of Andersen 's works in 1850 and 1862 .
The first reviews of the seven tales of 1835 did not appear until 1836 and the Danish critics were not enthusiastic . The informal , chatty style of the tales and their lack of morals were considered inappropriate in children ’ s literature . One critic however acknowledged " Thumbelina " to be “ the most delightful fairy tale you could wish for . ”
The critics offered Andersen no further encouragement . One literary journal never mentioned the tales at all while another advised Andersen not to waste his time writing fairy tales . One critic stated that Andersen " lacked the usual form of that kind of poetry [ ... ] and would not study models " . Andersen felt he was working against their preconceived notions of what a fairy tale should be , and returned to novel @-@ writing , believing it was his true calling . The critical reaction to the 1835 tales was so harsh that he waited an entire year before publishing " The Little Mermaid " and " The Emperor 's New Clothes " in the third and final installment of Fairy Tales Told for Children .
= = English translations = =
Mary Howitt was the first to translate " Tommelise " into English and published it as " Thumbelina " in Wonderful Stories for Children in 1846 . However , she did not approve of the opening scene with the witch , and , instead , had the childless woman provide bread and milk to a hungry beggar woman who then rewarded her hostess with a barleycorn .
Charles Boner also translated the tale in 1846 as " Little Ellie " while Madame de Chatelain dubbed the child ' Little Totty ' in her 1852 translation . The editor of The Child 's Own Book ( 1853 ) called the child throughout , ' Little Maja ' . H. W. Dulcken was probably the translator responsible for the name , ' Thumbelina ' . His widely published volumes of Andersen 's tales appeared in 1864 and 1866 . Mrs. H.B. Paulli translated the name as ' Little Tiny ' in the late @-@ nineteenth century .
In the twentieth century , Erik Christian Haugaard translated the name as ' Inchelina ' in 1974 , and Jeffrey and Diane Crone Frank translated the name as ' Thumbelisa ' in 2005 . Modern English translations of " Thumbelina " are found in the six @-@ volume complete edition of Andersen 's tales from the 1940s by Jean Hersholt , and Erik Christian Haugaard ’ s translation of the complete tales in 1974 .
= = Commentaries = =
For fairy tale researchers and folklorists Iona and Peter Opie , " Thumbelina " is an adventure story from the feminine point of view with its moral being people are happiest with their own kind . They point out that Thumbelina is a passive character , the victim of circumstances whereas her male counterpart Tom Thumb ( one of the tale ’ s inspirations ) is an active character , makes himself felt , and exerts himself .
Folklorist Maria Tatar sees “ Thumbelina ” as a runaway bride story and notes that it has been viewed as an allegory about arranged marriages , and a fable about being true to one ’ s heart that upholds the traditional notion that the love of a prince is to be valued above all else . She points out that in Hindu belief , a thumb @-@ sized being known as the innermost self or soul dwells in the heart of all beings , human or animal , and that the concept may have migrated to European folklore and taken form as Tom Thumb and Thumbelina , both of whom seek transfiguration and redemption . She detects parallels between Andersen ’ s tale and the Greek myth of Demeter and her daughter , Persephone , and , notwithstanding the pagan associations and allusions in the tale , notes that " Thumbelina " repeatedly refers to Christ ‘ s suffering and resurrection , and the Christian concept of salvation .
Andersen biographer Jackie Wullschlager indicates that “ Thumbelina ” was the first of Andersen 's tales to dramatize the sufferings of one who is different , and , as a result of being different , becomes the object of mockery . It was also the first of Andersen 's tales to incorporate the swallow as the symbol of the poetic soul and Andersen ’ s identification with the swallow as a migratory bird whose pattern of life his own traveling days were beginning to resemble .
Roger Sale believes Andersen expressed his feelings of social and sexual inferiority by creating characters that are inferior to their beloveds . The Little Mermaid , for example , has no soul while her human beloved has a soul as his birthright . In “ Thumbelina ” , Andersen suggests the toad , the beetle , and the mole are Thumbelina ’ s inferiors and should remain in their places rather than wanting their superior . Sale indicates they are not inferior to Thumbelina but simply different . He suggests that Andersen may have done some damage to the animal world when he colored his animal characters with his own feelings of inferiority .
Jacqueline Banerjee views the tale as a failure story . “ Not surprisingly , “ she writes , “ ” Thumbelina “ is now often read as a story of specifically female empowerment . “ Susie Stephens believes Thumbelina herself is a grotesque , and observes that “ the grotesque in children ’ s literature is [ ... ] a necessary and beneficial component that enhances the psychological welfare of the young reader “ . Children are attracted to the cathartic qualities of the grotesque , she suggests . Sidney Rosenblatt in his essay " Thumbelina and the Development of Female Sexuality " believes the tale may be analyzed , from the perspective of Freudian psychoanalysis , as the story of female masturbation . Thumbelina herself , he posits , could symbolize the clitoris , her rose petal coverlet the labia , the white butterfly " the budding genitals " , and the mole and the prince the anal and vaginal openings respectively .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Animation = = =
The earliest animated version of the tale is a silent , black @-@ and @-@ white release by director Herbert M. Dawley in 1924 .
Lotte Reiniger released a 10 @-@ minute cinematic adaptation in 1954 featuring her " silhouette " puppets .
Dyuymovochka was a Russian popular animation version from 1964 of a film studio " Soyuzmultfilm " . One of the best statements of the director Leonid Amalrik : in " Thumbelina " Andersen 's heroes loved by all play the pressing history of sufferings of the least girl on the earth .
In 1983 , a Japanese version was released called Oyayubihime ( Princess Thumb ) ; 世界名作童話 おやゆび姫 ( Sekai Meisaku Dōwa Oyayubi @-@ hime ; World Classic Fairytale Princess Thumb ) , a Toei Animation anime movie , with character designs by Tezuka Osamu from 1978 .
In 1992 , The Golden Films released of Thumbelina ( 1992 ) , and Tom Thumb Meets Thumbelina afterwards .
An animated , Japanese series adapted the plot , Thumbelina : A Magical Story ( 1992 ) and made it into a movie , released in 1993 .
In 1994 , Warner Brothers released Thumbelina ( 1994 ) , directed by Don Bluth and Gary Goldman , with Jodi Benson as the voice of Thumbelina .
The 2002 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD animated movie , The Adventures of Tom Thumb and Thumbelina , brought together the two most famous tiny people of literature , with Thumbelina voiced by Jennifer Love Hewitt .
In 2005 , there was H.C. Andersens eventyrlige verden : Tommelise ( 2005 ) ,
The 2009 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD animated movie , Barbie Presents Thumbelina , where Barbie tells the story of the Twillerbees , with Thumbelina as the main character. in a modern @-@ day tale . She meets Makena , the daughter of a wealthy couple , who became the Twillerbees ' only hope for saving their home ( which was being torn due to a building construction by Makena 's parents ) . At the end , Barbie waves at Thumbelina and her friends before the Twillerbees magically make a plant grow in the sight of a little girl , revealing it is a true story .
In 2015 , a modernized version of Thumbelina appears in the Disney Junior series , Goldie and Bear . In the episode , Thumbelina 's Wild Ride , Thumbelina is hired to babysit for Goldie and Bear . The two friends are initially put off by her small stature , thinking she 's almost helpless . When she tries getting the kids a snack , she falls down the kitchen sink and slides into the river behind the house . Goldie and Bear try to save her , but soon see that Thumbelina is resourceful , agile , and can lift several times her own weight . She saves herself from the river and even rescues the kids when they fall in trying to save her . The kids take an instant liking to her and can 't wait for the next time she babysits . Thumbelina is voiced by Debby Ryan .
= = = Live action = = =
On June 11 , 1985 , a television dramatization of the tale was broadcast as the 12th episode of the anthology series Faerie Tale Theatre . The production starred Carrie Fisher . A version of the tale was filmed in 1970 as an advertisement for " Pirates World " , a now @-@ defunct Florida theme park . Directed by Barry Mahon and with Shay Garner in the title role , this version was reused in its entirety as filler material for " Santa Claus and the Ice Cream Bunny " , a rival to such films as " Plan 9 from Outer Space " and " Manos : the Hands of Fate " for the title of most inept film ever made .
= The Rain King =
" The Rain King " is the eighth episode of the sixth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on January 10 , 1999 . " The Rain King " was written by Jeffrey Bell and directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " The Rain King " earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 5 , being watched by 21 @.@ 2 million people in its initial broadcast . Critical reception to the episode was mostly mixed , with results ranging from negative to positive .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the episode , Mulder and Scully are asked to investigate the strange weather phenomena occurring in a small town . They find a man , Daryl Mootz , who claims to produce the rain .
" The Rain King " was written by Jeffrey Bell , his first script for the show . The episode was originally purchased as a freelance script , but Bell was later hired on as a full @-@ time writer . Grapevine , Piru , and Culver City , California stood in for the fictional town of Kroner , Kansas during filming . The episode required several elaborate special effect sequences to create heart @-@ shaped hail as well as to simulate a flying cow .
= = Plot = =
On Valentine 's Day in Kroner , Kansas , Sheila Fontaine and Daryl Mootz get into an argument . Fontaine had put their engagement news in the paper , but Mootz had wanted to keep it a secret for as long as the drought makes business poor . After the argument , Mootz goes for a drunken drive but crashes after heart @-@ shaped hailstones wreck his car .
Six months later , Mulder and Scully arrive in Kroner by request of the mayor . For several months a terrible drought has plagued the region . However , Mootz , now styling himself as " The Rain King " , seems to have the power to control the weather . For a hefty sum , he is able to make it rain . Mulder and Scully obtain a client list and head to the local television station to talk to the weatherman , Holman Hardt . Hardt admits that while Mootz 's talents are odd , he appears to truly have the power to control the weather . Mulder and Scully , both skeptical , attend one of Mootz 's rituals . Despite their preconceived notions , Mulder and Scully witness Mootz bring rain to a dry farm .
Mulder and Scully check into a motel , where a cow crashes through the roof of Mulder 's room . After the incident , a tearful Sheila confesses that the cow might have been her fault . She admits that she 's experienced a strange history of weather @-@ related phenomena , and believes that she can unconsciously control the weather . Mulder assures her otherwise . During the conversation , Hardt over @-@ hears that Mootz was drunk the night of the accident , and is relieved . Immediately , Mootz 's rain powers seem to disappear .
It is revealed that Holman Hardt is actually the one controlling the weather . All of the bizarre weather was the side @-@ effect of his long @-@ silent love for Sheila . He felt guilty that his weather @-@ related problem caused Mootz to crash his car , so he would cause it to rain for Mootz . Once he realized Mootz had been drunk the night of the accident , however , he stopped . Unfortunately , Mulder begins to unintentionally attract Sheila , resulting in a massive thunderstorm that materializes due to the meteorologist 's emotions . At the town 's high school reunion , however , Hardt admits his love for Sheila , who accepts him . The storm stops , and Hardt and Sheila live happily ever after .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" The Rain King " was the first episode written by then @-@ new X @-@ Files writer Jeffrey Bell . Bell , who never intended to work in television , sent the production staff three script ideas because he was a fan of the show . The staff agreed to buy one — which eventually became " The Rain King " — as a freelance script . Bell worked with Frank Spotnitz , John Shiban , and Vince Gilligan to edit the script by " boarding " it , a process where note cards are used to flesh out the story . The group of men pitched the story idea to series creator Chris Carter in August , and Bell was later hired as a show writer .
The script went through considerable changes . Bell was unaware that his character of Daryl Mootz would " steal the show " . In addition , the relationship between Holman and the FBI agents grew stronger in subsequent drafts . In the final draft , Bell attempted to parallel the emotional state of Mulder and Scully with Hardt . He said , " Here you have a guy who 's affecting the weather because he 's repressing his emotions [ ... ] and who better to help him than two people whose emotions are repressed and never express their feelings for each other ? "
= = = Filming = = =
The scene in which Daryl Mootz crashes his car after being hit with heart @-@ shaped hail was filmed on a " lonely road " near Grapevine , California . The road was so seldom used that the Caltrans highway officials reportedly had no problem shutting down the entire road for the crew to film the scene . Director Kim Manners was very happy with the way the filming turned out , although he did note that the hardest shot to get was of the car crashing into the pole , because the car kept correcting itself and crashing at an undesired angle .
Ilt Jones , the series ' location manager , decided to use Piru , California as a stand @-@ in for Kroner , Kansas — a fictitious city named after Bell 's college roommate . " How the Ghosts Stole Christmas " would later be filmed in the same town . The climactic scenes in Kroner 's high school were filmed at an actual abandoned high school in Culver City , California . Corey Kaplan and her art team were tasked with turning the derelict gym into a believable reunion set .
= = = Effects = = =
Property master Tom Day and costume designer Christine Peters were tasked with making a one @-@ legged version of Clayton Rohner , who portrayed Mootz . Day constructed a fake prosthetic leg and Peters created a harness that pulled Rohner 's actual leg out of the camera 's sight . The harness was later described as " painful " .
The scene that featured a cow crashing through Mulder 's roof was elaborately orchestrated . Initially , Jones approached the owner of a motel called the Sierra Palona Motel and requested that it be used in the episode . A deal was made that stated that the production staff could cut a hole in the roof for the episode in exchange for a brand @-@ new roof after the episode was filmed . Duke Tomasick , The X @-@ Files construction coordinator , later said that the " fun part " was " calling local roofers and explaining just what kind of damage they 'd be repairing for us " .
Special effects producer Bill Millar acquired several cows , put them in a field , and photographed them for reference . Using digital technology he animated one of the cows to create the effect of it being sucked upwards . Finally , a " cow puppet " was dropped on a re @-@ creation of Mulder 's motel room at Fox Studios . Millar noticed that the cow puppet 's color was different than his computer generated cow , forcing him to quickly change the color . Kim Manners later stated that his biggest regret with the episode is that he did not have David Duchovny respond " Got milk ? " after the cow crashed through his roof .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Rain King " premiered on the Fox network on January 10 , 1999 . Following its initial American broadcast , the episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 12 @.@ 5 , with an 18 share — meaning that roughly 12 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 21 @.@ 20 million viewers . " The Rain King " was both the highest rated episode of Season 6 and the last episode of The X @-@ Files to be viewed by more than 20 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on April 25 , 1999 and received 0 @.@ 75 million viewers , making it the third most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Mulder 's been abducted , infected , and discredited . Tonight , he faces his greatest peril ever ... a woman in love . "
Critical reception was mostly mixed , with results ranging from negative to positive . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files wrote positively of the episode , saying , " ' The Rain King ' was cute . Very cute . [ … ] And yet I never found myself suffering from cuteness overload . In fact , I laughed and smiled the entire way through . " Starpulse named " The Rain King " as the ninth best X @-@ Files episode and praised the lighter approach to the paranormal , saying that the episode was an " ingenious way to use the paranormal motif of the show for something other than thrills " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " grade . Despite criticizing the show for " filming in the land of sunshine and lemon drops " and " border [ ing ] on that overly twee independent movie vibe " , Handlen noted that " the episode ’ s essential sweetness has enough snarky asides from our heroes [ … ] that it never goes completely off the rails . " He did , however , note that the episode 's placement , after a string of several humorous episodes , hurt its reception ; he argued that , had it appeared in an earlier , darker season , the entry would now be viewed as " a cock @-@ eyed classic " .
Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a mixed review and rated the episode three out of five . The two praised the scene featuring the cow getting sucked up by the tornado , calling it " really , very funny " and " comic genius " , but noted that " a romantic comedy cannot work by flying cows alone . " Shearman and Pearson cited casting flaws as to why the episodes as not able to live up to its potential . Other reviews were more negative . In a review of the seventh season episode " Brand X " , Sarah Kendzior from 11th Hour Magazine cited " The Rain King " as one of the worst episodes of The X @-@ Files . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris heavily criticized the " flying cow " scene — noting that the scene was both " poorly executed " and " offensive " for turning the death of a creature into a joke — as well as the final scene , which , according to her , featured a " false pastel sky " . Andy Meisler , in The End and the Beginning noted that the episode was poorly received by fans on the Internet .
= Blair Wark =
Blair Anderson Wark , VC , DSO ( 27 July 1894 – 13 June 1941 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and other Commonwealth armed forces . A quantity surveyor and member of the Citizens Military Force , Wark enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force on 5 August 1915 , for service in the First World War . After initially being employed in the defence of the Suez Canal , his battalion was shipped to the Western Front ; it was here that Wark would be twice decorated for his bravery and leadership . Having received the Distinguished Service Order in 1917 for his actions at the Battle of Polygon Wood , Wark was awarded the Victoria Cross in 1918 for his leadership and gallantry when in temporary command of his battalion over a three @-@ day period , while conducting operations against the Hindenburg Line .
Returning to Australia after the war , Wark resumed work as a quantity surveyor and established his own business . A respected member of Australian society , he held several positions and directorships in various companies and charities , before re @-@ enlisting for service in the Second World War . Promoted to lieutenant colonel , Wark assumed command of the 1st Battalion ( City of Sydney 's Own Regiment ) , but died suddenly at Puckapunyal Camp , Victoria , of coronary heart disease at the age of 46 .
= = Early life = =
Wark was born in Bathurst , New South Wales , on 27 July 1894 , the fourth child of Alexander Wark , a gas engineer from Scotland , and his native @-@ born wife Blanche Adelaide Maria ( née Forde ) . He was educated at Fairleigh Grammar School , Bathurst , and St. Leonard 's Superior Public School before attending Sydney Technical College , where he studied quantity surveying .
In the twelve months prior to July 1912 , Wark was a senior cadet in the Australian Army Cadets , rising to the rank of sergeant within his unit . During this time , he was working as a quantity surveyor before he enlisted in the 18th North Sydney Infantry , Citizen Military Force . Promoted to corporal in early 1913 , he received a commission as a second lieutenant on 16 August , and for the subsequent year was assigned to full @-@ time defence duties in the port of Sydney .
= = First World War = =
= = = Enlistment , August 1915 , to Western Front , September 1918 = = =
On 5 August 1915 , Wark enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force , and was posted as a lieutenant to C Company of the newly raised 30th Battalion . He proceeded to the Sydney suburb of Liverpool , where he attended an infantry school before training at the Royal Military College , Duntroon . On 9 November , the 30th Battalion embarked for Egypt aboard the troopship HMAT A72 Beltana . Upon arrival in December , the battalion was tasked with the defence of the Suez Canal where , on 20 February 1916 , Wark was promoted to captain .
In June 1916 , the battalion departed from Alexandria to join the British Expeditionary Force in France for service on the Western Front ; they arrived at Marseilles on 23 June . The 30th Battalion 's first major action began with the outbreak of the Battle of Fromelles on 19 July 1916 . The unit was originally designated with providing carrying parties for supplies and ammunition during the battle , but was subsequently pulled into the fighting . Wark commanded a company during the action , until being evacuated to the 7th Stationary Hospital with a gunshot wound to his leg . He was transferred to the 3rd London General Hospital in England three days later , and moved again to the 5th Australian Auxiliary Hospital , Digswell House , Welwyn , on 7 August . Recovered by September , Wark was discharged and granted leave before returning to France and the 30th Battalion later that month .
On 9 October 1916 , Wark was attached to the 32nd Battalion , a position that became permanent on 18 November . The 32nd Battalion saw no major offensive action for the remainder of the year , and on 2 January 1917 , Wark gained admission to the Army Infantry School . By February he was back with the 32nd Battalion , and took part in actions at Sunray Trench during March . For these , and further actions at Fromelles , Wark was recommended for the Distinguished Service Order , but the award was never made . He was promoted to major on 27 April , and in June was granted six days of leave to Paris .
In late September and early October , Wark commanded a company in the Ypres sector of Belgium during the Battle of Polygon Wood . On 29 September — the first day of the battle — Wark 's men successfully repelled the leading waves of a German counter @-@ attack and , with artillery support , drove off the remainder . Over the following three days , his constant patrolling and personal reconnaissance of the German positions enabled him to ascertain when they were massing for further counter @-@ attacks ; on one occasion he dispersed the assembling German troops with rifle fire and grenades . For his actions during the battle , Wark was awarded the Distinguished Service Order , the details of which were published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 3 June 1918 .
Granted sixteen days leave to the United Kingdom from 3 November , Wark was selected for a senior officers ' course at Aldershot , England , in January 1918 . On graduation he rejoined the 32nd Battalion in March as its second @-@ in @-@ command , and was Mentioned in the Despatches of Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig on 7 April . Throughout June and July , Wark temporarily commanded the 32nd Battalion , which had played little part in the German Spring Offensive . The battalion took part in the Battle of Amiens on 8 August , and " was subsequently involved in the operations that continued to press the retreating Germans through August and into September " .
= = = Victoria Cross , September 1918 , to repatriation , September 1919 = = =
From 29 September to 1 October 1918 , Wark assumed temporary command of the 32nd Battalion , leading the unit in the 5th Division 's attack against the Hindenburg Line at Bellicourt , and the subsequent advance through Nauroy , Etricourt , Magny La Fosse and Joncourt . This series of battles became the 32nd Battalion 's final actions for the war , and it was during this period that Wark earned his Victoria Cross .
The 32nd Battalion was to commence its attack at Bellicourt at 09 : 00 on 29 September , and move south through the village . Due to mist and smoke from a preceding artillery barrage , visibility was poor . When the advance was held up by two German machine guns , Wark ordered a tank to neutralise them . On reaching the southern end of St Quentin Canal tunnel , Wark came across two hundred troops of the American 117th Infantry Regiment who appeared to be leaderless , and attached them to his own command . A short time later , with visibility still poor , he appropriated armoured reinforcements and began an advance on the village of Nauroy . As the fog began to lift , Wark organised his troops for an attack on the village from a southerly direction . By 11 : 30 , the battalion had taken the village , along with forty Germans as prisoners of war .
Shortly afterwards , Wark observed a battery of German 77 mm guns firing on his rear companies , causing heavy casualties . Collecting a party of his men , he rushed the battery and succeeded in capturing four guns in conjunction with ten crewmen . With only two men , he pushed forward and surprised fifty Germans near Magny @-@ la @-@ Fosse who subsequently surrendered . At 15 : 00 , he halted his battalion near Joncourt , and sent out patrols which found the town still occupied by enemy forces . The 32nd Battalion responded by withdrawing slightly and strengthening its line . At 17 : 30 , the Germans launched a counter @-@ attack that was repulsed with the assistance of the 31st Battalion , together with some men from the 46th Infantry Division .
At 07 : 00 the next day , the 32nd Battalion attacked once more , advancing 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) to a point just north of Etricourt . Under heavy shelling and machine gun fire , they established a line between Joncourt and Etricourt . On 1 October , at 06 : 00 , with a company attached from the 30th Battalion , the 32nd Battalion launched an attack that cut through Joncourt . Leading from the front , Wark dashed forward and silenced machine guns that were causing heavy casualties ; this enabled the 5th Division to complete its task of forcing through to the Beaurevoir Line .
The full citation for Wark 's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette on 26 December 1918 , reading :
War Office , 26th December , 1918
His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officers , N.C.O. ' s and Men : —
Maj. Blair Anderson Wark , D.S.O. , 32nd Bn . , A.I.F.
For most conspicuous bravery , initiative and control during the period 29th Sept. to 1st Oct. 1918 , in the operations against the Hindenburg Line at Bellicourt and the advance through Nauroy , Etricourt , Magny La Fosse and Joncourt .
On 29th Sept . , after personal reconnaissance under heavy fire , he led his command forward at a critical period and restored the situation . Moving fearlessly at the head of , and at times far in advance of , his troops , he cheered his men on through Nauroy , thence towards Etricourt . Still leading his assaulting companies , he observed a battery of 77mm. guns firing on his rear companies and causing heavy casualties . Collecting a few of his men , he rushed the battery , capturing four guns and ten of the crew . Then moving rapidly forward with only two N.C.O.s , he surprised and captured fifty Germans near Magny La Fosse .
On 1st Oct. , 1918 , he again showed fearless leading and gallantry in attack , and without hesitation and regardless of personal risk dashed forward and silenced machine guns which were causing heavy casualties .
Throughout he displayed the greatest courage , skilful leading and devotion to duty , and his work was invaluable .
The 32nd Battalion was resting and retraining away from the frontline when the Armistice was signed on 11 November 1918 . On 5 January 1919 , Wark was granted leave to the United Kingdom , where he accepted his Victoria Cross from King George V on 13 February . Returning to his unit six days later , Wark was then assigned to the 30th Battalion , and sent back to England in preparation for demobilisation . On 31 May 1919 , Wark married Phyllis Marquiss Munro at St George 's Parish Church , Worthing , Sussex ; ten days later , he boarded HT Port Lyttleton to return to Australia , where he was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force on 28 September 1919 . Two of Wark 's brothers also served in the First World War , both in the 56th Battalion ; Alexander was a sergeant , while Keith , a recipient of the Distinguished Conduct Medal , rose to the rank of lieutenant .
= = Later life = =
On demobilisation Wark resumed business as a quantity surveyor in Sydney , later becoming a principal of Thompson & Wark , quantity surveyors . In June 1920 , he was in charge of ten fellow Victoria Cross recipients when they were introduced to the Prince of Wales at Government House , during the latter 's visit to Australia . Wark became a respected member of Australian society , holding several honorary public positions , including director of the Royal North Shore Hospital , life governor of the New South Wales Benevolent Society , and a councillor of the National Roads and Motorists ' Association of New South Wales . He was a committee member of the Hawkesbury River Race Club , as well as holding directorships in various insurance and petroleum companies .
In 1922 , Wark and Phyllis divorced ; five years later , on 10 December 1927 , he married Catherine Mary Davis at St Stephen 's Presbyterian Church , Sydney . The pair later had one son and two daughters . On 17 April 1940 , Wark returned to active duty in the Second World War , and was appointed to the 1st Battalion ( City of Sydney 's Own Regiment ) as a major . On 26 July , he was promoted to temporary lieutenant colonel and assumed command of the battalion . While bivouacked at Puckapunyal Camp , Victoria , he died suddenly of coronary heart disease on 13 June 1941 . The medical officer attending later concluded : " The cause of death in my opinion was angina pectoris , the fatal attack having been brought on by physical exertion during a night exercise under very cold conditions . " He was cremated on 16 June at Eastern Suburbs Crematorium , Sydney , after a full military funeral , and his ashes were interred at Woronora Cemetery , Sydney . Wark 's Victoria Cross is currently on display at the Queensland Museum , South Bank .
= Pilot ( American Horror Story ) =
" Pilot " is the first episode and the series premiere of the television series American Horror Story , which premiered on the network FX on October 5 , 2011 . The episode was co @-@ written by series creators Ryan Murphy and Brad Falchuk and directed by Murphy . Falchuk and Murphy had previously collaborated on the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama Glee .
In this episode , the Harmon family – Ben ( Dylan McDermott ) , Vivien ( Connie Britton ) and Violet ( Taissa Farmiga ) – move from Boston to Los Angeles after Vivien gives birth to a stillborn baby and Ben has an affair with one of his students . The family moves to a restored mansion , unaware that the home is haunted . While Vivien tries to deal with intrusive neighbor Constance ( Jessica Lange ) , Violet connects with troubled teenager Tate ( Evan Peters ) .
In the United States , the series premiere achieved a viewership of 3 @.@ 18 million . The episode
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-@ dress the existing spoil heaps of defunct mines for wolfram and arsenic .
= = = Emigration and economic collapse = = =
As the metal mining industry on which it depended declined , and prices for staple goods rose sharply resulting from fluctuations in food prices and of the American Civil War , the economy of Cornwall collapsed . Large numbers of Cornish families emigrated to mining districts in other countries and other parts of the United Kingdom ; in some former mining districts as much as 3 ⁄ 4 of the young people moved out in the 20 years following the closure of the local mines . Between 1861 and 1900 at least 35 % of Cornish women aged 15 – 24 moved to other parts of the UK , and over 26 % left the country altogether . Although the male emigrants generally found work in mines in their new places of settlement , or put their mining skills to use digging tunnels for the rapidly growing railway networks , the jobs traditionally done by bal maidens , where they still existed , were usually done by locally recruited men or boys , and the tradition of female Cornish mine labour died out in emigrant families .
While a few former bal maidens found alternative employment at local factories , and large numbers emigrated , the unemployment situation in Cornwall remained bad . As early as the 1860s , charitable schemes had begun for training former bal maidens as domestic servants , and as the textile industry of the North of England boomed a concerted effort was made to recruit Cornish women to work in the mills . Large numbers of women took up these offers ; the 1891 census showed 17 @,@ 757 Cornish women living in Devon ( the majority working in domestic service ) , 10 @,@ 005 in London and the surrounding suburbs of Middlesex , and 4 @,@ 439 in Lancashire . In addition , the towns growing around the newly discovered mines of South Australia suffered a serious gender imbalance and made concerted efforts to recruit Cornish women .
By the end of the First World War most of the more complicated tasks in the remaining mines had been mechanised , and those bal maidens who remained in work were restricted to simple manual labour of physically moving ore , spalling and overseeing the buddling frames . A successful 1919 Workers ' Union campaign for a minimum 30s per week wage in the industry virtually doubled the wages of the few remaining bal maidens in Cornwall . Those at Dolcoath were made redundant within weeks of this increase . Dolcoath , the last mine in Cornwall to employ traditional bal maidens , closed in 1921 , bringing the centuries @-@ old tradition to an end . ( The end of the use of bal maidens did not mean the end of female workers in those mines that survived ; women continued to work in administrative roles until the final collapse of the Cornish mining industry in the late 20th century . )
= = = After the closures = = =
During the Second World War Britain suffered severe shortages of raw materials . While consideration was given to reopening the closed mines , this was not deemed viable and instead the few remaining mines increased their production . As many male workers were away on military service , some women were briefly employed in tin @-@ picking at Geevor , and in ore @-@ dressing at the Great Rock iron mine on Dartmoor , during and after the war until around 1952 . Other than a very limited number of female workers after the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 ended the policy of recruiting only men for underground work in the few surviving mines , the Geevor pickers were the last female manual labourers in the Cornish mining industry .
Minnie Andrews ( born in Camborne in 1874 ) , who had begun work as a racker at the age of nine , was believed to have been the last surviving former bal maiden ( other than the Geevor pickers ) , when she died in March 1968 . In 1998 South Crofty , Europe 's last operational tin mine , closed , bringing metal mining in Cornwall to an end .
= Wear My Kiss =
" Wear My Kiss " is a song by English girl group Sugababes , released as the third and final single from their seventh studio album , Sweet 7 ( 2010 ) . It also serves as the final official single from the band before they disbanded in 2011 . It was written by Fernando Garibay , Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence , and The Jackie Boyz , and produced by Garibay . The song 's development began while the Sugababes travelled to the United States during April 2009 , in which they collaborated with various high @-@ profile producers . The song was re @-@ recorded to feature the vocals of Jade Ewen following the departure of Keisha Buchanan in September 2009 . " Wear My Kiss " is an uptempo pop song that references the items which compose a man 's outfit .
Many critics praised the song as radio @-@ friendly and catchy , although some regarded it as uninspiring and average . The single reached the top ten on the charts in the UK , Ireland and Scotland , and also charted in Croatia , the Czech Republic and Slovakia . Its music video was directed by Martin Weisz in December 2009 . The green screen effect was used to produce the video 's scenes , which include clones of the group 's members . Critics commended the video for its futuristic concept . The Sugababes performed " Wear My Kiss " at the Fight Cervical Cancer in Style fundraising event , on Eurovision – Your Country Needs You , and at Chester Rocks in 2011 .
= = Development and composition = =
The Sugababes travelled Los Angeles and New York City in April 2009 to work on their seventh studio album Sweet 7 ( 2010 ) . They signed a record deal with Jay Z 's record label Roc Nation , which resulted in collaborations with high @-@ profile producers including Stargate and RedOne . " Wear My Kiss " was written by Fernando Garibay , Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence , Carlos Battey and Steven Battey , the latter two collectively known by their stage name The Jackie Boyz . Garibay produced the song , recorded the Sugababes ' vocals , provided the track 's instrumentation , and completed its programming and arrangement . The Jackie Boyz provide background vocals for the song . Dave Pensado mixed " Wear My Kiss " at Larrabee Sound Studios in North Hollywood , California ; AJ Nunez was the assistant . Additional vocal production was provided by Mike Stevens and Marcus Byrne , while additional vocal mixing was completed by Jeremy Wheatley at TwentyOne Studios , London , with assistance from Richard Edgeler . " Wear My Kiss " was recorded and tracked at F2 Studios in Hollywood , California .
" Wear My Kiss " is an uptempo pop song . David Balls of Digital Spy described it " a fuzzed @-@ up pop thumper " . The song is composed of " thick " beats , " sexy " verses and " raunchy " lyrics . The chorus features a chanted ' da @-@ da @-@ da ' hook , which according to Al Fox of BBC Music is evocative of the group 's 2003 single " Hole in the Head " . Andy Gill of The Independent noted that the song sees the Sugababes " effectively subjugated to the status of accessories " ; lyrically , the singers compare themselves to a tie , watch and shoes of a man 's outfit . During the pre @-@ hook , group member Heidi Range sings , " I " m just a pretty little thing / That 'll make you wanna sing / Make you wanna buy a ring " . " Wear My Kiss " is reminiscent of songs performed by British girl group Girls Aloud and American recording artist Lady Gaga .
= = Release = =
In September 2009 , speculation arose that group member Amelle Berrabah had left the Sugababes following reports of tension with band member Keisha Buchanan . However , it was announced on 21 September 2009 that Buchanan , the sole original member of the group , had officially left the Sugababes . Buchanan clarified the departure on her official Twitter account , writing : " I 'm sad to say that I am no longer a part of the Sugababes ... Although it was not my choice to leave , it 's time to enter a new chapter in my life ... Sometimes a breakdown in communication and lack of trust can result in many different things . " Buchanan was replaced by former Eurovision contestant Jade Ewen . As a result of the line @-@ up change , " Wear My Kiss " was re @-@ recorded for the inclusion of vocals from new member Ewen and the removal of vocals from Buchanan .
In October 2009 , it was reported that " Wear My Kiss " would be released as the third single from Sweet 7 on 8 February 2010 . The song was released in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 21 February 2010 as a digital download , and as a CD single the following day . During an interview with David Balls of Digital Spy , group member Heidi Range explained the reason for the song 's release as the album 's third single , saying : " It 's had a really good response from radio and our fans on the website . It 's also quite appropriate as it comes out around Valentine 's Day – there 's a lot of kissing going on then ! " " Wear My Kiss " was remixed by the British music production team 7th Heaven .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Wear My Kiss " received mixed reviews from critics . BBC Music 's Al Fox described it as " a glimmer of brilliance " amongst the album 's other tracks . Alice Wyllie of The Scotsman and David Balls of Digital Spy called the song radio @-@ friendly , while the latter described it as " more comfortably more Sugababes @-@ sounding " than the group 's previous two singles , " Get Sexy " and " About a Girl " . Balls praised the hook as one that " lodges in your brain like shrapnel " . A writer from Daily Record shared a similar opinion , writing : " The big chanted hook won 't go away once it 's in your head " . Andy Gill of The Independent regarded " Wear My Kiss " as one of the album 's better tracks and noted that it practices " a craven form of extreme self @-@ objectification " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian noted that while the album was significantly Americanised , " Wear My Kiss " had " escaped with some quirky Britishness intact " . Khaleej Times wrote that the song proves the Sugababes are " feisty and seductive as ever " and elaborated , " the cut @-@ glass industrialism of the backing track belies the dedication of the trio to the permanent touchpoints of pop music " .
Johnny Dee of Virgin Media named it one of Sweet 7 's standout tracks but in contrary felt that " trimmed of their former member 's vocals could be by absolutely anyone " . Gavin Martin of Daily Mirror called the song a " sweaty but uninspired thumper " , while Daily Mail writer Danny McElhinney considered it average . A critic from The Visitor regarded " Wear My Kiss " as " limp " in comparison to the group 's older material which he described as " feisty , sassy pop " . Fraser McAlpine from BBC Music gave the song a two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ five star rating , and criticised the lack of cohesiveness between the group 's vocals , as well as the formulaic nature of the song .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Wear My Kiss " debuted and peaked at number seven on the UK Singles Chart for the issue dated 6 March 2010 , with sales of 38 @,@ 209 . It became the group 's third consecutive top ten single and eighteenth top ten single overall . Sweet 7 also became the first Sugababes album since Taller in More Ways ( 2005 ) to produce three top ten singles . The song debuted and peaked at number nine on the Irish Singles Chart , becoming the Sugababes ' ninth top ten single in Ireland . " Wear My Kiss " debuted at number four on the Scottish Singles Chart for the issue dated 6 March 2010 . The song debuted and peaked at number 47 on the Czech Singles Chart , where it charted for eight weeks . It was less successful on the Slovakian Singles Chart and peaked at number 73 . " Wear My Kiss " reached at number 26 on the Croatian Airplay Radio Chart . The song 's commercial performance throughout Europe allowed it to appear on the European Hot 100 Singles chart , where it peaked at number 27 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Wear My Kiss " was directed by Martin Weisz during December 2009 . Weisz also directed the music video for the group 's previous single " About a Girl " . The video for " Wear My Kiss " was expected to premiere in early January 2010 , although a preview was released on 11 January 2010 instead . The video was released on the iTunes Store on 12 March 2010 . The green screen was used to produce it , in which the Sugababes stood in front of a projection of their computer @-@ generated images . All three members wore similar blue , pink and red dresses . It primarily focuses on Sugababes dancing in front of a crowd of clones of themselves . Ewen discussed the experiences while filming the music video with First News , saying :
It 's so cool ! On the day we were filming it we just couldn 't picture what it was going to be like . We were literally in a room and had to imagine that there ’ s going to be clones of you – a sea of Sugababes and you 're just like : “ Oh how are they going to do this ? ” When you see it back it 's really amazing .
The music video begins with Amelle Berrabah singing the first verse , in which objects appear in the background in reference to the lyrics , including a gold tie and silver watch . When Range sings the lines " make you wanna buy a ring " a diamond appears in the background . During the chorus , clones of members of the band appear as they are dancing . During Ewen 's verse , her reference to shoes prompts a pair of green high heels to emerge in the background . The group begins dancing together in the chorus while clones of them appear again . The video ends with Sugababes dancing while making hand gesture to represent a " kiss " . Ann Lee of Metro described the video as " futuristic " . Nick Levine from Digital Spy praised the video as an " absolute cracker " .
= = Live performances = =
The Sugababes promoted " Wear My Kiss " on 26 January 2010 with three appearances on television . The following day , the trio performed it at the Fight Cervical Cancer in Style concert . A writer from Belfast Telegraph described their performance as " highly energetic " . Fight Cervical Cancer in Style , a charity fundraising event , was held at Koko in London by Jo 's Trust to raise awareness about the prevalence of cervical cancer among women . Berrabah spoke about the importance of this health issue on stage :
We are so passionate about this cause and would urge girls to reduce their risks of cervical cancer – we had no idea how to prevent cervical cancer and actually we always thought it was genetic but through taking part in this campaign , we now realise it is sexually transmitted . By leading a healthy lifestyle , going for regular smears and having a vaccination you can help to reduce the risks hugely .
The band performed " Wear My Kiss " during a gig in March 2010 at the Supperclub , London . A journalist from Daily Star wrote , " In her super @-@ mini sequin dress , giraffe @-@ legged Jade Ewen naturally slots in , just like newest single ' Wear My Kiss ' does to the Sugababes ' back catalogue " . They performed the song on BBC 's Eurovision – Your Country Needs You on 12 March 2010 . The song was performed immediately prior to the winner of the show being announced . The Sugababes performed " Wear My Kiss " at Chester Rocks on 2 July 2011 as part of a set list , which included their number one singles " Freak like Me " , " Hole in the Head " and " Push the Button " .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded and tracked at F2 Studios , Hollywood , California
Personnel
Songwriting – Fernando Garibay , Bruno Mars , Philip Lawrence , Carlos Battey , Steven Battey
Production – Fernando Garibay
Vocal recording – Fernando Garibay
Instrumentation – Fernando Garibay
Programming – Fernando Garibay
Arrangement – Fernando Garibay
Background vocals – Carlos Battey , Steven Battey
Mixing – Dave Pensado at Larrabee Sound Studios , North Hollywood , California
Mixing ( assistant ) – AJ Nunez
Additional vocal production – Mike Stevens and Marcus Byrne
Additional vocal mixing – Jeremy Wheatley at TwentyOne Studios , London , England
Assistant – Richard Edgeler
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Sweet 7 , Island Records .
= = Charts = =
= Waterstones =
Waterstones , formerly Waterstone 's , is a British book retailer that operates 275 stores and employs around 3 @,@ 500 staff in the UK and Europe as of February 2014 . Established in 1982 by Tim Waterstone , after whom the company was named , the bookseller expanded rapidly until being sold in 1993 to W H Smith . Bought again in 1998 by Waterstone , EMI & Advent International , the company was taken under the umbrella of HMV Group , which later merged the Dillons and Ottakar 's brands into the company .
Following several poor sets of results for the group , HMV put the chain up for sale . In May 2011 , it was announced that A & NN Capital Fund Management , owned by Russian billionaire Alexander Mamut , had bought the chain and appointed James Daunt as managing director .
As well as the Waterstones brand , the company owns the London bookseller Hatchards , and Irish shop Hodges Figgis . An average sized Waterstones store sells a range of approximately 30 @,@ 000 individual books , as well as stationery and eBook readers . The bookseller has concession agreements with Costa Coffee , Paperchase and Starbucks in some stores and since 2012 , has introduced its own Café W brand . On May 23 , 2016 , Waterstones announced it had sold its ebook business to Rakuten Kobo Inc . , and as of June 14 , 2016 , users must access their ebooks via Kobo 's ebook site .
= = History and developments = =
= = = Formation & WHSmith : 1982 – 1998 = = =
The chain was founded by Tim Waterstone after he was fired by WHSmith . Waterstone had failed to establish WHSmith in the United States . Taking the £ 6000 redundancy payout , he set up his first store in Old Brompton Road , Kensington with the ambition of creating a ' different breed of bookshop ' , using techniques he had seen in the United States . He used literary authors in front of store displays and employed highly literate staff .
The model proved successful and the chain set about expanding its store portfolio . By 1989 however , WHSmith had taken a controlling stake in the chain . WHSmith took over full control in 1993 for £ 9 million . Under WHSmith , Waterstones pursued international expansion , opening its first US store in Boston in 1991 , as well as further domestic expansion – opening its 100th UK store in a former chapel in Reading .
The chain was part of the eventual dismantling of the Net Book Agreement , when in 1991 , following a promotion by then rivals Dillons , the company decided to pursue its own discounting promotion on selected titles . By 1997 , the agreement had collapsed and been declared illegal .
= = = HMV Group : 1998 – 2011 = = =
Following an attempt by Tim Waterstone in 1997 to buy the entire WHSmith group , WHSmith sold the Waterstones chain for £ 300 million to HMV Media plc ( now HMV Group ) – a joint venture between EMI and Advent International . This included high street brands HMV and rival Dillons , creating an international entertainment retailer . Waterstone was appointed chairman of the group but stood down in 2001 , citing " concerns for the way the company was being run " . He was replaced by Alan Giles . A year later , all Dillons stores were rebranded as Waterstones , with some sold to rival Ottakar 's making the brand defunct . The chain had also begun pulling out of its US overseas venture .
Waterstones launched the Waterstones Books Quarterly magazine in 2001 , containing book reviews and author interviews . In the same year the booksellers ' online operation : Waterstones.co.uk was franchised to Amazon.com , with the company expressing a desire " to concentrate on its high street and campus stores " . The move resulted in the loss of 50 jobs . In 2003 , Waterstones announced it was supporting Dyslexia Action as its chosen charity , helping to raise awareness and understanding for dyslexia .
In 2006 Giles stepped down from his position and was replaced by Gerry Johnson as managing director of Waterstones and Simon Fox as group CEO . In April 2006 following two bids by Permira for the group , Tim Waterstone attempted to buy back the company from HMV for £ 256 million , but later withdrew his offer specifying the conditions set by HMV were " too punitive " to accept . A strategic review in September saw Waterstones pull out of its franchise agreement with Amazon to re @-@ launch its online business , Waterstones.com , independently . The chain also began to pilot a loyalty programme in South West England and Wales . The scheme was successful , launching nationally as The Waterstones Card across its entire store portfolio .
Waterstones piloted a brand refresh exercise in selected stores , beginning with Manchester 's Arndale Centre in 2007 . On 19 November 2007 , the chain closed its first branch on Old Brompton Road . Following a consultation , the company 's supply chain was overhauled in 2008 with the implementation of a 150 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 14 @,@ 000 m2 ) warehouse and distribution centre , located in Burton @-@ upon @-@ Trent . Existing direct @-@ to @-@ store deliveries from suppliers were replaced by a centralised warehouse capable of receiving merchandise and sorting an estimated 70 million books per year and 200 staff were made redundant by the process . In September 2008 , Waterstones began selling the Sony Reader in an agreement which saw the booksellers ' branches and Sony Centre stores stock the reader exclusively for two weeks after its release . Waterstones.com began to supply eBooks in the .epub format . In November 2009 , Waterstones moved into second @-@ hand bookselling in a partnership with Alibris setting up an online reselling tool called Waterstones Marketplace , part of Waterstones.com.
In January 2010 , HMV Group announced that Waterstones like @-@ for @-@ like sales over the Christmas period were down 8 @.@ 5 per cent on the previous year . This culminated in the resignation of managing director Gerry Johnson with immediate effect . He was replaced by development director Dominic Myers , who was managing director of the British academic bookselling chain Blackwells until 2005 . Myers joined HMV in 2006 to oversee the integration of Ottakar 's into the chain . In response to the decline in sales , he implemented a three @-@ year plan in which branches were tailored to their local market alongside a " rejuvenation " of the company brand and an increase in range . As part of these changes , Waterstones implemented new branding in May 2010 , developed by agency VentureThree . The company also moved to support the Rainbow Trust , which provides support to children with life @-@ threatening and terminal illnesses and their families , in the same year .
After an announcement that profits would be at the lower end of analysts ' forecasts due to falling sales and a share price fall of 20 % , HMV Group indicated its intention to close a number of Waterstones branches in January 2011 . These stores closures , including two in Dublin , Republic of Ireland and nine others across the United Kingdom occurred in February 2011 . Further branch closures in Luton , Dorking , Lancaster University , Harrods , Gateshead and Norwich Arcade were completed by the end of 2011 .
= = = Alexander Mamut & James Daunt : 2011 – present = = =
In May 2011 HMV Group announced the sale of Waterstones to A & NN Capital Fund Management , a fund controlled by Russian businessman Alexander Mamut for £ 53 million . The takeover was welcomed by publishers as " a step forward to re @-@ establishing a proper physical presence " . On 29 June 2011 , the sale of Waterstones was completed and approved by the vast majority of shareholders at an emergency general meeting . Mamut appointed James Daunt , founder of Daunt Books , as managing director and a Board of Directors was announced in October 2011 including Miranda Curtis as Chairman . In September 2011 , the bookseller announced that it intended to drop its 3 @-@ for @-@ 2 deal on books after a decade in place . The offer was replaced with a ' bespoke offer ' , based on branches choosing their own pricing structures from available discounts .
In January 2012 , the company announced that it would be moving away from the branding developed in 2010 by agency VentureThree , and reverting to its original logo . This involved the removal of the apostrophe from its name , saying it would be " a more versatile and practical spelling " . This decision received media coverage , in which the company was subject to criticism . John Richards , of the Apostrophe Protection Society , said that the change was " just plain wrong " and " grammatically incorrect " while the move sparked outrage on Twitter , involving debate on whether the move was grammatically incorrect or not . James Daunt expressed " Waterstones without an apostrophe is , in a digital world of URLs and email addresses , a more versatile and practical spelling " . Linguist David Crystal on his blog added : " ... if Waterstone 's wants to become Waterstones , that 's up to the firm . It 's nothing to do with expressing possession or plurality or anything to do with meaning . "
In the same month , Waterstones confirmed plans to open a Russian language bookshop in its Piccadilly branch , intending to stock 5000 titles with the shop being entirely staffed of Russian @-@ speaking booksellers . The concession , named The Russian Bookshop , opened in March 2012 .
Following a decision in late @-@ 2011 to scrap an e @-@ reading offer in @-@ branch , it was announced in May 2012 that Waterstones would be selling the Amazon Kindle across its estate . James Daunt launched the new agreement with Amazon stating that Waterstones would be offering " e @-@ reading services and offer Kindle digital devices " throughout the company 's branches and on its website , with an intention to " make the Kindle experience better " . This announcement was received with surprise across the book industry as it had been suggested that Waterstones was developing a partnership with Barnes & Noble to launch the Nook in the UK , or that the company was developing its own device , but Daunt ' ultimately rejected ' other avenues as Waterstones ' would have been out of the market ' before their implementation .
It was also announced in May 2012 that the company would begin a refurbishment plan , with Mamut ' investing tens of millions of pounds ' to fund the refit of a planned 100 stores before the end of the year . The plan saw the introduction of wi @-@ fi into shops , reorganisation of shop sections and space dedicated areas for Kindle devices , and a number of own @-@ brand coffee shops called Café W. The Café W brand was trialled in the Sutton branch , with an expressed aim for around 130 shops over a 3 @-@ year period to be fitted with a café . The announcement also noted the introduction of a ' click @-@ and @-@ collect ' service .
The Amazon Kindle officially launched in @-@ branch on 25 October 2012 with an ' outdoor and press advertising campaign ' promoting the launch , with the Kindle Fire and Kindle Paperwhite model going on sale for the first time in the UK along with older models . The Kindles were tailored with Waterstones screensavers , which led to some complaints and customers attempting to return their devices . In response , the company issued a statement that they believed " ... the screensaver does not constitute advertising and differs substantially to the advertising @-@ supported Kindles available to the US market ... We apologise that this change was made without consultation , and hope it does not detract from or alter your reading experience . "
The release of the Kindle coincided with a relaunch of the company 's brand in the same month , pushing the message that the chain was the " nation 's leading bookshop " and producing an exclusive anthology , the Waterstones Red Anthology , to help promote the shops .
By the end of 2012 , the Waterstones estate had shrunk to 288 stores , with " commercial reasons " given for the closure of branches in Bromsgrove , Stevenage , Watford , Fleet Street , High Holborn and Epsom among others , with staff being redeployed where possible . In 2012 , Daunt stated that future expansion was being considered , based on the performance of the company . In 2013 , Waterstones partnered with the University of Derby to launch a professional qualification programme for its staff . By 2014 , the chain began to open new stores , with locations in Ringwood and Blackburn . In July 2014 the company opened the Southwold Bookshop , its first branch to be without Waterstones branding .
= = Takeovers = =
= = = Dillons = = =
Acquired in 1995 by the Thorn EMI group , Dillons was the UK 's second largest bookseller behind Waterstones and was the bookselling arm of EMI 's retail division , which included HMV . Following the demerger of Thorn and EMI in 1996 , the retail arm was divested from the EMI portfolio within a year and spun off into the HMV Media Group , an investment venture between EMI Group and Advent International private equity group . This venture included HMV , Dillons and Waterstones ( the latter bought from W H Smith for £ 300 million ) , combining to make an international entertainment retailer of over 500 stores . Following a rebuffed takeover attempt in 1997 of W H Smith , Tim Waterstone became part of the deal and by May 1998 , following the £ 801 million deal completion , became chairman of the group , with CEO Alan Giles retaining overall control . All Dillons stores were incorporated within the Waterstones brand by 1998 .
= = = Ottakar 's = = =
In September 2005 HMV Group began attempts to buy rival book chain Ottakar 's . This alarmed publishers and authors who hoped the Office of Fair Trading would refer the takeover bid to the Competition Commission . In March 2006 , the Competition Commission cleared Waterstones for takeover of the Ottakar 's , stating the takeover would " not result in a substantial lessening of competition " , and is " not likely to affect book prices , range of titles offered or quality of service . " Through extensive research they also found that " contrary to widespread perception , Waterstones , like Ottakar 's , operates a book @-@ buying system which mixes central and local input on stock selection . "
On 31 May 2006 , Waterstones announced that it had successfully negotiated the takeover of Ottakar 's . HMV chief executive Alan Giles said : " A combined Waterstones and Ottakar 's business will create an exciting , quality bookseller , able to respond better to the increasingly competitive pressures of the retail market . " Ottakar 's chairman Philip Dunne said : " Over the last year the book market has undergone a significant change with new levels of competition from the supermarkets and online retailers impacting all specialist booksellers and in particular those with insufficient scale to compete on equal terms . "
Following the takeover , HMV announced that they would be rebranding every branch of Ottakar 's as a Waterstones . In July 2006 , a conversion programme was initiated and within four months , every Ottakar 's store had been relaunched as a Waterstones and had seen the loss of 100 jobs .
= = = Books Etc = = =
In August 2008 , the now defunct Borders chain agreed to sell eight Books Etc. stores to Waterstones for an undisclosed sum . The takeover , which represented 34 @,@ 000 sq ft of retail space and incurred no staff losses , increased Waterstones ' presence within London to nearly 50 stores , ' crucially [ in ] areas that are not represented by Waterstones bookshops ' . The stores , located in Fleet Street , London Wall , Holborn , Wandsworth , Uxbridge , Finchley Road , and Canary Wharf were rebranded and merged into the Waterstones chain by September 2008 .
= = Ethical standards = =
= = = Tax = = =
Tim Waterstone and James Daunt have been critical of tax avoidance by Amazon.com in the British press . Amazon has received sustained scrutiny for the amount of its overall sales that are reported by its UK subsidiary , in comparison to those ' processed offshore in Luxembourg to avoid UK tax ' . In the 2012 @-@ 13 financial year , Amazon paid £ 3 @.@ 2 million in tax on sales of £ 4 @.@ 2 billion and received £ 2 @.@ 5 million in grants from the government . In the same period , it was revealed that Waterstones paid £ 11 @.@ 9 million in tax , despite an operating loss of £ 25 @.@ 4 million and sales of £ 410 @.@ 4 million .
In a report on tax avoidance in the book industry , the magazine Ethical Consumer argued that A & NN Capital Fund Management , Waterstones ' parent company , was located in Bermuda and this ' was likely to be for tax avoidance purposes ' . In response to this , Waterstones issued a clarification on their website reading ‘ As a UK registered and domiciled business , Waterstones fulfils all its tax obligations . This will include both the payment and reporting of all necessary UK taxes , as set out under UK tax legislation . ’ In the 2013 @-@ 14 financial period , the first full year under A & NN , Waterstones reported sales to Companies House of £ 398 @.@ 5 million and an operating loss of £ 12 @.@ 2 million .
= = = Environmental impact = = =
Waterstones has worked with the British Safety Council to consider its environmental impact , including factors beyond its carbon footprint . After a 2008 audit , the Council awarded Waterstone ’ s three out of a possible five stars for environmental impact .
= = Awards = =
Waterstones maintains and supports various literary awards , including the Waterstones Children 's Laureate , the Waterstones Children 's Book Prize , the Waterstones 11 , The Guardian First Book Award and the Pushkin House Russian Book Prize . The company has also received various industry and consumer awards .
= = = British Book Industry Awards = = =
The Bookseller Industry Awards , formerly the Bookseller Retail Awards , are run by the trade magazine The Bookseller .
In 2008 , the company " was lauded for the success of its loyalty card , Writer 's Year promotion , online growth and its Get Selling bookseller training . "
Headline Bookselling Company of the Year
High Street Retailer of the Year
Nielsen Book Marketing Campaign of the Year
In 2009 , the company took away awards for High Street retailing and in praise of the Liverpool One branch Manager Ian Critchley , who was " applauded by the judges for his " outstanding " work in launching the new shop "
High Street Retailer of the Year
Wiley Manager of the Year
In 2010 , Bookseller Clare Boothby was recognised for her accomplishments at her branch in Dorking
Sue Butterworth Young Bookseller of the Year
In 2011 , Waterstones was recognised for its expertise in children 's bookselling
Usbourne Children 's Bookseller of the Year
= = = Customer satisfaction = = =
At the beginning of 2008 , Waterstones.com was awarded a silver badge for the Best Books Website category at the BT Online Excellence Awards .
In a survey of 96 British chains in January 2009 , Waterstones scored 69 % for a Which ? customer satisfaction survey on " products , price , staff and shopping environment and whether they would recommend the shop to a friend " – placing the chain in joint eight position . In May 2011 , another survey commissioned by Which ? on customer satisfaction of 100 High Street brands showed that Waterstones had maintained its position in the top 10 shops with a score of 77 % , placing it in seventh position .
Waterstones also fared well in an online survey conducted for the consumer show Secret Shopper on Channel 4 , hosted by Mary Portas . Out of 101 High Street brands , Waterstones ' emerged as an early frontrunner ' and has maintained its top position since .
In 2012 , Waterstones won the inaugural " Sports Book Retailer of the Year " category of the British Sports Book Awards .
= = = Children 's Book Prize = = =
Waterstones continued the Ottakar 's Children 's Book Prize under its own brand and since 2005 , the Waterstones Children 's Book Prize has attempted " to uncover hidden talent in children 's writing " by awarding authors with no more than two previously published books ( adult or children 's fiction ) .
2014 Rooftoppers by Katherine Rundell
2013 Ketchup Clouds by Annabel Pitcher
2012 The Pirates Next Door by Jonny Duddle
2011 Artichoke Hearts by Sita Brahmachari
2010 The Great Hamster Massacre by Katie Davies
2009 The Thirteen Treasures by Michelle Harrison
2008 Ways to Live Forever by Sally Nicholls
2007 Darkside by Tom Becker
2006 The Diamond of Drury Lane by Julia Golding
2005 The Cry of the Icemark by Stuart Hill
Waterstones is also the main sponsor of The Waterstones Children 's Laureate , previously sponsored by Ottakar 's . The 2011 – 2013 role saw the position carry the Waterstones branding , with the company stating it was ' up weighting [ its ] activity ' and ' supporting the role in stores and online in different ways throughout the year and beyond.'
= = = The Waterstones 11 = = =
Set up in 2011 , the Waterstones 11 was created to promote debut literary fiction from new authors being published in the year ahead . Books were chosen from a list of 100 submitted by publishers , and were announced in January 2011 with in @-@ store and online support , as well as a media campaign for the final 11 . The inaugural 11 included the Orange Prize Winner The Tiger 's Wife by Téa Obreht , Man Booker Prize nominee Pigeon English , by Stephen Kelman and the Edinburgh International Book Festival First Book Award winner When God Was a Rabbit , by Sarah Winman . The last list was announced in January 2013 , as it was scrapped in January 2014 .
= = Locations = =
Waterstones has academic and high street stores in Europe including the United Kingdom , Republic of Ireland ( with one store in Cork and previously with stores in Dublin and Drogheda ) , and in the Netherlands and Belgium ( including Amsterdam and Brussels ) . Some branches in the company are located in buildings of architectural and historical interest .
Flagship superstores
Its flagship store on Piccadilly , formerly the Simpsons of Piccadilly department store and notable for its 1930s @-@ Modernist architecture , is the largest shop in the Waterstones estate and claimed to be the largest bookstore in Europe . The main academic branch , formerly the flagship store of Dillons , is located on Gower Street , between University College London and the Student Central , and promoted as Europe 's largest academic bookstore . Aside from these branches , Waterstones operates a number of large stores which are set over multiple floors . Waterstones refer to these stores as ' superstores ' :
Piccadilly , London ( formerly Simpsons of Piccadilly ) – flagship branch with six floors and an estimated 8 1 / 2 miles of shelving . In 2012 , the head office of the company was moved to the store . Waterstones also owns the large Hatchards bookshop on the same road .
Gower Street , London – academic branch with five floors and 5 miles of shelving
Deansgate , Manchester – three floors , with over 100 @,@ 000 books in stock .
Milsom Street , Bath – three floors , with over 55 @,@ 000 books in stock .
La Scala Cinema , Sauchiehall Street , Glasgow – five floors , set in a former cinema
Bridlesmith Gate , Nottingham – four floors , with concessions
Large stores
Broad Street , Reading , formerly Broad Street Independent Chapel
New Street , Birmingham , a grade II listed former Midland Bank building ( 1867 – 1869 ) , designed by Edward Holmes
High Street , Birmingham , trading on six floors
Fishergate , Preston , formerly Booths ornate grocery and head office
St Margaret 's Street , Canterbury , the basement has a display of the buried remains of a Roman bath @-@ house
Wool Exchange , Bradford
Emerson Chambers , Newcastle upon Tyne
Dolphin & Anchor , West Street , Chichester
West End Princes Street , Edinburgh
The Carlton Cinema , Swansea
The Tontines Building , Parliament Row , Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent
Corn Exchange , Lincoln
Cornmarket St , Oxford
Midsummer Place , Milton Keynes
= Socialist Party USA =
The Socialist Party of the United States of America ( SPUSA ) , usually simplified as Socialist Party USA , is a multi @-@ tendency socialist party in the United States . The SPUSA was founded in 1973 as a split from the Socialist Party of America , which had been renamed Social Democrats , USA a year before .
The party is officially committed to socialism . The Socialist Party USA , along with its predecessor , has received varying degrees of support when its candidates have competed against those from the Republican and Democratic parties . The party supports independent political action and opposes working within the two larger , capitalism supporting parties .
The SPUSA self @-@ describes as opposing all forms of oppression , specifically capitalism and authoritarian forms of communism , the Party advocates for the creation of a " radical democracy that places people 's lives under their own control — a non @-@ racist , classless , feminist socialist society [ ... ] where working people own and control the means of production and distribution through democratically @-@ controlled public agencies , cooperatives , or other collective groups ; where full employment is realized for everyone who wants to work ; where workers have the right to form unions freely , and to strike and engage in other forms of job actions ; and where the production of society is used for the benefit of all humanity , not for the private profit of a few " .
The SPUSA 's National Office is located at the AJ Muste Institute in New York . The party has four chartered state organizations in California , Michigan , New Jersey , and New York , as well as eighteen chartered locals throughout the country .
In October 2015 , the Socialist Party USA nominated Mimi Soltysik for President and Angela Walker for Vice President .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In 1958 , the Independent Socialist League led by Max Shachtman dissolved to join the Socialist Party
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of America . Shachtman had written that Soviet communism was a new form of class society , bureaucratic collectivism , in which the ruling class exploited and oppressed the population , and therefore he opposed the spread of communism . Shachtman also argued that democratic socialists should work with activists from labor unions and civil @-@ rights organizations to help build a social @-@ democratic " realignment " of the Democratic Party . Though he died on 4 November 1972 and had little involvement with the Socialist Party in the year proceeding his death , his followers , identitified as " Shachmanites " , exercised a tremendous amount of influence on the party .
In its 1972 Convention , the Socialist Party changed its name to " Social Democrats , USA " by a vote of 73 to 34 . The change of name was supported by the two co @-@ chairmen , Bayard Rustin and Charles S. Zimmerman ( of the International Ladies Garment Workers ' Union , ILGWU ) , and by the First National Vice Chairman , James S. Glaser ; these three were re @-@ elected by acclamation .
Renaming the party as SDUSA was meant to be " realistic " . The New York Times observed that the Socialist Party had last sponsored Darlington Hoopes as its candidate for President in the 1956 election , who received only 2 @,@ 121 votes , which were cast in only six states . Because the party no longer sponsored candidates in presidential elections , the name " party " had been " misleading " ; " party " had hindered the recruiting of activists who participated in the Democratic Party , according to the majority report . The name " Socialist " was replaced by " Social Democrats " because many American associated the word " socialism " with Soviet communism . Also , the Party wished to distinguish itself from two small Marxist parties .
The Convention elected a national committee of 33 members , with 22 seats for the majority caucus , 8 seats for Harrington 's coalition caucus , 2 for the Debs caucus , and one for the " independent " Samuel H. Friedman , who also had opposed the name change .
The convention voted on and adopted proposals for its program by a two @-@ one vote , with the majority caucus winning every vote . On foreign policy , the program called for " firmness toward Communist aggression " . However , on the Vietnam War , the program opposed " any efforts to bomb Hanoi into submission " and to work for a peace agreement that would protect Communist political cadres in South Vietnam from further military or police reprisals . Harrington 's proposal for an immediate cease fire and an immediate withdrawal of U.S. forces was defeated . Harrington complained that , after its previous convention , the Socialist Party had endorsed George McGovern with a statement of " constructive criticism " and had not mobilized enough support for McGovern .
After their defeat at the Convention , members of two minority caucuses helped to found new socialist organizations . At most 200 members of the Coalition Caucus joined Michael Harrington in forming the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee , which later became the Democratic Socialists of America . At its start , DSOC had 840 members , of which 2 percent served on its national board in 1973 when SDUSA stated its membership at 1 @,@ 800 , according to a 1973 profile of Harrington . Second , many members of the Debs Caucus joined David McReynolds in reconstituting the Socialist Party USA also in 1973 .
= = = Founding = = =
The Debs Caucus formed the Union for Democratic Socialism , and , on May 30 , 1973 , incorporated the Socialist Party of the United States of America , ( Socialist Party USA ) . Many activists from the local and state branches of the old Socialist Party , including the party 's Wisconsin , California , Illinois , New York City , Philadelphia , and Washington D.C. organizations , participated in the reconstitution of the Socialist Party USA .
After its founding , the party promoted itself as the legitimate heir of the Socialist Party of America . Former Mayor of Milwaukee , Frank Zeidler , was elected the first national chairperson of the party . Zeidler also helped re @-@ organizing the party structure during its early years . He was later nominated as the party 's candidacy for the presidential office , with Zeidler believing the party would be able to collaborate with other socialist parties nationwide to spread the message of socialism .
= = = Subsequent History = = =
Since 1936 , a member of the party was elected to the city council of Iowa City and several members have won tens of thousands of votes when losing elections for statewide offices . In 1992 , Socialist Iowa City Councilwoman Karen Kubby won her re @-@ election with the highest vote in a contested election in the history of the Iowa City Council , and was re @-@ elected until retiring from the Council in 2000 . In 2000 , Socialist Wendell Harris received 19 % of the vote for Mayor of Milwaukee , Wisconsin in the primary . In 2008 , Socialist Jon Osborne pulled in 22 % of the vote for Rhode Island 's 34th District State Senate seat , while listed on the ballot under the Socialist Party USA label . During the 2010 United States Senate elections Dan La Botz of the Socialist Party of Ohio received 25 @,@ 368 ( 0 @.@ 68 % ) votes in Ohio . In 2011 , Socialist Matt Erard was elected to a three @-@ year term on the city of Detroit ’ s Downtown District Citizens ’ District Council . In 2012 , Socialist Pat Noble unseated his incumbent opponent in winning election to the Red Bank Regional High School Board of Education , Socialist John Strinka received 10 % of the vote while running with the party 's ballot label for Indiana 's 39th district State House seat , and Socialist Troy Thompson received 27 % of the vote for Mayor of Floodwood , Minnesota . Also in 2012 , candidate Mary Alice Herbert received 13 @.@ 1 % of the vote for Vermont Secretary of State while running with the dual nomination of both the Socialist and Vermont Liberty Union parties .
= = = Membership = = =
According to the party 's first chairman , Frank Zeidler , the party had around 500 members nationwide in 1975 . The Socialist Party experienced substantial growth during the late 1970s and early to mid @-@ 1980s , expanding from only around 600 dues @-@ paying members to around 1 @,@ 700 . In 2008 , WMNF claimed that the party had around 3 @,@ 000 paying members . However , in 2010 a CommonDreams article suggested that the organization had only 1 @,@ 000 members with party members claiming it to be an increase in the amount of members . A New York Times article in May 2011 stated that the party has " about 1 @,@ 000 members nationally " . In February 2012 , an article from The Root stated that the Party had a " membership around 1 @,@ 500 " .
= = = Current Elected Officials = = =
= = = = Local Boards of Education = = = =
Pat Noble , member of the Red Bank Regional High School Board of Education
= = Ideology = =
= = = Positions = = =
While some SP members favor a more gradual approach to socialism , most others envision a more sweeping or revolutionary transformation of society from capitalist to socialist through the decisive victory of the working class in the class struggle . Some SP members also advocate revolutionary nonviolence or pacifism , while some consider armed struggle a possible necessity . The Party 's Statement of Principles rejects equating socialism with a " welfare state " and calls for democratic social revolution from below . The party is strongly committed to principles of socialist feminism and strives to further embody such commitment in its organizational structure . Its national constitution requires gender parity among its national co @-@ chairs and co @-@ vice chairs , its national committee members and alternates , and seated members of its branch- and region @-@ elected delegations to the Party 's biennial national conventions . The Socialist Party also rejected the new healthcare reform law of 2010 approved by the Obama administration , with SP National Co @-@ Chair Billy Wharton claiming it to be " a corporate restructuring of the health insurance industry created to protect the profit margins of private insurance companies " .
During his campaign , the Socialist Party candidate for president , Brian Moore , was very vocal against the idea that Barack Obama was a socialist of any kind . He further commented on the issue , saying it was " misleading of the Republicans " to spread that message . In a later statement about Obama 's policies , Wharton called Obama 's 2010 State of the Union Address a " public relations ploy " . He concluded with ; " The time for slick public relations campaigns has ended — the time for building our grassroots movements is more urgent than ever . The Socialist Party USA stands ready to join in such a political revitalization " .
= = = = International affairs = = = =
The Party 's National Action Committee condemned the Israeli actions during the Gaza War . The party demands that the Federal government of the United States cease providing military aid to the State of Israel as a precondition for peace . The party also seeks to begin an immediate withdrawal of American troops from Afghanistan . During the 2008 presidential election , the Socialist Party continued to place a strong emphasis on its full @-@ scale opposition to U.S. wars abroad , with Brian Moore , the presidential candidate , claiming the war was destroying small communities throughout the country . He also criticized what he called " pressure on the local governments " by the Bush administration . The Socialist Party of Connecticut denounced Obama 's troop surge in Afghanistan , claiming that the president was throwing away much needed resources the country needed to get pulled out of the financial crisis . After denouncing him , the state affiliate organized a protest in front of the federal building in Hartford .
= = = = Government = = = =
SP candidates , such as New Jersey gubernatorial and senate candidate Greg Pason , have also emphasized immediate public service demands ; these reforms include socializing the U.S. health care system , a steeply graduated income tax , universal rent control , and the elimination of all educational debts and tuition fees . In 1997 , Pason called auto insurance " a regressive tax against working people " . Moore was also vocal of his support for public healthcare and socialized medicine . Moore believes that capitalism is a system based on both exploitation and selfishness , which operates to serve the interests of corporations and the ruling class , at the expense of workers and the poor . During his presidential campaign he claimed that the lack of available remedy to collapsing economic conditions stems from the capitalist system 's foundation upon " greed " , and advocated its replacement with a new system founded upon economic democracy through social ownership and workers ' control of our reigning industrial and financial institutions .
= = Presidential tickets = =
† In each line the first note refers to candidates and results , the second ( if any ) to ballot access
( the number of state + D.C. ballots , out of 51 , on which the Socialist Party candidates appeared )
‡ ^ Endorsed the Citizens Party 's candidates in 1984 .
= Pictor =
Pictor is a constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere , located between the star Canopus and the Large Magellanic Cloud . Its name is Latin for painter , and is an abbreviation of the older name Equuleus Pictoris ( the " painter 's easel " ) . Normally represented as an easel , Pictor was named by Abbé Nicolas @-@ Louis de Lacaille in the 18th century . The constellation 's brightest star is Alpha Pictoris , a white main @-@ sequence star around 97 light @-@ years away from Earth . Pictor also hosts RR Pictoris , a cataclysmic variable star system that flared up as a nova , reaching apparent ( visual ) magnitude 1 @.@ 2 in 1925 before fading into obscurity .
Pictor has attracted attention because of its second @-@ brightest star Beta Pictoris , 63 @.@ 4 light @-@ years distant from Earth , which is surrounded by an unusual dust disk rich in carbon , as well as an exoplanet ( extrasolar planet ) . Another five stars in the constellation have been observed to have planets . Among them is HD 40307 , an orange dwarf that has six planets orbiting it , one of which — HD 40307 g — is a potential super @-@ Earth in the circumstellar habitable zone . Kapteyn 's Star , the nearest star in Pictor to Earth , is a red dwarf located 12 @.@ 76 light @-@ years away that was found to have two super @-@ Earths in orbit in 2014 . Pictor A is a radio galaxy that is shooting an 800 @,@ 000 light @-@ year long jet of plasma from a supermassive black hole at its centre . In 2006 , a gamma @-@ ray burst — GRB 060729 — was observed in Pictor , its extremely long X @-@ ray afterglow detectable for nearly two years .
= = History = =
The French astronomer Abbé Nicolas @-@ Louis de Lacaille first described Pictor as le Chevalet et la Palette ( the easel and palette ) in 1756 , after observing and cataloguing 10 @,@ 000 southern stars during a two @-@ year stay at the Cape of Good Hope . He devised 14 new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe . All but one honored instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment . He gave these constellations Bayer designations , including ten stars in Pictor now named Alpha to Nu Pictoris . He labelled the constellation Equuleus Pictorius on his 1763 chart , the word " Equuleus " meaning small horse , or easel — perhaps from an old custom among artists of carrying a canvas on a donkey . The German astronomer Johann Bode called it Pluteum Pictoris . The name was shortened to its current form in 1845 by the English astronomer Francis Baily on the suggestion of his countryman Sir John Herschel .
= = Characteristics = =
Pictor is a small constellation bordered by Columba to the north , Puppis and Carina to the east , Caelum to the northwest , Dorado to the southwest and Volans to the south . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is " Pic " . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 18 segments ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 04h 32.5m and 06h 52.0m , while the declination coordinates are between − 42 @.@ 79 ° and − 64 @.@ 15 ° . Pictor culminates each year at 9 p.m. on 17 March . Its position in the far Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 26 ° N , and parts become circumpolar south of latitude 35 ° S.
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Pictor is a faint constellation ; its three brightest stars can be seen near the prominent Canopus . Within the constellation 's borders , there are 49 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 5 . Located about 97 light @-@ years away from Earth , Alpha Pictoris is the brightest star in the constellation ; it is a white main @-@ sequence star with an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 3 , and spectral type A8VnkA6 . A rapidly spinning star with a projected rotational velocity estimated at 206 km / s , it has a shell of circumstellar gas . Beta Pictoris is another white main sequence star of spectral type A6V and apparent magnitude 3 @.@ 86 . Located around 63 @.@ 4 light @-@ years distant from Earth , it is a member of the Beta Pictoris moving group — a group of 17 star systems around 12 million years old moving through space together . In 1984 Beta Pictoris was the first star discovered to have a debris disk . Since then , an exoplanet about eight times the mass of Jupiter has been discovered orbiting approximately 8 astronomical units ( AU ) away from the star — a similar distance as that between our Sun and Saturn . The European Southern Observatory ( ESO ) confirmed its presence through the use of direct imagery with the Very Large Telescope in late 2009 .
Gamma Pictoris is an orange giant of spectral type K1III that has swollen to 1 @.@ 4 times the diameter of the Sun . Shining with an apparent magnitude of 4 @.@ 5 , it lies 174 light @-@ years distant from Earth . HD 42540 , called 47 Pictoris by American astronomer Benjamin Apthorp Gould , is a slightly cooler orange giant , with a spectral type of K2.5III and average magnitude 5 @.@ 04 . It has also been suspected of being a variable star . Lacaille mistakenly named this star Mu Doradus , but had recorded its Right Ascension one hour too low . Lacaille named two neighbouring stars Eta Pictoris . Eta2 Pictoris , also known as HR 1663 , is an orange giant of spectral type K5III and apparent magnitude 5 @.@ 05 . 474 light @-@ years distant , it has a diameter 5 @.@ 6 times that of the Sun . Eta1 Pictoris , also known as HR 1649 , is 85 light @-@ years distant and is a main sequence star of spectral type F5V and visual magnitude 5 @.@ 38 . A double star , it has a companion of magnitude 13 ; the two are separated by 11 arcseconds .
Located about 1298 light @-@ years from Earth , Delta Pictoris is an eclipsing binary of the Beta Lyrae type . Composed of two blue stars of spectral types B3III and O9V , the system has a period of 1 @.@ 67 days , and is observed to dip from apparent magnitude 4 @.@ 65 to 4 @.@ 9 . The stars are oval @-@ shaped as they are gravitationally distorted by each other . TV Pictoris is a spectroscopic binary system composed of an A @-@ type star and an F @-@ type star which rotate around each other in a very close orbit . The latter star is elliptical in shape and itself varies in brightness . The visual magnitude ranges between 7 @.@ 37 and 7 @.@ 53 every 20 hours .
Aside from Beta , five other stars in Pictor are known to host planetary systems . AB Pictoris is a BY Draconis variable star with a substellar companion that is either a large planet or a brown dwarf , which was discovered by direct imaging in 2005 . HD 40307 is an orange main sequence star of spectral type K2.5V and apparent magnitude 7 @.@ 17 located about 42 light @-@ years away . Doppler spectroscopy with the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher ( HARPS ) indicates that HD 40307 is host to six super @-@ Earth planets , one of which , HD 40307 g , lies in the circumstellar habitable zone of the star , and is not close enough to be tidally locked ( i.e. with the same face always facing the star ) , unlike the other planets in the same system , and many other planets which orbit close to their parent stars . HD 41004 is a complex binary system about 139 light @-@ years distant . The primary is an orange dwarf of spectral type K1V orbited by a planet roughly 2 @.@ 65 times the mass of Jupiter every 963 days , while the secondary is a red dwarf of spectral type M2V and orbited by a brown dwarf that is at least 19 times as massive as Jupiter . Both substellar components were discovered by doppler spectroscopy using the CORALIE spectrograph in 2004 and 2002 respectively . Kapteyn 's Star , a nearby red dwarf at the distance of 12 @.@ 78 light @-@ years , has a magnitude of 8 @.@ 8 . It has the largest proper motion of any star in the sky after Barnard 's Star . Moving around the Milky Way in the opposite direction to most other stars , it may have originated in a dwarf galaxy that was merged into the Milky Way , with the main remnant being the Omega Centauri globular cluster . In 2014 analysis of the doppler variations of Kapteyn 's Star with the HARPS spectrograph showed that it hosts two super @-@ Earths — Kapteyn b and Kapteyn c . Kapteyn b is the oldest @-@ known potentially habitable planet , estimated to be possibly 11 billion years old .
Located 1 @.@ 5 degrees west southwest of Alpha , RR Pictoris is a cataclysmic variable that flared up as a nova , reaching magnitude 1 @.@ 2 on 9 June 1925 . Six months after its peak brightness , it had faded to be invisible to the unaided eye , and was magnitude 12 @.@ 5 by 1975 . RR Pictoris is a close binary system composed of a white dwarf and secondary star that orbit each other every 3 @.@ 48 hours — so close that the secondary is filling up its Roche lobe with stellar material , which is then transferred onto the first star 's accretion disk . Once this material reaches a critical mass , it ignites and the system brightens tremendously . Calculations from the orbital speed suggest the secondary star is not dense enough for its size to still be on the main sequence , so it also must have begun expanding and cooling already after its core ran out of hydrogen fuel . The RR Pictoris system is estimated to lie around 1300 light @-@ years distant from Earth .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
NGC 1705 is an irregular dwarf galaxy 17 million light @-@ years from Earth . It is one of the most active star forming galaxies in the nearby universe , despite the fact that its rate of star formation peaked around 30 million years ago . Pictor A , around 485 million light @-@ years away , is a double @-@ lobed radio galaxy and a powerful source of radio waves in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere . From a supermassive black hole at its centre , a relativistic jet shoots out to an X @-@ ray hot spot 800 @,@ 000 light years away . SPT @-@ CL J0546 @-@ 5345 is a massive galaxy cluster located around 7 billion light @-@ years away with a mass equivalent to approximately 800 trillion suns .
GRB 060729 was a gamma @-@ ray burst that was first observed on 29 July 2006 . It is likely the signal of a type Ic supernova — the core collapse of a massive star . It was also notable for its extraordinarily long X @-@ ray afterglow , detectable 642 days ( nearly two years ) after the original event . The event was remote , with a redshift of 0 @.@ 54 .
= Irving Crane =
Irving Crane ( November 13 , 1913 – November 17 , 2001 ) , nicknamed " the Deacon " , was an American pool player from Livonia ( near Rochester ) , New York , and ranks among the stellar players in the history of the sport . Considered one of the all @-@ time greats , he is best known for his mastery in the game of straight pool ( 14 @.@ 1 continuous ) at which he won numerous championships , including six world billiards titles .
= = Early life = =
Crane 's fascination with billiards started at age 11 , sparked by play on a toy pool table his brother received as a Christmas gift . Showing interest and ability , his father Scott Crane , a trial lawyer and sportsman , and his mother , a high school teacher , soon replaced their dining room table with a 4 ' by 8 ' pool table . He soon ventured out of the home to practice a couple days each week at Olympic Billiards , a room that was part of a bowling alley in Scottsville , a suburb of Rochester , New York . Crane stated in 1998 : " Other kids , you know they 'd play for twenty minutes or half an hour and they 'd say , ' let 's do something else . ' I could play all day and never get enough . I couldn 't wait to get home from school to play . "
Crane 's status as a wunderkind was quickly evident ; although he was entirely self @-@ taught , at 14 he ran 89 balls in straight pool at a local pool room , calling each shot in advance , as is mandatory in straight pool . Following this feat , his parents replaced the smaller table with a full size tournament table . Over the next ten years some of the best players of the era , including Willie Hoppe and Andrew Ponzi , came to practice with the promising champion . Despite consistent play throughout his teenage years , Crane did not enter any tournaments until he was 23 years old .
In February 1939 , at age 26 , Crane ran 150 balls and out against his opponent in an exhibition straight pool match on a difficult 5 ' by 10 ' table in Layton , Utah . While this was impressive in and of itself , at the crowd 's urging , he continued his run , ultimately pocketing 309 consecutive balls thus shattering the previous world record of 244 consecutive balls .
= = World titles = =
This coup was soon followed by his first world title in 1942 . Over the following three decades , Crane won almost two dozen major championships , including the World Crown in 1946 , 1955 , 1966 , 1968 , 1970 and 1972 , the Ballantine International Championship in 1965 , the International Roundrobin championship in 1968 , and the World Series of Billiards in 1978 at age 65 . Of these triumphs , his win at the 1966 World Crown is the most celebrated . At that tournament he ran 150 and out in the finals , never letting his opponent back to the table after an early safety battle ; an accomplishment that has never been equaled . Crane also holds the record for the most runner @-@ up finishes for the World Crown with 13 .
Despite his mastery and world renown , Crane found it hard to make a living solely playing pool , and in 1957 began working as a Cadillac salesman at Valley Cadillac Inc . 333 East Avenue in Rochester , New York . He continued there for 17 years . According to Crane 's daughter , at Rochester 's annual auto show his dealership 's exhibit featured a pool table at which Crane would run balls while answering questions . " Working " for a living was purely a choice of survival . In an interview with Sports Illustrated in 1969 Crane said " If I had to make a choice between selling cars and playing pool , I 'd choose pool ... The only time I 've ever been really happy is when I was at a pool table . "
Described as a " tall , lean man with the imperial bearing of the headmaster of Eton , " Crane earned the appellation The Deacon because of his gentlemanly ways , his very cautious approach to the game and his impeccable dress , never approaching a pool table except in a conservative suit . Los Angeles Times sports columnist Jim Murray once said Crane " would make Henry Fonda look furtive . " Highlighting Crane 's both cautious approach and mastery , Mike Sigel , one of pool 's most illustrious players , reportedly asked Crane to play one day when Sigel was a young player . Crane assented and after Sigel broke , Crane ran 200 balls and then played a safety .
= = Later life = =
In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , Crane 's wife of 64 years , Althea , stated " A lot of people , if it was a hot day and there was no air conditioning , they 'd take off their coat to play . But not Irving Crane . " Rudolph Wanderone , a / k / a Minnesota Fats , once opined , " Irv Crane would have been the only guy to notice the horse under Lady Godiva , " while professional rival Willie Mosconi who had criticized Crane for his cautious style , stated in his 1993 autobiography , Willie 's Game , that " Crane wouldn 't take a shot unless his grandmother could make it . "
Crane was inducted into the Billiard Congress of America 's hall of fame in 1978 . In 1999 Crane was ranked as number eight on Billiard Digest 's fifty greatest players of the century . In his entry there he is lauded as having been , along with Mosconi , the " best in the world , flat out " between 1941 and 1956 . In 1980 Crane retired from professional play . He stopped playing entirely in about 1996 . On November 17 , 2001 at age 88 , four days after entering a nursing home , Crane died of natural causes . He was survived by his wife Althea , son Irving , daughter Sandra , three grandchildren , and three great @-@ grandchildren .
= Paul Stastny =
Paul Stastny ( born December 27 , 1985 ) is a Canadian @-@ born American professional ice hockey center currently playing for the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League .
Of Slovak lineage , Stastny is the son of Hockey Hall of Famer Peter Šťastný , who played for the Avalanche 's predecessor , the Quebec Nordiques , and finished his career with the St. Louis Blues . His older brother Yan has played for the Boston Bruins , Edmonton Oilers and St. Louis Blues . His uncles Anton and Marian Stastny both played in the NHL during the 1980s , also for the Nordiques . His surname pronunciation is " shtyahstnee " .
Stastny began his junior hockey career with the River City Lancers of the United States Hockey League before moving to the University of Denver Pioneers in 2004 . He won the NCAA Men 's Ice Hockey Championship in his first season playing for the Pioneers . He remained at the University of Denver for one more season . He signed a contract with the Avalanche before the 2006 – 07 NHL season , scored 78 points in 82 games in his rookie season and was nominated for the Calder Memorial Trophy . In 2007 – 08 he was named to his first NHL All @-@ Star Game , but didn 't play because of an appendectomy . As a dual citizen , Stastny has chosen to play for the U.S. in international hockey competitions , which have included the 2004 Viking Cup , the 2007 IIHF World Championship , and the 2010 , 2014 Winter Olympics .
= = Early years and family = =
Stastny was born in Quebec City , Quebec , to Peter Šťastný ( anglicised to Stastny ) and his wife Darina , while Peter was playing for the Nordiques . Paul spent his early years in Québec and New Jersey , following his father 's career . Peter joined the St. Louis Blues in 1993 and settled there after finishing his player career , working as a scout for the team . Paul has numerous family relatives who have played in the NHL . He is the son of Czechoslovak defector and Hockey Hall of Fame inductee Peter Šťastný ( surname later anglicised ) , the first European @-@ trained player to reach 1 @,@ 000 points in the NHL , and the nephew of retired NHL players Anton and Marian . Peter and Anton were the first two out of the three brothers to come to North America , in 1980 ; they were smuggled , along with Peter 's pregnant wife with the help of the Québec Nordiques ' owner Marcel Aubut and chief scout Gilles Léger out of Czechoslovakia to Austria . Marián arrived a year later , after Peter and Anton raised the $ 30 @,@ 000 needed to bribe officials of the Czechoslovak government . All 3 played for Quebec from 1981 – 1985 , which was only the third time that 3 brothers played for the same team in the NHL at the same time . The first three brothers who had played for the same team were Reg , Doug and Max Bentley . Followed by the three Plager brothers , Bill , Barclay and Bob who played with the St. Louis Blues from 1968 – 72 . Paul 's older brother Yan has played for the Boston Bruins , Edmonton Oilers , and St. Louis Blues . He currently plays for HC CSKA Moscow in the KHL . Peter and Paul Stastny currently rank fourth all @-@ time in total scoring by a father @-@ son combination in the NHL .
Paul played high school hockey for Chaminade College Preparatory School in St. Louis , Missouri during his freshman and sophomore years in high school , but he left the high school team to play for the Tier III Junior B St. Louis Jr . Blues . He then moved to Omaha , Nebraska to play Tier I junior hockey for the River City Lancers of the United States Hockey League during this last two years of high school , graduating from Millard North High School in Omaha .
Born in Canada to a mother with American citizenship , Stastny and his brother Yan have dual Canadian / U.S. citizenship . Paul has two sisters , Katarina and Kristina ( married to Mike Nash ) . He has mentioned " religion , education and the importance of family " as important values in his upbringing , and has spoken about his father 's help in making him a better player .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur career = = =
Paul Stastny began his junior ice hockey career in 2002 with the River City Lancers of the United States Hockey League , playing with the team for two seasons , scoring 107 points in 113 games . In 2002 – 03 , the Lancers finished the regular season fourth in the West Division and progressed to the playoffs . After advancing two rounds , the Lancers lost in the Clark Cup final against the Lincoln Stars . In 2003 – 04 , the Lancers finished third in the West Division and lost in the first round of the playoffs against the Sioux City Musketeers . Stastny 's 77 points in 56 games ranked him second in the league behind teammate Mike Howe .
Stastny entered the University of Denver to play for the Pioneers in the Western Collegiate Hockey Association of the National Collegiate Athletic Association in 2004 . Despite entering college hockey younger than the usual USHL player , he scored 45 points in 42 games in his first season in Denver to help the Pioneers win the MacNaughton Cup and Broadmoor Trophy . He then helped the team win its second NCAA Men 's Ice Hockey Championship in a row by scoring two power @-@ play goals in the final game at the 2005 Frozen Four tournament against North Dakota . Stastny won the award for WCHA Rookie of the Year and was part of the WCHA All @-@ Rookie Team and the NCAA Championship All @-@ Tournament Team .
In 2005 – 06 , Stastny scored 53 points in 39 games and finished 7th overall in the NCAA scoring list , tied with Matt Carle for the Pioneers ' scoring lead . He scored 44 points in 28 conference games to win the WCHA scoring title .
He was part of the WCHA First All @-@ Star Team and the NCAA West Second All @-@ American Team , as the Pioneers finished the WCHA regular season in second place and lost in the first round of the playoffs against the Minnesota @-@ Duluth Bulldogs . At the end of the season , Stastny left the University of Denver as a business major .
= = = Colorado Avalanche = = =
Stastny was draft @-@ eligible in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft , but opted out of the draft . Prior to the draft , the NHL Central Scouting Bureau ranked him as the 49th best North @-@ American skater available . Ranked by CSB as the 74th best in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft , he was drafted by the Colorado Avalanche in the second round , 44th overall . Before moving to Denver in 1996 , the Avalanche were the Quebec Nordiques , the team for which his father played from 1980 – 1990 and had his jersey number retired . Stastny signed a multi @-@ year contract with the Avalanche on July 24 , 2006 , and began his professional career in the 2006 – 07 NHL season .
Before training camp , it was not expected he would start the season with the Avalanche , but rather for an affiliate team of the Avalanche . However , Steve Konowalchuk 's career @-@ ending heart problem opened a roster spot and Stastny 's play impressed Avalanche coach Joel Quenneville . Stastny started the season with the jersey number 62 until his teammate John @-@ Michael Liles ( switching to # 4 ) changed his to let Stastny use # 26 , the same his father wore when he played for the franchise while it was in Quebec . Stastny had his first NHL assist on a goal by Wojtek Wolski in his third NHL game , on October 8 against the Vancouver Canucks . On October 21 , in his eighth NHL game and first wearing number 26 , Stastny scored his first NHL goal in Montreal against David Aebischer of the Montreal Canadiens .
On February 21 , 2007 , Stastny scored two goals and passed Alex Tanguay 's total of 51 points to set a new Avalanche record for points by a rookie . His father holds the franchise record with 109 . Between February 3 and March 17 , he had a 20 @-@ game scoring streak , breaking not only his father 's franchise rookie record of 16 games , but also the NHL rookie record of 17 games that belonged to Teemu Selänne . He scored 11 goals and had 18 assists during that period and became the third @-@ youngest player in NHL history to record a 20 @-@ game scoring streak , following Mario Lemieux and Wayne Gretzky . At the start of the season , Wojtek Wolski was the Avalanche player seen as favorite to contend for the Calder Memorial Trophy ; however , the scoring streak put Stastny into contention as well . Stastny 's play was one of the reasons the Avalanche experienced their best run of the season towards the end , winning 15 of their last 19 games but missing the playoffs by one point . Stastny ended his rookie season with 78 points , finished second to Pittsburgh Penguins ' Evgeni Malkin in the voting for the Calder Memorial Trophy and was named to the 2006 – 07 NHL All @-@ Rookie Team .
Coming into his sophomore season , Stastny admitted the pressure would increase during the year . He continued the strong finish of his rookie year , by scoring his first career hat @-@ trick against Marty Turco of the Dallas Stars in the season 's first game and scoring five points for the first time four days later , against the San Jose Sharks . He scored 15 goals and had 28 assists in his first 34 games of the season , and had his 100th NHL point in his 99th NHL game . At the same time , Stastny hit a slump , during which he had one point in eight games . With the Avalanche having lost top players Joe Sakic and Ryan Smyth to injuries , Ryan Kennedy of The Hockey News pointed to Stastny 's inconsistency and wrote it was time for Stastny to step up and be a leader in all aspects . Despite being on the longest scoreless streak of his career , which lasted 10 games , on January 11 , 2008 , the NHL announced Stastny would play at the 56th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game . He scored two goals and three assists in three games before the Colorado Avalanche announced six days later that Stastny would miss approximately 2 – 3 weeks , including his first All @-@ Star Game to have his appendix removed . After recovering from the surgery and returning to skating , he suffered a groin injury during a practice , delaying his return . Stastny ended up missing 15 games , but he scored a goal on his comeback against the Phoenix Coyotes on February 22 . He scored seven goals and had 15 assists until the end of the regular season , missing a game due to flu on March 20 . With 71 points scored , he finished the regular season as the team 's scoring leader and the Avalanche finished 6th in the West , progressing to the playoffs to play against the Minnesota Wild . Stastny failed to score a point until the fifth game , when his game @-@ winning goal gave the Avalanche the lead in the series . Colorado ended the series by winning the sixth game and progressed to meet the Detroit Red Wings in the Western Conference Semifinals . Stastny scored a goal and an assist in the first game of the series , but a depleted Avalanche team was swept in four games . Stastny missed the last game of the series after he injured his knee during the first period of the third game .
On November 17 , 2008 , Stastny signed a US $ 33 @-@ million , five @-@ year contract extension with the Avalanche . The contract began in the 2009 – 10 season and runs through 2013 – 14 ; he will be paid an average of $ 6 @.@ 6 million a year . Stastny earned $ 710 @,@ 000 during the 2008 – 09 season .
In a December 23 , 2008 game against the Phoenix Coyotes , Paul suffered a fractured forearm after being struck by a shot from Phoenix 's Olli Jokinen in the last regulation minute of the game . He successfully underwent surgery on his arm and missed 24 games , but also his chance to play in the 2009 All @-@ Star Game in Montreal . This was the second consecutive season that he missed such an opportunity . He was injured again later in the season when he broke his foot while blocking a shot during a March 17 , 2009 game against the Minnesota Wild , putting him out of play for the rest of the season . He scored 36 points in just 45 games that year .
The 2009 – 10 season proved successful for Stastny and the Avalanche . He stayed uninjured the entire season , and only missed one game as a healthy scratch after the Avalanche clinched a playoff spot the previous evening . His 79 points ( 20 goals , 59 assists ) was a career best , and he led the team in points and assists . Tied with Alexander Ovechkin , only five players in the league ended up with more assists . Stastny 's second career appearance in the post season ended after the San Jose Sharks eliminated the Avs in the first round . On January 26 , 2011 , Stastny was named to his 2nd NHL All @-@ Star Game . He and his father became the 8th father @-@ son duo in NHL history to both play in an All @-@ Star Game .
With the delay of the 2012 – 13 season due to the Lockout , Stastny followed his brother 's footsteps to Germany and signed his first European contract with EHC München of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga on November 15 , 2012 . Stastny appeared in 13 games for Red Bull climbing to third among the team with 18 points before returning to the Avalanche upon the tentative lockout resolution on January 6 , 2013 .
= = = St. Louis Blues = = =
Unable to agree to a new contract with the Avalanche as a free agent , Stastny signed a four @-@ year $ 28 million contract with hometown club and Avalanche rivals , the St. Louis Blues , on July 1 , 2014 . Skating in 74 games in his first season with the Blues , Stastny scored 16 goals to go with 30 assists .
= = International play = =
Although born in Canada , Stastny is a dual citizen of Canada and the United States . Both he and his brother Yan have chosen to play internationally for the United States . Among the reasons that led him to choose to play for the United States was the possibility to play in an international competition with his brother , who had chosen to play for the United States before Paul . Paul represented the U.S. for the first time in the 2004 Viking Cup , where he won a silver medal playing for the junior team . According to Hockey 's Future , he was one of the most important American talents in the tournament . Stastny played internationally for the United States national ice hockey team for the first time in the 2007 IIHF World Championship . He played seven games , scored four goals and four assists , had two penalty minutes and finished even in plus / minus . The United States lost in the quarterfinals against Finland . Stastny was named the best American player in the 3 – 0 win against Germany , when he scored two goals and had one assist . He was chosen as one of the three best United States players at the tournament , together with Lee Stempniak and Toby Petersen .
Stastny was selected to play for the U.S. men 's ice hockey team in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver where he won a silver medal . He scored a goal and two assists over six games . Upon completion of a disappointing 2012 – 13 season with the Avalanche , Stast
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processed by each stage in sequential order , and then leave . As Eccles , Ito , and Szentágothai wrote , " This elimination in the design of all possibility of reverberatory chains of neuronal excitation is undoubtedly a great advantage in the performance of the cerebellum as a computer , because what the rest of the nervous system requires from the cerebellum is presumably not some output expressing the operation of complex reverberatory circuits in the cerebellum but rather a quick and clear response to the input of any particular set of information . "
Divergence and convergence : In the human cerebellum , information from 200 million mossy fiber inputs is expanded to 40 billion granule cells , whose parallel fiber outputs then converge onto 15 million Purkinje cells . Because of the way that they are lined up longitudinally , the 1000 or so Purkinje cells belonging to a microzone may receive input from as many as 100 million parallel fibers , and focus their own output down to a group of less than 50 deep nuclear cells . Thus , the cerebellar network receives a modest number of inputs , processes them very extensively through its rigorously structured internal network , and sends out the results via a very limited number of output cells .
Modularity : The cerebellar system is functionally divided into more or less independent modules , which probably number in the hundreds to thousands . All modules have a similar internal structure , but different inputs and outputs . A module ( a multizonal microcompartment in the terminology of Apps and Garwicz ) consists of a small cluster of neurons in the inferior olivary nucleus , a set of long narrow strips of Purkinje cells in the cerebellar cortex ( microzones ) , and a small cluster of neurons in one of the deep cerebellar nuclei . Different modules share input from mossy fibers and parallel fibers , but in other respects they appear to function independently — the output of one module does not appear to significantly influence the activity of other modules .
Plasticity : The synapses between parallel fibers and Purkinje cells , and the synapses between mossy fibers and deep nuclear cells , are both susceptible to modification of their strength . In a single cerebellar module , input from as many as a billion parallel fibers converges onto a group of less than 50 deep nuclear cells , and the influence of each parallel fiber on those nuclear cells is adjustable . This arrangement gives tremendous flexibility for fine @-@ tuning the relationship between the cerebellar inputs and outputs .
= = = Learning = = =
There is considerable evidence that the cerebellum plays an essential role in some types of motor learning . The tasks where the cerebellum most clearly comes into play are those in which it is necessary to make fine adjustments to the way an action is performed . There has , however , been much dispute about whether learning takes place within the cerebellum itself , or whether it merely serves to provide signals that promote learning in other brain structures . Most theories that assign learning to the circuitry of the cerebellum are derived from the ideas of David Marr and James Albus , who postulated that climbing fibers provide a teaching signal that induces synaptic modification in parallel fiber – Purkinje cell synapses . Marr assumed that climbing fiber input would cause synchronously activated parallel fiber inputs to be strengthened . Most subsequent cerebellar @-@ learning models , however , have followed Albus in assuming that climbing fiber activity would be an error signal , and would cause synchronously activated parallel fiber inputs to be weakened . Some of these later models , such as the Adaptive Filter model of Fujita made attempts to understand cerebellar function in terms of optimal control theory .
The idea that climbing fiber activity functions as an error signal has been examined in many experimental studies , with some supporting it but others casting doubt . In a pioneering study by Gilbert and Thach from 1977 , Purkinje cells from monkeys learning a reaching task showed increased complex spike activity — which is known to reliably indicate activity of the cell 's climbing fiber input — during periods when performance was poor . Several studies of motor learning in cats observed complex spike activity when there was a mismatch between an intended movement and the movement that was actually executed . Studies of the vestibulo – ocular reflex ( which stabilizes the visual image on the retina when the head turns ) found that climbing fiber activity indicated " retinal slip " , although not in a very straightforward way .
One of the most extensively studied cerebellar learning tasks is the eyeblink conditioning paradigm , in which a neutral conditioned stimulus ( CS ) such as a tone or a light is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus ( US ) , such as an air puff , that elicits a blink response . After such repeated presentations of the CS and US , the CS will eventually elicit a blink before the US , a conditioned response or CR . Experiments showed that lesions localized either to a specific part of the interposed nucleus ( one of the deep cerebellar nuclei ) or to a few specific points in the cerebellar cortex would abolish learning of a conditionally timed blink response . If cerebellar outputs are pharmacologically inactivated while leaving the inputs and intracellular circuits intact , learning takes place even while the animal fails to show any response , whereas , if intracerebellar circuits are disrupted , no learning takes place — these facts taken together make a strong case that the learning , indeed , occurs inside the cerebellum .
= = = Theories and computational models = = =
The large base of knowledge about the anatomical structure and behavioral functions of the cerebellum have made it a fertile ground for theorizing — there are perhaps more theories of the function of the cerebellum than of any other part of the brain . The most basic distinction among them is between " learning theories " and " performance theories " — that is , theories that make use of synaptic plasticity within the cerebellum to account for its role in learning , versus theories that account for aspects of ongoing behavior on the basis of cerebellar signal processing . Several theories of both types have been formulated as mathematical models and simulated using computers .
Perhaps the earliest " performance " theory was the " delay line " hypothesis of Valentino Braitenberg . The original theory put forth by Braitenberg and Roger Atwood in 1958 proposed that slow propagation of signals along parallel fibers imposes predictable delays that allow the cerebellum to detect time relationships within a certain window . Experimental data did not support the original form of the theory , but Braitenberg continued to argue for modified versions . The hypothesis that the cerebellum functions essentially as a timing system has also been advocated by Richard Ivry . Another influential " performance " theory is the Tensor network theory of Pellionisz and Llinás , which provided an advanced mathematical formulation of the idea that the fundamental computation performed by the cerebellum is to transform sensory into motor coordinates .
Theories in the " learning " category almost all derive from publications by Marr and Albus . Marr 's 1969 paper proposed that the cerebellum is a device for learning to associate elemental movements encoded by climbing fibers with mossy fiber inputs that encode the sensory context . Albus proposed in 1971 that a cerebellar Purkinje cell functions as a perceptron , a neurally inspired abstract learning device . The most basic difference between the Marr and Albus theories is that Marr assumed that climbing fiber activity would cause parallel fiber synapses to be strengthened , whereas Albus proposed that they would be weakened . Albus also formulated his version as a software algorithm he called a CMAC ( Cerebellar Model Articulation Controller ) , which has been tested in a number of applications .
= = Blood supply = =
The cerebellum is provided with blood from three paired major arteries : the superior cerebellar artery ( SCA ) , the anterior inferior cerebellar artery ( AICA ) , and the posterior inferior cerebellar artery ( PICA ) . The SCA supplies the upper region of the cerebellum . It divides at the upper surface and branches into the pia mater where the branches anastomose with those of the anterior and posterior inferior cerebellar arteries . The AICA supplies the front part of the undersurface of the cerebellum . The PICA arrives at the undersurface , where it divides into a medial branch and a lateral branch . The medial branch continues backward to the cerebellar notch between the two hemispheres of the cerebellum ; while the lateral branch supplies the under surface of the cerebellum , as far as its lateral border , where it anastomoses with the AICA and the SCA .
= = Clinical significance = =
The most salient symptoms of cerebellar dysfunction are motor @-@ related — the specific symptoms depend on which part of the cerebellum is involved and how it is disrupted . Damage to the flocculonodular lobe ( vestibulocerebellum ) may show up as a loss of equilibrium and , in particular , an altered walking gait , with a wide stance that indicates difficulty in balancing . Damage to the lateral zone , or the cerebrocerebellum , results in problems with skilled voluntary and planned movements . This can cause errors in the force , direction , speed and amplitude of movements . Some manifestations include hypotonia ( decreased muscle tone ) , dysarthria ( problems with speech articulation ) , dysmetria ( problems judging distances or ranges of movement ) , dysdiadochokinesia ( inability to perform rapid alternating movements ) , impaired check reflex or rebound phenomenon , and intention tremor ( involuntary movement caused by alternating contractions of opposing muscle groups ) . Damage to the midline portion may disrupt whole @-@ body movements , whereas damage localized more laterally is more likely to disrupt fine movements of the hands or limbs . Damage to the upper part of the cerebellum tends to cause gait impairments and other problems with leg coordination ; damage to the lower part is more likely to cause uncoordinated or poorly aimed movements of the arms and hands , as well as difficulties in speed . This complex of motor symptoms is called ataxia .
To identify cerebellar problems , neurological examination includes assessment of gait ( a broad @-@ based gait being indicative of ataxia ) , finger @-@ pointing tests and assessment of posture . If cerebellar dysfunction is indicated , a magnetic resonance imaging scan can be used to obtain a detailed picture of any structural alterations that may exist .
The list of medical problems that can produce cerebellar damage is long , including stroke , hemorrhage , swelling of the brain ( cerebral edema ) , tumors , alcoholism , physical trauma such as gunshot wounds or explosives , and chronic degenerative conditions such as olivopontocerebellar atrophy . Some forms of migraine headache may also produce temporary dysfunction of the cerebellum , of variable severity . Infection can result in cerebellar damage in such conditions as the prion diseases and Miller Fisher syndrome , a variant of Guillain – Barré syndrome .
= = = Aging = = =
The human cerebellum changes with age . These changes may differ from those of other parts of the brain . The cerebellum is the youngest brain region ( and body part ) in centenarians according to an epigenetic biomarker of tissue age known as epigenetic clock : it is about 15 years younger than expected in a centenarian . Further , gene expression patterns in the human cerebellum show less age @-@ related alteration than that in the cerebral cortex . Some studies have reported reductions in numbers of cells or volume of tissue , but the amount of data relating to this question is not very large .
= = = Developmental and degenerative disorders = = =
Congenital malformation , hereditary disorders , and acquired conditions can affect cerebellar structure and , consequently , cerebellar function . Unless the causative condition is reversible , the only possible treatment is to help people live with their problems . Visualization of the fetal cerebellum by ultrasound scan at 18 to 20 weeks of pregnancy can be used to screen for fetal neural tube defects with a sensitivity rate of up to 99 % .
In normal development , endogenous Sonic hedgehog signaling stimulates rapid proliferation of cerebellar granule neuron progenitors ( CGNPs ) in the external granule layer ( EGL ) . Cerebellar development occurs during late embryogenesis and the early postnatal period , with CGNP proliferation in the EGL peaking during early development ( postnatal day 7 in the mouse ) . As CGNPs terminally differentiate into cerebellum granule cells ( also called cerebellar granule neurons , CGNs ) , they migrate to the internal granule layer ( IGL ) , forming the mature cerebellum ( by post @-@ natal day 20 in the mouse ) . Mutations that abnormally activate Sonic hedgehog signaling predispose to cancer of the cerebellum ( medulloblastoma ) in humans with Gorlin Syndrome and in genetically engineered mouse models .
Congenital malformation or underdevelopment ( hypoplasia ) of the cerebellar vermis is a characteristic of both Dandy – Walker syndrome and Joubert syndrome . In very rare cases , the entire cerebellum may be absent . The inherited neurological disorders Machado – Joseph disease , ataxia telangiectasia , and Friedreich 's ataxia cause progressive neurodegeneration linked to cerebellar loss . Congenital brain malformations outside the cerebellum can , in turn , cause herniation of cerebellar tissue , as seen in some forms of Arnold – Chiari malformation .
Other conditions that are closely linked to cerebellar degeneration include the idiopathic progressive neurological disorders multiple system atrophy and Ramsay Hunt syndrome type I , and the autoimmune disorder paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration , in which tumors elsewhere in the body elicit an autoimmune response that causes neuronal loss in the cerebellum . Cerebellar atrophy can result from an acute deficiency of vitamin B1 ( thiamine ) as seen in beriberi and in Wernicke – Korsakoff syndrome , or from vitamin E deficiency .
Cerebellar atrophy has been observed in many other neurological disorders including Huntington 's disease , multiple sclerosis , essential tremor , progressive myoclonus epilepsy , and Niemann – Pick disease . Cerebellar atrophy can also occur as a result of exposure to toxins including heavy metals or pharmaceutical or recreational drugs .
= = Comparative anatomy and evolution = =
The circuits in the cerebellum are similar across all classes of vertebrates , including fish , reptiles , birds , and mammals . There is also an analogous brain structure in cephalopods with well @-@ developed brains , such as octopuses . This has been taken as evidence that the cerebellum performs functions important to all animal species with a brain .
There is considerable variation in the size and shape of the cerebellum in different vertebrate species . In amphibians , it is little developed , and in lampreys , and hagfish , the cerebellum is barely distinguishable from the brain @-@ stem . Although the spinocerebellum is present in these groups , the primary structures are small , paired @-@ nuclei corresponding to the vestibulocerebellum . The cerebellum is a bit larger in reptiles , considerably larger in birds , and larger yet in mammals . The large paired and convoluted lobes found in humans are typical of mammals , but the cerebellum is , in general , a single median lobe in other groups , and is either smooth or only slightly grooved . In mammals , the neocerebellum is the major part of the cerebellum by mass , but , in other vertebrates , it is typically the spinocerebellum .
The cerebellum of cartilaginous and bony fishes is extraordinarily large and complex . In at least one important respect , it differs in internal structure from the mammalian cerebellum : The fish cerebellum does not contain discrete deep cerebellar nuclei . Instead , the primary targets of Purkinje cells are a distinct type of cell distributed across the cerebellar cortex , a type not seen in mammals . In mormyrid fish ( a family of weakly electrosensitive freshwater fish ) , the cerebellum is considerably larger than the rest of the brain put together . The largest part of it is a special structure called the valvula , which has an unusually regular architecture and receives much of its input from the electrosensory system .
The hallmark of the mammalian cerebellum is an expansion of the lateral lobes , whose main interactions are with the neocortex . As monkeys evolved into great apes , the expansion of the lateral lobes continued , in tandem with the expansion of the frontal lobes of the neocortex . In ancestral hominids , and in Homo sapiens until the middle Pleistocene period , the cerebellum continued to expand , but the frontal lobes expanded more rapidly . The most recent period of human evolution , however , may actually have been associated with an increase in the relative size of the cerebellum , as the neocortex reduced its size somewhat while the cerebellum expanded . The size of the human cerebellum , compared to the rest of the brain , has been increasing in size while the cerebrum decreased in size With both the development and implementation of motor tasks , visual @-@ spatial skills and learning taking place in the cerebellum , the growth of the cerebellum is thought to have some form of correlation to greater human cognitive abilities . The lateral hemispheres of the cerebellum are now 2 @.@ 7 times greater in both humans and apes than they are in monkeys . These changes in the cerebellum size cannot be explained by greater muscle mass . They show that either the development of the cerebellum is tightly linked to that of the rest of the brain or that neural activities taking place in the cerebellum were important during Hominidae evolution . Due to the cerebellum 's role in cognitive functions , the increase in its size may have played a role in cognitive expansion .
= = = Cerebellum @-@ like structures = = =
Most vertebrate species have a cerebellum and one or more cerebellum @-@ like structures , brain areas that resemble the cerebellum in terms of cytoarchitecture and neurochemistry . The only cerebellum @-@ like structure found in mammals is the dorsal cochlear nucleus ( DCN ) , one of the two primary sensory nuclei that receive input directly from the auditory nerve . The DCN is a layered structure , with the bottom layer containing granule cells similar to those of the cerebellum , giving rise to parallel fibers that rise to the superficial layer and travel across it horizontally . The superficial layer contains a set of GABAergic neurons called cartwheel cells that resemble Purkinje cells anatomically and chemically — they receive parallel fiber input , but do not have any inputs that resemble climbing fibers . The output neurons of the DCN are pyramidal cells . They are glutamatergic , but also resemble Purkinje cells in some respects — they have spiny , flattened superficial dendritic trees that receive parallel fiber input , but they also have basal dendrites that receive input from auditory nerve fibers , which travel across the DCN in a direction at right angles to the parallel fibers . The DCN is most highly developed in rodents and other small animals , and is considerably reduced in primates . Its function is not well understood ; the most popular speculations relate it to spatial hearing in one way or another .
Most species of fish and amphibians possess a lateral line system that senses pressure waves in water . One of the brain areas that receives primary input from the lateral line organ , the medial octavolateral nucleus , has a cerebellum @-@ like structure , with granule cells and parallel fibers . In electrosensitive fish , the input from the electrosensory system goes to the dorsal octavolateral nucleus , which also has a cerebellum @-@ like structure . In ray @-@ finned fishes ( by far the largest group ) , the optic tectum has a layer — the marginal layer — that is cerebellum @-@ like .
All of these cerebellum @-@ like structures appear to be primarily sensory @-@ related rather than motor @-@ related . All of them have granule cells that give rise to parallel fibers that connect to Purkinje @-@ like neurons with modifiable synapses , but none have climbing fibers comparable to those of the cerebellum — instead they receive direct input from peripheral sensory organs . None has a demonstrated function , but the most influential speculation is that they serve to transform sensory inputs in some sophisticated way , perhaps to compensate for changes in body posture . In fact , James M. Bower and others have argued , partly on the basis of these structures and partly on the basis of cerebellar studies , that the cerebellum itself is fundamentally a sensory structure , and that it contributes to motor control by moving the body in a way that controls the resulting sensory signals . Despite Bower 's viewpoint , there is also strong evidence that the cerebellum directly influences motor output in mammals .
= = History = =
= = = Descriptions = = =
Even the earliest anatomists were able to recognize the cerebellum by its distinctive appearance . Aristotle and Herophilus ( quoted in Galen ) called it the parencephalis , as opposed to the encephalon or brain proper . Galen 's extensive description is the earliest that survives . He speculated that the cerebellum was the source of motor nerves .
Further significant developments did not come until the Renaissance . Vesalius discussed the cerebellum briefly , and the anatomy was described more thoroughly by Thomas Willis in 1664 . More anatomical work was done during the 18th century , but it was not until early in the 19th century that the first insights into the function of the cerebellum were obtained . Luigi Rolando in 1809 established the key finding that damage to the cerebellum results in motor disturbances . Jean Pierre Flourens in the first half of the 19th century carried out detailed experimental work , which revealed that animals with cerebellar damage can still move , but with a loss of coordination ( strange movements , awkward gait , and muscular weakness ) , and that recovery after the lesion can be nearly complete unless the lesion is very extensive . By the beginning of the 20th century , it was widely accepted that the primary function of the cerebellum relates to motor control ; the first half of the 20th century produced several detailed descriptions of the clinical symptoms associated with cerebellar disease in humans .
= = = Etymology = = =
The name cerebellum is a diminutive of cerebrum ( brain ) ; it can be translated literally as little brain . The Latin name is a direct translation of the Ancient Greek παρεγκεφαλίς ( parencephalis ) , which was used in the works of Aristotle , the first known writer to describe the structure . No other name is used in the English @-@ language literature , but historically a variety of Greek or Latin @-@ derived names have been used , including cerebrum parvum , encephalion , encranion , cerebrum posterius , and parencephalis .
= Donn Cabral =
Donald " Donn " Cabral is an American cross country and track athlete from Connecticut who went on to star at Princeton University . As a long distance runner he has been most successful in the steeplechase , but has also been a National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) All @-@ American at cross country and the 5000 metres as well as the Ivy League champion at the 3000 metres . He is the current American collegiate steeplechase record holder and was the 2012 NCAA steeplechase champion . He competed in the 2012 Summer Olympic Games in the steeplechase . At Princeton , Cabral was an eight @-@ time NCAA All @-@ American and ten @-@ time individual Ivy League champion . He was a long distance running champion in high school for Glastonbury High School , winning two Class LL championships as a sophomore and then open state and New England championships as a junior and senior .
= = Running career = =
= = = High school = = =
Early on , Cabral showed interest in Olympic competition and high caliber racing . After watching patriotic flag waving during the 1996 Summer Olympics , Cabral requested that his father wave the American Flag during one of his swim meets as a six @-@ year @-@ old . In his first Manchester Road Race at age 12 , Cabral 's parents placed him in the starting position with the runners who run at an 8 – 9 minute per mile pace , but he complained , " How am I going to win from back here ? "
At Glastonbury High School in Glastonbury , Connecticut , Cabral excelled in track and cross country . He was a two @-@ time State Open and New England cross country champion . He was also the indoor track Connecticut 2 mile champion . He ran the fastest high school 1500 metres in the country during his senior year . He also established state records in the 5 @,@ 000 m ( 14 : 32 @.@ 60 ) and the 2 mile run ( 8 : 56 @.@ 35 ) .
As a freshman , Cabral was the second slowest runner on the soccer team . He tried out for track to work on his speed . At first he ran the 400 metres in 68 seconds . By the end of the spring , he broke 10 minutes in the 2 mile and was considering joining the cross country team instead of participating in his usual fall sport , soccer . In the summer of 2005 , the cross country coach sent him a letter of encouragement .
During his sophomore year , he won the boys Connecticut Interscholastic Athletic Conference ( CIAC ) class LL indoor track two mile run and placed third in the New England Championships . He finished third in the CIAC Cross Country Open Championships and 19th in the New England Championships . His cross country performance earned him the Class LL championship that year .
As a junior , Cabral won the CIAC Cross Country Open Championships . He also won the 72nd New England Cross Country Championships at Ponaganset High School with a 5K race time of 15 : 29 . Glastonbury finished second to Danbury High School in the team competition . At the Foot Locker National Cross Country Championship , Cabral finished 21st with a time of 15 : 57 .
In his senior season , Cabral won the 2007 boys CIAC State Open Cross Country Championships . He also won the New England Cross Country Championships . At the Foot Locker National Cross Country Championship at Balboa Park in San Diego , Cabral finished 8th with a time of 15 : 19 , which tied the best ever finish by a Connecticut runner . In May , his 4 : 09 @.@ 80 became the best mile time of the school year for an American high schooler . Cabral placed second in the 10 @,@ 000 metres ( 30 : 50 @.@ 28 ) at the 2008 USA Junior Track & Field championships , qualifying him for the at the IAAF World Junior Championships in Poland .
= = = Collegiate = = =
During his Princeton running career , Cabral was a three @-@ time NCAA All @-@ American in the steeplechase , two @-@ time outdoor NCAA All @-@ American in the 5000 meter , two @-@ time cross country NCAA All @-@ American , and one @-@ time indoor NCAA All @-@ American in the 5000 meter . As a senior , Cabral became the 2012 NCAA champion in the steeplechase after having been the runner @-@ up to Matt Hughes in the two prior NCAA steeplechase championships .
As a freshman , Cabral endured a plantar fascia tear while waterskiing and did not compete in cross country . He did not compete in the steeplechase until his sophomore season at Princeton . In his second time running the event , he won at the 2010 Penn Relays . That year he was the Ivy League outdoor 10 @,@ 000 meter and steeplechase champion and the indoor runner @-@ up in the 3000 meters and 5000 meters . He finished second at the NCAA championships with a time of 8 : 38 @.@ 90 .
As a junior in 2011 , he repeated as the Ivy League outdoor 10 @,@ 000 meter and steeplechase champion and became the indoor champion in the 3000 meters and 5000 meters . He was selected as the most outstanding performer at both the indoor and outdoor Heps meets . That fall , he had been the 2010 Ivy League cross country champion . He finished second at the NCAA championships with a time of 8 : 32 @.@ 14 . At the NCAA national outdoor 5 @,@ 000 meter race , he established a school record of 13 : 40 @.@ 62 that would stand for less than a year .
He spent the summer of 2011 training in Park City , Utah . During his senior season , Cabral purchased a high @-@ altitude tent on craigslist that he used in his dormitory room for five months leading up to the 2012 Olympic Trials . This enabled him to sleep and study at a simulated altitude of 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) with the goal of making his body more efficient by depriving himself of oxygen . He spent 10 – 12 hours per day in the tent . In 2012 , he won his third consecutive Ivy League outdoor 10 @,@ 000 meter and steeplechase championships . He also repeated as the indoor champion in the 5000 meters . He won at the NCAA championships with a time of 8 : 35 @.@ 44 .
On May 18 , 2012 , while running in the OXY High Performance meet in California , Cabral completed the 3000 metre steeplechase in 8 : 19 @.@ 14 , surpassing Farley Gerber 's American Collegiate record of 8 : 19 @.@ 27 , set for Weber State University in 1984 and smashing his own personal best time of 8 : 32 . The previous Ivy League record of 8 : 29 @.@ 01 had been set by Michael Fadil of Dartmouth College in 1985 . Cabral also holds the Ivy League record for the indoor 5000 metres .
Cabral became the 2012 NCAA steeplechase champion on June 8 , 2012 , winning by five seconds and capping an undefeated season in the event . Cabral is Princeton 's first individual track event NCAA champion since William Bonthron 's 1934 championship in the mile run in 1934 . This does excludes field event champions such as Tora Harris ( 2002 high jump ) who had been Princeton 's last NCAA Outdoor Track and Field champion . When combined with the men 's squash team and epeeist Jonathan Yergler , it marked the first academic year that Princeton had three national champions since 2003 . Harris had also been the last track and field Olympian , although no Princeton distance runner had qualified for the Olympics since class of 1906 Princetonian John Eisele earned a silver medal in the steeplechase and a bronze medal in the three @-@ mile at the 1908 Summer Olympics . No Princeton runner had made the Olympics since Bill Stevenson went to the 1924 Summer Olympics .
Because athletes in Ivy League competition only have four years of athletic eligibility , Cabral could not participate in NCAA competition for Princeton to use his final year of cross country eligibility . As a result , he intended to enroll in business school at the University of Colorado , where he would continue training with Billy Nelson coach Mark Wetmore . He opted to turn pro rather than attend Colorado .
= = = International = = =
Cabral finished 17th in the 10 @,@ 000 metres at the 2008 World Junior Championships . In the 2010 NACAC Under @-@ 23 Championships , he won the steeplechase with at time of 8 : 52 @.@ 67 .
Although a competitive collegiate runner , Cabral has focused his training on the Olympics . On June 28 , 2012 , Cabral qualified for the 2012 United States Olympic team as a steeplechase participant by finishing second to Evan Jager with a time of 8 : 19 @.@ 81 in the 2012 United States Olympic Trials and surpassing the Olympic A standard time of 8 : 23 @.@ 10 . In an August 3 , 2012 Olympic heat , Cabral finished 4th with a time of 8 : 21 @.@ 46 in his 13 @-@ man heat , earning the last automatic berth to the August 5 finals . Cabral 's time was 10th fastest of the 15 advancing runners ( and of all 39 entrants ) , slower than all six qualifiers from heat 1 and faster than all 4 qualifiers from heat 2 . In the finals , he led at the 1000 meter split with a time of 2 : 52 @.@ 70 , but he finished in eighth place with a time of 8 : 25 @.@ 91 .
Instead of continuing his collegiate career at another institution , he decided to go pro as a runner in the summer of 2012 . After graduating from Princeton University in 2012 , he signed with Nike , and is now a professional runner for them . Following the 2012 Olympics and a little time off , Cabral moved to Bellingham , Washington , where he trains with former coach Peter Oviatt .
At the 2015 World Championships in Beijing , China , Cabral placed 10th in the 3000 metres steeplechase with a time of 8 : 24 @.@ 94 .
Donn Cabral placed third in the steeplechase in a time of 8 : 26 @.@ 37 at the 2016 United States Olympic Trials ( track and field ) behind Team USA teammates Hillary Bor and Evan Jager to qualify to represent United States at Athletics at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Brazil .
= = Personal = =
His parents are John Cabral and Deborah Hadaway . His father coached him in soccer . At Princeton , Cabral earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in economics .
= Euston Road =
Euston Road in Central London , England , runs from Marylebone Road to King 's Cross . The road is part of the London Inner Ring Road and forms part of the London congestion charge zone boundary .
The road was originally the central section of New Road from Paddington to Islington which opened in 1756 as London 's first bypass providing a route along which to drive cattle to Smithfield Market avoiding central London . Traffic increased when major railway stations , including Euston , opened in the mid @-@ 19th century and led to the road 's renaming in 1857 . Euston Road was widened in the 1960s to cater for the increasing demands of motor traffic , and the Euston Tower was built around that time . The road contains several significant buildings including the Wellcome Library , the British Library and the St. Pancras Renaissance London Hotel .
= = Geography = =
The road starts as a continuation of the A501 , a major road through Central London , at its junction with Marylebone Road and Great Portland Street . It meets the northern end of Tottenham Court Road at a large junction where there is an underpass , and ends at King 's Cross with Gray 's Inn Road . The road ahead to Islington is Pentonville Road .
The road is part of the London Inner Ring Road and on the edge of the London congestion charge zone . Drivers are not charged for travelling on the road , but may be if they turn south into the zone during its hours of operation . King 's Cross and St Pancras railway stations are at the eastern end of the road , the British Library is nearby , and Euston railway station is a further west . The Euston Tower is a landmark on the road . The old and new headquarters of the Wellcome Trust are on its south side . From west to east the road passes Regent 's Park , Great Portland Street , Warren Street , Euston Square , Euston and King 's Cross St Pancras tube stations . London Bus Route 205 runs along the entire extent of Euston Road from Great Portland Street to King 's Cross .
= = History = =
= = = 18th – 19th century = = =
Before the 18th century , the land along which Euston Road runs was fields and farmland . Camden Town was a village retreat for Londoners working in the city . Euston Road was originally part of New Road , promoted by Charles FitzRoy , 2nd Duke of Grafton and enabled by an Act of Parliament passed in 1756 . Construction began in May that year , and it was open to traffic by September .
The road provided a new drovers ' road for moving sheep and cattle to Smithfield Market avoiding Oxford Street and Holborn , and ended at St John 's Street , Islington . It provided a quicker route for army units to reach the Essex coast when there was a threat of invasion , without passing through the cities of London and Westminster , and was a barrier between the increasing urban sprawl that threatened to reach places such as Camden Town . The Capper family , who lived on the south side of the proposed route , opposed its construction and complained their crops would be ruined by dust kicked up by cattle along the route . Capper Street , a side street off Tottenham Court Road , is named after the family . A clause in the 1756 Act stipulated that no buildings should be constructed within 50 feet ( 15 m ) of the road , with the result that most of the houses along it lay behind substantial gardens . During the 19th century the law was increasingly ignored .
Euston Station opened on the north side of New Road in July 1837 . It was planned by Robert Stephenson on the site of gardens called Euston Grove , and was the first mainline station to open in London . Its entrance , designed by Philip Hardwick , cost £ 35 @,@ 000 ( now 2 @,@ 868 @,@ 000 ) and had the highest portico in London at 72 feet ( 22 m ) . The Great Hall opened in 1849 to improve accommodation for passengers , and a statue of Stephenson 's father , George was installed in 1852 . The Dukes of Grafton had become the main property owners in the area , and in 1857 the central section of the road , between Osnaburgh Street and Kings Cross , was renamed Euston Road after Euston Hall , their country house . The eastern section became Pentonville Road , the western Marylebone Road . The full length of Euston Road was dug up so that the Metropolitan Railway could be built beneath it using a cut @-@ and @-@ cover system and the road was then relaid to a much higher standard . St Pancras station opened in 1867 , with the Midland Grand Hotel in 1873 . The station complex was controversially demolished in 1963 to accommodate British Rail 's facilities . The replacement building opened in 1968 , and now serves 50 million passengers annually .
Tolmers Village was in the tiny triangle ( less than 2 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) ) on the north side of Euston Road between Hampstead Road and North Gower Street . It was built in the early 1860s over a former reservoir to provide affordable middle @-@ class terraced housing but its proximity to a main road and the Euston Station complex meant it ultimately catered for the working classes . By 1871 , around 5 @,@ 000 residents were housed in a 12 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) area . The estate continued to expand throughout the early 20th century in a piecemeal fashion , and attracted Greek , Cypriot and Asian immigrants following World War II . In the 1970s , the estate came under threat from property developers who wanted to demolish it and build offices , which led to demonstrations and protests , including supporters from University College . The plans were cancelled , but the estate was still bulldozed and replaced by tower blocks .
= = = 20th – 21st century = = =
The area around the junction with Tottenham Court Road suffered significant bomb damage during the Second World War . Patrick Abercrombie 's contemporary Greater London Plan called for a new ring road around Central London called the ' A ' Ring , but post @-@ war budget constraints meant that a medley of existing routes were improved to form the ring road , including Euston Road . An underpass to avoid the junction with Tottenham Court Road was proposed in 1961 , with construction taking place in 1964 . The property developer Joe Levy was keen to develop buildings in the area and bought various properties . When the London County Council ( LCC ) refused planning permission because of the underpass development , Levy , who had outline planning permission , insisted the council pay him £ 1 million if they wanted to compulsorily purchase the site . Over the next four years , Levy bought properties along the north side of Euston Road , and an agreement was reached so that the council built the underpass and he built a complex of two tower blocks with office shops and apartments , the Euston Tower .
The tower attracted a number of significant tenants , including INMARSAT and the independent radio station Capital Radio . The ITV broadcaster Thames Television 's corporate headquarters were based nearby at No. 306 – 316 Euston Road from 1971 to 1992 when the station closed . That building was demolished in 1994 and redeveloped when Thames , now a production company , moved all operations to Teddington Studios .
In the early @-@ 21st century , the Greater London Authority commissioned a plan to improve the road from thearchitectural firm , Terry Farrell and Partners . The original study proposed removing the underpass ( which was subsequently cancelled ) and providing a pedestrian crossing and removing the gyratory system connecting Tottenham Court Road and Gower Street . The scheme was approved by the Mayor of London , Ken Livingstone as " the start of changing the Marylebone to Euston road from a highway into a series of linked public spaces . " The pedestrian crossing opened in March 2010 . Livingstone 's successor , Boris Johnston , favours keeping the Euston Road underpass and declared it to be a good place to test his nerves when cycling around London .
In 2015 , Transport for London announced its intention to close one lane in each direction on Euston Road between 2020 and 2026 to accommodate work on High Speed 2 . The decision was condemned by Camden Borough Council as it could affect business and cost more than £ 1 billion in lost revenue . The Automobile Association said the works were the largest ever proposed in London and would affect far more than local traffic due to its Inner Ring Road status .
= = Notable buildings = =
About halfway along Euston Road , at the junction with Upper Woburn Place , is St Pancras New Church , built in 1822 . Designed by William and Henry Inwood and costing around £ 90 @,@ 000 ( now £ 7 @,@ 396 @,@ 000 ) , it was the most expensive property to be designed in London since St Paul 's Cathedral the previous century . Almost opposite is Euston Road fire station , built 1901 – 2 , in an Arts and Crafts style by Percy Nobbs . The Shaw Theatre opened at No. 100 – 110 in 1971 , in honour of George Bernard Shaw . It was refurbished in 2000 as part of an adjacent Novotel development . The Keith Grant sculpture at the theatre 's front was removed but was subsequently reinstated after protests .
The New Hospital for Women moved to No. 144 Euston Road in 1888 , and was rebuilt by J.M. Brydon two years later . It housed 42 beds and was staffed entirely by women , which made it a comfortable environment for gynaecological problems . It was renamed the Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital in 1918 following the death of the hospital 's founder , Elizabeth Garrett Anderson , the first woman in England to qualify as a doctor of medicine . The Euston Road premises closed in 1993 , its services transferred to University College Hospital . The current hospital is at No. 235 . The Wellcome Trust , a private medical research charity , was established in 1936 and has premises at No. 183 and No
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. This variation in the two areas along with the differences between volcanic areas and shallow seas gives Ireland a range of soils as well . There are wide bogs and free draining brown earths . The mountains are granite , sandstone , limestone with karst like areas and basalt formations .
= = Physical geography = =
= = = Mountain ranges = = =
Ireland consists of a mostly flat low @-@ lying area in the midlands , ringed by mountain ranges such as ( beginning in County Kerry and working counter @-@ clockwise ) the Macgillycuddy 's Reeks , Comeragh Mountains , Blackstairs Mountains , Wicklow Mountains , the Mournes , Glens of Antrim , Sperrin Mountains , Bluestack Mountains , Derryveagh Mountains , Ox Mountains , Nephinbeg Mountains and the Twelve Bens / Maumturks group . Some mountain ranges are further inland in the south of Ireland , such as the Galtee Mountains ( the highest inland range ) , Silvermine and Slieve Bloom Mountains . The highest peak is Carrauntoohil , 1 @,@ 038 m ( 3 @,@ 405 ft ) high , is in the Macgillycuddy 's Reeks , a range of glacier @-@ carved sandstone mountains . The mountains are not high – only three peaks are over 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) and another 457 exceed 500 m ( 1 @,@ 640 ft ) .
= = = Rivers and lakes = = =
The main river in Ireland is the River Shannon , 360 @.@ 5 km ( 224 @.@ 0 mi ) , the longest river in Ireland as well as both the islands of Ireland and Britain , it is a river that separates the boggy midlands of Ireland from the west of the island . The river develops into three lakes along its course , Lough Allen , Lough Ree , and Lough Derg . Of these , Lough Derg is the largest . The River Shannon enters the Atlantic Ocean after Limerick city at the Shannon Estuary . Other major rivers include the River Liffey , River Lee , River Blackwater , River Nore , River Suir , River Barrow , River Bann , River Foyle , River Erne , and River Boyne ( see the list of rivers in Ireland ) .
Lough Neagh , in Ulster , is the largest lake in Ireland and the UK . Legend has it that a giant , Fionn mac Cumhail , was fighting with another in Scotland , and enraged , scooped out a lump of earth , which he threw . It fell into the Irish Sea , creating the Isle of Man , while the hole filled up with water to become Lough Neagh . Other large lakes include Lough Erne and Lough Corrib .
= = = Inlets = = =
Beginning with County Donegal , Lough Swilly separates one side of the Inishowen peninsula . Lough Foyle on the other side , is one of Ireland 's larger inlets , situated between County Donegal and County Londonderry . Further round the coast is Belfast Lough , between County Antrim and County Down . Also in County Down is Strangford Lough , actually an inlet partially separating the Ards peninsula from the mainland . Further down the coast , Carlingford Lough is situated between Down and County Louth .
Dublin Bay is the next sizeable inlet , while the eastern coast of Ireland is mostly uniform until Wexford Harbour at the mouth of the River Slaney . On the southern coast , Waterford Harbour is situated at the mouth of the River Suir ( into which the other two of the Three Sisters ( River Nore and River Barrow ) flow ) . The next major inlet is Cork Harbour , at the mouth of the River Lee , in which Great Island is situated .
Dunmanus Bay , Bantry Bay , Kenmare estuary and Dingle Bay are all inlets between the peninsulas of County Kerry . North of these is the Shannon Estuary . Between north County Clare and County Galway is Galway Bay . Clew Bay is located on the coast of County Mayo , south of Achill Island , while Broadhaven Bay , Blacksod Bay and Sruth Fada Conn bays are situated in northwest Connacht , in North Mayo . Killala Bay is on the northeast coast of Mayo . Donegal Bay is a major inlet between County Donegal and County Sligo .
= = = Headlands = = =
Malin Head is the most northerly point in Ireland , while Mizen Head is one of the most southern points , hence the term " Malin head to Mizen head " ( or the reverse ) is used for anything applying to the island of Ireland as a whole . Carnsore Point is another extreme point of Ireland , being the southeastern most point of Ireland . Further along the coast is Hook Head while the Old Head of Kinsale in is one of many headlands along the south coast of Ireland .
Loop Head is the headland at which County Clare comes to a point on the west coast of Ireland , with the Atlantic on the north , and further inland on the south , the Shannon estuary . Hag 's Head is another headland further up Clare 's north / western coastline , with the Cliffs of Moher along the coastline north of the point .
Erris Head is the northwesternmost point of Connacht .
= = = Islands and peninsulas = = =
Achill Island , in the northwest , is the largest island off Ireland 's coast . The island is inhabited , and is connected to the mainland by a bridge . Some of the next largest islands are the Aran Islands , off the coast of southern Connacht , host to an Irish @-@ speaking community , or Gaeltacht . Valentia Island off the Iveragh peninsula is also one of Ireland 's larger islands , and is relatively settled , as well as being connected by a bridge at its southeastern end . Omey Island , off the coast of Connemara is a tidal island .
Some of the best @-@ known peninsulas in Ireland are in County Kerry ; the Dingle peninsula , the aforementioned Iveragh peninsula and the Beara peninsula . The Ards peninsula is one of the larger peninsulas outside Kerry . The Inishowen peninsula in County Donegal includes Ireland 's most northerly point , Malin Head and several important towns including Buncrana on Lough Swilly , Carndonagh and Moville on Lough Foyle . Ireland 's most northerly land feature is Inishtrahull island , off Malin Head . Rockall Island may deserve this honour but its status is disputed , being claimed by the United Kingdom , Republic of Ireland , Denmark ( for the Faroe Islands ) and Iceland . The most southerly point is the Fastnet Rock .
= = Climate = =
The climate of Ireland is mild , moist and changeable with abundant rainfall and a lack of temperature extremes . Ireland 's climate is defined as a temperate oceanic climate , or Cfb on the Köppen climate classification system , a classification it shares with most of northwest Europe . The country receives generally warm summers and mild winters . It is considerably warmer than other areas on its latitude , because it lies in the northeastern Atlantic Ocean , and as a result is warmed by the North Atlantic Current all year .
The influence of the North Atlantic Current also ensures the coastline of Ireland remains ice @-@ free throughout the winter — unlike for example the Sea of Okhotsk and the Labrador Sea which are at a similar latitude . The climate in Ireland does not experience extreme weather , with tornadoes and similar weather features being rare .
The prevailing wind blows from the southwest , breaking on the high mountains of the west coast . Rainfall is therefore a particularly prominent part of western Irish life , with Valentia Island , off the west coast of County Kerry , getting almost twice as much annual rainfall as Dublin on the east ( 1 @,@ 400 mm or 55 @.@ 1 in vs. 762 mm or 30 @.@ 0 in ) .
January and February are the coldest months of the year , and mean daily air temperatures fall between 4 and 7 ° C ( 39 @.@ 2 and 44 @.@ 6 ° F ) during these months . July and August are the warmest , with mean daily temperatures of 14 to 16 ° C ( 57 @.@ 2 to 60 @.@ 8 ° F ) , whilst mean daily maximums in July and August vary from 17 to 18 ° C ( 62 @.@ 6 to 64 @.@ 4 ° F ) near the coast , to 19 to 20 ° C ( 66 @.@ 2 to 68 @.@ 0 ° F ) inland . The sunniest months are May and June , with an average of five to seven hours sunshine per day .
Though extreme weather events in Ireland are comparatively rare when compared with other countries in the European Continent , they do occur . Atlantic depressions , occurring mainly in the months of December , January and February , can occasionally bring winds of up to 160 km / h or 99 mph to Western coastal counties ; while the summer months , and particularly around late July / early August , thunderstorms can develop .
The table shows mean climate figures for the Dublin Airport weather station over a thirty @-@ year period . Climate statistics based on the counties of Northern Ireland vary slightly but are not significantly different .
= = Political and human geography = =
Ireland is divided into four provinces , Connacht , Leinster , Munster and Ulster , and 32 counties . Six of the nine Ulster counties form Northern Ireland and the other 26 form the state , Ireland . The map shows the county boundaries for all 32 counties .
From an administrative viewpoint , 21 of the counties in the republic are units of local government . The other six have more than one local council area , producing a total of 31 county @-@ level authorities . County Tipperary had two ridings , North Tipperary and South Tipperary , originally established in 1838 , renamed in 2001 and amalgamated in 2014 . The cities of Dublin , Cork and Galway have city councils and are administered separately from the counties bearing those names . The cities of Limerick and Waterford were merged with their respective county councils in 2014 to form new city and county councils . The remaining part of County Dublin is divided into Dún Laoghaire – Rathdown , Fingal , and South Dublin .
Electoral areas in Ireland ( the state ) , called constituencies in accordance with Irish law , mostly follow county boundaries . Maintaining links to the county system is a mandatory consideration in the re @-@ organisation of constituency boundaries by a Constituency Commission .
In Northern Ireland , a major re @-@ organisation of local government in 1973 replaced the six traditional counties and two county boroughs ( Belfast and Derry ) by 26 single @-@ tier districts , which , apart from Fermanagh cross the traditional county boundaries . The six counties and two county @-@ boroughs remain in use for purposes such as Lieutenancy . In November 2005 , proposals were announced which would see the number of local authorities reduced to seven . The island 's total population of approximately 6 million people is concentrated on the east coast , particularly in Dublin and Belfast and their surrounding areas .
= = Natural resources = =
= = = Bogs = = =
Ireland has 12 @,@ 000 km ² ( 4 @,@ 633 miles ² ) of bogland , consisting of two distinct types , blanket bogs and raised bogs . Blanket bogs are the more widespread of the two types . They are essentially a product of human activity aided by the moist Irish climate . Blanket bogs formed on sites where Neolithic farmers cleared trees for farming . As the land so cleared fell into disuse , the soil began to leach and become more acidic , producing a suitable environment for the growth of heather and rushes . The debris from these plants accumulated and a layer of peat formed . One of the largest expanses of Atlantic blanket bog in Ireland is to be found in County Mayo .
Raised bogs are most common in the Shannon basin . They formed when depressions left behind after the ice age filled with water to form lakes . Debris from reeds in these lakes formed a layer at the bottom of the water . This eventually choked the lakes and raised above the surface , forming raised bogs .
Since the 17th century , peat has been cut for fuel for domestic heating and cooking and it is called turf when so used . The process accelerated as commercial exploitation of bogs grew . In the 1940s , machines for cutting turf were introduced and larger @-@ scale exploitation became possible . In the Republic , this became the responsibility of a semi @-@ state company called Bord na Móna . In addition to domestic uses , commercially extracted turf is used in a number of industries , especially electricity generation though peat is being combined with biomass for dual @-@ firing electricity generation .
In recent years , the high level of bog being destroyed by cutting has raised environmental concerns . The problem is particularly acute for raised bogs as they yield a higher @-@ grade fuel than blanket bogs . Plans are now in place in both the Republic and Northern Ireland to conserve most of the remaining raised bogs on the island .
= = = Oil , natural gas and minerals = = =
Offshore exploration for natural gas began in 1970 . The first major discovery was the Kinsale Head gas field in 1971 . Next was the smaller Ballycotton gas field in 1989 , and the Corrib gas field in 1996 . Exploitation of the Corrib project has yet to get off the ground because the controversial proposal to refine the gas onshore , rather than at sea has been met with widespread opposition . Gas from these fields is pumped ashore and used for both domestic and industrial purposes . The Helvick oil field , estimated to contain over 28 million barrels ( 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil , is a 2000 discovery . Ireland is the largest European producer of zinc with three operating zinc @-@ lead mines at Navan , Galmoy and Lisheen . Other mineral deposits with actual or potential commercial value include gold , silver , gypsum , talc , calcite , dolomite , roofing slate , limestone aggregate , building stone , sand and gravel .
In May 2007 the Department of Communications , Marine and Natural Resources ( now replaced by the Department of Communications , Energy and Natural Resources ) reported that there may be volumes over 130 billion barrels ( 2 @.@ 1 × 1010 m3 ) of petroleum and 50 trillion cubic feet ( 1 @,@ 400 km3 ) of natural gas in Irish waters – worth trillions of Euro , if true . The minimum ' guaranteed ' amount of oil in the Irish Atlantic waters is 10 billion barrels ( 1 @.@ 6 × 109 m3 ) , worth over € 450 billion . There are also areas of petroleum and natural gas on shore , for example the Lough Allen basin , with 9 @.@ 4 trillion cubic feet ( 270 km3 ) of gas and 1 @.@ 5 billion barrels ( 240 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil , valued at € 74 @.@ 4 billion . Already some fields are being exploited , such as the Spanish Point field , with 1 @.@ 25 trillion cubic feet ( 35 km3 ) of gas and 206 million barrels ( 32 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 m3 ) of oil , valued at € 19 @.@ 6 billion . The Corrib Basin is also quite large , worth anything up to € 87 billion , while the Dunquin gas field contains 25 trillion cubic feet ( 710 km3 ) of natural gas and 4 @.@ 13 billion barrels ( 657 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of petroleum .
In March 2012 the first commercial oil well was drilled 70 km off the Cork coast by Providence Resources . The Barryroe oil well is yielding 3500 barrels per day , at current oil prices at $ 120 a barrel Barryroe oil well is worth in excess of € 2.14bn annually .
= = = Print = = =
Mitchell , Frank and Ryan , Michael . Reading the Irish landscape ( 1998 ) . ISBN 1 @-@ 86059 @-@ 055 @-@ 1
Whittow , J. B. Geography and Scenery in Ireland ( Penguin Books 1974 )
Holland , Charles , H and Sanders , Ian S. The Geology of Ireland 2nd ed . ( 2009 ) . ISBN 1903765722
Place @-@ names , Diarmuid O Murchadha and Kevin Murray , in The Heritage of Ireland , ed . N. Buttimer et al . , The Collins Press , Cork , 2000 , pp. 146 – 155 .
A paper landscape : the Ordnance Survey in nineteenth @-@ century Ireland , J.H. Andrews , London , 1975
Monasticon Hibernicum , M. Archdall , 1786
Etymological aetiology in Irish tradition , R. Baumgarten , Eiru 41 , pp. 115 – 122 , 1990
The Origin and History of Irish names of Places , Patrick Weston Joyce , three volumes , Dublin , 1869 , 1875 , 1913 .
Irish Place Names , D. Flanagan and L. Flanagan , Dublin , 1994
Census of Ireland : general alphabetical index to the townlands and towns , parishes and paronies of Ireland , Dublin , 1861
The Placenames of Westmeath , Paul Walsh , 1957
The Placenames of Decies , P. Power , Cork , 1952
The place @-@ names of county Wicklow , Liam Price , seven volumes , Dublin , 1945 – 67
= = = Online = = =
Abbot , Patrick . Ireland 's Peat Bogs . Retrieved on 23 January 2008 .
Ireland – The World Factbook . Central Intelligence Agency . Retrieved on 23 January 2008 .
OnlineWeather.com – climate details for Ireland . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 01 @-@ 12
= Variable @-@ frequency drive =
A variable @-@ frequency drive ( VFD ) ( also termed adjustable @-@ frequency drive , variable speed drive , AC drive , micro drive or inverter drive ) is a type of adjustable @-@ speed drive used in electro @-@ mechanical drive systems to control AC motor speed and torque by varying motor input frequency and voltage .
VFDs are used in applications ranging from small appliances to the largest of mine mill drives and compressors . However , around 25 % of the world 's electrical energy is consumed by electric motors in industrial applications , which are especially conducive for energy savings using VFDs in centrifugal load service , and VFDs ' global market penetration for all applications is still relatively small . That lack of penetration highlights significant energy efficiency improvement opportunities for retrofitted and new VFD installations .
Over the last four decades , power electronics technology has reduced VFD cost and size and has improved performance through advances in semiconductor switching devices , drive topologies , simulation and control techniques , and control hardware and software .
VFDs are available in a number of different low- and medium @-@ voltage AC @-@ AC and DC @-@ AC topologies .
= = System description and operation = =
A variable @-@ frequency drive is a device used in a drive system consisting of the following three main sub @-@ systems : AC motor , main drive controller assembly , and drive / operator interface .
= = = AC Motor = = =
The AC electric motor used in a VFD system is usually three @-@ phase induction motor . Some types of single @-@ phase motors can be used , but three @-@ phase motors are usually preferred . Various types of synchronous motors offer advantages in some situations , but three @-@ phase induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are generally the most economical motor choice . Motors that are designed for fixed @-@ speed operation are often used . Elevated @-@ voltage stresses imposed on induction motors that are supplied by VFDs require that such motors be designed for definite @-@ purpose inverter @-@ fed duty in accordance with such requirements as Part 31 of NEMA Standard MG @-@ 1 .
= = = Controller = = =
The VFD controller is a solid @-@ state power electronics conversion system consisting of three distinct sub @-@ systems : a rectifier bridge converter , a direct current ( DC ) link , and an inverter . Voltage @-@ source inverter ( VSI ) drives ( see ' Generic topologies ' sub @-@ section below ) are by far the most common type of drives . Most drives are AC @-@ AC drives in that they convert AC line input to AC inverter output . However , in some applications such as common DC bus or solar applications , drives are configured as DC @-@ AC drives . The most basic rectifier converter for the VSI drive is configured as a three @-@ phase , six @-@ pulse , full @-@ wave diode bridge . In a VSI drive , the DC link consists of a capacitor which smooths out the converter 's DC output ripple and provides a stiff input to the inverter . This filtered DC voltage is converted to quasi @-@ sinusoidal AC voltage output using the inverter 's active switching elements . VSI drives provide higher power factor and lower harmonic distortion than phase @-@ controlled current @-@ source inverter ( CSI ) and load @-@ commutated inverter ( LCI ) drives ( see ' Generic topologies ' sub @-@ section below ) . The drive controller can also be configured as a phase converter having single @-@ phase converter input and three @-@ phase inverter output .
Controller advances have exploited dramatic increases in the voltage and current ratings and switching frequency of solid @-@ state power devices over the past six decades . Introduced in 1983 , the insulated @-@ gate bipolar transistor ( IGBT ) has in the past two decades come to dominate VFDs as an inverter switching device .
In variable @-@ torque applications suited for Volts @-@ per @-@ Hertz ( V / Hz ) drive control , AC motor characteristics require that the voltage magnitude of the inverter 's output to the motor be adjusted to match the required load torque in a linear V / Hz relationship . For example , for 460 V , 60 Hz motors , this linear V / Hz relationship is 460 / 60
= 7 @.@ 67 V / Hz . While suitable in wide @-@ ranging applications , V / Hz control is sub @-@ optimal in high @-@ performance applications involving low speed or demanding , dynamic speed regulation , positioning , and reversing load requirements . Some V / Hz control drives can also operate in quadratic V / Hz mode or can even be programmed to suit special multi @-@ point V / Hz paths .
The two other drive control platforms , vector control and direct torque control ( DTC ) , adjust the motor voltage magnitude , angle from reference , and frequency so as to precisely control the motor 's magnetic flux and mechanical torque .
Although space vector pulse @-@ width modulation ( SVPWM ) is becoming increasingly popular , sinusoidal PWM ( SPWM ) is the most straightforward method used to vary drives ' motor voltage ( or current ) and frequency . With SPWM control ( see Fig . 1 ) , quasi @-@ sinusoidal , variable @-@ pulse @-@ width output is constructed from intersections of a saw @-@ toothed carrier signal with a modulating sinusoidal signal which is variable in operating frequency as well as in voltage ( or current ) .
Operation of the motors above rated nameplate speed ( base speed ) is possible , but is limited to conditions that do not require more power than the nameplate rating of the motor . This is sometimes called " field weakening " and , for AC motors , means operating at less than rated V / Hz and above rated nameplate speed . Permanent magnet synchronous motors have quite limited field @-@ weakening speed range due to the constant magnet flux linkage . Wound @-@ rotor synchronous motors and induction motors have much wider speed range . For example , a 100 HP , 460 V , 60 Hz , 1775 RPM ( 4 @-@ pole ) induction motor supplied with 460 V , 75 Hz ( 6 @.@ 134 V / Hz ) , would be limited to 60 / 75 =
80 % torque at 125 % speed ( 2218 @.@ 75 RPM ) = 100 % power . At higher speeds , the induction motor torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the breakaway torque of the motor . Thus , rated power can be typically produced only up to 130 @-@ 150 % of the rated nameplate speed . Wound @-@ rotor synchronous motors can be run at even higher speeds . In rolling mill drives , often 200 @-@ 300 % of the base speed is used . The mechanical strength of the rotor limits the maximum speed of the motor .
An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller . Basic programming of the microprocessor is provided as user @-@ inaccessible firmware . User programming of display , variable , and function block parameters is provided to control , protect , and monitor the VFD , motor , and driven equipment .
The basic drive controller can be configured to selectively include such optional power components and accessories as follows :
Connected upstream of converter -- circuit breaker or fuses , isolation contactor , EMC filter , line reactor , passive filter
Connected to DC link -- braking chopper , braking resistor
Connected downstream of inverter — output reactor , sine wave filter , dV / dt filter .
= = = Operator interface = = =
The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating speed . Additional operator control functions might include reversing , and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control from an external process control signal . The operator interface often includes an alphanumeric display and / or indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the drive . An operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above . The keypad display can often be cable @-@ connected and mounted a short distance from the VFD controller . Most are also provided with input and output ( I / O ) terminals for connecting push buttons , switches , and other operator interface devices or control signals . A serial communications port is also often available to allow the VFD to be configured , adjusted , monitored , and controlled using a computer .
= = = Drive operation = = =
Referring to the accompanying chart , drive applications can be categorized as single @-@ quadrant , two @-@ quadrant , or four @-@ quadrant ; the chart 's four quadrants are defined as follows :
Quadrant I - Driving or motoring , forward accelerating quadrant with positive speed and torque
Quadrant II - Generating or braking , forward braking @-@ decelerating quadrant with positive speed and negative torque
Quadrant III - Driving or motoring , reverse accelerating quadrant with negative speed and torque
Quadrant IV - Generating or braking , reverse braking @-@ decelerating quadrant with negative speed and positive torque .
Most applications involve single @-@ quadrant loads operating in quadrant I , such as in variable @-@ torque ( e.g. centrifugal pumps or fans ) and certain constant @-@ torque ( e.g. extruders ) loads .
Certain applications involve two @-@ quadrant loads operating in quadrant I and II where the speed is positive but the torque changes polarity as in case of a fan decelerating faster than natural mechanical losses . Some sources define two @-@ quadrant drives as loads operating in quadrants I and III where the speed and torque is same ( positive or negative ) polarity in both directions .
Certain high @-@ performance applications involve four @-@ quadrant loads ( Quadrants I to IV ) where the speed and torque can be in any direction such as in hoists , elevators , and hilly conveyors . Regeneration can occur only in the drive 's DC link bus when inverter voltage is smaller in magnitude than the motor back @-@ EMF and inverter voltage and back @-@ EMF are the same polarity .
In starting a motor , a VFD initially applies a low frequency and voltage , thus avoiding high inrush current associated with direct @-@ on @-@ line starting . After the start of the VFD , the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load . This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150 % of its rated torque while the VFD is drawing less than 50 % of its rated current from the mains in the low @-@ speed range . A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150 % starting torque from standstill right up to full speed . However , motor cooling deteriorates and can result in overheating as speed decreases such that prolonged low @-@ speed operation with significant torque is not usually possible without separately motorized fan ventilation .
With a VFD , the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence . The frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate . When the frequency approaches zero , the motor is shut off . A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it would stop if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast . Additional braking torque can be obtained by adding a braking circuit ( resistor controlled by a transistor ) to dissipate the braking energy . With a four @-@ quadrant rectifier ( active front @-@ end ) , the VFD is able to brake the load by applying a reverse torque and injecting the energy back to the AC line .
= = Benefits = =
= = = Energy savings = = =
Many fixed @-@ speed motor load applications that are supplied direct from AC line power can save energy when they are operated at variable speed by means of VFD . Such energy cost savings are especially pronounced in variable @-@ torque centrifugal fan and pump applications , where the load 's torque and power vary with the square and cube , respectively , of the speed . This change gives a large power reduction compared to fixed @-@ speed operation for a relatively small reduction in speed . For example , at 63 % speed a motor load consumes only 25 % of its full @-@ speed power . This reduction is in accordance with affinity laws that define the relationship between various centrifugal load variables .
In the United States , an estimated 60 @-@ 65 % of electrical energy is used to supply motors , 75 % of which are variable @-@ torque fan , pump , and compressor loads . Eighteen percent of the energy used in the 40 million motors in the U.S. could be saved by efficient energy improvement technologies such as VFDs .
Only about 3 % of the total installed base of AC motors are provided with AC drives . However , it is estimated that drive technology is adopted in as many as 30 @-@ 40 % of all newly installed motors .
An energy consumption breakdown of the global population of AC motor installations is as shown in the following table :
= = = Control performance = = =
AC drives are used to bring about process and quality improvements in industrial and commercial applications ' acceleration , flow , monitoring , pressure , speed , temperature , tension , and torque .
Fixed @-@ speed loads subject the motor to a high starting torque and to current surges that are up to eight times the full @-@ load current . AC drives instead gradually ramp the motor up to operating speed to lessen mechanical and electrical stress , reducing maintenance and repair costs , and extending the life of the motor and the driven equipment .
Variable @-@ speed drives can also run a motor in specialized patterns to further minimize mechanical and electrical stress . For example , an S @-@ curve pattern can be applied to a conveyor application for smoother deceleration and acceleration control , which reduces the backlash that can occur when a conveyor is accelerating or decelerating .
Performance factors tending to favor the use of DC drives over AC drives include such requirements as continuous operation at low speed , four @-@ quadrant operation with regeneration , frequent acceleration and deceleration routines , and need for the motor to be protected for a hazardous area . The following table compares AC and DC drives according to certain key parameters :
^ High @-@ frequency injection
= = VFD types and ratings = =
= = = Generic topologies = = =
AC drives can be classified according to the following generic topologies :
Voltage @-@ source inverter ( VSI ) drive topologies ( see image ) : In a VSI drive , the DC output of the diode @-@ bridge converter stores energy in the capacitor bus to supply stiff voltage input to the inverter . The vast majority of drives are VSI type with PWM voltage output .
Current @-@ source inverter ( CSI ) drive topologies ( see image ) : In a CSI drive , the DC output of the SCR @-@ bridge converter stores energy in series @-@ reactor connection to supply stiff current input to the inverter . CSI drives can be operated with either PWM or six @-@ step waveform output .
Six @-@ step inverter drive topologies ( see image ) : Now largely obsolete , six @-@ step drives can be either VSI or CSI type and are also referred to as variable @-@ voltage inverter drives , pulse @-@ amplitude modulation ( PAM ) drives , square @-@ wave drives or D.C. chopper inverter drives . In a six @-@ step drive , the DC output of the SCR @-@ bridge converter is smoothed via capacitor bus and series @-@ reactor connection to supply via Darlington Pair or IGBT inverter quasi @-@ sinusoidal , six @-@ step voltage or current input to an induction motor .
Load commutated inverter ( LCI ) drive topologies : In an LCI drive ( a special CSI case ) , the DC output of the SCR @-@ bridge converter stores energy via DC link inductor circuit to supply stiff quasi @-@ sinusoidal six @-@ step current output of a second SCR @-@ bridge 's inverter and an over @-@ excited synchronous machine .
Cycloconverter or matrix converter ( MC ) topologies ( see image ) : Cycloconverters and MCs are AC @-@ AC converters that have no intermediate DC link for energy storage . A cycloconverter operates as a three @-@ phase current source via three anti @-@ parallel @-@ connected SCR @-@ bridges in six @-@ pulse configuration , each cycloconverter phase acting selectively to convert fixed line frequency AC voltage to an alternating voltage at a variable load frequency . MC drives are IGBT @-@ based .
Doubly fed slip recovery system topologies : A doubly fed slip recovery system feeds rectified slip power to a smoothing reactor to supply power to the AC supply network via an inverter , the speed of the motor being controlled by adjusting the DC current .
= = = Control platforms = = =
Most drives use one or more of the following control platforms :
PWM V / Hz scalar control
PWM field @-@ oriented control ( FOC ) or vector control
Direct torque control ( DTC ) .
= = = Load torque and power characteristics = = =
Variable @-@ frequency drives are also categorized by the following load torque and power characteristics :
Variable torque , such as in centrifugal fan , pump , and blower applications
Constant torque , such as in conveyor and positive @-@ displacement pump applications
Constant power , such as in machine tool and traction applications .
= = = Available power ratings = = =
VFDs are available with voltage and current ratings covering a wide range of single @-@ phase and multi @-@ phase AC motors . Low @-@ voltage ( LV ) drives are designed to operate at output voltages equal to or less than 690 V. While motor @-@ application LV drives are available in ratings of up to the order of 5 or 6 MW , economic considerations typically favor medium @-@ voltage ( MV ) drives with much lower power ratings . Different MV drive topologies ( see Table 2 ) are configured in accordance with the voltage / current @-@ combination ratings used in different drive controllers ' switching devices such that any given voltage rating is greater than or equal to one to the following standard nominal motor voltage ratings : generally either 2 @.@ 3 / 4 @.@ 16 kV ( 60 Hz ) or 3 @.@ 3 / 6 @.@ 6 kV ( 50 Hz ) , with one thyristor manufacturer rated for up to 12 kV switching . In some applications a step @-@ up transformer is placed between a LV drive and a MV motor load . MV drives are typically rated for motor applications greater than between about 375 kW ( 500 HP ) and 750 kW ( 1000 hp ) . MV drives have historically required considerably more application design effort than required for LV drive applications . The power rating of MV drives can reach 100 MW , a range of different drive topologies being involved for different rating , performance , power quality , and reliability requirements .
= = = Drives by machines & detailed topologies = = =
It is lastly useful to relate VFDs in terms of the following two classifications :
In terms of various AC machines as shown in Table 1 below
In terms of various detailed AC @-@ AC converter topologies shown in Tables 2 and 3 below .
= = Application considerations = =
= = = AC line harmonics = = =
Note of clarification : .
While harmonics in the PWM output can easily be filtered by carrier @-@ frequency @-@ related filter inductance to supply near @-@ sinusoidal currents to the motor load , the VFD 's diode @-@ bridge rectifier converts AC line voltage to DC voltage output by super @-@ imposing non @-@ linear half @-@ phase current pulses thus creating harmonic current distortion , and hence voltage distortion , of the AC line input . When the VFD loads are relatively small in comparison to the large , stiff power system available from the electric power company , the effects of VFD harmonic distortion of the AC grid can often be within acceptable limits . Furthermore , in low @-@ voltage networks , harmonics caused by single @-@ phase equipment such as computers and TVs are partially cancelled by three @-@ phase diode bridge harmonics because their 5th and 7th harmonics are in counterphase . However , when the proportion of VFD and other non @-@ linear load compared to total load or of non @-@ linear load compared to the stiffness at the AC power supply , or both , is relatively large enough , the load can have a negative impact on the AC power waveform available to other power company customers in the same grid .
When the power company 's voltage becomes distorted due to harmonics , losses in other loads such as normal fixed @-@ speed AC motors are increased . This condition may lead to overheating and shorter operating life . Also , substation transformers and compensation capacitors are affected negatively . In particular , capacitors can cause resonance conditions that can unacceptably magnify harmonic levels . In order to limit the voltage distortion , owners of VFD load may be required to install filtering equipment to reduce harmonic distortion below acceptable limits . Alternatively , the utility may adopt a solution by installing filtering equipment of its own at substations affected by the large amount of VFD equipment being used . In high @-@ power installations , harmonic distortion can be reduced by supplying multi @-@ pulse rectifier @-@ bridge VFDs from transformers with multiple phase @-@ shifted windings .
It is also possible to replace the standard diode @-@ bridge rectifier with a bi @-@ directional IGBT switching device bridge mirroring the standard inverter which uses IGBT switching device output to the motor . Such rectifiers are referred to by various designations including active infeed converter ( AIC ) , active rectifier , IGBT supply unit ( ISU ) , active front end ( AFE ) , or four @-@ quadrant operation . With PWM control and a suitable input reactor , an AFE 's AC line current waveform can be nearly sinusoidal . AFE inherently regenerates energy in four @-@ quadrant mode from the DC side to the AC grid . Thus , no braking resistor is needed , and the efficiency of the drive is improved if the drive is frequently required to brake the motor .
Two other harmonics mitigation techniques exploit use of passive or active filters connected to a common bus with at least one VFD branch load on the bus . Passive filters involve the design of one or more low @-@ pass LC filter traps , each trap being tuned as required to a harmonic frequency ( 5th , 7th , 11th , 13th , . . . kq + / -1 , where k = integer , q = pulse number of converter ) .
It is very common practice for power companies or their customers to impose harmonic distortion limits based on IEC or IEEE standards . For example , IEEE Standard 519 limits at the customer 's connection point call for the maximum individual frequency voltage harmonic to be no more than 3 % of the fundamental and call for the voltage total harmonic distortion ( THD ) to be no more than 5 % for a general AC power supply system .
= = Switching frequency = =
= = = Switching frequency foldback = = =
One drive uses a default switching frequency setting of 4 kHz . Reducing the drive ’ s switching frequency ( the carrier @-@ frequency ) reduces the heat generated by the IGBTs .
A carrier frequency of at least ten times the desired output frequency is used to establish the PWM switching intervals . A carrier frequency in the range of 2 @,@ 000 to 16 @,@ 000 Hz is common for LV [ low voltage , under 600 Volts AC ] VFDs . A higher carrier frequency produces a better sine wave approximation but incurs higher switching losses in the IGBT , decreasing the overall power conversion efficiency .
= = = Noise Smoothing = = =
Some drives have a noise smoothing feature that can be turned on to introduce a random variation to the switching frequency . This distributes the acoustic noise over a range of frequencies to lower the peak noise intensity .
= = = Long @-@ lead effects = = =
The carrier @-@ frequency pulsed output voltage of a PWM VFD causes rapid rise times in these pulses , the transmission line effects of which must be considered . Since the transmission @-@ line impedance of the cable and motor are different , pulses tend to reflect back from the motor terminals into the cable . The resulting voltages can produce overvoltages equal to twice the DC bus voltage or up to 3 @.@ 1 times the rated line voltage for long cable runs , putting high stress on the cable and motor windings , and eventual insulation failure . Note that standards for three @-@ phase motors rated 230 V or less adequately protect against such long @-@ lead overvoltages . On 460 V or 575 V systems and inverters with 3rd @-@ generation 0 @.@ 1 @-@ microsecond @-@ rise @-@ time IGBTs , the maximum recommended cable distance between VFD and motor is about 50 m or 150 feet . Solutions to overvoltages caused by long lead lengths include minimizing cable distance , lowering carrier frequency , installing dV / dt filters , using inverter @-@ duty @-@ rated motors ( that are rated 600 V to withstand pulse trains with rise time less than or equal to 0 @.@ 1 microsecond , of 1 @,@ 600 V peak magnitude ) , and installing LCR low @-@ pass sine wave filters . Regarding lowering of carrier frequency , note that audible noise is noticeably increased for carrier frequencies less than about 6 kHz and is most noticeable at about 3 kHz . Note also that selection of optimum PWM carrier frequency for AC drives involves balancing noise , heat , motor insulation stress , common @-@ mode voltage @-@ induced motor bearing current damage , smooth motor operation , and other factors . Further harmonics attenuation can be obtained by using an LCR low @-@ pass sine wave filter or dV / dt filter .
= = = Motor bearing currents = = =
PWM drives are inherently associated with high @-@ frequency common @-@ mode voltages and currents which may cause trouble with motor bearings . When these high @-@ frequency voltages find a path to earth through a bearing , transfer of metal or electrical discharge machining ( EDM ) sparking occurs between the bearing 's ball and the bearing 's race . Over time , EDM @-@ based sparking causes erosion in the bearing race that can be seen as a fluting pattern . In large motors , the stray capacitance of the windings provides paths for high @-@ frequency currents that pass through the motor shaft ends , leading to a circulating type of bearing current . Poor grounding of motor stators can lead to shaft @-@ to @-@ ground bearing currents . Small motors with poorly grounded driven equipment are susceptible to high @-@ frequency bearing currents .
Prevention of high @-@ frequency bearing current damage uses three approaches : good cabling and grounding practices , interruption of bearing currents , and filtering or damping of common @-@ mode currents for example through soft magnetic cores , the so @-@ called inductive absorbers . Good cabling and grounding practices can include use of shielded , symmetrical @-@ geometry power cable to supply the motor , installation of shaft grounding brushes , and conductive bearing grease . Bearing currents can be interrupted by installation of insulated bearings and specially designed electrostatic @-@ shielded induction motors . Filtering and damping high @-@ frequency bearing can be done though inserting soft magnetic cores over the three phases giving a high frequency impedance against the common mode or motor bearing currents . Another approach is to use instead of standard 2 @-@ level inverter drives , using either 3 @-@ level inverter drives or matrix converters .
Since inverter @-@ fed motor cables ' high @-@ frequency current spikes can interfere with other cabling in facilities , such inverter @-@ fed motor cables should not only be of shielded , symmetrical @-@ geometry design but should also be routed at least 50 cm away from signal cables .
= = = Dynamic braking = = =
Torque generated by the drive causes the induction motor to run at synchronous speed less the slip . If the load drives the motor faster than synchronous speed , the motor acts as a generator , converting mechanical power back to electrical power . This power is returned to the drive 's DC link element ( capacitor or reactor ) . A DC @-@ link @-@ connected electronic power switch or braking DC chopper controls dissipation of this power as heat in a set of resistors . Cooling fans may be used to prevent resistor overheating .
Dynamic braking wastes braking energy by transforming it to heat . By contrast , regenerative drives recover braking energy by injecting this energy into the AC line . The capital cost of regenerative drives is , however , relatively high .
= = = Regenerative drives = = =
Regenerative AC drives have the capacity to recover the braking energy of a load moving faster than the designated motor speed ( an overhauling load ) and return it to the power system .
Cycloconverter , Scherbius , matrix , CSI , and LCI drives inherently allow return of energy from the load to the line , while voltage @-@ source inverters require an additional converter to return energy to the supply .
Regeneration is useful in VFDs only where the value of the recovered energy is large compared to the extra cost of a regenerative system , and if the system requires frequent braking and starting . Regenerative VFDs are widely used where speed control of overhauling loads is required .
Some examples :
Conveyor belt drives for manufacturing , which stop every few minutes . While stopped , parts are assembled correctly ; once that is done , the belt moves on .
A crane , where the hoist motor stops and reverses frequently , and braking is required to slow the load during lowering .
Plug @-@ in and hybrid electric vehicles of all types ( see image and Hybrid Synergy Drive ) .
= = Historical systems = =
Before solid @-@ state devices became available , variable @-@ frequency drives used rotary machines and the General Electric Company obtained several patents for these in the early 20th century . An example is US patent 949320 of 1910 which states : " Such a generator finds a useful application in supplying current to induction motors for driving cars , locomotives , or other mechanism which are to be driven at variable speeds " .
= Russian battleship Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya =
The Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya ( Russian : Императрица Екатерина Великая , or Empress Catherine the Great ) was the second ship of the Imperatritsa Mariya @-@ class dreadnoughts of the Imperial Russian Navy . She was begun before World War I , completed in 1915 and saw service with the Black Sea Fleet . She engaged the ex @-@ German battlecruiser Yavuz once , but only inflicted splinter damage while taking no damage herself . She was renamed Svobodnaya Rossiya ( Russian : Свободная Россия , Free Russia ) after the February Revolution , but saw no further combat . She was evacuated from Sevastopol as the Germans approached in May 1918 , but was scuttled in Novorossiysk harbor the following month when the Germans demanded that the Soviets hand her over according to the terms of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk .
= = Description = =
Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya was slightly larger than her half @-@ sisters . She was 167 @.@ 8 meters ( 550 ft 6 in ) long at the waterline and had a beam of 28 @.@ 07 meters ( 92 ft 1 in ) ; 4 feet 10 inches ( 1 @.@ 47 m ) longer and 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) wider than her half sisters . Her exact draft is not known , but she had a draft of 8 @.@ 7 meters ( 28 ft 7 in ) on trials . Her displacement was 24 @,@ 644 long tons ( 25 @,@ 039 t ) at load , over 900 long tons ( 910 t ) more than her designed displacement of 23 @,@ 783 long tons ( 24 @,@ 165 t ) . The first ship of the class , Imperatritsa Mariya , had proved to be very bow heavy in service and tended to ship large amounts of water through her forward casemates . The ammunition for Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya 's forward 12 @-@ inch guns was reduced from 100 to 70 rounds each while the forward 130 mm ammunition was reduced from 245 to 100 rounds per gun in an attempt to compensate for her trim . This sufficed as Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya 's longer length meant that she was less affected by the trim problem to begin with .
Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya was fitted with four Parsons @-@ type steam turbines built by the Associated Factories and Shipyards of Nikolayev ( ONZiV ) with technical assistance from Vickers Limited . They were designed for a total of 27 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 000 kW ) , but produced 33 @,@ 000 shp ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) on trials . 20 mixed @-@ firing triangular Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers powered the turbines with a working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 atm ( 257 psi ) . Her designed speed was 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Her maximum coal capacity was 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 032 t ) plus 630 long tons ( 640 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 1 @,@ 680 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 110 km ; 1 @,@ 930 mi ) at full speed and 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at economical speed . All of her electrical power was generated by three main Curtis 360 kilowatt turbo generators and two 200 kilowatt auxiliary units .
Her main armament consisted of twelve Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch Pattern 1907 52 @-@ caliber guns mounted in four triple turrets distributed the length of the ship . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) B7 Pattern 1913 55 @-@ caliber guns mounted in casemates . They were arranged in two groups , six guns per side from the forward turret to the rear funnel and the remaining four clustered around the rear turret . She was fitted with three 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , one mounted on the roof of the fore turret and two side by side on the aft turret . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were mounted , two tubes on each broadside abaft the forward magazine .
= = Service = =
Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya was built by the ONZiV Shipyard at Nikolayev . She was laid down on 30 October 1911 as Ekaterina II , but this was just a ceremonial event as the design had not yet been finalized or the contract signed . ONZiV decided , on advice from Vickers , to increase her dimensions over those of her sisters to prevent her from being overweight . This added over two million gold rubles to her cost and delayed the start of her construction three months past her sisters . She suffered from a number of other delays during construction . First the method of fastening the armor to its supports was changed and the armor plates were locked together by a type of mortise and tenon joint to better distribute the shock of an impact . This was based on the full @-@ scale armor trials conducted using the hulk of the old pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Chesma in 1913 and added almost 500 long tons ( 508 t ) of weight to the ship . She was launched on 6 June 1914 , renamed on 27 June 1915 , and completed on 18 October 1915 . She ran her trials during the remainder of the year .
She was nearly sunk by the Russian destroyer Bystry on 5 January 1916 when the destroyer fired seven torpedoes at her in a case of mistaken identity ; luckily they all missed . Three days later she encountered the Ottoman battlecruiser Yavuz at long range . The ships opened fire at about 22 @,@ 000 yards ( 20 @,@ 000 m ) and Yavuz only got off five salvoes before she disengaged from the slower Russian dreadnought without damaging her . Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya fired 96 shells from her longer @-@ ranged guns , but inflicted only splinter damage on Yavuz before she pulled out of range . Six months later both Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya and her half @-@ sister Imperatritsa Mariya , alerted by intercepted radio transmissions , sortied from Sevastopol in an attempt to intercept Yavuz as she returned from a bombardment of the Russian port of Tuapse on 4 July . Yavuz dodged north and avoided the Russians by paralleling the Bulgarian coastline back to the Bosphorus .
After the February Revolution she was renamed Svobodnaya Rossiya ( Russian : Свободная Россия , " Free Russia " ) on 29 April 1917 . She sailed from Sevastopol to Novorossiysk on 30 April 1918 as German troops approached the city . The ship was scuttled on 19 June 1918 by four torpedoes fired by the destroyer Kerch in Novorossiysk harbor to prevent her from being turned over to the Germans as required by the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk . The fourth torpedo caused a massive explosion and she capsized and sank in four minutes . No attempt was made to salvage her during the 1920s , but the 12 @-@ inch shells were salvaged from her wreck . Explosive charges were used to gain access to her magazines until one day in 1930 when a charge set off a torpedo warhead , which caused a nearby powder magazine to explode , throwing a column of water 100 – 120 metres ( 330 – 390 ft ) into the air . No one was injured , but salvage work of this type ceased , although parts of her engines and boilers were later salvaged .
= Coccomyces dentatus =
Coccomyces dentatus is a species of fungus in the family Rhytismataceae . A widespread species , particularly in temperate areas , it colonizes the dead fallen leaves of vascular plants , particularly oak and chestnut . The fungus apothecia , which form in the epidermal layer of the leaf host , resemble dark hexagonal spots scattered on a multi @-@ colored mosaic pattern bounded by thin black lines . When mature , the apothecia open by triangular flaps to release spores . The anamorph form of C. dentatus is Tricladiopsis flagelliformis . Lookalike species can be distinguished by the shape of the apothecia , or by microscopic characteristics .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described scientifically as Phacidium dentatum by Johann Karl Schmidt in 1817 . Italian botanist Giuseppe De Notaris moved it to Lophodermium in 1847 . In 1877 , Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred it to Coccomyces , giving it its current name . The variety C. dentatus var. hexagonus , described by Otto Penzig and Saccardo from West Java , Indonesia in 1901 , is sometimes applied to western US collections with large six @-@ sided apothecia . However , its status is unclear , as the type is no longer in Saccardo 's herbarium at the University of Padua , and Penzig 's collection was destroyed during World War II . C. dentatus f. lauri was described by Heinrich Rehm in 1901 , for a collection found growing on a species of Lauraceae in Rio Grande do Sul ( southern Brazil ) . According to English botanist Martha Sherwood , who revised the genus Coccomyces in 1980 , it is indistinguishable from the main type and should be considered synonymous .
One author regarded C. dentatus as a synonym of Coccomyces coronatus , although later authors have treated them separately . In 1923 , Carlos Luigi Spegazzini tentatively reported the presence of C. dentatus on fallen Nothofagus leaves in Tierra del Fuego ( southern South America ) ; this species was later identified as a distinct species , C. australis .
In 1982 , Enrique Descals described an aquatic hyphomycete Tricladiopsis flagelliformis growing from submerged leaves found in the shoreline of Windermere ( Cumbria , England ) , which he tentatively assigned as the anamorph state of Coccomyces dentatus . The specific epithet flagelliformis ( from the Latin flagellum " whip " and formis " shape " ) refers to the " whip @-@ like " form of the conidium .
= = Description = =
The apothecia of Coccomyces dentatus are distributed in bleached spots that are bounded by a black lines inside the outer cell layer of the leaf ( intraepidermal ) . The black lines — often referred to as zone lines — are the result of an antagonistic interactions between individuals of different genotypes that colonize the leaf surface . Apothecia are usually accompanied by pycnidia ( asexual fruit bodies ) measuring 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 0 mm in diameter . The apothecia are black , and shiny , with four to six sides . They have a star @-@ shaped pattern of grooves formed by lighter colored cells . When the spores are mature , these open ( dehisce ) by triangular " teeth " to expose the dull yellow hymenium ( spore @-@ bearing surface ) .
The layer covering the apothecia is about 30 μm thick , and made of blackened ( carbonized ) cells measuring 5 – 6 μm in diameter . At the base of the apothecia is carbonized supportive tissue about 5 μm thick . The paraphyses ( sterile filamentous hyphal cells ) are unbranched , threadlike ( filiform ) , gradually enlarge to a width of 2 @.@ 0 μm at the tip , and have granular contents . The thin @-@ walled cylindrical to club @-@ shaped asci ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are on a short stalk , and measure 70 – 105 by 8 – 10 μm ; each ascus contains eight ascospores . Ascospores , which measure 45 – 65 by 3 @.@ 0 μm , have a thin but distinct sheath , and lack septa ( cross @-@ walls ) . Pycnidia ( which appear before the apothecia mature ) are intraepidermal , lenticular ( having the shape of a double @-@ convex lens ) in cross section , 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 3 mm in diameter , and covered with a dark brown layer of cells . The phialides are arranged in a basal layer , and borne on short conidiophores . They are slender and subulate ( tapering to a point ) , lack a collarette , and measure 5 – 10 by 2 – 2 @.@ 5 μm . The conidia are colorless , rod @-@ shaped , lack septa , and have dimensions of 4 – 5 by 1 @.@ 0 μm .
The putative anamorph form of C. dentatus has been described as Tricladiopsis flagelliformis . Grown on 2 % malt agar at standard conditions , it forms black @-@ centered colonies that have a growth rate of 7 cm per week . The conidia produced are thin and curved with a whip @-@ like shape . They have 13 – 20 septa , measure 65 – 135 by 2 – 3 @.@ 5 μm , and usually have a single branch ( typically about 45 μm long ) that appears before cells are released .
There are only a few species of Rhytismatales known to have anamorphs that do not function as spermatia ( non @-@ motile cells that function as a male gamete ) . Coccomyces dentatus is one of only two species that are known to have both a spermatial and a non @-@ spermatial state ( the other is Ascodichaena rugosa ) .
= = = Similar species = = =
The species is frequently confused with Coccomyces coronatus , which has inflated paraphyses , longer asci and ascospores , less regularly shaped apothecia , and rarely occurs on leaves of evergreens . It prefers to grow on well @-@ rotted leaves , and is found predominantly in northern Europe and eastern North America . C. tumidus is somewhat similar in appearance , but distinguished in the field by round to ellipsoid apothecia . C. australis has circinate ( rolled up with the tip in the center ) rather than filiform paraphyses , larger asci and somewhat larger ascospores ( 150 – 180 by 14 – 16 @.@ 5 μm and 60 – 75 by 2 @.@ 5 – 3 μm , respectively ) . Another lookalike species that is morphological quite similar to C. dentatus is C. kinabaluensis , found in the Malaysian state of Sabah . However , the latter can be distinguished by the following characters : three- to four @-@ sided ascocarps ; ascospores with a single septum ; and longer , wider asci measuring 110 – 135 by 10 – 14 μm .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Coccomyces dentatus is a saprobic species , and grows on dead leaves of a wide variety of angiosperms . It is frequently encountered on members of the heather ( family Ericaceae ) , and the beech family ( Fagaceae ) , such as oak ( red , white , and live oak ) and chestnut , and also on the exotic Castanea sativa from Chile . Other common substrates include leaves of trees in the genera Rhododendron , Lithocarpus , Berberis , Arbutus , Gaultheria , and Myrica .
Widely distributed and common , the fungus occurs predominantly in warm temperate areas . It has been found in Africa ( Tunisia ) , Europe , and the Americas . In the northern part of its range , it occurs in the summer and autumn , but in subtropical areas it can be found year @-@ round . Because of its wide geographical distribution , abundance , and conspicuousness , Coccomyces dentatus is the most often collected species of Coccomyces .
= Theramenes =
Theramenes ( / θᵻˈræmᵻniːz / ; Greek : Θηραμένης ; died 404 BC ) was an Athenian statesman , prominent in the final decade of the Peloponnesian War . He was particularly active during the two periods of oligarchic government at Athens , as well as in the trial of the generals who had commanded at Arginusae in 406 BC . A moderate oligarch , he often found himself caught between the democrats on the one hand and the extremist oligarchs on the other . Successful in replacing a narrow oligarchy with a broader one in 411 BC , he failed to achieve the same end in 404 BC , and was executed by the extremists whose policies he had opposed .
Theramenes was a central figure in four major episodes of Athenian history . He appeared on the scene in 411 BC as one of the leaders of an oligarchic coup , but , as his views and those of the coup 's other leaders diverged , he began to oppose their dictates and took the lead in replacing the narrow oligarchy they had imposed with a more broadly based one . He served as a general for several years after this , but was not reelected to that office in 407 BC . After the Battle of Arginusae , in which he served as a trierarch , he was assigned to rescue Athenian sailors from sinking ships , but was prevented from doing so by a storm . That incident prompted a massive furor at Athens , in which Theramenes had to exonerate himself from responsibility for the failed rescue ; the controversy ended in the execution of six generals who had commanded at that battle . After the Athenian defeat at Aegospotami in 405 BC , Theramenes arranged the terms by which Athens surrendered to Sparta . He then became a member of the narrow oligarchic government , known as the Thirty Tyrants , that Sparta imposed on its defeated rival . As he had in 411 BC , Theramenes soon came into conflict with the more extreme members of that government ; his protests against the reign of terror the Thirty implemented led the leading oligarchs to plot his demise ; he was denounced before the oligarchic assembly , and then , when that body appeared reluctant to punish him , struck him from the roster of citizens and executed him without trial .
Theramenes remained a controversial figure after his death ; Lysias vigorously denounced him while prosecuting several of his former political allies , but others defended his actions . Modern historical assessments have shifted over time ; in the 19th century , Theramenes 's part in the coup of 411 BC and his use of Arginusae were widely condemned , but newly discovered ancient texts and 20th @-@ century scholarship supported more positive assessments . Some historians have found in Theramenes a selfish opportunist , others a principled moderate . The details of his actions , his motivations , and his character continue to be debated down to the present day .
= = Historical record = =
No ancient biographies of Theramenes are known , but his life and actions are relatively well documented , due to the extensive treatment given him in several surviving works . The Attic orator Lysias deals with him at length in several of his speeches , albeit in a very hostile manner . Theramenes also appears in several ancient narrative histories : Thucydides ' account includes the beginnings of Theramenes ' career , and Xenophon , picking up where Thucydides left off , gives a detailed account of several episodes from Theramenes career ; Diodorus Siculus , probably drawing his account from Ephorus at most points , provides another account that varies widely from Xenophon 's at several points . Theramenes also appears in several other sources , which , although they do not provide as many narrative details , have been used to illuminate the political disputes which surrounded Theramenes ' life and memory .
= = Family = =
Only the barest outlines of Theramenes ' life outside the public sphere have been preserved in the historical record . His father , Hagnon had played a significant role in Athenian public life in the decades before Theramenes ' appearance on the scene
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argues that Wang 's obstinate behavior and inability to consider revision or annulment of his reforms stemmed from his conviction that he was a latter @-@ day sage . Confucian scholars of the Song believed that the ' way ' ( dao ) embodied in the Five Classics was known by the ancient sages and was transmitted from one sage to another in an almost telepathic manner , but after it reached Mencius ( c . 372 – c . 289 BC ) there was no one worthy of accepting the transference of the dao . Some believed that the long dormant dao could be revived if one were truly a sage ; Lo writes of Song Neo @-@ Confucianists , " it is this self @-@ image which explained their militant stand in relation to conventional ethics and scholarship . " Wang defined his life mission as restoring the unity of dao , as he believed it had not departed from the world but had become fragmented by schools of Confucian thought , each one propagating only half @-@ truths . Lo asserts that Wang , believing that he was in possession of the dao , followed Yi Zhi and the Duke of Zhou 's classic examples in resisting the wishes of selfish or foolish men by ignoring criticism and public opinion . If unflinching certitude in his sagehood and faultless reforms was not enough , Wang sought potential allies and formed a coalition that became known as the New Policies Group , which in turn emboldened his known political rivals to band together in opposition to him . Yet factional power struggles were not steeped in ideological discourse alone ; cliques had formed naturally with shifting alliances of professional elite lineages and efforts to obtain a greater share of available offices for one 's immediate and extended kinship over vying competitors . People such as Su Shi also opposed Wang 's faction on practical grounds ; for example , Su 's critical poem hinting that Wang 's salt monopoly hindered effective salt distribution .
Wang resigned in 1076 and his leaderless faction faced uncertainty with the death of its patron emperor in 1085 . The political faction led by the historian and official Sima Guang ( 1019 – 1086 ) then took control of the central government , allied with the dowager empress who acted as regent over the young Emperor Zhezong of Song ( r . 1085 – 1100 ) . Wang 's new policies were completely reversed , including popular reforms like the tax substitution for corvée labor service . When Emperor Zhezong came of age and replaced his grandmother as the state power , he favored Wang 's policies and once again instituted the reforms in 1093 . The reform party was favored during the reign of Huizong ( r . 1100 – 1125 ) while conservatives were persecuted — especially during the chancellery of Cai Jing ( 1047 – 1126 ) . As each political faction gained advantage over the other , ministers of the opposing side were labeled " obstructionist " and were sent out of the capital to govern remote frontier regions of the empire . This form of political exile was not only politically damaging , but could also be physically threatening . Those who fell from favor could be sent to govern areas of the deep south where the deadly disease malaria was prevalent .
= = Family and gender = =
= = = Familial rights , laws and customs = = =
The Chinese philosophy of Confucius ( 551 – 479 BC ) and the hierarchical social order his disciples adhered to had become embedded into mainstream Chinese culture since the reign of Emperor Wu of Han ( r . 141 – 87 BC ) . During the Song dynasty , the entire Chinese society was theoretically modelled upon this familial social order of superiors and inferiors . Confucian dogma dictated what was proper moral behavior , and how a superior should regulate rewards or punishments when dealing with an inferior member of society or one 's family . This is exemplified in the Tang law code , which was largely retained in the Song period . Gernet writes : " The family relationships supposed to exist in the ideal family were the foundation of the entire moral outlook , and even the law , in its total structure and its scale of penalties , was nothing but a codified expression of them . "
Under the Tang law code compiled in the 7th century , severe punishments were outlined for those who disobeyed or disrespected the hierarchical system of elders . Those who assaulted their parents could be put to death , those who assaulted an older brother could be put to forced labor , and those who assaulted an older cousin could be sentenced to caning . A household servant who killed his master could be sentenced to death , while a master who killed his servant would be arrested and forced into a year of hard labor for the state . Yet this reverence for elders and superiors was grounded in more than just secular Confucian discourse ; Chinese beliefs of ancestor worship transformed the identity of one 's parents into abstract , otherworldly figures . Song society was also built on social relationships governed not by abstract principles , but on the protection gained by devoting oneself to a superior .
Perpetuating the family cult with many descendants was coupled with the notion that producing more children offered the family a layer of protection , reinforcing its power in the community . More children meant better odds of extending a family 's power through marriage alliance with other prominent families , as well as better odds of having a child occupying a prestigious administrative post in government . Hymes notes that " elite families used such standards as official standing or wealth , prospects for office , length of pedigree , scholarly renown , and local reputation in choosing both sons @-@ in @-@ law and daughters @-@ in @-@ law . " Since official promotion was considered by examination degree as well as recommendation to office by a superior , a family that acquired a significant amount of sons @-@ in @-@ law of high rank in the bureaucracy ensured kinship protection and prestigious career options for its members . Those who came from noteworthy families were treated with dignity , and a wider family influence meant a better chance for an individual to secure his own fortunes . No one was better prepared for society than one who gained plenty of experience in dealing with the members of his extended family , as it was common for upper @-@ class families to have several generations living in the same household . However , one did not even have to share the same bloodline with others in order to build more social ties in their community . This could be done by accepting any number of artificial blood brothers in a ceremony assuring mutual obligations and shared loyalty .
In Song society , governed by the largely unaltered Tang era legal code , the act of primogeniture was not practiced in Chinese inheritance of property , and in fact was illegal . When the head of a family died , his offspring equally divided the property . This law was implemented in the Tang dynasty in order to challenge the powerful aristocratic clans of the northwest , and to prevent the rise of a society domineered by landed nobility . If an official family did not produce another official within a few generations , the future prospects of that family remaining wealthy and influential became uncertain . Thus , the legal issues of familial inheritance had profound effects upon the rest of society .
When a member of the family died there were varying degrees of prostration and display of piety amongst family members , each one behaving differently according to the custom of kinship association with the deceased . There was to be no flashy or colorful attire while in the period of mourning , and proper funerary rituals were observed such as cleansing and clothing the deceased to rid him or her of impurities . This was one of the necessary steps in the observance of the deceased as one of the worshipped ancestors , which in turn raised the prestige of the family . Funerals were often expensive . A geomancer had to be consulted on where to bury the dead , caterers were hired to furnish the funeral banquet , and there was always the purchase of the coffin , which was burned along with paper images of horses , carriages , and servants in order for them to accompany the deceased into the next life . Due to the high cost of burial , most families opted for the cheaper practice of cremation . This was frowned upon by Confucian officials due to beliefs in the ancestral cult . They sought to ban the practice with prohibitions in 963 and 972 ; despite this , cremation amongst the poor and middle classes persisted . By the 12th century , the government came up with the solution of installing public cemeteries where a family 's deceased could be buried on state owned property .
= = = Women : legality and lifestyles = = =
Historians note that women during the Tang dynasty were brazen , assertive , active , and relatively more socially liberated than Song women . Women of the Song period are typically seen as well educated and interested in expressing themselves through poetry , yet more reserved , respectful , " slender , petite and dainty , " according to Gernet . Evidence of foot binding as a new trend in the Southern Song period certainly reinforces this notion . However , the greater number of documents due to more widespread printing reveal a much more complex and rich reality about family life and Song women . Through written stories , legal cases , and other documents , many different sources show that Song women held considerable clout in family decision @-@ making , and some were quite economically savvy . Men dominated the public sphere , while affluent wives spent most of their time indoors enjoying leisure activities and managing the household . However , women of the lower and middle classes were not solely bound to the domestic sphere . It was common for women to manage town inns , some to manage restaurants , farmers ' daughters to weave mats and sell them on their own behalf , midwives to deliver babies , Buddhist nuns to study religious texts and sutras , female nurses to assist physicians , and women to keep a close eye on their own financial affairs . In the case of the latter , legal case documents describe childless widows who accused their nephews of stealing their property . There are also numerous mentions of women drawing upon their dowries to help their husband 's sisters marry into other prominent families .
The economic prosperity of the Song period prompted many families to provide their daughters with larger dowries in order to attract the wealthiest sons @-@ in @-@ law to provide a stable life of economic security for their daughters . With large amounts of property allotted to a daughter 's dowry , her family naturally sought benefits ; as a result women 's legal claims to property were greatly improved . Under certain circumstances , an unmarried daughter without brothers or a surviving mother without sons could inherit one @-@ half of her father 's share of undivided family property Under the Song law code , if an heirless man left no clear successor to his property and household , it was his widowed wife 's right to designate her own heir in a process called liji ( " adopting an heir " ) . If an heir was appointed by the parents ' relatives after their deaths , the " appointed " heir did not have the same rights as a biological son to inherit the estate ; instead he shared juehu ( " extinct household " ) property with the parents ' daughter ( s ) , if there were any .
Divorcing a spouse was permissible if there was mutual consent , while remarriage after the death of a spouse was common during the Song period . However , widows under post @-@ Song dynasties did not often remarry , following the ethic of the Confucian philosopher Cheng Yi ( 1033 – 1107 ) , who stated that it was better for a widow to die than lose her virtue by remarrying . Widows remarrying another after the death of a first spouse did not become common again until the late Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1912 ) , yet such an action was still regarded as morally inferior .
Despite advances in relative social freedoms and legal rights , women were still expected to attend to the duties of the home . Along with child @-@ rearing , women were responsible for spinning yarn , weaving cloth , sewing clothing , and cooking meals . Women who belonged to families that sold silk were especially busy , since their duties included coddling the silkworms , feeding them chopped mulberry tree leaves , and keeping them warm to ensure that they would eventually spin their cocoons . In the family pecking order , the dominant female of the household was the mother @-@ in @-@ law , who was free to hand out orders and privileges to the wives of her sons . Mothers often had strong ties with their grown and married sons , since these men often stayed at home . If a mother @-@ in @-@ law could not find sufficient domestic help from the daughters @-@ in @-@ law , there was a market for women to be bought as maids or servants . There were also many professional courtesans ( and concubines brought into the house ) who kept men busy in the pursuits of entertainment , relations , and romantic affairs . It was also common for wives to be jealous and conniving towards concubines that their wealthy husbands brought home . Yet two could play at this game . The ideal of the chaste , modest , and pious young woman was somewhat distorted in urban settings such as Hangzhou and Suzhou , where there were greedy and flirtatious women , as one author put it . This author stated that the husbands of these women could not satisfy them , and so took on as many as five ' complementary husbands ' ; if they lived close to a monastery , even Buddhist monks could suffice for additional lovers .
Although boys were taught at Confucian academies for the ultimate goal of government service , girls were often taught by their brothers how to read and write . By Song times , more women of the upper and educated classes were able to read due to advances in widespread printing , leaving behind a treasury of letters , poems , and other documents penned by women . Some women were educated enough to teach their sons before they were sent to an official school . For example , the mother of the statesman and scientist Shen Kuo taught him basic education and even military strategy that she had learned from her elder brother . Hu Wenrou , a granddaughter of a famous Song official Hu Su , was regarded by Shen Kuo as a remarkable female mathematician , as Shen would occasionally relay questions to Hu Wenrou through her husband in order for her to review and investigate possible errors in his mathematical work . Li Qingzhao ( 1084 – 1151 ) , whose father was a friend of Su Shi , wrote many poems throughout her often turbulent life ( only about 100 of these survive ) and became a renowned poet during her lifetime . After the death of her husband , she wrote poems profusely about poring over his paintings , calligraphy , and ancient bronze vessels , as well as poems with deep emotional longing :
= = Religion and philosophy = =
Ancient Chinese Daoism , ancestor worship , and foreign @-@ originated Buddhism were the most prominent religious practices in the Song period . Daoism developed largely from the teachings of the Daodejing , attributed to the 6th century BC philosopher Laozi ( " Old Master " ) , considered one of the Three Pure Ones ( the prime deities of Daoism ) . Buddhism in China , introduced by Yuezhi , Persian , and Kushan missionaries in the first and second centuries , gradually became more native in character and was transformed into distinct Chinese Buddhism .
Many followed the teachings of Buddha and prominent monks such as Dahui Zonggao ( 1089 – 1163 ) and Wuzhun Shifan ( 1178 – 1249 ) . However , there were also many critics of Buddhism 's religious and philosophical tenets . This included the ardent nativist , scholar , and statesman Ouyang Xiu , who called Buddhism a " curse " upon China , an alien tradition that infiltrated the native beliefs of his country while at its weakest during the Southern and Northern Dynasties ( 420 – 581 ) . The contention over Buddhism was at times a divisive issue within the gentry class and even within families . For example , the historian Zeng Gong lamented over the success of Buddhism , viewing it as a competing ideology with ' the Way of the Sages ' of Confucianism , yet on his death in 1083 was buried in a Buddhist temple that his grandfather had helped build and that his brother Zeng Bu was able to declare as a private Merit Cloister for the family . Although conservative proponents of native Confucianism were highly skeptical of the teachings of Buddhism and often sought to distance themselves from it , others used Buddhist teachings to bolster their own Confucian philosophy . The Neo @-@ Confucian philosophers and brothers Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi of the 11th century sought philosophical explanations for the workings of principle ( li ) and vital energy ( qi ) in nature , responding to the notions of highly complex metaphysics in popular Buddhist thought . Neo @-@ Confucian scholars also sought to borrow the Mahayana Buddhist ideal of self @-@ sacrifice , welfare , and charity embodied in the bodhisattva . Seeking to replace the Buddhist monastery 's once prominent role in societal welfare and charity , supporters of Neo @-@ Confucianism converted this ideal into practical measures of state @-@ sponsored support for the poor under a secular mission of ethical universalism .
Buddhism never fully recovered after several major persecutions in China from the 5th through the 10th centuries , although Daoism continued to thrive in Song China . In northern China under the Jin dynasty after 1127 , the Daoist philosopher Wang Chongyang ( 1113 – 1170 ) established the Quanzhen School . Wang 's seven disciples , known as the Seven Immortals , gained great fame throughout China . They included the prominent Daoist priestess Sun Bu 'er ( c . 1119 – 1182 ) , who became a female role model in Daoism . There was also Qiu Chuji ( 1148 – 1227 ) , who founded his own Quanzhen Daoist branch known as Longmen ( " Dragon Gate " ) . In the Southern Song , cult centers of Daoism became popular at mountain sites that were reputed to be the earthly sojourns of Daoist deities ; elite families had shrines erected in these mountain retreats in honor of the local deity thought to reside therein . Much more so than for Buddhist clergy , Daoist priests and holy men were sought when one prayed for having a son , when one was physically ill , or when there was need for change after a long spell of bad weather and poor harvest .
Chinese folk religion continued as a tradition in China , drawing upon aspects of both ancient Chinese mythology and ancestor worship . Many people believed that spirits and deities of the spirit realm regularly interacted with the realm of the living . This subject was popular in Song literature . Hong Mai ( 1123 – 1202 ) , a prominent member of an official family from Jiangxi , wrote a popular book called The Record of the Listener , which had many anecdotes dealing with the spirit realm and people 's supposed interactions with it . People in Song China believed that many of their daily misfortunes and blessings were caused by an array of different deities and spirits who interfered with their daily lives . These deities included the nationally accepted deities of Buddhism and Daoism , as well as the local deities and demons from specific geographic locations . If one displeased a long @-@ dead relative , the dissatisfied ancestor would allegedly inflict natural ailments and illnesses . People also believed in mischievous demons and malevolent spirits who had the capability to extort sacrificial offerings meant for ancestors – in essence these were bullies of the spiritual realm . The Chinese believed that spirits and deities had the same emotions and drives as the living did . In some cases the chief deity of a local town or city was believed to act as a municipal official who could receive and dispatch orders on how to punish or reward spirits . Residents of cities offered many sacrifices to their divinities in hopes that their city would be spared from disasters such as fire . However , not only common people felt the need to appease local deities . Magistrates and officials sent from the capital to various places of the empire often had to ensure the locals that his authority was supported by the local deity .
= = Justice and law = =
One of the duties of scholar @-@ officials was hearing judicial cases in court . However , the county magistrateand prefects of the Song period were expected to know more than just the written laws . They were expected to promote morality in society , to punish the wicked , and carefully recognize in their sentences which party in a court case was truly at fault . It was often the most serious cases that came before the court ; most people desired to settle legal quarrels privately , since court preparations were expensive . In ancient China , the accused in court were not viewed as fully innocent until proven otherwise , while even the accuser was viewed with suspicion by the judge . The accused were immediately put in filthy jails and nourished only by the efforts of friends and relatives . Yet the accuser also had to pay a price : in order to have their case heard , Gernet states that they had to provide an offering to the judge as " a matter of decorum . "
Gernet points out that disputes requiring arrest were mostly avoided or settled privately . Yet historian Patricia Ebrey states that legal cases in the Song period portrayed the courts as being overwhelmed with cases of neighbors and relatives suing each other over property rights . The Song author and official Yuan Cai ( 1140 – 1190 ) repeatedly warned against this , and like other officials of his time also cautioned his readers about the rise of banditry in Southern Song society and a need to physically protect self and property .
= = = Vengeance and vigilantism = = =
Chancellor Wang Anshi , also a renowned prose stylist , wrote a work on matters of state justice in the 11th century . Wang wrote that private interests , especially of those seeking vigilante justice , should in almost all circumstances never trump or interfere with public justice . In the ancient Classic of Rites , Rites of Zhou , and " Gongyang " commentary of the Spring and Autumn Annals , seeking vengeance for a violent crime against one 's family is viewed as a moral and filial obligation , although in the Rites of Zhou state intervention between the instigating and avenging parties was emphasized . Wang believed that the state of Song China was far more stable than those in ancient times and abler to dispense fair justice . Although Wang praised the classic avenger Wu Zixu ( 526 – 484 BC ) , Michael Dalby writes that Wang " would have been filled with horror if Wu 's deeds , so outdated in their political implications , had been repeated in Song times . " For Wang , a victim exacting personal revenge against one who committed an egregious criminal act should only be considered acceptable when the government and its legal system became dysfunctional , chaotic , or ceased to exist . In his view , the hallmark of a properly functioning government was one where an innocent man was never executed . If this were to occur , his or her grieving relatives , friends , and associates should voice complaints to officials of ever increasing hierarchic status until grievances were properly addressed . If such a case reached the emperor — the last and final judge — and he decided that previous officials who heard the case had erred in their decisions , he would accordingly punish those officials and the original guilty party . If even the emperor for some reason made a fault in pardoning a party which was truly guilty , then Wang reasoned that the only explanation for a lack of justice was the will of heaven and its judgment which was beyond the control of mortal men . Wang insisted that submitting to the will of heaven in this regard was the right thing to do , while a murdered father or mother could still be honored through ritual sacrifices .
= = = Court cases = = =
Many Song court cases serve as examples for the promotion of morality in society . Using his knowledge and understanding of townsmen and farmers , one Song judge made this ruling in the case of two brawling fishermen , who were labeled as Pan 52 and Li 7 by the court :
Competition in Selling Fish Resulted in Assaults
A proclamation : In the markets of the city the profits from commerce are monopolized by itinerant loiterers , while the little people from the rural villages are not allowed to sell their wares . There is not a single necessity of our clothing or food that is not the product of the fields of these old rustics . The men plow and the women weave . Their toil is extremely wearisome , yet what they gain from it is negligible , while manifold interest returns to these lazy idlers . This sort , in tens and hundreds , come together to form gangs . When the villagers come to sell things in the market place , before the goods have even left their hands , this crowd of idlers arrives and attacks them , assaulting them as a group . These idlers call this " the boxing of the community family . " They are not at all afraid to act outrageously . I have myself seen that it is like this . Have they not given thought to the foodstuffs they require and the clothing they wear ? Is it produced by these people of the marketplaces ? Or is it produced by the rural farmers ? When they recognize that these goods are produced by the farming people or the rural villages , how can they look at them in anger ? How can they bully and insult them ? Now , Pan Fifty @-@ two and Li Seven are both fishmongers , but Pan lives in the city and fishmongering is his source of livelihood . Li Seven is a farmer , who does fishmongering between busy times . Pan Fifty @-@ two at the end of the year has his profit , without having had the labor of raising the fish , but simply earning it from the selling of the fish . He hated Li and fought with him at the fish market . His lack of humanity is extreme ! Li Seven is a village rustic . How could he fight with the itinerant armed loiterers who hang around the marketplace ? Although no injuries resulted from the fight , we still must mete out some slight punishments . Pan Fifty @-@ two is to be beaten fifteen blows with the heavy rod . In addition , Li Seven , although he is a village farmer , was still verbally abusive while the two men were stubbornly arguing . He clearly is not a man of simple and pure character . He must have done something to provoke this dispute . Li Seven is to be given a suspended sentence of a beating of ten blows , to be carried out if hereafter there are further violations .
= = = Early forensic science = = =
In the Song dynasty , sheriffs were employed to investigate and apprehend suspected criminals , determining from the crime scene and evidence found on the body if the cause of death was disease , old age , an accident , or foul play . If murder was considered the cause , an official from the prefecture was sent to investigate and draw up a formal inquest , to be signed by witnesses and used in court . The documents of this inquest also included sketches of human bodies with details of where and what injuries were inflicted .
Song Ci ( 1186 – 1249 ) was a Chinese physician and judge during the Southern Song dynasty . His famous work Collected Cases of Injustice Rectified was a basis for early forensic science in China . Song 's predecessor Shen Kuo offered critical analysis of human anatomy , dispelling the old Chinese belief that the human throat had three valves instead of two . A Chinese autopsy in the early 12th century confirmed Shen 's hypothesis of two throat valves : the esophagus and larynx . However , dissection and examination of human bodies for solving criminal cases was of interest to Song Ci . His work was compiled on the basis of other Chinese works dealing with justice and forensics . His book provided a list of types of death ( strangulation , drowning , poison , blows , etc . ) and a means of physical examination in order to distinguish between murder , suicide , or accident . Besides instructions on proper ways to examine corpses , Song Ci also provided instructions on providing first aid for victims close to death from hanging , drowning , sunstroke , freezing to death , and undernourishment . For the specific case of drowning , Song Ci advised using the first aid technique of artificial respiration . He wrote of examinations of victims ' bodies performed in the open amongst official clerks and attendants , a coroner 's assistant ( or midwife in the case of women ) , actual accused suspect of the crime and relatives of the deceased , with the results of the autopsy called out loud to the group and noted in the inquest report . Song Ci wrote :
In all doubtful and difficult inquests , as well as when influential families are involved in the dispute , [ the deputed official ] must select reliable and experienced coroner ’ s assistants and Recorders of good character who are circumspect and self @-@ possessed to accompany him . [ . . . ] Call a brief halt and wait for the involved parties to arrive . Otherwise , there will be requests for private favors . Supposing an examination is held to get the facts , the clerks will sometimes accept bribes to alter the reports of the affair . If the officials and clerks suffer for their crimes , that is a minor matter . But , if the facts are altered , the judicial abuse may cost someone his life . Factual accuracy is supremely important .
Song Ci also shared his opinion that having the accused suspect of the murder present at the autopsy of his victim , in close proximity to the grieving relatives of the deceased , was a very powerful psychological tool for the authorities to gain confessions . In the earliest known case of forensic entomology , a villager was hacked to death with a sickle , which led the local magistrate to assemble all the villagers in a town square to lay down their sickles in order for blow flies to gather around which sickle still had unseen remnants of the victim 's blood ; when it became apparent which sickle was used as the murder weapon , the confessing murderer was arrested on the spot .
Although interests in human anatomy had a long tradition in the Western world , a forensic book such as Song Ci 's did not appear in Western works until Roderic de Castro 's book in the 17th century . There have been several modern books published about Song Ci 's writing and translations of it into English . This includes W.A. Harland 's Records of Washing away of Injuries ( 1855 ) , Herbert Giles ' The Hsi Yuan Lu , or Instructions to Coroners ( 1924 ) , and Dr. Brian E. McKnight 's The Washing Away of Wrongs : Forensic Medicine in Thirteenth @-@ Century China ( 1981 ) .
= = Military and warfare = =
= = = Wu and wen , violence and culture = = =
During the Song dynasty , for those without formal education , the quickest way to power and the upper echelons of society was to join the military . If a man had a successful career in the military and could boast of victorious battles , he had a sure path to success in politics . Exam @-@ drafted scholar @-@ officials came mostly from prominent families and could rely on their clan status to advance their careers and place in society . Many Song military officers did not have this advantage , and owed their status in society to the advantage that military power granted them . Many court eunuchs such as Tong Guan ( 1054 – 1126 ) were eager to enlist as officers in the central army since this was a means to elevate their position at court .
Ordinary soldiers were merely recruited or conscripted rural farmers , while surrendered bandits and mercenaries also joined the military . Soldiers were not awarded official status by Confucian scholars as belonging to one of the Four Occupations ; the scholar @-@ officials were wary of condoning or legitimizing those whose lives revolved around the uncivilized practices of wu ( violence ) . Even though the military examinations , rankings , and posts were parallel to those of the civil order , scholar @-@ officials and the gentry nonetheless viewed military pursuits as uncultivated . Despite this disdain and argument of moral high ground , scholar @-@ officials often commanded troops and wielded military power . Yet scholar @-@ officials were not at the apex of the military or even civilian order ; at the pinnacle of society was the emperor . The emperor 's use of violence was seen as a necessity to rein in rebellious elements of society and dominate violent and uncultivated Inner Asian tribes , who would then submit to the emperor and become transformed by China 's superior wen ( culture and civilization ) .
= = = Catastrophe and reforms = = =
In the year 960 the Song military had 378 @,@ 000 enlisted soldiers . Around the turn of the 11th century its size had grown to 900 @,@ 000 soldiers , increasing to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 by the year 1022 , and well over 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 by 1041 . The overall expenses of upholding a military of this size consumed three @-@ quarters of the state 's entire annual revenue . To lessen the expense , in 1069 the Chancellor Wang Anshi created the institution of local militias as supporting units . In 1073 , Wang Anshi created a new bureau of the central government called the Directorate of Weapons , which supervised the manufacture of armaments and ensured quality control .
Despite the size of the army and these beneficial reforms , the high ranks of Song military command were heavily corrupt . At the beginning of the 12th century , Song generals collected funds based on the number of troops they recorded ; instead of using the funds to benefit troops , they used this money to bolster their own salaries . Troops of the standing army , meanwhile , were given very small salaries while assigned tasks of menial labor . The scholar @-@ officials running the government often paid little attention to the plight of soldiers and even to the demands of officers , since they were seen as being on a lower tier in society . Fairbank writes that the " civilian domination of the military was part of the ruling elite 's control of the state , but it left the state military weak . "
The corruption of the high command and ineffectiveness of military strength was soon revealed once the Song made a joint effort with the Jurchen people to conquer the Khitan Liao dynasty ( 916 – 1125 ) . After the successful rebellion of the Jurchens against their Khitan masters , the Jurchen observed the weakness of the Song army and broke their pact , then attacked the Song as well . By 1127 , the capital at Kaifeng was captured and northern China overrun , while the remnants of the Song court fled south to Hangzhou and established the Southern Song . This was a crucial blow to the Song military elites , as they had been closely tied to the political structure until 1127 ; afterwards they became alienated from the emperor and the Song court . Although they had lost northern China to the new Jurchen Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) , this loss prompted the Song to make drastic and lasting military reforms . Emperor Gaozong , desperate to refill the decimated ranks of the central army , drafted men from all over the country . This had been done before , but not on the same scale . Only the most skilled soldiers became imperial guardsmen , while under Gaozong entire central army units were composed of soldiers from every region and background . The Southern Song eventually recovered their strength and commanded the loyalty of vaunted commanders such as Yue Fei ( 1103 – 1142 ) , who successfully defended the border at the Huai River . The Jurchens and Song eventually signed a peace treaty in 1141 .
In 1131 , the Chinese writer Zhang Yi noted the importance of employing a navy to fight the Jin , writing that China had to regard the sea and the river as her Great Wall , and use warships as its greatest watchtowers . Although navies had been used in China since the ancient Spring and Autumn period ( 722 – 481 BC ) , China 's first permanent standing navy was established by the Southern Song in 1132 . The Jurchen launched an invasion against the Southern Song along the length of the Yangtze River , which resulted in two crucial Song victories at the Battle of Caishi and Battle of Tangdao in 1161 . The Jin navy was defeated by the Song 's standing navy , which employed trebuchets on their ships ' top deckhouses to launch gunpowder bombs .
= = = Organization , equipment and techniques = = =
In the Song dynasty , infantry units were organized 50 men to a platoon , two platoons to a company , and those into battalions of 500 men each . During the Northern Song , half of the entire army of 1 million was stationed in and around Kaifeng . The remaining troops were posted in scattered forces along borders and near large municipalities , and in peacetime were used as means to maintain local security . Although the Song military was rife with corruption and largely ignored by civil officials , it did provide some valuable strengths to the empire . During the Song era , military drills and training were studied as a science , while elite soldiers were allocated different responsibilities based on examinations of their skills in weaponry and athletic ability . In their training , soldiers and officers were prepared for battle by following signal standards for troop movement , advancing when a flag or banner was raised , halting when the blaring sound of bells and drums rang out .
Song crossbowmen comprised their own separate units apart from the infantry , and according to the Chinese Wujing Zongyao military manuscript of 1044 , the crossbow used in mass was the most effective weapon used against northern nomadic cavalry charges . Elite crossbowmen were also valued as long @-@ range snipers ; such was the case when the Liao general Xiao Talin was picked off by a Song crossbow at the Battle of Shanzhou in 1004 . Crossbows were mass @-@ produced in state armories with designs improving as time went on , such as the use of a mulberry wood and brass crossbow in 1068 that could pierce a tree at 140 paces . Song cavalry used an array of different weapons , including halberds , swords , bows , and fire lances that discharged a gunpowder blast of flame and shrapnel . In preparation for war , government armories manufactured weapons in enormous quantities , with tens of millions of arrowheads crafted each year , along with armor components by the tens of thousands . There were sixteen known varieties of catapults in the Song period , designed to fit many different proportions and requiring work crews in sizes ranging from dozens to several hundred men .
Unlike many other Chinese dynasties throughout history , the Song dynasty did not model its military infrastructure and organization on the precedent of northern nomadic armies , such as the earlier Xianbei and later Mongols . Only twice in the Song era were non @-@ Chinese people employed in Song cavalry units : in the beginning of the dynasty with the campaigns of Emperor Taizu , and later 13th century Mongol defectors who came over to fight for the Song . With the Khitan and Tangut kingdoms possessing much of the pasture and grazing lands in the north , the Song military had a shortage of horses for cavalry . To make up for this shortage , statesmen like Wang Anshi advocated greater ties with Tibet , as the tea @-@ horse trade with Tibet was continued by the Ming dynasty . Still , the Song established considerably large navies : in the 10th century , in the war to reunite China , and then a standing navy in the 12th century . Many of the warships in the Song dynasty 's navy were paddle @-@ wheel driven crafts and some Song naval ships could carry up to 1 @,@ 000 soldiers . It was also during the Song period that naval ships were first armed with gunpowder weapons . The use of enormous pontoon bridges in the Song era on at least one occasion was essential to victory . The Song built a large floating bridge across the Yangtze River in 974 ; while troops were under attack , the pontoon bridge was used as a means of transport for troops and supplies to the other bank during the early Song conquest of the Southern Tang state .
= = Ethnic , foreign and religious minorities = =
Much like the multicultural and metropolitan atmosphere of the earlier Tang capital at Chang 'an , the Song capitals at Kaifeng and Hangzhou were home to an array of traveling foreigners and ethnic minorities . There was a great amount of contact with the outside world . Trade and tribute embassies from Egypt , Yemen , India , Korea , the Kara @-@ Khanid Khanate of Central Asia and elsewhere came to Song China in order to bolster trade relations , while the Chinese sent embassies abroad to encourage foreign trade . Song Chinese trade ships traveled to ports in Japan , Champa in southern Vietnam , Srivijaya in Maritime Southeast Asia , Bengal and South India , and the coasts of East Africa .
During the 9th century , the Tang seaport at Guangzhou had a large Muslim population . During the Song dynasty the importance of the latter seaport declined as the ports of Quanzhou and Fuzhou in Fujian province eclipsed it . This was followed by a decline of Middle Eastern sea merchants in China and an increasing amount of Chinese ship owners engaging in maritime trade . However , Middle Eastern merchants and other foreigners were not entirely absent , and some even gained administrative posts . For example , the Muslim Pu Shougeng — of either Persian or Arab descent — served as the Commissioner of Merchant Shipping for Quanzhou between the years 1250 and 1275 . There was also the Arab astronomer Ma Yize ( 910 – 1005 ) , who became the chief astronomer of the Song court under Taizu . Aside from these elites , Chinese seaports were filled with resident Arabs , Persians , and Koreans who had special enclaves designated for each of them .
Muslims represented the largest religious minority within Song China , although there were many others . There was a community of Kaifeng Jews who followed the exodus of the Song court to Hangzhou once the Jurchens invaded the north in 1126 . Manichaeism from Persia was introduced during the Tang ; during the Song , the Manichaean sects were most prominent in Fujian and Zhejiang . Nestorian Christianity in China had for the most part died out after the Tang dynasty ; however , it was revived during the Mongol invasions in the 13th century . Followers of Zoroastrianism still had temples in China as well . Prospects of studying Chinese Chan Buddhism attracted foreign Buddhists to China , such as Enni Ben 'en ( 圓爾辯圓 ; 1201 – 1280 ) of Japan who studied under the eminent Chinese monk Wuzhun Shifan ( 1178 – 1249 ) before establishing Tōfuku @-@ ji in Kyoto . Tansen Sen states that Buddhist monks traveling from India to China and vice versa during the Song surpassed that of the Tang dynasty , while " Indian texts translated under the Song dynasty outnumbered those completed under the preceding dynasties . "
There were many native ethnic groups within Song China that did not belong to the Han Chinese majority . This included the Yao people , who staged tribal uprisings against the Song in Guangdong in 1035 and Hunan in 1043 , during the reign of Emperor Renzong of Song ( r . 1023 – 1064 ) . Song authorities employed Zhuang people as local officials in what is now Guangxi and Guangdong , where the Song placed them in charge of distributing land to the Yao and other tribal groups . The Yao peoples and others on the empire 's frontier were incorporated into a feudal system , or fengjian shehui , which Ralph A. Litzinger says bypassed any possible native development of a primitive slave society , or nuli shehui , since the Yao and others lacked a sedentary tradition . Although mainland Chinese states made efforts to settle parts of Hainan Island since the 3rd century BC , it was not until the Song that a concerted effort was made to assimilate the Li people of its highlands , who at times had fought against and repelled Han Chinese settlers . During the 11th century , the Man people of Hainan wreaked havoc by joining bandit gangs of ten to several hundred men . The statesman Ouyang Xiu estimated in 1043 that there were at least several thousand Man bandits residing in a dozen or so prefectures of mainland China .
To counter powerful neighbors such as the Kingdom of Dali ( 934 – 1253 ) , the Song made alliances with tribal groups in southwest China which served as a protective buffer between their borders and Dali 's . As long as these ethnic tribal groups paid tribute to the Song court and agreed to follow the course of its foreign policy , the Song agreed to grant military protection and allow the tribal leaders hereditary , autonomous local rule . During the 1050s , the Song put down local tribal insurrections along their borders with the Lý dynasty of Đại Việt , while their relations with Tai peoples and alliances with local clan leaders in the southern frontier led to a border war with Lý from 1075 to 1077 .
= 2015 Philadelphia Cycling Classic =
The 2015 Philadelphia Cycling Classic , known as The Parx Casino Philly Cycling Classic for sponsorship purposes , was the sixth round of the 2015 UCI Women 's Road World Cup . It was held on 7 June 2015 , in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , United States . The event had last appeared in the Women 's Road World Cup in 2001 , as the Liberty Classic .
On a six @-@ lap course which climbed Manayunk Wall , an 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) long climb with an average gradient of 8 percent , at the end of each lap , Jasmin Glaesser ( Optum – KBS ) established an early breakaway , leading for two laps before being caught by the peloton . Her breakaway earned her sufficient " Queen of the Mountain " points for her to win that title . Further attacks were made , but none were successful . On the final ascent of Manayunk Wall , Lizzie Armitstead ( Boels – Dolmans ) won in a sprint , beating Elisa Longo Borghini ( Wiggle – Honda ) and Alena Amialiusik ( Velocio – SRAM ) .
= = Entry = =
The organisers of the Philadelphia Cycling Classic indicated that they would invite the top twenty ranked UCI teams at the end of 2014 , and then any further allocations would be assigned to highly @-@ ranked national teams and other UCI teams . A list of seventeen participating teams was published in March , just over 10 weeks prior to the race . Of those teams , Astana @-@ Acca Due O , BePink @-@ La Classica and Cycling Canada did not feature in the race , while further teams were added to feature 96 riders across 19 teams .
= = Course = =
The Philadelphia Cycling Classic follows a six @-@ lap course near the Schuylkill River in northwest Philadelphia . It started and finished at the top of the Manayunk Wall , an 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) long climb which peaks at a gradient of 17 percent , though it only averages around 8 percent . The course also included climbs up Lemon Hill and Strawberry Mansion Drive . Each of the six laps is 19 @.@ 71 kilometres ( 12 @.@ 25 mi ) , giving a total race length of 118 @.@ 26 kilometres ( 73 @.@ 48 mi ) . " Queen of the Mountain " points were awarded for the first rider to the top of Manayunk Wall and Lemon Hill each lap , while an intermediate sprint was located roughly halfway along the outward section of the lap , where Kelly Drive intersects with Midvale Avenue .
= = Preview = =
After five rounds of the 2015 UCI Women 's Road World Cup , there had been five different winners ; Jolien D 'Hoore at the Ronde van Drenthe , Lizzie Armitstead at the Trofeo Alfredo Binda @-@ Comune di Cittiglio , Elisa Longo Borghini at the Tour of Flanders , Anna van der Breggen at the La Flèche Wallonne Féminine , and Giorgia Bronzini at the Tour of Chongming Island . Anna van der Breggen led the World Cup standings as the racing moved to Philadelphia , with 290 points , but her Rabo @-@ Liv team had opted not to take part in the event . Annemiek van Vleuten and Jolien D 'Hoore , who were second and third in the standings , had not travelled with their teams to the event . Elisa Longo Borghini ( Wiggle – Honda ) and Lizzie Armitstead ( Boels – Dolmans ) , who entered the race placed fourth and fifth , were highlighted as possible favourites for the race , though Armitstead 's team @-@ mate , Evelyn Stevens had won the race in both 2013 and 2014 .
= = Race = =
There was no significant breakaways during the first lap , but as the riders climbed Lemon Hill on the second of six laps , Jasmin Glaesser ( Optum – KBS ) established a gap , and maintained the lead of the race for two laps , earning her the Queen of the Mountain award . She was caught during an attack by Alison Jackson ( Twenty16 p / b Sho @-@ Air ) , but the pair could not maintain their advantage , and were caught by the peloton on the climb up Manayunk Wall at the end of the third lap . Team Hitec Products attacked each of the intermediate sprints , with Kirsten Wild providing a lead @-@ out each lap for her team @-@ mate Emilie Moberg . They also attempted to make breakaways of their own , and Moberg managed to lead off the front of the peloton for around half a lap before being caught once more by the peloton . The Velocio @-@ SRAM team attacked through the fourth lap , with each of their riders riding off the front in turn , but they failed to establish a breakaway .
Entering the final lap , the peloton remained close , although a number of riders had fallen behind or dropped out , particularly through the cobbled bends at the base of the Manayunk Wall . A series of attacks were made on the final lap ; Charlotte Becker ( Team Hitec Products ) gained an advantage , but it was closed again due to work from the Boels @-@ Dolmans team . Once Becker had been caught , Dalia Muccioli ( Alé – Cipollini ) made a move , but the Twenty16 p / b Sho @-@ Air team worked to eliminate her lead . A sprint to the bottom of the Manayunk Wall was led by Loren Rowney ( Velocio – SRAM ) , but more riders struggled over the cobblestones and dropped back . Alexis Ryan ( UnitedHealthcare ) took over the lead of the peloton at the bottom of the hill , and established a fast pace up the lower slopes , leading Joëlle Numainville ( Bigla Pro Cycling Team ) and her team @-@ mate Coryn Rivera . Optum @-@ KBS also had a number of riders near the front , while Elisa Longo Borghini ( Wiggle – Honda ) and Lizzie Armitstead ( Boels – Dolmans ) were just behind . Longo Borghini attacked first , but Armitstead went with her and passed her just before the line to claim victory . Alena Amialiusik ( Velocio – SRAM ) and Shelley Olds ( Bigla Pro Cycling Team ) finished in third and fourth ; the top four were all classified with the same time .
= = Results = =
= = World Cup standings = =
= Jim Bell =
James Dalton Bell ( born 1958 ) is an American crypto @-@ anarchist who created the idea of arranging for anonymously sponsored assassination payments via the Internet , which he called " assassination politics " . Since the publication of the " Assassination Politics " essay , Bell was targeted by the federal government of the United States . He was imprisoned on felony charges of tax evasion in 1997 . In 2001 , Wired called Bell " [ o ] ne of the Internet 's most famous essayists " and " the world 's most notorious crypto @-@ convict " .
In April 1995 , Bell authored the first part of a 10 @-@ part essay called " Assassination Politics " , which described an elaborate assassination market in which anonymous benefactors could securely order the killings of government officials or others who are violating citizens ' rights . Following an investigation by the Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) , Bell was arrested and subsequently jailed for 11 months on felony charges of harassment and using false Social Security numbers .
After his April 2000 release , Bell publicly announced that he believed that there was extensive Federal Government corruption associated with his 1997 – 2000 criminal case , and that he was going to research the facts and file a lawsuit . Bell filed this lawsuit in 2003 . Bell was put under heavy surveillance and rearrested for harassment and stalking of federal agents . He was charged with intimidation and stalking and was convicted and again imprisoned , this time for a decade @-@ long sentence . Bell protested vociferously against the conduct of the trial , going so far as to file civil lawsuits against two judges , at least two prosecutors , his former probation officers , and his defense attorneys , but ultimately to no avail . He was released in December 2009 , only to be rearrested in July 201
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